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The Sternberg Centre for Judaism,The Manor House,80 East End Road,London N3 2SYTelephone: 01-346 2288(From 6th May: 081-346 2288)

MANNA is the Journal of the SternbergCentre for Judaism at the Manor Houseand of the Manor House Society.

MANNA is published quarterly.

Editor: Rabbi Tony BayfieldDeputy Editor: Rabbi William WolffArt Editor: Charles FrontEditorial Assistant: Dot SwarcAdvertising: Frances IsaacsSubscriptions: Pain Lewis

Editorial Board: Rabbi Colin Eimer,Rabbi Dr. Albert Friedlander, Dr.Wendy Greengross, Reverend Dr. IsaacLevy, Rabbi Dr. Jonathan Magonet,Rabbi Dow Marmur, Rabbi JohnRayner, Professor J.B. Segal, Isca Wit-tenberg.

Views expressed in articles in MANNAdo not necessarily reflect the view of theEditorial Board.

Subscription rate: £7.50 p.a. (fourissues) including postage anywhere inthe U.K.Abroad: Europe: £10.50 p.a., Israel,Asia, Americas, Australasia £19.50 p.a.

The cover photograph is an exteriorview of the Bradford Congregationof British and Foreign Jews (now theBradford Synagogue), consecratedin 1881: from the exhibition `150YEARS 0F PRO GRES SIVEJUDAISM IN BRITAIN', on dis-play at the London Museum ofJewish Life at the Sternberg Centrefor Judaism, from 30 April until 27May 1990.

Contents1 Editorial

2 Hugh Montefiore A problem with theText?

4 Richard Harries Preaching God's Love ForAll

6 C]ifford Kulwin"Pabbi, There's no English in the Service"

8 Daniel Romain Moment of Jewish Truth

12 Geoffrey Alderman New searchlights on our past

16 John D. Rayner A Matter of Life and Death

20 Colin Eimer "Grandpa is not Jewish"

23 Elizabeth petuchowski A F]ose from Rabbi swift

25 Amanda Golby We are200Years old

26 Sins of omission

29 William wolff Last word

Theology Supplement: Progressive Judaism

A Collective Theological Essay and Discussion Paper

EDITORIAL

WE BELIEVE . . .

ACOLLEAGUE ONCEcomplained rather sourlythat the Progressive Move-

ment used to ask for leadershipfrom its rabbis but, when it got it,didn't want it! He was actuallytouching upon a generalised problemrelating to leadership experiencedby almost all liberal organisations.Such organisations demand a pro-cess of democratic consultation andinvolvement which is often bothtime-consuming and very differentfrom the process which exists withinmost authoritarian religious group-ings and, indeed, in certain spheresof commercial life. Liberal organis-ations, especially ones in whichprofessionals work side by side withvolunteers, often find it hard toachieve a balance between `the top'and `the grass roots', between effec-tive action and genuine participationin decision-making.

It is with this caveat in mind thatM¢##cz publishes a collectivetheological essay which attempts tooutline what it is that ProgressiveJudaism in Britain, or at least anumber of exponents, or at the veryleast the Editor of A4¢##cz, believe.

Judaism, as it is so often said, isnot a credal religion. A Jew is borninto the covenant and his or hermembershp of the Jewish people isnot dependent upon a set of affir-mations. Nevertheless, Jews haveoften found formulations of beliefhelpful and these have existed sinceMz.sfo#czz.c times. The story ofMaimonides' thirteen principles ofthe Jewish faith is well known.Although his particular formulation

proved contentious, it did not stopsubsequent Jewish thinkers -Cresces, Duran, Albo -from ven-turing into the same area. Manyreaders will be familiar with Louis]acotos' Principles of the JewishFczz.rfe, which follows the Maimoni-dean model but takes cognisance ofmodern biblical scholarship.

Contemporary Judaism , certainlyin Britain, has become rule-focused,some would even say rule-obsessed.Many Jews find it hard to moveJewish considerations beyond thearea of kczsferLff and Sabbath obser-vance. Yet for many others thegreat issues of faith are both ex-hilarating and frightening, challeng-ing and disturbing. Our collectivetheological essay is a response tothose who would like to talk about,discuss, study, puzzle over mattersof Jewish belief .

The history of `Articles of Faith'in Judaism is important to bear inmind. They have always served ateaching, clarifying, `thinking-aloud' purpose - not as a sz.#c gz/cz#o# for party membership. No-oneceases to be a Jew because theydisagree. Our collective theologicalessay is offered within that context.It is for discussion. We hope that itwill serve as the basis for studysessions. We hope that there will befeedback. It may even be that wecan expand, develop, comment oneach of the paragraphs to produce afuller study guide or book. No-oneshould feel in any sense excluded ifthere are significant sections thatthey cannot accept. After all, theonly person who accepts responsi-

bility for every word of the essay isthe Editor and he is frequentlywrong, as his wife, parents andchildren will testify!

Why A4c##cz? Largely because itseems a convenient place to beginthe process of discussion. A4cz##cz isassociated with the ProgressiveJewish community but its readersand contributors come from a widercircle and it therefore offers a goodplatform for something more thanan in-house debate. Furthermore,liberal organisations, as opposed tomagazines, often have difficultieswith public statements, since thediversity of views they encompasscan all too easily lead to the fudgedand anodyne.

Why were only those consultedwhose names appear at the very endof the essay? A difficult question inwhich chance has played as large apart as any. There are certainly verymany other people of equal orgreater merit who could equally wellhave been consulted and A4¢##flwishes to imply no discourtesy: wesimply return to the beginning andthe difficult balance between clearand effective initiatives and demo-cratic consultation.

All of which can be summed upby saying that we hope our collec-tive theological essay is receivedpositively. It is incontrovertiblytheistic, distinctively liberal and au-thentically Jewish. It is intended asa lead not a creed, as a document tobe discussed rather than affirmed.We await your responsel]

MANNA SPBING 1990

^PROBIj€M wIT17 TTre T€xTpRecent years have seen agrowiiig owarencss ln certainquarters that the very tcact ofthe New Testainent itself carlbe a source of anti-Seinltisin.There are verses in John'sGospel, for instance, which

IMUST START BY MAKINGmy own position clear. I am aJewish Christian. I know that

for some that is a contradiction interms. It's not for me. I feel intense-ly my Jewishness, of which I amvery proud. At the same time I feelintensely my Christian commitmentto which I have given my life.

But as a Jewish Christian I amalso very much aware of being aBishop in an overwhelmingly genti-le Church. My fellow Christianshave very little idea of what itmeans to be a Jew. Almost all ofthem have no idea whatsoever ofthe history of Jewish-Christian rela-tions and they would hardly believewhat happened in the Constanti-nian Church or in the Middle Ages.They are almost entirely ignorant ofthe disabilities which Jews sufferedin this country until the last century.This is not very remarkable. Fewpeople today, after all, have muchsense of history. So why shouldChristians be informed about theway in which their predecessorshave treated Jews?

When I was young, before thelast Great War, there was an under-tone of anti-Semitism in Britishsociety. Perhaps, being Jewish my-self, I was particularly sensitive tothe use of certain words and phraseswhich people used in my presencewithout being aware of the hurt that

zlppear highly offensive toJews. A recent publlcatlon,Interpreting Difficult Tcacts:Anti-Judaism and ChristianPreaching, (by CJack M. Wttl-Ilamson alid Ronald I. Allen,SCM Press, 120 pp., London

Hugh Montefiore

they caused to Jews. But it has beenmy impression that during the lastquarter century this situation haschanged. This is partly because ofthe Holocaust, partly perhaps be-cause if people do have racialistfeelings these are now oriented to-wards "Blacks" rather than Jews.Finally, I like to think, there is nowalso greater understanding betweenChristians and Jews.

I appreciate that there is still off-ence caused by Christians who wantto convert Jews to Christ but I feelthat there is also misunderstandingon both sides on this score. Evangel-ism is an essential part of Christian-ity, not, I hope, because people wantto notch up more scalps for Christ,but in the sense that Christians wantto share with others the joy and thespirituality that their faith has giventhem. And they want to share withJews as well as gentiles. Sometimesof course they behave insensitivelyand ignorantly and few of themhave any knowledge of the forcible"conversions" of the past and the

Jewish folk memory of "going overto the enemy". But at least today'sevangelists should be given thecredit of not wanting to keep theirfaith selfishly to themselves.

1989) looks in depth at tileproblems alid possible solu-tlolis. Ma\nna asked BishopHugh Montefiore to sketch lntile background alid BisliopRlchai.a Harries to review thebook.

However, I find it sad that they donot seem to realise, in the light ofpast Christian history, that the bestway they can testify to Jews abouttheir faith is simply by showingthem love and that a more openapproach is not only undesirable inthe circumstances but actuallycounterproductive.

It is not possible, without thisbackground of knowledge, to dis-cuss sensibly the way in which ser-mons on difficult New Testamenttexts should be preached in chur-ches. At the same time, Jews maynot realise the function and purposeof a sermon within the Christianliturgy. Christians think of the Bibleas a whole as "the Word of God".This does not mean that its contentsare inerrant - although sadly somethink that - but it contains as awhole the story which is determi-nant of Christianity and which,therefore, can speak to a person asthe Word of God. This Word needsto be proclaimed in the particularsituations in which people findthemselves. It needs translating intothe thought of today and it needsexpounding in a way which inter-prets it for the needs of today.

In the Christian Eucharist,main service of the Church,sermon comes directly afterreading of the Scriptures, some-times from the Old Testament.

MANNA SPPING 1990

usually from the New TestamentEpistles, always from one of thefour Gospels. There is a two-yearlectionary and the readings areprinted in prayer books. Mostpreachers, therefore, use one of theset passages of Scripture as the basisfor their weekly sermon. These arechosen for a theme, and naturallythere are few "awkward passages"among them. But there are some,especially in "Holy Week", whenthe readings are taken from theGospel story of Jesus's death andalso sometimes on other occasions.A sermon may have a moral point,or a religious point. But its mainobjective ought always to be posi-tive, building people up in theirChristian faith.

It follows from all this that thereare not a great number of occasionswhen "awkward texts" naturallyneed proper interpretation from thepulpit. Until lately, few churcheshave had study groups and seminarsand/or courses of lectures. But thesituation today is changing. Theproper attitude towards these "awk-ward texts" and the proper attitudeof Christians towards Jews today isbest suited to a non-liturgical occa-sion, when there can be questionsand answers and dialogue.

I remember, for example, at theHolocaust Exhibition some yearsago, giving a lecture to the localclergy about the Church and theJews, in which I commented on alarge number of "awkward texts" inthe New Testament which can easi-ly be expounded in an anti-Semiticsense. For example, I showed thatchapter 8 of St. John's Gospel caneasily be understood to imply (a)that Jews are not the true childrenof Abraham, (b) the Jews set out tokill Jesus, (c) they are deaf to theWord of God, (d) they belong tothe Devil, (e) they are murderersand liars, (f) they deliberately de-nied Jesus because he spoke thetruth! I said: "That passage seemsto me the end-term of implicit NewTestament anti-Semitism. It seemsto me to set the scene for whatactually happened in the later re-lationship of the Church and theJews". I had the lecture printed.The furore that it caused suggeststhat such teaching is very badlyneeded. But this is best done out-side the pulpit.

It is a tricky subject for any priestto handle. He may not feel verywell equipped to do so. It needs

MANNA SPRING 1990

considerable background know-ledge and exegetical ability. Sincefew such "awkward texts" are inclu-ded in church lectionaries in theChurch of England, many priestsleave the subject alone. Jews mayfeel that this is a cowardly way out.But there are many parishes inEngland without Jewish residentsand many priests who feel incompe-tent to discuss the theological issuesinvolved. And among the manyimportant topics on which theyspeak in the pulpit, this does notseem to have a high priority.

I do believe, however, that it isthe duty of a parish priest to show,when expounding the Scriptures,that Christianity began as a Jewishsect and that Jesus himself, like hisapostles, was a Jew through andthrough and much of his teachingwas Jewish. They ought to point outthat any derogatory references to"the Jews" found in the New Testa-

ment do not apply to Jews today butwere intended by the writers toexpress their frustration towardsparticular Jews in New Testamenttimes who found that they could notaccept Christ as the expected Mes-siah. Again, derogatory referencesto Pharisees do not apply to the classa whole but to particular Phariseeswho incurred the disapprobation ofJesus. They might further point outthat Jewish Christians were at onestage in New Testament times apo~sw#¢gogoz., cast out of the syna-gogue, and this fact is likely to havecoloured their attitude to the Juda-ism of their day. And St. Matthew,whose Gosepel is both very Jewishand also very critical of the Jews,probably belonged to a JewishChristian community which readback this attitude into the eventsand sayings of the Gospel which St.Matthew wrote.

As for St. Paul's attitude to Jews,it should be explained when discus-sing one of the texts which showhim less than kindly disposed to-wards them - "The wrath has comeupon them to the uttermost" or"Blindness in part has fallen upon

Israel" or "Enemies of the Gospelfor your sakes" - that St. Paul,according to the accounts which wehave, found himself incurringhatred and persecution from certainJews and in one case an attempt wasto be made on his life, which wasprevented by an informer. So therewas mutual antagonism. But Paul'sharsh words must be set beside

other much warmer sentiments."What advantage then hath the

Jew? Or what profit is there incircumcision? Much in every way . .." or "All Israel shall be saved" or"Has God cast away his people?

God forbid!" or his reference to theJews "to whom belong the adoptionof sonship and the glory and thecovenants and the giving of the law,and the service of God and thepromises" .

Mention of the covenants showsthat Paul himself did not believethat the Abrahamic covenant hadbeen annulled. It has been com-pleted, he would have said - andChristians today would of courseagree with him - by the New Cove-nant which was prophesied byJeremiah and fulfilled, as Christ-ians believe, in Jesus of Nazareth.

The one text which is read inChurch and which desperatelyneeds explanation is the exclama-tion of certain Jews at the trial ofJesus before Pilate: "His blood beupon us and upon our children".Immense harm has been donethrough this text and it is veryimportant that it should be ex-plained. It must never be used in acharge of deicide. It certainly doesnot even in its context apply to thewhole Jewish race but it is said bycertain particular Jews at a particu-lar historical moment, if indeed itbe historical at all.

These and some other similartexts must be explained properly tochildren in Sunday School, becauseat a tender age it is easy for wrongideas to be absorbed which are noteasily later dislodged. Specialemphasis should be given in theteaching of children in Church thatthe Jewish people need to be thespecially loving concern of theChurch in the light of the way inwhich Christians have treated themin the past.

There is a false tendency which isvery common today that all reli-gions are really the same. Of coursethey are not. Matters of truth areinvolved. But everyone has a rightto their own beliefs and Christiansmust be taught to respect theml

The Rt. Rev. Hugh Montefiore wJcs bo;.H /.#/oa farnoLis Anglo-Jewish family. As a school-boy at Riigby, he had a vision which led to hisconversion to Christianity. A brilliant careerin the Chiirch cLllminated in a successful spellas Bishop of Birmingham.

PR64CHjN6

60DfPVCFORALL

Richard Harries

INTERPRETING DIFFICULT7-Errs looks at the history ofanti-Judaism in Christian prea-

ching and in the canonical literatureof the early church. The authorsthen quite rightly focus on thequestion of presuppositions. Thereis a good quotation from Luther:

"Now there are not a few who

preach Christ and read about himbut they may move men's affec-tions to sympathy with Christ, toanger against the Jews, and tosuch childish . . nonsense.Rather ought Christ to bcpreached to the end that faith inhim may be established that hemay not only bc Christ, but beChrist for you and me . . ."

What we learn from Luther isthat the heart of the Christian mes-sage is the good news of God's lovegraciously offered to every singleindividual and everything must beseen in this light.

Texts and interpretations thatcontradict this good news are in-appropriate and to be excluded. Weare to preach the o#c word of God'sgood news and not the mczrzy wordsof the text . . . On occasion, we mayhave to preach fo or even crgczz.#sfthe text. We are free to do so, evenobligated to do so, provided weresponsibly proclaim the Gospel(page 62).

This point is absolutely crucial. Itis particularly relevant in relation tothe growing strength of fundamen-talism, or fanatical literalism. Whatis not always realised is that fun-damentalism, as James Barr hasrepeatedly shown. is not an inter-

pretation of the Bible as it is but aninterpretation of the Bible with a

particular set of assumptions andpresuppositions. The fundamentalistbrings a number of very definitivenotions to bear in the light of whichhe interprets the text before him.We cannot approach the Bible with-out certain assumptions. What isvital is that we realise what theseare and that we approach themcritically. rFhe Bible itself is a seriesof texts which interpret oneanother, a tradition of continuousre-interpretation. We stand withinthat tradition and need to flush outmere ideology, that is, any inheri-ted anti-Judaism which affects theway we interpret particular texts.Anti-Judaism, like sexism, perme-ates people's outlooks without theirbeing aware of it. It needs to beexposed before it can be criticised.The authors suggest three questionsto be asked about any Christianinterpretation of Scripture: Is thisappropriate to the Gospel of God'sabsolutely unconditional love? Isthis intelligible? Is this moral, doesit promote justice for Jews and, byimplication, for all minority groups?

The authors consider three kindsof selected texts, texts of good newsto all, both Jews and Christians,texts in need of re-interpretationand texts in need of correction. Inthe section on texts of good newsthey do their best to show thatEphesians 2,11-22 is good news forJews as well as Christians. I doubtwhether it can really be seen in thatlight. I suspect that the good newsin it is for Jews who have becomemembers of the church. This bringsout the point that it is vital to behonest to the text rather than en-gaging in special pleading to make aparticular statement .appear morefavourable to Jews than it really is.Scholarly integrity must be vital tothe whole enterprise, both Jewishand Christian, and that means firstof all looking at the original mean-ing in its original context, howeverunpalatable. The saving grace isthat Christians, because they arenot fundamentalists, can and mustsometimes preach czgczz.7zs/ the text,on the authority of the Word ofGod as a whole.

The authors, as well as looking atspecific texts, give some examplesof sermons which attempt toaddress anti-Judaism in a direct wayin the light of the Gospel. A sermonon the occasion of yon f7czSAocz/tcontains the following fine sum-mary:

"Through Jesus Christ wc Gen-

tiles come to understandourselves in relation to God theFather, the covenant God ofIsrael, who was disclosed inlsracl's history, through the lawand the prophets, as the God of aunique promise and command.7-fee prom!.sc is the free and un-conditioned offer of God's love asthe only proper ground for ourself understanding. 77zc commclrzcJis that by so understandingourselves we shall be freed tofulfil the law, which is all summedup in the one sentence "You shalllove your neighbour as yourself".Jesus represents the same pro-mise and command previouslyrcpresentcd in the Exodus and onMount Sinai (page 100).A sermon based upon Jesus's

teaching about loving God and ourneighbour indicates the range ofJewish teaching along the samelines and a sermon on Luke 18, 9-14deals helpfully with one of thefavourite Christians vignettes: thestory of the Pharisees and the publi-can praying in the temple, thatJesus, in Luke, put before people.The authors show how they onceinterpreted this parable, an inter-pretation that they now regard asanti-Judaic and how they do sonow. They rehabilitate the Phariseeof that parable from traditionalChristian preaching. They then con-clude that Luke was both wrongand right; wrong in giving a card-board cut-out caricature of thePharisees and right in the positiveemphasis that we are the objects ofGod's love.

This brings out the point that bythe time the New Testament cameto be written, church and synagoguehad gone their separate ways inmutual hostility and that some ofthe apostolic writings betray thishostility towards Judaism. HelpingChristians to see that the NewTestament as we have it is the resultof an historical process and thatparticular factors were prominent inshaping the writing, factors whichwe would now reject, is an essential

part of educating Christians todayto read the Bible in a properlyChristian mannerl

The Rt. Rev. Richard Harries wJcrb' i>c/I/c.cifcc/at Cambridge and sei.ved fol. si.x years asI)ean of King's College, I.ondon, beforebec()ming Bishop of O.xfor(I. A well-knownbr()(iclciis{el. and au[hol., he is theArchbi`shop's conslil(anl on Jewish-Christianrela[ions and a member of [he Manor HollseDialogiie Grollp.

MANNA SPBING 1990

KETUBOTFOR WEDDINGS & ANNIVERSARIES

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Cost: £14() Size: 6()cm X 75cm

This Ketuba is specially designed by the English-born Israeli artist Ardyn Halter forthe Reform Synagogues of Great Britain.

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To order this Ketuba please contact the Secretary of your Synagogue (irMr.I. Wcinstock. Hyde House, The Hyde, Edgware Road` Lond()n NW(J

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MANNA SPPING 1990

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RabbiThdeNOEngLisfiinch€£€rvI.ce!"Clifford Kulwin

WHEN I WAS A CONGRE-gational rabbi in Rio deJaneiro, Friday evening

services were always packed.Attendances of 500 were not un-common, though I am not surewhat to make of that figure, ithaving risen to nearly a thousand inthe five years since I left!

Rio being the tourist attraction itis, there were always sure to bevisitors. As a result, we wouldgenerally announce at the end ofservices, "If there is anybody fromabroad visiting our city, worship-ping with us this evening, pleasecome up after services so we maygreet you„.

Often people took us up on theoffer. I remember one lady fromDetroit - she had to be an Ameri-can, of course -who announced tome "Rabbi, this is not a Reformsynagogue". I was aware that tosomeone used to the North Ameri-can practice of Reform Judaism,the rite in the Associaeao ReligiosaIsraelita (A.R.I.), would indeedseem traditional. But I wanted to benice.

So I asked, "Is it because all themen cover their heads?" "No, Rab-bi", she responded. I tried again."Is it because the men and women

sit on different sides of the syna-gogue", I queried, ready to providean explanation of how the GermanLiberal synagogues, influenced bythe Lutheran Church, had initiatedthis practice and that it was not,therefore, a vestige of Orthodoxybut a remnant of an earlier age ofReform development. But, "No,Rabbi", that was not her concerneither.

"Maybe", I offered, "it was the

use of so many traditional, Hebrewmelodies" which was what led her

to feel this place so different fromher own synagogue. But, no, I waswrong again.

I said "I give up. Why isn't this aReform synagogue?" "Rabbi", shesaid to me as if it was the mostobvious thing in the world, "There'sno English in the service!"

In the last three years I havevisited Liberal congregations innearly twenty countries. I haveprayed the t'filat hamedinah -theloyal prayers - in Dutch, Spanish,French, Hebrew and Portuguese forthe wellbeing of the governments ofHolland, Chile, France, Israel andBrazil. And all these travels haveonly led me to believe that ourfriend from Detroit, far from beingan exception, is sadly a norm. Toomany of us simply cannot believethat Liberal Judaism can and shouldcome across in any way significantlydifferent from what we find in ourown, comfortable homes.

What we have to learn is to lookbeyond the mere form our Judaismtakes in different places and under-stand wfey it takes that form. Whatare the historical forces which havecaused the Liberal movement inAustralia to develop the way it has?What are the cultural influences ofSwiss society which affect the styleof worship in that synagogue? Whatis the social ambience in Argentinawhich gives the Liberal mode ofprayer its unique characteristics?What is "Israeli" about Israeli Re-form?

Let's go back to Brazil. Thecongregation I served, the A.R.I.and its sister congregation in SaoPaulo, the Congregacao IsraelitaPaulista (C.I.P.), probably haveamong the most traditional servicesfound anywhere in the internationalLiberal Jewish orbit. Men and

women, as noted above, do sitseparately, though in the A.R.I.,this is changing. Even now theservices contain a great deal oftraditional liturgy chanted in thetraditional manner. The use of thekz.pczfe in the synagogue and the /a//j./on the bj.;7c¢fe is not a matter ofchoice.

On the surface, it would seemstrange, or at least questionable, forthese two synagogues to be part ofthe same movement which includesBeith G.I.L. in Geneva or Congre-gation B'nai Israel in San Jose,Costa Rica, whose services aremuch less traditional. But once webegin to understand a bit of thebackground, the situation becomesmuch clearer.

The A.R.I. and the C.I.P. wereboth founded at the time of theSecond World War by refugeesfleeing Nazi Germany. These Ger-man Jews transplanted to their newhomes the Liberal German Judaismtaught by Leo Baeck. This was acomparatively ritualistic "brand". Ithad preserved much of the substanceit acquired when the Movement wascreated in Germany some 200 yearsago. The German tendency towardritual and the influence of theLutheran church on the genericnotion of how worship should beperformed, served to maintain thisform of practice intact.

So when the German Jews ar-rived in Brazil they brought withthem not just the same ideologythat the German roots of Reformhad transmitted to Great Britain,North America and elsewhere butthe same form of worship as well.Now, not only were these twosynagogues established with ritualsof this nature but Brazil was verycongenial to such an expression of

MANNA SPBING 1990

worship. Brazilian culture itself, in-fluenced by the dominance ofCatholicism, also sees religion assomething involving a great deal ofritual. The society is conservative,slow to change, so one would notexpect the form of worship tochange much. Services in both syna-gogues seem very similar to whatthey must have been - barring useof the German language of course -when they were founded some halfa century ago.

A typical member of one of thesesynagogues does not really differmuch in attitudes on personalobservance from a Liberal Jew fromother parts of the world but theirpreference for the kind of worshipthey enjoy in their synagogue isprofoundly influenced by a multi-faceted background.

It is interesting to note thatanother Liberal Brazilian syna-gogue, Comunidade Shalom in SaoPaulo, is very different from thefirst two. Its form of worship ismore like North American Reformor British Liberal Judaism. Muchyounger than the other two syna-gogues, it was founded by BrazilianJews heavily influenced by the Re-form synagogues in the UnitedStates.

The congregations of the IsraelMovement for Progressive Judaismare engaged in a constant, con-scious effort to define an authenti-cally Israeli liberal expression. Therecently published IMPJ sz.cZcZz/r and77?¢cfezor engage in more than theliturgical alterations and innova-tions which are part and parcel ofany liberal liturgical enterprise. Theeditors made use of writers andpoets of contemporary Israel,Yehudah Amichai for example, inan effort to prepare a text whichwould ultimately reflect not merelyReform ideology but a genuinelynative Israeli flavour as well.

Indeed, the leaders of the IMPJface a tough challenge not just fromthe Orthodox but from the IsraeliPress and society in general. Since,it is argued, Reform is a product ofthe Go/¢fe (Diaspora) and in anearlier stage was even firmly anti-Zionist, how can we be convinced it

'possesses a unique and authentic

Israeli expression? Add that to thefight for legitimacy and basic reli-gious rights against Israeli Ortho-doxy and one begins to appreciatethe formidable obstacles facing theMovement leaders in Israel and

value all the more their significantaccomplishments.

Clearly, the Israel Movement'shturgy will be unique. The fact thatit is the only place in the worldwhere the vernacular language andthe language of prayer, i.e. Heb-rew, are the same, compounds thatuniqueness.

But just like Liberal Jews all overthe world, when the discussion goesbeyond form, members of IMPJcongregations share the concern for/I.kkL£# O/czm - repairing the world -which is part of our ideologicalheritage. Participants at a recentIMPJ Social Action Committeemeeting learned about the increas-ing poverty in the country. Overone million Israelis earn less than800 new Israel shekels per monthand the number is growing. As aresult, crime among young people ison the rise. Acting out of a sense ofmoral responsibility, the congrega-tions have decided to "adopt" indi-vidual cases or neighbourhoods,trying to provide scholarships andbursaries for children from poorfamilies.

A similar spirit is found in Argen-tina, where Congregacion Emanu-Elhas a long-standing relationshipwith the ACERVIL school forphysically handicapped children.The congregation, under the strongleadership of its rabbi, ReubenNisenbom, generates support forthe school and there is a bcz7` mztz-vczfo twinning programme as wellwhich links children in the congre-gation with children in the school.

One of the most sustained socialaction efforts within the orbit of theWorld Union for Progressive Juda-ism is the long record of activeopposition to apartheid by theSouthern African Union for Prog=ressive Judaism. The SAUPJ spon-sors, among other projects, theWeiler school in the township ofAlexandra, which clothes, feedsand educates nearly 1,000 blackchildren. It was one of the firstreligious groups of any kind in thecountry to reject the apartheid sys-tem and openly call for its over-throw.

Even within social action, how-ever, a universal impulse within theLiberal Movement, we can seenational differences as a product ofexternal forces.

The United States, undoubtedly,through the Union of AmericanHebrew Congregations, has both in

absolute and "per capita" terms themost vigorous and effective socialaction effort. The Religious ActionCenter in Washington, D.C. exertsa considerable influence on thelegislative and executive branchesof the government and, togetherwith the Social Action Commission,is able to mobilise mass involve-ment among more than 1,000,000Jews who are members of UAHCcongregations, whether it be to writeto congressmen, boycott scablabour-picked grapes, or welcomeSoviet emigr6s into the community.

Much of the credit for this activenetwork, it must be said, rests withAmerican society itself . The plural-istic nature of the society, togetherwith a system of government whichclamours for participation, encour-ages such activity. Add the naturalLiberal Jewish instinct to improvethe world and we end up with theextraordinarily large and activeNorth American Reform Jewishcommunity which exists today.

A newly formed Social Actioncommittee in Congregation BeitShalom in Auckland, New Zealand,hopes to work cm behalf of thecountry's indigenous and oppressedMaoris. While the inner inspirationand motivation are the same, theform, again, is different.

The fact that our internationalMovement has so many facetsshould be a source of pride. Just astwo organisms of identical prove-nance will develop differently amiddifferent environmental conditions,so, too, our organic approach toJudaism will, by definition, developand manifest differences in appear-ance and outlook as a reaction tothe unique historical, cultural andsocial influences of each situation.

As so often happens in suchcases, the perfect response to thevisitor in Rio only occurred to mehours later, long after a sumptuoussfeczbbczf dinner had been consumedand digested. "No English in theservice?" I should have said, shrug-ging my shoulders, in a mystifiedfashion, "So what!"I

Rabbi Clifford M. Kulwin, J2, I.s lfec D!.rccforfor International Affairs and Development ofthe World Union for Progressive Judaism. Anative of Champaign, Illinois, he served as acongregation rabbi in Rio de Janeiro beforebecoming associated with the World Union.He is a graduate of Macalester College and anordinee of the Hebrew Union College -Jewish Institute of Religion. He is currently adoctoral fellow in Jewish history at ColumbiaUniversity.

IWAS A ROTTEN JEW,always had been. It wasn'treally my fault. Brought up in

an old Anglo-Jewish family, myparents were not particularly obser-vant, rarely took my brother andme to synagogue or cfecczer, justsent us and we never arrived. Wequite successfully resisted a Jewisheducation by the simple expedientof persistent truancy.

My mother, a kind but ineffectualperson, had admittedly tried to in-stil a love of God into us when wewere very young. But, once atschool, we got completely out ofcontrol, lived on the streets andgenerally got into every kind oftrouble, even with the police. Itwasn't really my parents' faulteither, they were a totally incom-patible pair and the inevitabledivorce came when I was nine yearsold and my brother seven.

My father promptly remarried, aRoman Catholic, and my brotherand I went to live with them in anon-Jewish district. Shortly after-wards, wartime evacuation to livewith a gentile family completed ourtotal alienation from anything Jew-ish. True, I was brought back toLondon for the day, at the insist-ance of my grandparents, for mybar mitzvah. Tt wa,s a. fa.Ice, Icouldn't even stumble through theBlessings and it must have been theshortest one on record even forwartime! From that day on, myconnection with anything Jewish

Daniel Romain

was severed and I became a com-plete Soy.

Leaving school in 1942 at fifteen,I, like all my friends, was itching toget into uniform and at sixteen Iwas accepted by the Merchant Navyas a deckboy. When asked myreligion I couldn't think of anythingand gave them C. of E. It was usefulanyway because, being circumcised,I might have attracted attentionfrom the Germans if taken prison-er. Four weeks later, on graduatingfrom the docklands training ship, Iwas seconded to the NorwegianMerchant Fleet. Exiled from theirhomeland since the German inva-sion three years previously, theNorwegians and their fleet of cargoships and tankers formed a valuablepart of the Allied war effort. With-out young Norwegian replacementsthere developed a shortage in thelower ranks, hence the need for us.I, together with two other boys, leftLondon excitedly to join our ship,an oil tanker, albeit sobered by theknowledge that 800/o of the boysfrom the previous month's entrywere already reported dead or mis-sing. The Battle of the Atlantic wasstill raging and within hours wewere in the thick of it, sleeping inour clothes and boots through nightafter night of Wolf Pack attacks byU-boats, counting the missing ships

every morning and searching forsurvivors as the convoy struggledslowly across the North Atlantic.

There was also the enemy within.A few misguided magistrates at thattime were giving convicted offen-ders the choice of being sent toprison or joining the MerchantNavy! It was my misfortune toencounter one such person, a knife-wielding psychopath who, within afew days of leaving port, decided tocarve up my cabin mate. I managedto save him but nearly at the cost ofmy own life. Put in chains, he wasarrested on arrival in New York andsubsequently committed to a men-tal asylum.

Continuously at sea over the nextfew months, with a forty-eight hourturn around in port, the average lifeexpectancy of tanker crews wasabout two weeks. Once ashore wespent every penny we had, or couldborrow, on drink, tattoos and girls.If we couldn't find a girl then,aflame with drink, we would pick afight, anything to release the ten-sion inside us before going back toSea.

Outrageous? Certainly, but wedidn't really believe that there weremany tomorrows in store for us. Iwas lucky and, returning to theU.K. to unload petrol, I got justenough leave to meet, woo and getengaged to a Chapel-singing Welshgirl from the valleys. Then we wereon our way through the Mediterra-nean, on a cargo ship in convoy,

MANNA SPBING 1990

running the gauntlet of enemy bom-bers and torpedo boats. Leaving theconvoy, an unscheduled stop wasmade off the coast of Palestine inthe dead of night. Without lightsand engine stopped, we driftedquietly towards the shore and ourmysterious passenger, confined tohis cabin since embarking in NewYork, emerged, his face hidden, tobe hurried away in the waitingmotorboat. Hagana? The Irgun?Who knows, he certainly didn'twant to encounter a British navalpatrol!

Through the baking heat of Suezand on to the even hotter PersianGulf, we finally arrived in India todischarge the last of our cargo ofammunition. Whilst in port theArmy fitted extra anti-aircraft gunsand a three-inch naval gun to aug-ment our six-inch naval gun, a relicof the First World War. There wasgood reason for the additionalarmament; Japanese surface raidersand submarines were still roamingthe Indian Ocean seeking easyprey. Survivors of sunken shipswere slaughtered as a matter ofroutine.

Some, usually officers, were firstinterrogated and tortured for infor-mation. We would be sailing for theCape without the protection of aconvoy or air cover and wouldtherefore be especially at risk. Inpractice, however, the extra gunswere merely a morale booster, ourgunnery training being so rudimen-tary. It was only later in the war,when Royal Navy and Royal Artil-lery personnel served with us, thatthe guns were used effectively. Ourmain chance of getting throughsafely was to avoid being spottedbecause our old ship, only capableof doing about nine knots at best,couldn't outrun anything. Just be-fore leaving port our captain wascalled to the military hospital tointerpret the ramblings of a Nor-wegian seaman, the lone survivor ofa ship that had left port a few daysearlier. Sunk by a Japanese sub-marine, the crew had been machinegunned in the water and their cap-tain tortured to death inside thesubmarine.

The seaman had survived by divingunderneath the submarine, remain-ing unobserved until it submerged,then clambering on to a corpse-covered raft. He was picked up acouple of days later by sheer luck.He was on the verge of insanity. He

MANNA SPPING 1990

had watched helplessly as hiswounded shipmates were rippedapart in the water by blood drawnsharks and he just couldn't get theirdying screams out of his head.These ominous reports on leavingIndia made us more apprehensivethan usual. There was always acertain depression when leaving be-hind the lights, the warmth andsafety of port, getting over thehangovers and wondering if we hadpicked up V.D. The crew were edgyand there were more than the usualnumber of fights, some with knives.I was also worried but, like theothers, I was more afraid of show-ing fear in front of my mates than Iwas of the enemy. As the dayspassed without incident, I graduallyrelaxed into the dull routine of theship's watches. Four hours steeringand on lookout duty and eight hoursoff. Whilst on watch, searching,always searching with straining eyesfor that telltale creamy wake of aperiscope or the ultimate terror, thetorpedo's lethal trail of fluorescentbubbles coming straight at you inthe dark of the night.

Sprawling on deck after the mid-day watch in the shade of anawning, I choked on the mango Iwas eating as the shell screamedoverhead to land about half a mileaway in a plume of water. Then Isaw it, just a mile or so abeam of us,a sinister pencil-shaped object lyingsquat in the water like a malignantwater slug. The message was stark,"heave to and abandon ship" ; it was

also our death warrant. In the fewseconds of stunned silence that en-sued I could literally smell the fearthat permeated the air, the Bo'suncrossed himself saying "Mother ofGod, we're done for", and someoneelse was muttering the Lord'sPrayer. I had seen death before,men boiled alive in the scaldingsteam of burst boilers or burnt toblackened, blood-encrusted cindersin oil-flamed water and I wonderedhow it would come to me now.Maybe it would be easy, just thefirst sickening, anaesthetising shockof steel tearing through flesh, splin-tering bone and, before the paincame, a final merciful blackness. Ormaybe it would be hard . . .?

A great melancholy over-whelmed me as I realised that Iwould never see my family again,never feel the sun or smell the rain,never be anything anymore. Theurge to defecate became almost

overpowering and I began to shakeuncontrollably. I knew then whygrown men cried "Mother" beforethe end, knew the paralysis of totalfear, the screaming inside that says"I don't want to die". I became

dimly aware that I was mumblingsomething over and over again,words from a long distant past,words that my Mother had told mewould always protect me fromharm, strange, alien words yet in-stinctive and compulsive... "Sfe'mczYisrael, Adonai Eloheynu, AdonaiEcfe¢cZ" and I realised that I was

praying. Praying to a God I hardlyknew, begging Him to spare me, tolet me live.

It was my moment of truth.Pandemonium broke out, klaxonswhooped, orders shouted, lifeboatsswung out and rafts released. Wewere going to make a run for it,hopeless but better than just sittingwaiting for the end. The flash offlame from the submarine signalledthe next shell which whistled over-head, landing much nearer andsending up a geyser of water.

I stumbled, shocked and shaking,to my position on the aft gunplatform, barely able to keep myfooting as the ship began to pitchwildly as the helmsman steered anerratic course to avoid the nextshell. My gun crew prepared to fire,hastily calculating the range andtrajectory, fumbling in an ecstasy offear with the breech mechanism,the loaders clutching heavy, three-foot long shells in sweat-slipperyhands. The gun went off deafening-ly in a blaze of fire and smoke butthe shell went hopelessly wide of itstarget.

Feverishly reloading, our secondshell misfired inside the barrel ofthe gun. Normal procedure wouldbe to abandon the gun for at leasttwenty minutes as it could explodeat any time. We didn't have thattime to spare and when the ordercame to unload I was almost immo-bilised by the sharp stab of fear inmy abdomen. But fear is a flamethat also tempers men, bestows thatinner calm which enables them tothink of others when in mortaldanger. We call them heroes. OurBo'sun was such a man, rough,uneducated, Liverpool Irish, I wasprivileged to have known him."Take cover lads" he said quietly,"1'11 sort it out", and to a man we

obeyed with guilty alacrity.Continued on next page

Calmly extracting the live shell,he walked, cradling death in hisarms, to the ship's side and flung itinto the sea. They gave him ameasly M.B.E. for it later.

Emerging from our boltholes, thecrash of a giant sledgehammeragainst the side of the ship precededthe deluge of water which cascadedover us as the ship heeled over. Itwas a very near miss and it meantthat the submarine was getting ourrange and that it was only a matterof minutes before a direct hit woulddisable or sink us. Scrambling backonto the gun platform, I stared,eyes stinging and half blinded withsweat, at the submarine and Ithough that I was going to pass outbecause it kept fading away andthat's when the miracle occurred.

It disappeared! I thought that Iwas hallucinating until a roar ofrelief from my companions con-firmed the reality, a thick blanket ofsea fog was descending with uncan-ny abruptness like a curtain, withvisibility decreasing every seconduntil we were completely engulfedin the wet swirling mist. With theengine going all out and heading ona different course we ploughed

through the fog and although seve-ral more shells came in our directionthey sounded increasingly distantand muffled and eventually ceasedaltogether. We stopped severaltimes, drifting through the mists ineerie silence, straining to hear anysounds of pursuit and althoughseveral times I thought I heard thethump of diesel engines, it wasprobably only the blood poundingin my head.

Many hours later, emerging fromthe fog bank into blazing sunshine,a Sunderland flying boat of CoastalCommand roared overhead to ourcheers. We now had air cover andprotection from surface attacks.Shortly afterwards the tropicalnight quickly enfolded us in itsprotective blackness and althoughthe killing grounds off Madagascarinfested with German U-boats stilllay ahead of us, we were safe for thetime being. No doubt the weatherconditions in that part of the IndianOcean often produce sudden fogbanks but to me it was miraculousand I thanked my newly found Goda dozen times before graduallyforgetting all about Him again. Butnot entirely, because from then on I

knew who my God was, who I wasand who my people were.

Invalided out in 1947 aftermonths in hospital, the physicalscars have faded now, only a limpremains, but the mental scars willnever completely heal. The guilt ofsurvival has diminished, the night-mares have long since ceased butthe drone of a plane or deep darkwaters still bring a certain uneaseand the startled shriek of youthfuljoy often triggers a shock reactionuntil awareness of its innocence.Yet I have no regrets, for when I, a"lost Jew", look back in retrospect I

sometimes wonder why I wasgranted the precious gift of "bor-rowed time". Luck? Maybe, but Isuspect that it might have been partof a grand design, that I was justone of the innumerable, fragilethreads in the continuity of ourpeople. You see, the irony of it all isthat my eldest son became a . . .rabbil

Dz\niel Ror"in trained and practised as asurveyor. On retirement he completed a B.A.with the Open University and is now a J.P.He lives in Northwood, Middlesex.

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MANNA SPPING 1990

MANNA SPPING 1990 11

NEW SEARCHLIGHTS ON OUR PASTGeoffrey Alderman

The Making Of Modern Anglo-Jewr)7, Edited by DavidCesarani, Blackwell, Oxford,1990, £30.

THERE HAS IN RECENTyears been a most welcomerenaissance in the study of

the history of Jews in modern Bri-tain. This liberates the interpretationof our past from the restrictionsinherent in the writing of unadven-turous "house" histories, supinebiographies and apologetic mono-graphs.

Cecil Roth, doyen of Anglo-Jew-ish "whig" historians, regardedEmancipation as the climax of thedevelopment of Jewish life in Bri-tain. Tn his History of the Jews inE#g/4i#cZ, first published in 1941,the period 1858-1905 was dismissedin four pages. The period after 1905he did not regard as history at all.

Albert Hyamson's history of 773cSephardim in England, whichappeared ten years later, devotedprecisely thirteen pages to the twen-tieth century and left much unsaidinto the bargain. The controversialreign of Moses Gaster as Hcrfecz77iwas totally unexplored, eventhough much of it was - as Gasterhad intended - conducted in thepublic domain. Gaster had died in1939 but, Hyamson explained,"The historian ought never to deal

or attempt to deal with events ofwhich he has a personal know-ledge". Perhaps for a not dissimilarreason, Professor Aubrey New-man's administrative history of 7lfecUnited Synagogue 1870-1970 (L]76)skirted neatly around the LouisJacobs affair, explaining that the"wider issues" which this most im-

portant episode threw up were"irrelevant to a history of the Uni-

ted Synagogue", which, he declar-ed, was "only involved in a narrowand restricted sense".

I venture to hope that no historianwould dare write in such termstoday. For one thing, the resear-ching and writing of Anglo-Jewishhistory has been affected by de-

velopments in the wider world ofhistorical inquiry, as part of whichthe barriers between economic mo-tive, social imperative and politicalinitiative are seen to lack rigidityand to be, in a sense, quite artifi-cial. For another, the much greateravailability of recent public andprivate records, both here, in Israeland the United States, has madepossible the writing of recent his-tory with the same academic rigourthat was once possible only forearlier periods.

It is worth noting that in generalthe records of the Board of Depu-ties of British Jews are available foras recently as fifteen years ago.When researching the official historyof the Federation of Synagogues, Iwas permitted access to correspon-dence files for much more recentdates. Nor should the possibilitiesof "oral" history be ignored. "Databanks" of such testimony are nowbeing built up, generated by one setof researchers and available tomany others: the historian createsarchival material as he researches.

The essays edited by DavidCesarani in the volume under re-view reflect all these trends, stem-ming as they do from the work of anewer generation of historians con-sciously unaffected by, or perhapsdeliberately rebelling. against, thehesitancies reflected in the work ofRoth, Hyamson and Newman.Much of the material comes frompostgraduate theses completed or inprogress and here made available tothe general reader for the first time.

The volume is entitled 7lfec A4czk-ing of Modern Anglo-Jewry. Thesubject-matter is somewhat morerestricted. As David Cesarani re-marks in the introduction, "Jewishethnicity" is one of the pivots aboutwhich the volume rotates. It isdisappointing, therefore, that speci-fically religious developmentattracts very little attention. In herinquiry into the acculturation of thechildren of immigrant Jews in Man-chester, 1890-1930, Rosalyn Livshinuses oral testimony to chart the

decline of Orthodox religiousobservance, manifested in suchtrends as the rejection of the sfecz.fc/and the desecration of the Sabbath.Elaine Smith has something to sayalong similar lines in relation toJewry in the East End of London inthe inter-war period. But on thesubjects of, for example, the ChiefRabbinate of J.H. Hertz, the growthof what became the Union of Ortho-dox Hebrew Congregations, the"Adass", and the dramatic impact

upon Anglo-Jewry of the policiesand personality of Dayan Y.Abramsky, the volume has nothingto tell us.

Hertz's decision, taken reluctant-ly in 1934, to grant, for the purposesof appointing a marriage secretary,a certificate of recognition to theLiberal Jewish Synagogue, markeda watershed in the relationshipbetween him and the Orthodoxcommunity, which had already, theprevious year, conducted a veryhigh-profile and very successful par-liamentary campaign against theproposal that the "Chief Rabbi"alone should be able to licensesfeocfecfz.77c in England and Wales. In1936, Hertz agreed to the appoint-ment of Rabbi Abramsky to theBeJfe D!.# in London, an act ofappeasement that satisfied nobodyand which was, in some measure,responsible for the Jacobs affair aquarter-century later. The immigra-tion of German refugees in the late1930s strengthened both the non-Orthodox and the extreme Ortho-dox wings of Anglo-Jewry. By thebeginning of 1944, the Adass feltstrong enough to go public in itsdesire for some independence fromthe Board of Deputies, while withina very few years the Liberals wereto begin flexing their muscles on theissue of their own status within theBoard.

The constitutional crisis of 1971,which resulted in the Adass leavingthe Board because of the very mini-mal consultative status given tonon-Orthodox ecclesiastical authori-ties, was thus already in the making

12 MANNA SPBING 1990

in the late 1930s and early 1940s.This nascent conflict was also re-sponsible in part for the failure ofAnglo-Jewry to take full advantageof the opportunities provided by the1944 Education Act to construct anetwork of state-aided Jewishschools. There is an excellent vig-nette of this particular tragi-comedyby Dr. Bernard Steinberg in theDecember 1989 issue of the Jcwz.sfoJournal of Sociology.

The Making of Modern Anglo-Jcwry does not deal with thesethemes. It concentrates instead up-on four discreet areas: "Class andCommunity" - Bill Williams onManchester and Anne Kershen onLeeds and London; "Gender" -Rickie Burman on Jewish women inManchester; "Culture" - RosalynLivshin on the children of immig-rant Jews in Manchester and BrianCheyette on Anglo-Jewish fiction;and "Politics" - David Cesarani oncommunal authority, Elaine Smithon the East End, Louise London onAnglo-Jewry's response to Jewishrefugees in the 1930s and TonyKushner on anti-Semitism,1918-45.The compartmentalisation offeredus by the editor need not be takentoo seriously. One can indeed readeach essay by itself. But there arecertain unifying concepts and it isthe exploration of these that makesreading the entire volume a reward-ing exercise.

The first concerns the class struc-ture of Anglo-Jewry and, in particu-lar, the notion -happily and rightlydiscredited, now, beyond rehabili-tation - that the post-1881 immig-rants constituted a socio-economicclass, a monolithic sub-set of theeast European Marxist proletariat.Bill Williams' guide to the "alright-niks" - the #oz4veczzA:]c rz.cfecs of en-trepreneurs in commerce and theworkshop trades within the EasternEuropean immigrant community inManchester -serves as an overture.The refrain is taken up in ElaineSmith's examination of the inter-face between East End Jewry andEast End politics. Many of thepersonalities with whom she deals,even those who were pre-eminentin Labour politics, were thoroughlymiddle-class. David Cesarani him-self continues and reinforces thetheme by demonstrating that thestruggle for power within Anglo-Jewry in the period 1914-40, occa-sioned as it seemed by the Zionistonslaught against the anti-Zionism

MANNA SPPING 1990

of an older elite, resulted in fact in"a shift of power from one section

of the Jewish middle class toanother". Zionism itself was thepretext, "the vehicle for a middle-class Jewish ethnic identity whichfirst- and second-generation BritishJews constructed through ethnicneighbourhoods, community organ-isation and their immigrant heri-tage".

I am not sure that it is entirelyjust for Dr. Cesarani to concludethat "the agenda of the Zionists inBritain was orientated entirely to-wards domestic affairs". Once theprecise impact and meaning ofZionism for the inter-war, pre-Holocaust generation is properlyevaluated, the work of the true,dedicated Zionists must be put backinto the equation. Nonetheless, it issalutary to be reminded that formost British Jews in this period -and for most of the time - horizonswere exceedingly parochial. Here isthe second conceptual mould inwhich the making of modernAnglo-Jewry must be cast: its pre-occupation with its own well-beingand with its own public image. Adeep sense of anti-intellectualismhas been one of the hallmarks ofAnglo-Jewry, rooted in the know-ledge that it is the duty of theintelligentsia to ask awkward ques-tions and to uncover that which thecommunity would prefer to remainhidden. Novelists who wrote in thisway - the supreme example is AmyLevy, of cou.rse -were liable to bepilloried and ostracised; BrianCheyette reminds us that JuliaFraLnk2ufs Dr. Phillips.. A MaidaVcz/c Jdy// (1887) was roundly con-demned within the community. Theoutrage that greeted Any Levy'sRCLibc# Sczcfes (1888) may have con-tributed to Amy's suicide the fol-lowing year.

It is in its treatment of newcomersthat the self-centred preoccupationsof Anglo-Jewry are seen at theirugliest. The story of the com-munity's reaction to the Polish andRussian exodus is too well known, Ihope, to require further commenthere. Louise London takes the storyfurther, in a most painstakingly docu-mented examination of communaland governmental policy towardsJewish refugees from Nazism. Onecan explain that Neville Laski, Pres-ident of the Board of Deputies,Otto Schiff, founder of the JewishRefugees Committee, and their col-

leagues did what they could indifficult circumstances: that theirco-operation with the British gov-ernment ensured that at least somerefugees found a haven in Britain;and that to have asked for morewould have jeopardised the entireexercise. To argue thus is to ignorethe practical impact of the policiesthese gentlemen pursued. The wayin which the visa policy of theHome Office was endorsed andunderwritten by the communalleadership reflected a battery ofclass, religious and social preju-dices. "The imposition of the visa -Schiff opined in 1938 -was especial-ly necessary in the case of Austrianswho were largely of the shopkeeperand small trader class and wouldtherefore prove much more difficultto emigrate than the average Ger-man". The same year, the Jewz.sfeCfero#z.c/c's "Watchman" lamentedthe prospect of the "kaftaned Jewsof Poland" wishing to move west-wards because they were bound tokick against the need to discard"their distinctive attire". The Coun-

cil for German Jewry consigned therescue of the elderly to privateinitiative - a fact noted by NevilleChamberlain's Cabinet. In the viewof Norman Bentwich, German Jewsaged over 45 were simply "not fittedfor emigration".

Informing all these attitudes wasan intense desire by the officialleadership of the community not toconfront the government, or to takeissue with it in any remotely-publicarena. This desire was reinforced bythe knowledge that, as Tony Kush-ner demonstrates, anti-Jewish pre-judice in Britain was in rude health.In a very proper assimilationistfashion, therefore, the leadershipdetermined to turn the other cheek.When the refugee question wasdiscussed in the House of Commonson 21 November 1938, the JewishMPs present, by prior agreement,kept their mouths firmly shut - andwere specially complimented by theJcwz.sfo Cfero#z.c/c on their inaction.

Next time, dear reader, you findyourself in the shattering silence ofYad Vashem and ask, as all mustask who visit that place, "Why?",you might take the trouble to recallthis incidentl

Geoffrey A:lderman is Profe`ssor of Politicsand Contemporary History at Royal Hollo-way and Bedford New College, University ofLondon.

13

14 MANNA SPBING 1990

MA'ELNATheolog»SIADDleme«t

PROGRESSIVE JUDAISMA COLLECTIVE THEOLOGICAL ESSAY

AND DISCUSSION PAPEF3INTRODUCTION

This essay has grown out of a variety of inf ormal discussions_ ?ver majry yea:_r_s _among _a n¥mber of rabbis an.d ?ottIJyunityleaders viho a;e active in ine British Progressive Jewish world. As Editor of MzmrLa, I voluntee_red _to corrmit the id.eps to.

writing, partly for our own clarificahon but -also to offer them as a discussion_ fo_r a_in_ue_h.wider circle. O.ur .reliFioys qualifica!i?usand ~ex;perti:; can be judged bj what f o[1ows. However, we thought it ndghi be helpf ul to sat_out at_ t_he beginring Forr!.e.of thefa,ctor§ that we recogivs6 as having s-ha;ped both our views and our approach to expf essing tpem. Most f!_f_ us are.Br.irish-bprn

Jews, which Offecirs our tempera,inert; our form of self~expression and our particular set_ of conc?rys. .We are, in.tfae. peain,ndddie-class, well educated secularly and professionally trtined -all of which both colours and !i]rits our seusitylties_ to

different parts of society. Nevertheless, this background has given_us tqe fre_e4om go get to kpow. difffrept parf: .p.f the.I.e.wishworld, incwhing th;e State of Israel. All the people who cortr{buted to this essay _carry. a d?gree of .re.s.pousibility. withir:

our particular "brar;d" of Judaism, which gives us both an expert?nce of Jewish needs ape re?litj:es. apd .also a certain c?ulon inover formulation of idchs. We are excited-to see the way in which Progressive commundifs in. B!itain have ^growr! qn4 acce.pt .t.`

new ;hallenges. W; have a rdigious commitmehi that has carried us out of the convend_or]al pa;.th tha,I mc!ny of us rr!ighi have I)eenExpected to follo.w : given the part of society into which we were born and the culture that has shaped us.

I WZZAr FOLLOWS, WE response our teachers and teaching present is with us and we acknow-are tried to affirm our certain~es, achaowledge our doubts

and question .some of the conven~tions of Jewish lofe, recognising thestrengths and weaknesses . of thecommunity to which we belong.This is intended as a position paperbut we hope that it has not I)ecomeso declamatory that the balancebetween self-affirmation and segf-criticism has been lost. Above all,the essay irrvites response and wel-comes discussion.

A. PRELIMINARYPRINCIPLHS ANDOBSERVATIONS

(1) ModernityJudalsm is an ancient yet dynamic

tradition which has contributed tothe life of humanity quite dispro-portionately to the number of Jews.Since the enlightenment and eman-cipation, this tradition has t)eenshaped in a number of differentways. Progressive Judaism is the

have made to the ideas of themodern Western world. Such cross-fertilisation is by no means uniquein the Jewish experience; it hasalways occurred and has alwaysrevitalised Judaism in each epoch.

There are many aspects of themodern Western world which dis-tress us - its dethronement of Godand enthronement of humanity, itsuncritical faith in scierice and scien-tific knowledge, its abuse of tech-nology as an instrument of humantorture and destruction, its excessivematerialism , its ruthless exploitationof human and natural resourcessolely for economic gain, its ele-vation of self-interest as the maindeterminant of human relations.There are, however, many a.spectswhich we gladly embrace - its scho-larship, its enunciation of individualhuman rights, its cultural pluralism,its psychological insights, its advan-ces in many scientific and technolo-gical areas which offer an enhancedlevel to the quality of human life.Whatever our ambivalence, the

ledge that it forms a starting point.

(2) Living in the WorldWe recognise that modernity has

brought both good and bad to theworld. Judaism believes it is essen-tial to live in the world, adopting astance described as one of "creativemaladjustment"i. The meeting be-tween Judaism and the world hasnot always been positive for Jewishlife. Nevertheless, we ProgressiveJews do not believe we can fulfil ourobligations as Jews by turning ourback on it and seeking survivalthrough isolation. We value ourdifference and distinctiveness butdo not wish to preserve it by separ-

::i=gmuonT,r#v#et:=.sethieeT;d::live simultaneously within two cul-tures, holding Jerusalem as ourhighest joy, whilst doing justice toAthens.

(3) Truth and PluralismWe understand that truth, which

we equate with the divine Realityand the divine will for the world, ismulti-faceted and that no singleexpression of Judaism or of anyreligion can encompass all truth.

We therefore acknowledge thatany form of religion is, in a sense,provisional; that no one expressionof Judaism can accommodate allJews in all places at all times; thatJudaism does not possess a mono-poly on truth; that truth may befound in other religious traditions;that truth is also to be foundthrough teachers and disciplineswhich may have no formal relitiouslabel.

(4) Certainty and DoubtWe recognise that a significant

level of religious doubt is endemicto modern thinking. The search hasbeen continuous ever since Abrahamand Sarah set off on their journey3.This emphasis on search is a healthyantidote to the certainties whicheach generation so frequently holdsabout truth and a corrective to theplague of fanaticism which defacesthe religious world in our time.

Nevertheless, we acknowledgethat very many Jews today are lesscertain than we imagine precedinggenerations to have been aboutbelief in God. Many others havedifficulties with prayer, eventhough some find the corporateidentification of public worshiphelpful. Such doubt and scepticismare part of a contemporary Jewishreality which it is our duty to face.

(5) Starting with people wherethey are

Progressive Judaism has firmprinciples which will be delineatedin this essay but there is an equallyfirm operating principle that westart with people where they areand work with them to encouragethem to move further into theirJudaism. We always seek "to countpeople in" . We recognise that manyfactors affect the particular journeythrough life taken by each indi-vidual. At the very least, we canoffer searchers a Jewish "home"and our experience has shown thatthey will bring with them talents,insights and challenges from whichall can benefit.

(6) God, Israel and theIndividual

God makes demands; the com-munity, too, has needs but we

recognise the riberation of the indi-vidual and both the right and theinevitability that people vyill thinkand respond for themselves. Muchof contemporary Jewish life is anattempt to resolve the interplay andtension between the elements ofGod, the community and itsteachings, and the individual.

(7) Shades of opinionEach individual is unique and

expresses faith in a unique way.Judaism has never imposed a rigidcreed on its adherents and thewisdom of such an approach isclearer than ever today. ProgressiveJudaism, Judaism, any religious tra-dition, is a federation of views, arich amalgam of insights andnuances. We are committed to lis-

;enndjnsEutnonienagc:n:::;:dwvf]fsio:3:P#recognise the need to be both morecritical of ourselves and more res-pectful of Jews of divergent opinions.We take to heart the injunction tocare for one's own soul and anotherperson's body, not one's own bodyand another person's souls.

(8) Reason and FaithOur educational and cultural

background has taught us to applyreason to all the problems of faithand of Jewish life. We are reluctantto hold on to things which seemcontrary to common or moral senseor which stretch our credulity. Reli-gious and moral questions shouldbe explored through the applicationof reason to the very limits thatreason will take us. However,God's existence is neither provednor disproved through philosophi-cal constructs. God is; rather, to beencountered and engaged indialogue6, through prayer, studyand in daily life. Jewish faith andspirituality are vital in bridctng thegap between the limits of the hu-man intellect and.God. We treasureour reason and rationality but alsoour sense of awe, wonder, mystery,gratitude and love.

(9) HistoryWe have learned from the mod-

em world a different understandingof history. We have come to seemore clearly the extent to which ourcustoms and practices, our philoso-phy and theology and even our textsthemselves developed within particu-lar ages and evolved within particularcultures. We do not value them any

the less for this fact. God speaksthrough human beings and that isour glory. Human beings live withina particular time, place and cultureand that is axiomatic. This insightor assumption affects our under-standing of rorczfe defined both asthe Pentateuch and as the entirecorpus of Jewish teaching.

(10) Change and DevelopmentWe see Jewish tradition as a

living, evolving, developing streamof teaching and practice. It .hasnever been completely uniform ortotally consistent. It bears thestamp of countless generations, theimpact of many cultures and theexperience of a multitude of diffe-rent situations. It has both changedwith history and resisted history. Itdocuments an unfolding perceptionof God and God's will for Israel andhumanity. God is unchanging butour understanding of God is not.

(11) Jewish SurvivalSince biblical times, a character-

istic of the Jewish people has been arelative lack of numbers. Until re-cent times, this has not been quitethe source of anxiety that it istoday, since we have avoided plac-

;nogw:ru7:ffi£:*efvners,;Zteheanddes€|ycstftcoa£of one third of the Jewish people inthe Sfeoczfe, the Nazi Holocaust,coupled with the assimilatoryeffects of open societies on ournumbers, have led Jews to worryconsiderably about Jewish survival.Progressive Judaism is uncompro-misingly committed to the survivalof the Jewish people. It seeks toinclude rather than exclude all whowish to be counted amongst ourranks. It works for the welfare ofJews as well as others who live incountri es whi ch di s cri min ateagainst Jewish and other religiousgroups. However, survival is notenough and there must be sense in

:iu::ak£;;e§;Sot¥i£;e:I:v:e;¥]:9ege°dn:;¥%:i:trate most upon the meaning andvalue of our Jewish lives and faithtoday, leaving the futul.e where italways belongs ultimately, in God'shands.

8. GODShema Yisrael Adonai ElohenuAdonal EchadHear, 0 Israel, The Lord is ourGod, the Lord is One]°

(1) GodWhilst acknowledging the limi-

tations of language in addressingthe ultimate inystery, ProgressiveJudaism, no less than previous ex-pressions of Judaism, affirms thatthere is one God and therefore oneCreator and one Creation. Unity isthe organising principle of existenceand God provides the meaning andpurpose of our being. God is boththe wholeness of life and the sourceof its ultimate values. We are coin-manded to seek the good and thetrue, to enthrone justice, to act inlove and compassion and to walkbefore God in humi|ityll.

(2) Our relationship with GodJewish teachings and experience

lead us to affirm that it is possible tohave a relationship with God whichmay be both personal and intimateyet also difficult and elusive. Ourunderstanding and knowledge arevastly less than complete; doubtand uncertainty are an integralaspect of the Jewish condition. Godis the God of Abraham and Sarah,about Whom we can speak; butGod is also the Ez.7? So/, WithoutEnd, of the mystics, about Whomwe can say nothing or almost no-thing. We both name God as lovingand just, merciful and comman-ding, and declare that God isbeyond human vocabulary and im-agery. Jewish belief lies betweenthese two poles of contradictoryassertions, both of which are true.

(3) Free WillMany factors contribute to the

moulding of individuals and im-pinge upon our behaviour. Wenevertheless affirm that each of usis obliged to make moral choicesevery day and in so doing weexercise a freedom placed before usby God. Our constructive and des-tructive inclinationst2 have never

PoeecEomo::elf:gp3:rent.Weareurged

(4) Sin, Repentance andForgiveness

Just as people may choose good,so they may choose evil -sin. Sin isreal and not merely the absence ofgood. Judaism offers no vicariousmechanism for gaining absolution.Sin may only be absolved by Godand only after a process of acknow-1edgement and repentance. Repen-tance requires that a whole-heartedand sincere attempt be made to put

right the offence against one's fel-low human being insofar as this ispossible. Offences cominitted againstGod are 'a proper subject of prayer.Above all, repentance demands the

:i::]Z;eo:°h::tsuertnb::o::eus¥g.hTtugta:tGod forgives the penitent, so hu-man beings are required to forgivethose who, having wronged them,approach them asking for forgive-ness.

(5) Reward and PunishmentWe do not believe that right

conduct guarantees a life of materialreward and conventional happiness.Worldly success is no sure indicatorof virtue and goodness is not auto-matically rewarded with the bless-ings of longevity, prosperity andcontentment. The true reward ofthe righteous lies in the knowledgeof having acted rightly and in havingcontributed to the fund of goodnessin the world. We do, however,believe that goodness is more pow-erful than evil and that individualscan find unique fulfilment in theknowledge that they have actedlovingly and justly. Life should be

i£:tehderfnthtahneE::Spiites:f5,8°t°hdonuegsftrue happiness often comes fromthe conscious and unconscious pur-suit of the good and the loving.

(6) Hvil and SufferingEvil has a reality and immense

power but neither necessarily norautomatically a victory. Much evil isclearly the result of choices wemake in life but not all suffering canbe explained in this way. In fact,there are no adequate explanationsfor the suffering that lies beyondhuman control, such as terminalillness and natural disaster. Nor,very often, is there a completelysatisfying response to that mosthuman of questions: "Why me?" Toacknowledge that we do not under-stand may not satisfy - but many ofthe "explanations" appear even lessadequate. Progressive Judaismlearns from the Book of Job aprofound mistrust of those whoinvariably "explaln" human suffer-ing as divine punishment. However,we do find it helpful to speak ofGod as suffering with the sufferings

:tis:ruymaanndftga£:P6d. Weeping at its

(7) 8¥:sceeric€hance and

In creating the world there was a

::i=::giyoni9£V;nh:chw#odwr:¥as]pa::for the existence of the world. Thuswas created that space which isnecessary for the endless number ofpossibilities that make up life. Inthat space, it would seem, chanceevents occur and human creativityis allowed for. There is no placewhere God is not]8 but God's pre-sence is not to be identified with themiraculous abrogation of the lawsof physics and of the natural world.

(8) Partnership and EncounterFaced with the infinity of God,

we are aware of our finiteness.There is, nevertheless, a partner-ship, sfewfcz:fiff, between God andhuman beings. God is involved withCreation and with the process ofrenewal and completion. In the wayin which we meet the challenge ofthis partnership, not only humanitybut God is affected. The most far-reaching divine gift is human res-ponsibility to share in the work ofredemption and release the sparks ofgoodness which are present every-where and at all times.

We experience this partnershipwith God but, unlike many previousgenerations, do not express it interms of miracles, at least in theconventional usage of the word. Wenevertheless affim a partnership inwhich our Partner may be encounter-ed. There is nowhere that encountercannot take place, no person who isexcluded from its possibilities. Godhears, enlightens and respondsthrough us when we are open toGod.

The partnership between God andthe Jewish people is sealed in acovenant made at Sinai and re-affirmed in each generation.

(9) God in mstoryWe affirm the Jewish recognition

that God is to be discerned in history,

:o8i°a¥n%ffiLaumme:]#:d±::tis.8#:recognise our own terrible capacityto obscure, eclipse or bum out thatfilament rather than enable it to bethe source of light and redemption.We bear witness to God as theendless source of goodness and justi-

::in]°ovfe]:#igc°#apt:::i8nfr-otfe;°hT:Ihumanity drinks and without whichhistory could never hope for thatredemption. We also acknowledgeour anger and bewilderment at much

that history has brought upon us. Wereaffirm our covenantal commitmentbut continue to argue with, strugglewith and challenge God, Whom weacknowledge as not just the Authorof light and peace but of all2].

C. TORAHTorah Tzivah` Lanu Moshe,Morashah Kehillat Ya' akovMoses commanded us Torah, the

FaecroE;a2§e °f the Community of

(1) RevelationNo less than past generations, we

regard Sinai as the formative ex-perience of the Jewish people. Therevelation at Sinai and the HebrewBible have been the sources fromwhich Judaism has flowed and tes-tify to a unique encounter betweenGod and our ancestors. We do not,however, regard the rorczfe, theFive Books of Moses, as a docu-ment literally handed down by Godto Moses but rather as our ances-tors' record of their encounter withGod, a document itself revealing aprocess of inner development. Itcontains both unique, universal in-sights addressed to all humanity andthe foundation stones of the parti-cular Jewish task. It includes bothtimeless and timebound teachings.It reflects revelation resident in theworld and in humanity, recorded by

%°vreq:tiYohnt£3?'tn#¢#Yses'isrrea:1?:awareness of God, its attempt toteach the vision to humanity. It isteaching to be accepted but ever-tested by the ethical insights of eachgeneration. The ethical act remainsthe surest place for our encounterwith God's word. Though revelationtook place at Sinai, it is not con-fined to Sinai nor did it end there.Revelation is continuous and eachgeneration is duty bound to en-deavour to ascertain God's will.

(2) Halakhah, Jewish LawRabbinic Judaism developed a

code of law or practice, fe¢Jczkfec[fe,which sought to express revelationin the details of everyday be-haviour. Whilst respecting thefe¢Jczkfez.c system as a dominatingaspect of our inheritance, we do notbelieve that a system of law isadequate to enable all contemporaryJews to express their relationshipwith God and other human beings.This is, firstly, a reflection of theshift from a society which a:ddressed

groups and classes to a societywhich addres s es in dividuals.Secondly, it stems from a.processwhereby the Jewish community hashanded over responsibility for suchareas as criminal and civil law to thestate, leaving only the deeply perso-nal area of ritual and subtle issuesof ethics to the domain of fe¢Jczkfaczfe.

There should always be a pre-sumption in favour of fe¢Jczkfez.ctradition, a respect for traditionalmethods Of analysis and a recognitionthat focz/czkfez.c literature contains thedistilled wisdom of many genera-tions. Nevertheless, ProgressiveJudaism believes that individualsmust formulate their own patternsof Jewish practice. This is to beachieved through a process of studyand exploration, an understandingof the needs both of the individualand the community and an aware-ness of the norms and values taughtby the synagogue. We accept theplurality of responses that emerge.We recognise the primacy of indi-vidual judgment and conscience butindividuals have to recognise thatthey exist also as part of a communityand a tradition. The preservationand transmission of the Jewishheritage are the unique responsibili-ties of each Jew.

Jewish practice and observanceevolved over the centuries in res-ponse to changing circumstancesand needs. Progressive Judaismembraces that process of creativechange and development, whichbrings with it new patterns of Jew-ish practice. There is much merit inthe injunction to renew the old andSanctify the new24.

(3) Practice and SpiritualityThe biblical and rabbinic percep-

tion that faith and understandingmay well come from practice andneed not necessarily precede practiceis of incalculable value. Neverthe-less, the quest for the spiritual, forthe religious, for God is the drivingforce behind Progressive Judaism.It is of vital importance that Prog-ressive Jews recognise the tried andtested value of Jewish practice inleading tb this goal. Ritual shapestheology as much, if not more, thantheology shapes ritual.

We find ourselves torn betweentwo views that we have inheritedfrom our Progressive tradition. Onthe one hand is a concern withpurifying Judaism of superstition,accompanied by the quest for

reason and ra:tionality behind Jew-ish practice. On the other hand, weare aware of the limitations of apurely cerebral religion which oftenoverlooks the darker side of ouremotional life. In seeking to "purifyour emotions" we gain from ex-periencing the symbols and practi-sing the ritual life of our tradition.So we are committed to exploringour tradition on the basis of: firstwe do, then we listen to how itWorks within us25.

(4) itsus8#bTyrayer and

Judaism enshrin es TczJm #dTorczfe, study, as the highest valueland we affirm that commitment.

Jewish education is a fundamental•obligation for Jews of all ages. Life

without roj'czfestudy at its heart isfundamentally un-Jewish and thegreatest of all threats to Jewishcontinuity. Prayer has always beenthe primary vehicle by which Jewsaddress God and seek their trueselves. Regular prayer, both com-munal and private, is essential tothe spiritual vitality of the Jewishpeople. Assembly, the comingtogether of Jews for social andcultural purposes, is of continuingimportance and value. Subsumedalso under this latter heading is theneed for the community, assembledas an "extended family", to providestructures for mutual support, car-ing and celebration.

(5) HebrewThe Hebrew language has always

been the primary vehicle for thetransmission of Jewish tradition.With the re-establishment of theState of Israel, renewed emphasishas been given to the Hebrew lan-guage, not just as the language ofprayer and study but as a potentialunifying force for all Jews. EachJew should endeavour to learnHebrew and teach it diligently to hisor her children26.

(6) Celebration, Sanctificationand Mitzvot,Commandments, of Faith

Both in the synagogue and in thehome, the essential rhythms of Jew-ish life are lived out -the Sabbath,the Festivals and the sanctificationof the major events of the life cycle.These are of enduring value to us,making the ordinary holy, remind-ing us of our tasks, linking us toGod and constantly uniting Jews in

mutual support and encourage-ment. We wish to lay particularemphasis on those mz.Zzvo£, com-mandments, which flow from ourcovenantal relationship with Godand deepen faith and the spiritualdimension of Jewish life:- observing the Sabbath as a day of

prayer, study and spiritual ref-reshment, as a day devoted tobeing rather than having27, tod0;i:g8God'Sworkratherthanour

- observing the Festivals both inthe synagogue and in the home

- sanctifying the mundane throughthe observance of dietary prac-tices

- sanctifying the home itself- observing the rhythms of family

life and the life cycle- maintaining a regimen of prayer

and blessings.

(7) Ethics and Social JusticeOne of the greatest insights which

Judaism gave the world is of a justGod who is served by our treatmentof our fellow human beings. rorczfe,as interpreted by the prophets,gives primacy to our obligations tothe poor, the needy and the oppres-sed. We affirm our religious duty towork for the alleviation of humansuffering and acknowledge theclalm that all those in need, ofwhatever creed and colour, haveupon us. We affirm our religiousduty to work for a just, compassion-ate and peaceful society and a just,compassionate and peaceful world.

(8) Ethical Mitzvot,` CommandmentsBeyond this general commitment

to social justice, our tradition deline-ates a myriad of ethical obligations.These covenantal commandmentsof holiness are a mirror of God'sho|iness29 and their performancemakes` the mundane sacred. Weregard them as being of such im-portance that we highlight the fo1-lowing duties by way of example:- to respect the sanctity of human

life- to acknowledge that, since all

humanity shares a common Par-ent, all are equally precious - aschildren are equally precious inthe eyes of their parents

- to abhor violence- to ensure that our neighbours

enjoy that quality of life whichwill enable them to achieve theirfull potential

- to honour parents and teachers- to provide the appropriate educa-

tional and emotional nurturingwhich will enable one's childrento grow into informed, secureand loving adult Jews

- to deal honestly, whether in busi-ness or in private life

- to resist greed, envy and cove-tousness

- to avoid slander and the hurtfuluse of language

- ::ia?i%nschafr:¥o and Sensitive in

- to maintain sexual fidelity.We a`ccept the right of others to

demand of us the fulfilment of theseduties. Furthermore, whilst ack-nowledging the special claims offamily and community, we assertthat these ethical commandments

Fouls:wbean°dbsgeer:teffeba¥£ku:3::relation

(9) Contemporary Social IssuesBritish society has come alive to a

range of specific social issues inrecent years. This concern hasstruck a chord with many Progres-sive Jews who see such concern asmandated by their religious tradi-tion. This is hardly surprising inview of the preceding two sectionsof this essay. However, by nomeans all Progressive Jews respondto each concern in the same wayand many are troubled by the dis-tinction between religion and poli-tics which society at large advances.

Many Progressive Jews are at theforefront of concern for such groupsas the poor and starving in the"Third World", those denied humanrights, the victims of racial discrimi-nation, the homeless, handicappedpeople, sexual minorities and thosedemanding equal opportunity ineducation and employment.

(10) The World: Bat TashhitJewish tradition enjoins us to

accept responsibility for the naturalworld, for the animal population andfor the conservation of the environ-ment. In the light of the contempor-any awareness of the inter-relatedness of all creation and thefragile and limited nature of all natu-ral resources, the principle bcz/fasfe7zz.£2, "do not destroy" assumesnew and special importance.

We do not decry the many goodthings that our world has to offer andcan produce. Rather, we urge thatthey are harvested or manufacturedresponsibly and shared equitably.

We are pemitted to possess, for awhile at least, but not to be posses-sed. We are urged to enjoy the goodthings of life but never to the detri-ment of others or to the world wehold in trust.

(.11) AfterlifeWe believe that there is a part of

each human being - personality,spirit, soul - which is unique andindestructible. It comes from Godand returns to God. Our traditionuses the term "the world to come"to speak of existence beyond death.There is a wide range of imageryreflecting the very personal andindividual nature of such specu-lation. We believe that, after ourdeaths, judgment is passed uponour lives.

Death, which is the natural endto human life, has an unavoidablefinality and is a source of pain andanguish for the bereaved. Never-theless, we face death with trust andhope, not least in the knowledge

:a:;1:X:agnr€v8e°39dannegs]:raevemfa8nhti:Idelible mark on the face of God.

(12) MessiahJewish tradition has long envis-

aged a time when the world willfinally be perfected, when Creationwill be complete and the divinepurpose fulfilled. We express thisvision through the phrase "the endof days". Tradition teaches that theherald of this time will be theMessiah, a human being, a descen-dant of King David, who will usherin God's reign of peace and justicefor all peoples.

The events of the 20th centuryhave shaken our falth in humanbeings and in human progress. Fewof us now believe that the age of theMessiah i; close at hand - or trust inour unaided ability to bring aboutits inception. Yet we are preparedto wait and to commit ourselves tothe never ending task of fz.kkz/J?o/ar77i, repairing the world. We bal-ance this scepticism concerninghumanity with the truth of the

yi::::;;T8doad¥s-v;:cg,%.Ws%uidu:hn`£¥possible, even perhaps perfection,if we would only live up to thehighest ideals of our tradition.

D. ISRAELKol Yisrael Arevim Zeh BazehAll Israel are sureties for eachOther35

(1) Israel as PeopleJews are a people bound together

by a sense of shared history, beliefand practice, which is what makesus Jewish and a sense of shareddestiny and purpose, which is whatkeeps us Jewish. We see ourselvesas a family in which all membershave a responsibility for each other."Family" is a helpful metaphor -members of a family may be verydifferent from each other and arenot all related by blood. New mem-bers join the familiy all the time.We cannot always choose our rela-tives and yet the ties of family arepowerful and unique. We do notalways agree with their actions butwe accept our responsibility as sure-ty for one another.

(2) Israel as State"Israel" today also describes the

Jewish State. The re-establishmentof the State is one of the mostcreative and challenging events inJewish experience. Judaism has ageography as well as a history.Israel represents the opportunityfor Jews to have at least that limiteddegree of control over their owndestiny that statehood affords; tograpple with the challenge of thejust and responsible use of powerwithin and on behalf of a nationstate; to renew Jewish life in all itsmany aspects. In this profound sense,Israel is central to Jewish life and afocal point for all Jews. It representsour return to historical wholenessand is a manifestation of fz.kkz47iO/¢J77, repairing the Wor|d36.

Israel also plays a part in the lifeand faith of other people. From thisflow responsibilities and duties, thedischarge of which present prob-lems, both ethical and political, ofan enormity which overshadowsalmost everything else in Jewish lifetoday. We acknowledge the heavyburden that places upon the Jews ofIsrael and recognise that a resolu-tion of these problems can only beachieved if all the peoples of theregion are prepared to worktogether for peace and justice inmutual respect.

(3) Aliyah: Settling in theLand of Israel

We see it as our duty to encour-age all those who, as individuals,

yh±:hptroa;::sn¢Fec::touprT:stj;Fnot3er::]€ity by settling in the land of ourancestors.

We further regard it as an obli-gation on every Jew to visit the landof Israel as frequently as possible,to include Israel in our prayers andcelebrations, to foster economiclinks and to participate in the wel-fare of its people. Each Jew shouldexplore such possibilities as giving ayear of service to Israel, having asabbatical there, investing inIsrael's commercial life, building ahome there.

(4) Israel in DiasporaWe believe that the State of

Israel and world Jewry must live inconditions of interdependence.Israel's triumphs and agonies arethe triumphs and agonies of allJewish people. Concern for thewellbeing of all Jews is shared bythose in responsible leadership inIsrael. The task of redeeming land,people and history itself - which isat the heart of the Zionist enterprise- is a noble task which demandssupport on every level from allJews. We also affirm the role ofDiaspora communities in serving aswitnesses to Jewish religious truth

:hned Cn°a::;nn*: :ar:Cutgfis :u[:g¥i:;°_vidual and collective lives. The reli-gious, cultural, political and financialneeds of Diaspora communitiesmust not be neglected. Israel in itsown land and Israel in Diasporatypify the creative tension betweenour particularism and universalismwhich are complementary facets inso much of Jewish thought andaction.

(5) The Choosing PeopleWhilst there is no traditional

Hebrew term for "The Chosen Peo-

:i:;'oEeGVI;Sfht::]Snh;nc8h:5::kuss58.Piat;choice of Israel is never to be seenas reason or justification for feel-ings of superio.rity but solely as thesource of our duties and responsibi-lities. We recognise that this can beboth burdensome and enriching.

¥€ecah[.:ocs:::ts::[g|:g],I::s;::Ei:Ogi:the demarid to live as a Holy Nation.The word "covenant" describes ourrelationship with God and, despitethe traumatic events of our recenthistory, we reaffirm that covenant.

Each Jew today is also a choosingperson, even over his or her veryidentity as a Jew. Nevertheless, weare mindful that the covenant wasmade both with those who stood at

g:t£:rdewn£:I;[r]efsuet:tr£.generationsThat we have been sing|ed out41

remains a source of mystery but isalso a reality which the existence ofTor¢fe, Jewish teaching, demons-trates. The riches of ror¢fe are theproof of our chosenness and thereason for our continuing obliga-tion. This in no way precludes ourunderstanding that other peoplealso perceive themselves as havingbeen similarly singled out. Thereare many paths to God and apurpose for all peoples.

(6) Shoali: The HolocaustThe Sfeoafe is a unique event in

Jewish and world history. We havebarely begun to assimilate its mean-ing for the Jewish and human future.We know that it has, in some sense,made of us a nation of survivors andforced us to re-examine the natureof humanity and of the place of Godin history. It has put the Jewishencounter with modernity in a newand different light. There is little

:hfarta¥iec:,aEosraryorb48y°ndexpressionsWe are called upon to act as

yottsnuersvs]:S;aY:tsoe=S:naE3.£mwpeerka:]oV;that we are obliged to show soli-clarity with other potential andactual victims of genocide in ourtime and to oppose all forms ofgroup hatred wherever they mani-test themselves.

One of the highest values in ourtea.dition is Kiddush Hashem - thesanctification of the name of God.We believe that since the Sfeoczfe thedivine imperative has been heardcommanding us to live CZJ Kz.ddz4sfeHHaasshheemm'44:Of to die al Kiddush

Progressive Judaism in Britainowes much to refugees from NaziEurope and we, in turn, owe aparticular obligation to the rein-nants of European Jewry and to therebuilding of European Jewry.

There is a further obligation notto abuse the Sfoocz7i by using it forour own purposes and seekingadvantage through the manipula-tion of guilt or anger.

(7) Relations with otherPeoples

Jewish teaching insists that westrive for the most harmonious rela-tionship possible between Jews andothers at all levels -spiritual, socialand economic.

We share a vision of amity andrespect within the greater family ofthe Abrahamic traditions in whichJews, Christians and Muslims canrecognise themselves and eachother as inheritors of common spiri-tual truths.

We have much also to learn fromthose whose religious tradition be-longs outside the Abrahamic family.We approach all with respect and inhumility and in the knowledge thatsalvation is to be found in many

S];ffrfe5reg:tgs]a::Sa°£]¥:I:EfFfiaTh;hTjzunite.s all faiths. The God of Abra-ham and Sarah is One, remindingus that chauvinism and unbridlednationalism are a denial of theprinciple of unity which lies at theheart of the universe.

Jews need a deep sense of Jewishself and a thorough Jewish know-ledge so that they may understandand enjoy all insights without hav-ing to compromise themselves or inany way minimise or denigrate theteachings of others. The more se-cure one is in one's own identity,the better one can understand theidentity of others. Dialogue withothers of different falths is en-ricking and working together onmatters of mutual concern reward-ing.

Our shared aim should be so toframe our respective beliefs andclaims that we leave theologicalspace for other faiths and avoid theneed to be unnecessarily and hurt-fully competitive, condescending,rejecting or denying.

Jews have a particular obligationto other religious and ethnic minori-ties, since we have played the roleof the "stranger" throughouthistory46. However, Jewish historyhas made Jews less than open andconfident in relation to the world atlarge. This historical experience isoften coupled with a tendency to beso involved in the Jewish "loveaffair" with God47 as to regard whatlies beyond the Jewish communityas of lesser importance. In someways, this fearful introversion is themirror of the triumphant imperial-ism of other faiths. Insecurity andsuspicion persist and we acknow-ledge the considerable amount ofwork that is required to bring theideal and the reality closer togetherin our relations with other faiths.

(8) Missionising, Conversionand Outmarriage

Progressive Judaism welcomes allthose who seek to join our ranks insincerity. We have only to be satis-fied that they are aware of both theopportunities and the difficultiesthat devolve on all Jews and havethe faith, commitment, knowledgeand skills to live full Jewish lives.While ours is no longer a missionaryreligion, it continues to be open toall seekers who wish to find afulfilment of their spiritual quest.

One of the inevitable conse-quences of living in an open, multi-cultural society is that some Jewsmay choose non-Jewish partners.Whilst deeply regretting the loss tothe Jewish people that this so oftenrepresents, we also recognise thatthere is a challenge which must befaced. We do not believe thatostracism is a helpful response. TheJew within such a relationship iswelcome within our communitiesand we must reach out to the non-Jewish partner. We wish our Juda-ism to be so attractive that manybecome Jewish in their own rightand others offer willing support tothe Jewish partner. We are delight-ed to assist in the upbringing of anychildren they may have as Jews.

(9) The Jewish HomeDespite the enormity of the social

changes which we are witnessing,the Jewish home is still for the greatmajority a bastion of Jewish life -aplace where many of the most im-portant Jewish values are lived. Weaffirm our commitment to thecentrality of the Jewish home as aplace of love and study, mutualsupport and religious celebration,renewal and spirituality. We like-wise affirm the essential place of therituals and observances which char-acterise the Jewish home - the777ezz/zz¢fo, the biblical passagesfixed to the doorpost, Sabbath andFestival observances and kosfe7.#£,dietary practices.

(10) The SynagogueWe reaffirm the vital significance

of the synagogue. It is the placewhere Jews come together to wor-ship God in public. It remains ourprimary educational institution, fo-

::rseadn3n]:hc:]ra]%bj[;£t::tchhoe:.tymas£?i;:serves as a home for the religiouslyhomeless Jew and, increasingly to-day, as an extended family.

The synagogue establishes pat-terns of practice both ritual and

ethical, from which individuals canlearn and make informed choices. Itbrings together groups of Jews in ademocratic, learning and searchingcommunity, developing living ex-pressions of Judaism and Jewishlife.

Whilst this localised, participatoryJudalsm is a hallmark of ProgressiveJudaism, we affirm the need to actresponsibly and collectively on mat-ters of Jewish status and fundamen-tal principle. We further recognisesynagogal responsibility to the to-tality of Progressive communitiesand to the wider Jewish and non-Jewish world through the sharing ofresources and the development ofservices for the benefit of all - forexample, in the fields of education,welfare and culture.(11) Changing Sceial Patterns

Changes in the wider communityinevitably affect the Jewish com-munity. Whilst we affirm the con-tinuing vitality of marriage and thefamily as the primary frameworkfor the living and transmission ofJudaism, we also recognise thatthere are growing numbers of peoplewho do not fit into the traditionalpattern -eg. the unmarried, single-parent families, the childless, thedivorced, the widowed, homo-sexuals. Communal institutions,geared to the needs of conventionalfamilies, should be sensitive to theneeds of these other groups,approach them in a non-judgmentalmanner and integrate them into thelife of the community at large.Communal institutions are alsoobliged to make every effort tomeet the needs of disabled peopleand to be sensitive to all manner ofhandicap.

(12) WomenFor many centuries, the role of

the Jewish woman was very largelydefined for her by Jewish men.Whilst recognising that, in manyinstances, Jewish women fared bet-ter, both legally and socially, thannon-Jewish women, neverthelessthey still occupied a less than equalposition in Jewish life. It is nowclear that women must be allowedto define their own role and in-volvement in Jewish life and thecommunity. Progressive Judaism isunequivocally committed to equal-ity of opportunity for women andmen in all aspects of Jewish religious,social and communal leadership andlife, including the rabbinate. An

awareness of past attitudes towomen leads naturally to a need touse inclusive language both inPrayer and in general discourse49.

These changes reflect the consid-erable and ongoing change in socie-ty at large. Much has already beenachieved within the ProgressiveJewish world in a relatively shortspace of time, particularly on aformal level. Not only are suchchanges right and just but the bene-fits to our community as a whole areincalculable. Nevertheless, we rec-ognise that a process Of inner change,of which practice and language areonly external manifestations, is farfrom complete and we are awarethat this issue will hold a significantplace on our agenda for some timeto come.

(13) Relations with O-therSections of the JewishWorld

Jewish life cannot now be encom-passed by any single expression ofJudaism and we regard the otherstreams of organised Jewish lifewith the utmost respect and good-will.

We seek the fullest co-operationwith our fellow Jews and are com-mitted to the search for Jewishunity as distinct from uniformity.Given the particular philosophiesand approaches of Orthodox andnon-Orthodox Judaism, we recog-nise that this may present moredifficulties for Orthodox Judaismthan it does for Progressive Juda-ism. But we believe that for all Jewsof good will, it is readily apparentthat what unites us is far moresignificant than what divides us.

We recognise that differences ofapproach over matters of Jewishstatus have special implicatons ,forthe unity of the Jewish people butbelieve that, here also, with goodwill and moderation on either side,such problems can be resolved. Allparties have, however, to be pre-pared to make sacrifices touchingupon their power and authority inthe interests of th?`egiewish people as

:h¥hvoa,]ejeF::3::sgE#n¥ef:::osg:tns:rites which have been common toall Jews in status matters for cen-turies, so long as this is consonantwith the achievement of `that whichis fair and just to individuals whoseek our assistance.

We recoghise the existence ofmany "secular" Jews, Jews for

whom faith is far from central totheir Jewish identity. We acknow-ledge the reality they represent, thequestions they raise and the valuesthat many espouse and fight for.We commit ourselves to dialogue inthe knowledge that each group hasthe potential to enrich the other anddeepen the Jewish inheritance.

FOOTNOTES

: --__ ----- _-_ -_-_

BTor:*eftz?hrase Comes from Eugene

t£%nEft°j:8nFa&#3r%:3:naz¥de;8,psa¥gf{±:£:3 Genesis Ch.12.

R4abTbieMPchhraa:ieGCo°Es:3nT°m the late5 Menachem Mendel of Kotzk.

M6ar4icnk8°u¥teerq83ng the influence of7 See for example Deuteronomy

Ch .J ' v .J .8 See Forms

London,1977,°p/.]P3r87er9V01.1,RSGB,

9 The reference is to Dow Marmur,

gncz°T"oddd?"Lr:Lvd":'n , Pga5i?n> Longman10 Deuteronomy Ch.6, v.4.11 Echoing Micah Ch.6, v.8.

!y:e,;:ei%aRg;:::ge:1:iilT:i:nl;:#::i,sT:'a13 Deuteronomy Ch.30, v.19.

i:oTi:h#arti:eBLaj:r.Ellen Littmann ,15 The traditional New Year's greetingis l'shanah tovah. aL good yea.I.16 See Albert Friedlander in MANNANo.23,17 This section utilises the mystical ideaOf tzimizum.

;;%trfnst]£:h:y::G£%o:gu:sk£:;8brb#2W:;i:toefx:19 See Arthur A. Cohen, 71fec rreme#-dLcm, Crossroad, New York, 1981,pp.97-8.20 Jeremiah Ch.2, v.13.2£oera%:]u3¥9¥eyt:r,tphpe.53?9`?esrer?,rcaey:;£;:

22 Deuteronomy Ch.33, v.4.23 These last two sentences draw heavi-

byu3Fisah:g72`plafform'whichwasnever24 Rav Kook.

i§:aEs;S;t:ii::i,%hg:;i¢:iita;d:aiii;°§n:a:i!:p;E#d:;

26 Echoing Deuteronomy Ch.6,v.7.

fa7:E:dr:{Eal:£aTc:euFs§i;:h:a:ti:¥imo:at::¥up¥:h:e:n:

a:, P5aobayl°nian Talmud, Tractate Shab29 Leviticus Ch.19:30 K'vod habriot.31 Both as mit2:vah zmd mipnei darcheysfeczJom, for the sake of peace.32 Deuteronomy Ch.20, v.19.33 Echoing the formulation in the fune-ral service.34 Psalm 95, v.7.35 Sifra 112b.36 Echoing Emil Fackenheim.37 The last words of the seder service,

;`hNeeg:s¥eka:o££n:erusalem" , are merely38 Isaiah Ch.42, v.6.39 For instance, in the blessing beforethe reading of the Torczfe.40 Deuteronomy, Ch.29, v.14.41 Fackenheim.42 A nod to the fashionable theologicalphrase `radical amazement'.

€3Eohfivr=\£e&r#dctegfe=3:±=g,Xtt±%snste#,,are Fackenheim.44 Sutzkever in the Pe#gz/I.# Book ofYiddish Verse.45 Refer back to Section 8[2].46 Leviticus Ch.19, v.34.47 So beautifully portrayed in HoseaCh.2, vv.21-22.48 Mara d'atra.49 Reflected, we hope, in this essay!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.It is impossible to narr!e all the people yho

hawe cohtributed to this essay: to thoseunntaned, my deep apologies. However, anumber Of people saw and common_ted .o.pearly drafts: Sdrme simply _ en?pu.raged publi-cation, others offered dctdiled comments.These contributions proved to be Of enormousvalue, though I must stress that re:ponsibilityfor the final text is mine. alo.ne pnd it mast pot'be assrimed that the individuals named below

have assented to any particular paragraph orforrndation. The essay also owes much to asinilar veriture of nearly twenty years agowhich, sadly, never saw the lighi Of dry.

My particular thanks go to R±hhii I)r.Jonathan Magonet, Rabbi Hugo Gryn ¢#dRabbi Colin Himer, wfeo wj.J/ 7.ccogrz.se ffeez.rown drafting.

Mczny /fefl7iks ¢Z§o ro.. Nell Benson, Rev. Dr.John Bowden, Mervyn Emott, Rabbi SimonFranses, Raymond Goldman, Rabbi AndrewGoldstein, Rabbi Henry Goldstein, Dr. WendyGreengross, Jerome Karet, Rabbi StevenKatz, Peter Levy, Rabbi Dow Marmur,Rabbi Dr. Charles Middleburgh, FelixMitchell, Rabbi Jeffrey Newman, JefferyRose, Joyce Rose, Professor Ben Segal,Harold Stern, Ralph Stern, Dot Swarc, RabbiWilly Wolff, Rabbi Alexandra Wright.

Ed.

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AMfHEE°F

ANDDEATH

HOW PRECIOUS IS LIFE?How imperative is the dutyto prolong it? When does it

cease? Why do we need to know?And what guidance can we obtainon such matters from our Jewishtradition? That is the range of ques-tions to be considered. They will bediscussed in reverse order.

Jewish tradition comprises twostlaLnds.. Halachah aLnd Aggadah,which we might translate as law andlore, or legislation and speculation,or practice and theory. The ques-tion "What is life?" is a theoreticaland therefore czggedjc question.The question whether there is anobligation to prolong it in a givensituation is a practical and thereforehalachic one.

As traditionally understood , theHcz/¢cfoczfo derives from God's re-velation of His will, through Moses,to the children of Israel at MountSinai: a revelation which was partlyrecorded in the Written Torczfr,,comprising the 613 commandmentsof the Pentateuch, and partly trams-mitted by word of mouth to becomethe Oral Torafo, which ceased to beoral when it was committed towriting in the Misfo#¢fo (200 C.E.)and, subsequently, the rcz/j77ztd (500C.E.) This two-fold Tor¢fr yielded alegal system, covering every aspectof life, which has been elucidated,elaborated and updated ever sinceby a well-defined process of ques-tion and answer, interpretation andreinterpretation, codification andrecodification, commentary andsuper-commentary, by duly accredi-ted teachers called rabbis. Thisfecz/czcfejc system has a growing edge

16

John D. Raynerwhich tolerates differences of opin-ion, in particular more stringentand more lenient ones. But in allessentials it is settled and its au-thority is total.

In regard to Agged¢fe, the situ-ation is not so clear. There areliteralists who regard every story ofthe Bible and To/77tL4d as historicaland more relaxed interpreters whoallow space for myth, legend andfolklore. It is, at any rate, generallyaccepted that in matters involvingonly theory, not practice, differentopinions may be allowed to standside by side, without need to har-monise them.

Progressive Judaism obviouslytakes the liberal view where Agg¢-daA is concerned and, as regards thefluid periphery of the H¢/¢cfoflfe,feels free to choose from the avail-

11'1

g:#r::tset?o°S:o¥the£:iable range ofseem most apt)ropriate to contem-porary circumstances. But - andthis is where it differs ##dczme#£cz/Jyfrom Orthodox Judaism - even thesolid core of the ZJfl/czcfoflfe is notnecessarily to be accepted in everyinstance from its point of -view.What the writers of the Bible andthe rcz/mz{d have to say is to beconsidered with reverential respect,for they were indeed the transmit-ters and interpreters of a divinerevelation. But they were neverthe-less human and children of theirvarious ages and viJe may not, there-fore, assume that they always "gotit right". Indeed, we think we can

point to quite a number of instancesin which they manifestly "got itwrong". Therefore even fo¢/flcfoz.c

questions settled long ago may bere-opened.

Perhaps I may clinch the point byquoting from the submission I madeon behalf of the Council of Reformand Liberal Rabbis to the WarnockCommittee in 1985. Our approach,I said, differs from that of ourOrthodox colleagues in the follow-in8 ways.

"(1) We try to understand theJewish tradition fe!.sforz.ccz/Jy, as in-teracting with its environment andundergoing change and develop-ment. (2) We seek from it guidancerather than governance and findthat it is often most relevant andhelpful to us, not in its specificlegislative enactments but in themoral principles which . . . moti-vated the legislators. (3) We cannotrule out the possibility that ourancestors may on occasion havebeen misled by their belief , whichwe do not share, in the inerrancy ofScripture and its ancient interpret-ations, or by the norms of theirsocio-cultural milieu, or for want ofhistorical and scientific knowledgewhich has become available to us inmodern times. (4) We are willing toadmit the possibility that with re-gard to some contemporary prob-1ems . . . definitive answers as to theDivine Will - which is always whatconcerns us -must be regarded as,for the time being, unattainable andthat we must therefore be contentwith tentative answers, or even sus-pend judgment altogether, pendingfurther study and thought".

MANNA SPBING 1990

Why do we need to know, or todetermine, when life ceases? Froma traditional point of view, onereason is because as soon as life feosceased certain 773z.Zzvof come intoforce, chief among them the duty ofburial, which should be done with-out delay. That principle was de-rived by a process of generalisationfrom a law in Deuteronomy (21:22f.) which stipulates that the bodyof an executed criminal must not beleft hanging overnight but buried onthe same day. From a Progressivepoint of view, that law has littlerelevance today and, though thereare no doubt good psychologicalreasons for keeping the intervalbetween death and burial, or cre-mation, reasonably short, never-theless these have to be weighedagainst other considerations, forinstance to allow time for an inquestand to notify relatives who mayhave to travel long distances toattend the funeral. Therefore, adelay, even of several days, may inmany cases be quite proper.

Another reason, which is assum-ing ever greater importance, why itis necessary to determine with pre-cision when life has ceased, isbecause only after that moment is itpermissible to remove organs fromthe body for transplant purposes -and even then, of course, onlysubject to the necessary authorisa-tion. Traditional Ho/czchz.sis make afurther stipulation. There must beevidence that the proposed trans-plant will save somebody else's life.That is because, normally, burial isconsidered a positive obligation andpost-mortem surgery a violation ofthe duty to treat the body of thedeceased with respect, whereas pz.k-kzt¢cfe #c/csfe, the saving of life,supersedes these, as indeed practi-cally all other requirements. Thereis also another principle involved,Eyfl feol'chin b'fikkuach nefeshczcfeczr fecz-roy, that when there is achance to save a life we do not go bythe majority (Kcf. 15b), which istaken to mean that certainty is notnecessary, probability is sufficient.But what constitutes a reasonablemeasure of probability is one ofthose "grey areas" in which thereare different opinions. ProgressiveJudaism naturally inclines to themore lenient.

(Further on organ transplants seeJewish Bioethics, ed. Fred F`osnerand J. David Bleich, Hebrew Pub-lishing Company, New York,1979,

MANNA SPRING 1990

chapters 22 and 23; Amerz.co#Reform Responsa, ed. Wa++erJacob, Central Conference ofAmerican Rabbis, New York,1983,and Contemporary American Re-form Rcxpo#scz, by Walter Jacob,CCAR, 1987, both s.v. "SurgicalTransplants").

When, then, doeLs life cease? TheBible doesn't tell us but we canperhaps guess what its legislatorswould have said. They clearly asso-ciated life with breath. When Godcreated man, says the second chap-ter of Genesis, He "breathed intohis nostrils the breath of life; andman became a living soul" (v. 6).Indeed, both of the key words usedin that verse, #'sfe¢mczfe and #c/csfe,have the double meaning of"breath" and "soul". Similarly, the

word rwczcfe has the double meaningof "wind" or "breath" and "spirit".It is used, for instance, in Psalm146, which says about "the son ofman": "When his breath departs,he returns to his dust; on that veryday his thoughts perish" (v. 4).There is also a recurring tendencyto locate life in the blood (Gen. 9:4,Deut. 12:23), from which it mighthave been inferred that when theheart ceases to pump blood into thebody, life ends. The heart is in anycase regarded in the Bible as anorgan of singular importance and,metaphorically at least, as the /ocwsof the chief mental processes suchas thinking and willing - those,rather than feeling, so that "heart"is often best translated as ``mind".

It is, therefore, highly probablethat breathing and/or heartbeatwould in biblical times have beenconsidered the criteria of life andjust that is what we find when theissue becomes a matter of legaldefinition in rabbinic times. Thekey passage occurs in a discussionabout a collapsed building, whichasks: If there are people buriedunder the debris, may one violatethe Sabbath to dig them out? Yes,says the Mj.sfe#czfo (yomcz 8:7), ifthere is reason to think that theymay be still alive. But how do youestablish, asks the Gcmczrcz,whether that is the case? By pullingthe body out far enough to uncoverthe nose, to test whether it is stillbreathing. But some say, adds theGemczrcz, far enough to uncover theheart, to ascertain whether it is stillbeating (85a).

This passage and the medievalcommentaries on it have given rise

to a complicated discussion infecz/¢cfez.c literature as to whetherboffe breathing and heartbeat mustbe tested or whether one suffices,how long one must wait after bothhave ceased before declaring thepatient dead and whether there areexceptional circumstances in which ,though both have ceased, there isstill muscular movement indicatinglife. The argument is ably summa-rised by J. David Bleich, Head ofYeshivah University, New York, inan essay entitled "Establishing theCriteria of Death" (Co#fc7"porczryHalakhic Problems, T€+ZIV, NowYork, 1977, chapter XVI: reprintedin Jewish Bioethics, see Etoove,chapter 17). His conclusions arethat "cessation of respiration consti-tutes the operative definition ofdeath only because lack of res-piration is also indicative of priorcessation of cardiac activity" andthat "death occurs only upon thecessation of both cardiac and res-piratory functions" whereas "theabsence of other vital signs is not,insofar as Halakhah is concerned, a.criterion of death" (pp. 378f.)

But what about "brain death"and irreversible coma, which havebeen proposed in recent times asalternative criteria? Dr. Bleich re-jects both as fecz/czcfez.c&//y unaccept-able. Thus he remarks that a num-ber of instances have been reported"in which patients have made either

partial or complete recoveries des-pite previous electroencephalogramreadings over an extended period oftime which registered no brainactivity" and quotes an impressivearray of sources in support of thatcontention (p. 373). He concludesquite categorically: "Brain deathand irreversible coma are notacceptable definitions of death in-sofar as Halakhah is concerned.The sole criterion of death acceptedby H¢/czkfeczfe is total cessation ofboth cardiac and respiratory activi-ty" (p. 391); and in another essay heurges that any legislation re-definingdeath by neurological criteria wouldneed to include an exemptionclause to allow for conscientiousobjection by Jews (Jcwz.sfeBioethics , p . 312,) .

But Aaron Soloveichik, Head ofthe Brisk Rabbinical College inChicago, is less dogmatic. From aruling by Maimonides (A4isfe#czfeTorah, Hilchot Avelut 4..S) he de-duces the opposite conclusion, notthat respiration may continue after

Continued on next page

17

brain activity has ceased but thatbrain activity may continue afterrespiration has ceased, so that ``theabsence of spontaneous respirationdoes not in itself determine death"(Jewish Bioethics, p. 2;9]). ALnd hp.goes on to make the important, ifobvious, point that death is usuallygrcld#cI/: "Death is a process whichbegins the moment respirationceases" and "ends when all bodilyfunctions emanating from a con-trolling centre end. This means thatwhen a person in whom death isimminent becomes devoid of respir-ation but other bodily functionssuch as the brain are potentiallyoperative, such a person is no longercompletely alive but not dead . . .During this period, a person is in astate of semi-hving". But he goes onto indicate that there is a furtherquestion, whether a person in sucha state is capable of resuscitation; ifyes, "one is prohibited from doinganything which may hasten hisdeath". If not, one may not dese-crate the Sabbath to extricate himfrom the rubble (p. 301).

So much for the fe¢/czcfez.c debate.But from a Progressive point ofview we need to ask ourselveswhether there is any reason tosuppose that the Biblical or thefcz/mz4czjc or the medieval writerswere privy to any information aboutthe process of dying that is unavail-able to us. Surely the rci/erse is thecase, that wc know more - eventhough we do not know everything!And what we know makes it clearthat the ancients were mistaken inrelating the life of the mind or soulto respiration or blood-flow orheartbeat. All our knowledge indi-cates that mental activity is cori.e-lated with brain activity. Therefore,as long as the brain is functioningthere is human life. When the brainhas ceased to function, even if otherbodily processes such as respirationgo on, what continues is not humanbut "vegetable" life.

It is customary to speak of theJewish doctrine of the "sanctity oflife" as attested, for instance, by theGenesis teaching that God "createdman in His own image" (1:27), theDeuteronomy injunction "chooselife" (30:19) and the declaration ofthe Mz.sfe#¢fe that ``he who destroysa single human life is considered byScripture as if he had destroyed awhole world, and he who saves asingle human' life as if he had saveda whole world" (San. 4:5). Some

18

authorities have taken that doctrinevery literally. For instance, RabbiDr. Immanuel Jakobovits, as hethen was, referred in his Jewz'sfoMedical Ethics (B\och, New York,1959, revised 1975, p. 276) to"Judaism's attribution of I.#/!.#i.fe

value to human life", and went onto say: "Infinity being indivisible,any fraction of life, however limitedits expectancy or its health, remainsequally infinite in value", fromwhich a number of extremely rigor-ous consequences follow. But thereis no need to press the sources quiteso far. It is sufficient to take them tomean that human life is c#or777ous/yprecious, without introducing theultimate concept of infinity.

What is chiefly deemed to followfrom the "sanctity" of life is theobligation to prolong it wheneverpossible and by all possible means.But here comes a paradox. Inancient times it was consideredpious to submit oneself entirely toGod as the ordainer of life anddeath and, when ill, to pray to Himfor recovery. It was, therefore, nosimple matter for the rabbis tosanction the practice of medicine.They did so by referring to a versein the book of Exodus (21:19),which in a case of assault makes theassailant responsible for causing thevictim to be healed and concluding:Mi-kan she-nitt'nah r'shut la-rofeJ'rapp'of, "Hence we know that aphysician is permitted to heal"(Ber. 60a). Incidentally, the passa-ge goes on to say.. Barufh _rof.ecfoj##¢m, "Blessed be He who healswithout payment"; but doctors willbe relieved to know that there thereference is to God, not the humanphysician! Today, however, not on-ly is it considered permz.ssz.bJc forhuman physicians to encroach onwhat was once regarded as God'sprerogative but they are expectedto go to extreme lengths to prolonglife beyond the point at which, inthe natural course of events, deathwould have supervened!

Has this voJfe /czce perhaps gonetoo far? Just flow I.777pcrczfz.vc 'is theduty to prolong life? Are thereperhaps even circumstances inwhich there is, on the contrary, anobligation to fermj#¢fe life? I raisethat question only to clear the issueof euthanasia out of the way, partlybecause it is a whole big subject initself and partly because in essence Iaccept the traditional Jewish view -not because it is traditional but

because it seems right to me - thatpositive action with the intention ofhastening death is wrong. (For Prog-ressive Jewish views on euthanasiasee American Reform Responsa,Nos. 78 and 79). In other words, Iendorse, in a good sense, ArthurClough's satirical rhyme, "Thoushalt not kill but needst not strive/officiously to keep alive" (7lfocLczfes£ Dcc¢/ogLtc). The only re-maining question I wish to raise iswhether there are situations inwhich it is right to refrain fromstriving officiously to keep alive.Let me suggest that there are three.

First, where brain death hasalready occurred, so that what re-mains is only the "semi-life" of avegetable and it is certain beyondreasonable doubt that the coma isirreversible. In such a situation, notonly is there no need to prolong lifeby ``heroic" measures, but if thepoint is reached cz/fer such measureshave been initiated, it is then per-missible to discontinue them, atleast with the consent of the next-of-kin. Indeed, it is positively desirable,not only so as to free the expensiveequipment for better purposes, butto spare the family unnecessarysuffering. In this connection let mecommend to you a moving articleby Rabbi Daniel Jeremy Silver ofCleveland, Ohio, included in a littlebook entitled Jewz.sfe Re#ecfi.o#s o#DcczJfe, edited by Jack Riemer(Schocken,1974: paperback,1976).Rabbi Silver recalls his experiencesas a naval chaplain in the Koreanwar and mentions a neurologicalward full of "bodies of young menwhose forebrain had been blownaway". Then he says: "These veget-ables suffered no pain but think ofthe pain that was caused to theirwives, children and parents. Notonly the cruelty of losing a lovedone in war but the cruelty of beingin emotional limbo, having to visit aliving corpse, having one's entirelife stop for a year, a year and ahalf , all because medical sciencehad kept certain organs pulsating"(pp. 117f.)

Secondly, there is the situation ofmultiple claims where a number ofpatients require life-saving and sus-taining procedures but there is in-sufficient equipment for them all.On this subject there is an excellentresponsum by Rabbi Solomon 8.Freehof of Pittsburgh, Pennysyl-vania, entitled "Choosing which pa-tient to sawe" (American Reform

MANNA SPBING 1990

Rapo#Jcz, No. 75). He demon-strates from Jewish sources, first,that "all people are alike in status asto the right to life". Secondly that,when a choice has to be made, itmay not be evaded by inaction, sothat cz// the patients would die whenit would have been possible to saveone or two. And thirdly, that thechoice must be made on purelymedical grounds, that is to say, infavour of the patient who is ingreatest danger or who will benefitmost.

Thirdly, there is the case of theterminally ill patient, who has nochance of recovery, is jn pain, andwishes to be allowed to die. In sucha case it is, of course, permissible toadminister a drug to relieve the paineven though it may slightly hastendeath. For when the two duties ofthe doctor, to prolong life and torelieve pain, conflict, there is noneed to take the view that the firstmust always take precedence. (Onthat subject, see Responsum No. 83in_IContempora_ryArhericanReformRapo#£¢ by Rabbi Walter Jacob).But beyond that, there is no need toresort to "heroic" measures to pro-long the patient's life against his

will. For although Dr. Bleich deniesit (ap. cJ.r., pp. 391 f.), I believe thatthere z.s a right to die with dignity.

In a responsum entitled "Allow-ing a terminal patient to die"(.Apeer_ic?r} .R_ef orrh Responsa, ino.77), Rabbi Freehof refers to thefamous story in the ra/m#d (jref.104a) of how a maidservant inter-rupted the prayers for Rabbi Judahthe Prince who was dying in severepain and so enabled him to diewithout further suffering, whichprovided a basis in Jewish traditionfor the view that in cases of hopeuless suffering the physician is notduty-bound to force the patient tolive a few days or hours longer. Healso quotes the medieval authorityRabbi Nissim Gerondi to the effectthat whereas normally "it is ourduty to pray for a sick person thathe may recover, there comes a timewhen we should pray for God'smercy that he should die". And hequotes a similar view from the Se/erCfeasz.cZz.in, where the author, Judahthe Pious, bases himself on thewords of Ecclesiastes, "To every-thing there is a season and a timefor every purpose under heaven, Efla-ledet v'et -la-mut, aL tin\e t; -b6

born and a time to die" (3:1 f.). Insuch cases, says Rabbi Freehof, todiscontinue treatment is not to has-ten death but to cease to delay it.

Similarly, Rabbi Silver remarks:"We try to push off death as if death

ivere always and ever an enemy . . .We've grown unaccustomed todeath and we tend to think that wemust do anything and everything tokeep death away from those whomwe love. We've forgotten that, formany, death is a friend, a welcomev±siltoI" (Jewish Reflections onDc¢ffe, p. 118).

Perhaps we need to re-learn thatacceptance, to learn again to say,with Job (1:21), 4don4z. #czf¢#v'Adonal lakach, y'hi shem Adonaim't;orczcfr, "The Lord gave, and theLord has taken away; blessed be thename of the Lord"I

Rabbi Jolin D. Rayner, M.A., D.D. (Hon.)

y?: Porn in Berlin iri 1924. In 1989 he I;ec-airePinister Emeritus of the Liberal J6iviihS.ynqgog_ue.,_ London; where he had-b-;;isSTeLn:°rTP:_fi_fiif3r28.years=Pe.is_fo-autir*;fThe Jewish People - Their History and

¥:::$3r,. Tfiis pa^p?r ygs given to tie -i;;;ia_np¥al s~eminar of the Man5r House Meal;ilEthics Society in December 1989.

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"GRANDPA IS NOT JEWISH"Colin Eimer

T

20

HE "QUOTATIONS" GAMEis an easy one to play. Morethan 500 years of rabbinic

discussion in T¢/mztd and A4[.czrczsfewill produce many, often contra-dictory, statements on almost anymatter.

One of the rules of the Gamethen has to be: "How representa-

tive is this or that statement of themain thrust of Jewish teaching onthe subject under discussion?"

Those who disapprove of conver-sion to Judaism fire their big gun:"Rav Hiyya says; `proselytes are as

hard for Israel as a leprous sore"(yevczmof,109b). It is their big gun- but it is also virtually their only

gun. Far more common are state-ments to the effect that "the prose-lyte who comes to Judaism is dearerto God than all the Israelites whostood around Mount Sinai" (j`4z.d-r¢sfe T¢#cfowma, Lech L'cha 6). Thelatter had all the accompanyingaudio-visual signs: lightning, thun-der and so on. But the proselytes

MANNA SPPllNG 1990

come to Judaism as a result of theirown inner processes.

Conversion is a curious business.Paradoxically, it appears to havebeen easier - and more widespread- in the past than today. rcz/mzzdI.cstatements show how welcomingJudaism was to the potential con-vert. You explained to them thedangers and difficulties of beingJewish. If they expressed an aware-ness of that but still wanted tocontinue, you accepted them im-mediately. You taught them aboutthe easy and the difficult mj.£zvofand about rewards and punishment.Men were to be circumcised. Allwere to undergo Jet;j./¢fe, ritual im-mersion, and that was it.

It almost seems as if the fea/czch!.cprocess was to accept the personfirst and do the teaching after - theopposite of the current procedure.Certainly it doesn't seem to be theonerous task that the Orthodoxworld makes of it. We also knowthat people were accepted intoJudaism for all sorts of reasons,many of which would be consideredinvalid today, even in a non-Ortho-dox set-up.

The monotonous regularity withwhich medieval church councils for-bade conversion - some even mak-ing it a capital offence to convertand be converted - indicates that itmust have been a widespreadoccurrence.

People come to conversion for allsorts of reasons and it is easy to bedismissive because the initial mo-tive seems to be the desire for asynagogue marriage. That is some-times the case but increasingly it isafter a civil marriage has alreadytaken place. Jewish parents areoften content that their child hasfound a good person with whom tospend their life. Maybe they wouldhave preferred than to marry a bornJew but, given a horrendous Jewishdivorce rate, parents often look asmuch to inner happiness as they doat outer labels. It is no longer aguarantee - if it ever was - thatmarrying another Jew is a prerequi-site for a good or happy marriage.That might have been true when theJewish-born partner came from areligiously involved background.But where the Jewish partner isJewish virtually in name alone, ini-tial differences of religion maycount for very little. Conversion is,moreover, a process. Very few, atthe end of the process, still see the

MANNA SPBING 1990

desire to convert simply to enable acfrxppofr to take place. In otherwords, the process has been inter-nalised - they have found their owninner reasons for wanting to con-vert. They often feel a certainresentment that they are requiredto show themselves to be "moreroyalist than the king" - having to"prove" their commitment to Juda-

ism more rigorously than would bedemanded of any born Jew. Theyoften feel that the conversion pro-cess has made them more Jewish - interms of learning, life and practice -than their Jewish-born partner.They often feel unsupported bytheir partners. Some report feelingthat it is almost as if the latter aresaying, "I want you to convert butdon't become too Jewish! I don'twant to have to emerge too muchfrom my Jewish religious apathy".

Conversion is a curious businessfor rabbis also. It is one of the fewareas in which we can exercise real,raw, naked power. Because of that,it is often masked under piousstatements about "the weight ofJewish continuity resting on ourshoulders" or "needing to makesure that the person is sincere" andSO On.

In conversation with a member ofmy community, a convert, I wasreminded that conversion does notend with an appearance at the Bcz./DI.n. Ongoing issues connected withthe conversion remain. Some arisethrough daily living -children, forexample, will have a set of non-Jewish grandparents who aren't tobe ignored or cut off. There are alsounresolved issues from the conver-sion, often centred on continuingfeelings of lack of support fromtheir partner and so on.

I approached the Outreach Teamat the Sternberg Centre asking ifthey could provide a counsellor totalk through a number of theseissues. I wrote to all those in mycommunity whom I knew had con-verted, be it recently or long ago,inviting them to participate. Know-ing that Judaism teaches that con-vert shouldn't be reminded of theirconvert status, I was not entirelyhappy about this. But I asked thatthey contact Outreach direct, so Ihad no idea who actually partici-pated. They met half a dozen timesor so and then continued to meet ontheir own, without an outside facili-tator. I asked them if they couldwrite something about that group

and the article below is the result:

"T HERE IS A SAYING INJudaism that one should nev-er point out a convert. This

is very important and its purpose is,one supposes, not to make someonesubject to judgement or feel asecond-class Jew. It is vital that aconvert feels fully integrated andpart of a Jewish community. Butthe experience of conversion andbeing a convert is unique. Thejourney from one religious and cul-tural background into a new religious

pnd cultural community brings withit experiences and problems thatcannot be easily and comfortablyshared with Jew and non-Jew alike.Problems do not always arise duringthe conversion period, but after-wards. One's past, upbringing andfamily roots are left behind butcannot be denied -they are part ofoneself.

It has been very useful and en-couraging to have been part of a six-week facilitated discussion groupwhich gave time to explore some ofthe issues that arise in the dailyfamily situation of converts. Thisgroup developed into a supportgroup which met regularly duringthe following months. Many issueswere raised during the life of bothgroups.

The psychological aspects of con-

yersion were felt to be of greatImportance. Of particular interestwas the relationship between thepast and the present and the explor-ation of our roots from a cultural,religious and family perspective.One area that was highlighted wasthe relationship between the con-vert and their non-Jewish familyand how they all adjust, or not, tothe changes that conversion prolduces.

Discomfort was expressed byseveral members regarding the ini-tial examination of their discussionto become Jewish. We recognisedthat tradition dictates this should bedone in a thorough and testingmanner with an air of discourage-ment but questioned the validity ofdoing this.

We also discussed the importanceof exploring the reactions and feel-ings of the Jewish partner towardsconversion. Some felt their partnershad experienced resentment towardsthe expectation of their involve-

Continued on next page

21

ment in classes and that sometimesthe convert becomes more obser-vant than their partner.

The value of learning and under-standing different religions andtheir theological concepts andideologies as well as Judaism wasdiscussed and felt to be beneficial.We thought it might aid greaterappreciation of Judaism as well asof other religions.

Anti-Semitism was discussed. Asconverts we felt we were not alwaysaware of this and could be guilty ofit ourselves. This can be a painfulunlearning and learning process re-quiring patience and tolerance.Some members of our group hadexperienced being part of a mixedbasic Judaism and conversion class.The issue of being seen as anti-Semitic or insensitive arose forthem in this setting, as they some-times felt that a question promptedby their lack of knowledge orunderstanding could be interpretedas such.

We appreciate the facilities ofconversion classes in many com-munities. Some felt, however, thatwe were put into a teacher/pupilrelationship rather than one which

enabled us to explore Judaism asadults, in an adult way. There wasalso a feeling of pressure that aconvert should be more than "100°/oJewish" which feeds, perhaps, intothe convert's own innate anxietyand desire to be better than thebest.

Many of the family problems thatwere discussed had started with thearrival of children, for this high-lights problems for non-Jewishgrandparents who may feel left out.As the children grow they, too, mayfeel the lack of two sets of Jewishgrandparents. Areas of the con-vert's own past may need to beexplored with their children andthis can also be confusing for thechild.

Mourning the death of a friend orrelative became a focus for muchdiscussion. How can a convert dothis in a Jewish manner for a non-Jewish person? Some members hadhad very positive experiences ofhow this could be achieved in prac-tice and the support given by mem-bers of their community duringtheir grieving. We returned to thissubject several times, indicative ofthe depth of feeling around death

and being a convert.We all valued our involvement in

these groups, which had enabled usto share our thoughts and feelingsin depth for the first time since ourconversion.

It was helpful to exchange andexplore some of the issues, resent-ments and insecurities, fears andfeelings of anger with people in asimilar position. On the other hand,we also shared some of the happyand sometimes humorous momentsthat had been brought about by ourconversion.

Lastly, relating our conversionexperiences to others and sharingthem was a celebration. It was oneof the purposes of this group andthe friendships it created were in-valuable. It made us more con-scious and less self-conscious Jewsand converts.

It was not the finding of solutionsbut the unravelling of feelings witheach other that has been mosthealing ' ' .

Rabbi Colin Eimer wog borJl I.# Lo]tdo# I.7t1945. A graduate of Leo Baeck College, he isMinister of Southgate and District ReformSynagogue and Director of Vocational Stu-dies at Leo Baeck College.

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22

THERE WE WERE, JUSToff the train which hadbrought us - girls from St.

Aloysius School, Haverstock Hill,to Kettering, Northamptonshire. Ingroups of eight or ten, we werebeing led along a street of red brickhouses. Their inhabitants were will-ing to billet us and, each from thevantage point of an excessivelywhite front step, waited to look usover. I recall how a pale woman,our first hostess, stood with foldedarms and decided: "1'11 take thatone, that one, that one and thatone", pointing at four of us. Today asI cringe at this memory, I comparemyself, a schoolgirl being settled insafety, with my contemporarieswho underwent ``selections" else-where and did not live.

Of course, some details mighthave been handled more imagin-atively. But, all in all, I admit withwonderment that my fours years asan evacuee in wartime Ketteringwere so positive. I certainly feltthem to be so at the time.

The day was September lst,1939. The war would break out twodays later. Two weeks earlier I hadreached London from Germanywith my mother to join my recentlyarrived father. We had three-monthsvisitors' visas which my uncle, inGreat Britain since 1933, had man-aged to get for us. My uncle andaunt lived near Haverstock Hill andwhen the L.C.C announced evacua-tion plans, arrangements weremade for me to leave London withthe nearest school, which happenedto be a Roman Catholic one, taughtby nuns. I did not know the school,nor any of the girls and my acquain-tance with English was recent.Tossed into this novel situation, Iwas entrusted to Mia, my age, arefugee from Graz, Austria, whowas to help me with English. Sheexplained to our Kettering hostesson the white step that we wanted tostay together. Later that day, asfour of us unpacked on the onespare bed upstairs, we could hearour hostess and her neighbourslaugh, comparing their evacuees.Because four girls to a bed clearlydid not work out well, one wasbilleted elsewhere the next day.Another, olive-skinned Josephine,attempted to further my English bysinging a jazz number to me overand over, "bapm bapm choo ,...and the little fishes, too, and theyswam and-they swam all over the

MANNA SPBING 1990

Elizabeth Petuchowski

dam". But the owner of that richalto voice got pitifully homesick andreturned to London. Mia and Istayed. School started and my En-glish improved rapidly.

Mia's parents came to visit fromLondon. In a letter, they thankedour hosts and hoped to reciprocatetheir kindness to Mia. But in theirdictionary, they found "take re-venge" for the German revc}rechz.erc#-reciprocate. There ensued quite ato-do, mediated by the billetingofficer, an understanding lady towhom Mia and I explained theniceties involved and that no vio-lence was plotted.

I myself sought out this billetingofficer one day because I did notlike my billet. I still marvel at mychztfzpcfe. I wonder how I managedto convey that, well meaning as ourhosts were, their home life con-trasted painfully with that of myparents. I must have succeeded ingetting my message across because Iwas soon billeted with a family withwhom I would stay until I leftKettering, almost four years later.

My new host was a historyteacher at the Kettering GrammarSchool, a Methodist lay preacher.His much cherished wife, whom he

had married relatively late in life,had died unexpectedly a week aftergiving birth to John, their firstchild. When I moved in as anevacuee, six-week old John waslooked after by a nurse who alsoperformed the most essentialhousehold tasks. Every Sunday, shecycled to Church of England servi-ces on an enormously high bicycle.She pushed it out of a pantry behindthe kitchen where Mr. W. wasgiving his shoes their weekly shine.As soon as she returned fromchurch, he would leave for his, thenotes for his sermon tucked in hisjacket.

Whereas my host and the nurse,independently and tolerantly, gaveexpression to their respective reli-gions, I was on my own until achance encounter, the consequ-ences of which went a long waytowards making me love Ketteringand many people in it.

Mia and I must have been talkingGerman together in the centre ofthe provincial town, because a girlin a school uniform came up to us.Two or three years older than we,she asked us in German if we wereJewish - no-one else was likely tospeak the enemy tongue. She intro-duced herself as Erika, a Jewessfrom Hamburg, and suggested wemeet a Jewish teacher at the schoolwhich she herself was attending,Dame Alice Owen's Girls' Schoolfrom Islington, also evacuated toKettering. Suffice it to say that wemet Carrie Green, Chemistryteacher (cf. "Carrie Green", obitu-ary,,Jewish_Chronicle,Dec.4,1981,p.16) and that Miss Green arrangedfor me to be admitted to this girls'school. Mia, in the meantime, hadjoined her parents in London andwe lost touch. Erika, too, returnedto London during the war. Decadeslater I learned that she was the step-sister of a close friend of ours inGncinnati where we now live. Eri-ka was ignorant of the part she hadplayed in my life.

For Jewish life in Kettering wasto burgeon.

The Jewish pupils at Owen'sGirls' school were in the habit ofmeeting daily for prayers in a class-room, while the Christian pupilsmet for theirs in the Hall. MissGreen led Jewish services with aliturgy of her own devising. Inclu-ded were rubrics like the sfe'77to,selections from the sfemo#e csrc,

Continued on next page

23

but also a medley of her ownfavourite prayers in English, chieflyfrom a Liberal prayerbook. On thedaily readings from the Bible, shebestowed her own impress of sin-cerity. These brief prayer sessions,so unlike anything I had experi-enced in a German Ez.#facc.£sgc77tcz.#-de, became meaningful to me inthat place, under those circum-stances and I felt greatly honouredwhen some time after Miss Greenhad retired, I was asked to "takeprayers". But before she left, MissGreen instituted services on Sab-baths, when the school proper wasclosed. This softspoken, gentle per-son somehow wangled a room, latera small hall, for the purpose. Sheprevailed upon Miss Williams, anon-Jewish teacher of French at theschool, to play the piano to accom-pany the singing. We could use thefine music room in one of Ketter-ing's mansions for choir practice.

Miss Green also put me in touchwith Rabbi Dr. Rudolf Brasch, thenMinister of the North London Prog-ressive Synagogue. He gave religiousinstruction via corresponder)ce toevacuees in places without Jewisheducational facilities. With his gui-dance I read Jewish books. He wasalso willing - and I wonder how hefound the time -to answer any kindand any number of Jewish questionswhich I, and presumably evacueeselsewhere, cared to put to him inconnection with the assigned read-ings and we exchanged letters atleast once a week for several years.In the year 5702, I won first prize, abibliophile volume, in his Corres-pondence School for an essay:"What I would like the Jews to do".

I wonder what I wrote. No doubt Ioffered an enthusiastic solution toJewish problems. Today, I onlyhave the book.

For Jewish communal obser-vance, of course, an evacuee was onher own, but non-Jews helped. OneMiss Ford, a Quaker, sometimesinvited me to tea, sandwiches andcake served from a multi-tieredstand on Sabbath afternoons, tohelp set the day apart. John's nursegot terribly worked up when I setout one Sabbath afternoon to playtennis with a schoolmate in nearbyWicksteed Park.

Passover, of course, was a prob-lem until Jews moved to Ketteringas families. I recall a most enjoy-able Seder and seemingly un-rationed Pcssczcfe meals at the home

24

of Rabbi Lew and his family whosehouse, that week, stood open. Heheld an eight-day Mad Hatter's TeaPa.Tty, strictly kosher l'pessach.John's nurse handed me couponsfrom my ration book to give to theLews but they just pointed to thetable and indicated a chair.

Be it because of the relativesafety of Kettering - it was said tobe the town furthest from the sea inall of England! -be it because someparents could afford a second resi-dence, to be with their evacuatedchildren "for the duration", adultnewcomers to Kettering joined ourSabbath services. Among themwere the parents of Rabbi MichaelLeigh. Their warm hospitalitygreatly enhanced the life of Jewishevacuees in Kettering.

Things went along splendidly un-til - and as a schoolgirl I did notenquire into unknown powers be-hind invisible thrones - Londonecclesiastics considered it appropri-ate to regulate Jewish Kettering.There is no doubt that a Jewishschool was needed. Instead, thevolunteer air got punched out of layJewish Kettering. Miss Williamsceased coming. Still, a mellifluoussoprano from London Universityunstoppably led the voices in Uni-ted Synagogue tunes at services sothat, for a while, mixed singing,kosher or not, continued in whatwas by now a small congregation.But a succession of below-par rabbiswas sent from London headquarters.They were the first representativesof Establishment Anglo-Jewrywhom I encountered.

American-Jewish soldiers, stat-ioned nearby, attended these serviceson occasion. One, whose parentswere from Germany, I agreed tomeet for a walk in the afternoon.We chanced upon one of myteachers and I introduced him toher. The next school day, I wascalled to the Headmistress's officeto give a detailed account of how Ihad met this young man and whathad ti.anspired on our walk.

For a while, the evacuees -Owens' girls and many new arrivals-had a Jewish school on Sundays,taught by the current rabbi. Thestudent body was not homogeneousand would have challenged the in-genuity of even an average rabbi.These classes -or the rabbi? -werevainly assumed to gain from super-vision and, sure enough, one Sun-day a tall Rabbi Swift - I do not

know which one - came to super-vise. Oh, the poor fellow chargedwith teaching! The visitor asked theclass the simplest questions, noanswers were forthcoming. Mostanswers were furnished by me -notby virtue of Kettering, but thanks tomy German-Jewish schooling. Iknew how little I knew, only it wasmore than the others, through nomerit of mine. After the class,Rabbi Swift handed me a rose.Today I wonder: where did he getthat rose from? Did he alwaystravel with a rose at the ready?

I did learn something, however,during those deadly, counter-productive Sunday classes. Staringout of the window of the schoolroom at the adjoining building, Inoticed the artful pattern of itsbricks. I interested myself in head-ers and stretchers and becameaware of the different kinds of wallsI passed daily on my long way toschool.

My mother made an attempt tomove to Kettering. She was livingthe hard life of a domestic servantin London, a fate I wish no-one.Miss Green and several otherteachers, who showed me kindnessunmatched before or since, en-deavoured to find a position for herin Kettering. She came for a whilebut local employers of a cook dif-fered little from those in London.

During my second year in Ket-tering, an Army dispatch rider,undoubtedly on an urgent errand,ran into me with his motorcycle.Teachers and schoolmates tookturns visiting me in a large hospitalward. Upon my discharge, with aheavy cast on one leg, I was tern-porarily billeted on a family inhabit-ing a villa close to school. The hostwas not well, but his mind was ofthe keenest. He daily solved 7lfecDaily Telegraph orossword puz:zle,sharing his triumphs with me andintroducing me to the joys of pun-ning. A daughter of the house was aparachute nurse on active duty, hercomplexion peaches and cream,perfect under a parasol in an Eng-lish meadow. A Salvation Armylady who came to collect insurancemoney from one of the domesticstaff was fascinated by the Jewishevacuee and, in the kitchen, askedme more about Jewish belief in lifeafter death than I could answer. SoI wrote about to Rabbi Brasch. Iwas delighted with and utterly con-vinced by the good sense of his

MANNA SPRING 1990

answers, which included a synopsisof such beliefs over the centuries.Alas, the Salvation Army ladycraved certainty and regretfullyshook her head.

One of the Jewish girls fromOwen's, Renee Goldsmith, helpedme practise walking on the crutcheswhich I needed for a while.Another one, Ena Ruda, suggestedanglicising my appearance: I woremy hair in long plaits, I suppose

they looked very German. Sheoffered to cut them; I agreed andshe did. Rita Samuels, a year or twoahead of me, preceded me in asecond evacuation to Aberystwyth.One section of University College,London was evacuated to this re-sort, snuggled in Cardigan Bay. Istill have the copy of Goethe'sPoc777s, Blackwell edition, which Ibought from her in 1944 for use inthe German Department, with

notes in her neat hand.Before leaving for Aberystwyth

I said goodbye to my first hostsThey had forgiven me long ago.

Elizabeth Petuchowski, B.A. /fJOHSJ Ger-man, University of London, Ph.D., Universityof Cincinnati, has taught German Languageand Literature at the University of Cincinnati,where she now teaches Literature of theHolocaust. Author of two German books onJewish subjects and of essays, she has pub-lished widely on German literature.

WE ARE200 YEARS OLD

ISTART WITH A CONFESSIONwhich it would not have occurredto me to make a year ago. I feel

`OK' about Reform Judaism. It is

my world, my home and, as a thirdgeneration Reform Jew, I grew uptaking it for granted, frequent arti-cles in the Jewish Press notwith-standing, that it is a legitimateexpression of Judaism.

Yet, as I grew religiously andparticularly during my time as a LeoBaeck College student, I began toask questions, at times to feel critical.That, no doubt, is understandable.After many years of acceptingparental values, for example, theyoung person is likely to questionmany things previously taken forgranted, so similar questions mustbe asked about one's religioushome. In particular, I felt anguish-ed about inconsistencies - the lackof logic. Why is a particular tradi-tion retained or re-introduced, whyis another left out? I was furtherconfused as I began to contrast theliturgy of the Progressive Move-ments with that of the traditionalSz.dd#r. It was clear why certainpz.y#fz.in were omitted, as well asreferences to sacrifices and the re-building of the Temple. Yet otheromissions seemed to reflect incon-sistencies, lack of a thought-outtheology. As I researched for mydissertation on Rosh Chodesh, oneof my repeated frustrations was thatthere was no mention of it being leftout. It was too unimportant evenfor that to be stated.

Yet, just as the young person ishopefully able to accept the family,inconsistencies and parental failings

MANNA SPPING 1990

by Amanda Golby

Response to Modernity - A Historyof The Reform Movement in

Jwdczz.sin -Michael A. Meyer,Oxford University Press, New York

and Oxford 1988, pp494, £32

included, so too do I know that theworld of Progressive Judaism is myhome, my only religious home. It iswhere I feel comfortable, where,most of the time, I am able toreconcile heart and head, where Ifind my teachers and role-models.And although I acknowledge itsshort-comings, it is a world of whichI genuinely feel privileged to bepart and within which I want mycontinuing religious journey to takeplace.

Yet my sense of Reform being, atthe very least, `OK', may well havecome from the fact that I grew up inLondon. Within a small geographi-cal area, there were several Reformand Liberal synagogues, each ableto develop its own character. Illu-sion or reality, I do not know, but itfelt right.

Why then did I being with aconfession? Because my perspec-tive has been changed after a yearof serving as rabbi in a Reformsynagogue in a small, provincialtown where, for too many, Reformvery definitely is `not OK'. Thereare at least two reasons for thisdivision. One is the fact that, likeall provincial Progressive syna-gogues, we have a disproportionate

number of members who have beenconverted to Judaism under ourauspices and they are sadly notacceptable to the Orthodox com-munity. We must all agonise overthat. However, there is also a greatdeal of ignorance, regrettablyamong our own members as well, asto what Reform Judaism stands for.

It was against this backgroundthat I was eager to read this scholar-ly new work by Michael A. Meyer,Professor of Jewish History at Heb-rew Union College-Jewish Instituteof Religion in Cincinnati. This, Ihoped, would give me some of theanswers, fill in the pieces to give alogical whole. It did not because, Iregret, it cannot be done. But man-aging to combine great scholarlyknowledge with a very readablestyle, it did help to fill out mybackground and perhaps helpedme to understand why we mustcontinue to live with our inconsis-tencies.

Meyer starts with Moses Men-delssohn, who, he says was `the firstJew to participate prominently inmodern European culture, was areformer of Jewish life but - withslight exception -not a reformer ofJudaism'. He goes on to examine,using detailed contemporarysources, the entire development ofthe Reform Movement in Europe,in America, in India and Israel,over the last almost 200 years.

With particular training I thoughtI had a reasonably good knowledgeof this subject. Reading Meyercaused many separate pieces ofinformation to come together and I

Continued on next page

25

also enjoyed the biographical infor-mation about many of the influen-tial leaders of Reform who hadpreviously been only naines. Withregard to educational materials, Ihad often encountered the nameGamoran: now I understood justhow pioneering Emanuel Gamoranhad been as he developed teachingmaterials for the Union of Ameri-can Hebrew Congregations. Ilearned, regrettably, about perso-nality and power struggles amongthe leaders and the local and natio-nal factors which influenced thedevelopment of Reform in eachcountry.

Readers may be disappointedthat the amount of coverage of theProgressive Movement in Britain isrelatively small. While we inevit-ably see ourselves as being centre-stage, we really are only a smallpart. Yet, it did rather hurt to seethe Leo Baeck College dismissed ineight lines and since most of thebook is written, as befits a history,in the past tense, I did wonder whatimpression the American readerwould get of the College. `LeoBaeck College did succeed over thelong run. Despite severe economicdifficulties it became both a growingrabbinical seminary and a spiritualcenter for European ProgressiveJudaism. Its students participatedregularly in dialogues with Christ-ians and Muslims; their teachers -though mostly part-time - includedoutstanding scholars representing awide range of theological opinion.By the eighties, the College's ordi-nees, both men and women, wereserving most of the Progressive con-gregations in Europe'. (page 348).Reading of the variety under theumbrella of Reform Judaism, one isreminded how sad it is there are twoProgressive Movements in thiscountry, particularly when remindedof the historical circumstanceswhich originally brought this about.

I feel particularly grateful toMeyer for discussing, in variousplaces, the way in which Judaismand, where appropriate, ReformJudaism, developed in differentcountries in relation to religion inthat country as a whole. `Reform'sfailure to gain greater influence inBritain requires explanation. Oneapparent reason was that, as inFrance and to some extent in Ger-many, the synagogues which calledthemselves Orthodox in Englandsoon met the Reform challenge by

26

adopting much of its program. ..`Increasingly, Orthodoxy could

believably claim to be the Jewishcounterpart of the Church of Eng-land, with its chief rabbi the roughequivalent of the Archbishop ofCanterbury, its values in completeharmony with the religious mi./I.cw.The British, too, venerated tradi-tion and constituted authority; theytoo had little love for revolutionarychange. Englishmen regarded theBook of Common Prayer as sacro-sanct, to be transmitted through thegenerations... Alterations in litur-gy, English Christians believedtogether with Orthodox Jews, couldonly take place with permission ofthe highest ecclesiastical authority.The Jewish Reformers, by contrast,could be condemned as usurpers ofsuch authority: they were `not qual-ified to innovate' , wrote a would-beconciliator. Worse, they were `sec-retarians' or `schismatics', termswhose negative connotations in En-gland the Orthodox were easily ableto exploit. Unlike the United States,nineteenth-century England did notregard itself as religiously pluralis-tic...,(p.178).

I have gained a great deal fromthis book, and feel sure that I shallcontinue to do so. Yet I am awarethat no matter how enthusiasticallyI write, how much I stress its value,most individuals are unlikely toinvest £32. I can only hope that, atthe very least, all our synagogues,all our institutions, will purchasecopies and organise study groups topublicise its contents. I know of onesynagogue where this has beendone, not yet my own!

Did I get the answers for which Ihoped? I regret not, I am not surethat they exist. But I take comfortfrom Meyer's conclusion: (page386). `What binds today's ReformJews to the founders and to oneanother is neither a common theo-logy nor a wholly common regimenof religious life. Some Reform Jewsare selectively moving towards moretraditional concepts and practices,others are on a personal odysseyaway from them. Yet others remainindifferent. Some retain an over-riding commitment to universalism,others enthusiastically endorse thenew particularism. There is less asense of moving along together thana shared feeiili.g of tension thatcannot be fully resolved, even as thecontradictory forces and divisiveissues which produce it themselves

remain beyond final resolution.`. . . The German Reformers spoke

repeatedly of integrating two ele-me;IT+s.. Lehre und Leben, theteaching (ro7.¢fe) and the life led inthe modern world. Individual refor-mers and Reform communitieshave differed and continue to differon the relative weight to beassigned each of these elements...Yet the re-establishment of thescale's fulcrum in every generation,in every individual religious consci-ence and in the collective life, hasbeen an enduring characteristic ofReform. Perhaps it is the ongoingand common task of creating everanew that shifting and delicate bal-ance between Tor¢fo and modernity- and of relating the two to eachother - that in the broadest sensebest defines the Reform Move-ment'|

Rabbi Amanda Golby s'fwdjcd /aw ¢„d /!.b-rarianship before entering the Leo BaeckCollege. She has been Rabbi of the SouthportNew Synagogue since the summer of 1988.

Sins of OmissionWe regret to have to say that

gremlins got into the productionof Mcz##¢ 26 and three omissionsresulted.

We omitted to acknowledgethat Jakob J. Petuchowski'sModern Trends i,n Judaism F[Istappeared in the West Germanjournal, U#cz Scz#cf¢. We aregrateful to the Editor for permit-ting us to translate and publishthis essay.

In Caesar Aronsfeld's articleKeep Oztf, on page 10, middlecolumn, a short section was omit-ted. The text should have read:"They were unable to name anyof the `many prominent Jews'who allegedly supported themand so was the British non-philosemite, Earlwho had been told,again' by `certainJews in this country'us from the extremistgentile friends of the

Winterton,`again and

prominent: "PreserveJewish andrefugees'.

In the middle column, page 11a key line from Katy Gething's ACoJ?vc7~j's Ta/c was omitted. Thetext should have read: "Butwhen I hit my lowest point,emotionally and spiritually, inJuly of this year, I felt I could notair my feelings. . ."

We apologise to authors andreaders for our sins of omission.

MANNA SPBING 1990

Jewish Law from Jesus TO TheMishnahE P Sanders

jp:*:sshsL°ari::xdoeLS,::nngt'tnh::*ocri:I::go:,:rgeas,Ud:gp°uS;::Eseatwb:eu;thePeter and Paul, Jesus and the Pharisees, as well as the thinking whichshaped the Mishnah.

£35.00 ccJsed£] 7.50 paper

TorahThroughTheAgesAshorthistoryofJudaismJacob NeusnerTraces the history of Torah and its relation to Jewish identity from oralbeginningstotheMishnah,MidrashandtheTalmud,givinganoverview of Judaism in its own terms.

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ll#4o€J''Williilm Wolll`

IWAS DOZING FITFULLYthrough the night, when thespecial cadences of Chief Rabbi

Lord Jakobovits came wafting overthe BBC World Service.

I was in Germany and they shookme wide awake, as they always do.

Firmly the Chief Rabbi was de-manding a Jewish presence at theplanned six-power talks on Germanunity. Behind that lay the fear thata united Germany would take theroad back to Auschwitz.

It was the latest attempt by LordJakobovits to influence the presentgallop of events in Central Europe.And it was as ill-judged as it provedineffective.

For one thing, his demand was indirect contradiction to the stancetaken only days before in Bonn byMoshe Arens, the Israel ForeignMinister. He expressed his full con-fidence in the German ability tohandle their unity without harm toJewish and Israeli interests.

Then there is the inescapable factthat to intervene effectively on thator any other national or internatio-nal issues does require a "feel" forthe situation on the spot.

And that can be obtained only byfirst-hand contact with events andthose who shape them.

Lord Jakobovits has not set footon German soil since he left as arefugee more than half a centuryago. When a group of Germanbishops invited him to addressthem, they finally crossed the bor-der into Holland where the Chiefwas waiting to meet them.

Of course, I totally respect hisreasons for boycotting present-dayGemany. But his self-denial doesdeprive him of the ability to pro-nounce with any credibility on theGermany of today.

In epoch-making events, as infootball, when you stand on thesidelines you cannot affect thegame. All you can do is boo orcheer.

Is either a dignified activity for aleader in Anglo-Jewry?

THE FEAR THAT A UNITEDGermany will go back to Naz-ism, however restyled, is, I

know, widespread in the Jewishcommunity.

That fear is also groundless. Afirst-hand contact with Germansand the history they are now mak-ing will soon convince the doubters.

Yes, Germany by the end of thiscentury will be the dominant poweragain in Central Europe. But notyet.

For the next five or more years,German energies will be totallyconsumed by rebuilding the econo-mic ruin left behind in their easternprovinces by communism.

By the time a united Germanyemerges from that process, theefforts now being made by theKremlin, the White House, theElysee and even in Downing Streetto create a new balance in Europewill have born fruit.

Mor.e important, the vast majori-ty of Germans and certainly thosewho form opinions and mouldevents remain deeply revolted bywhat a section of their people per-petrated in the first part of thiscentury.

And they remain unshakeablyresolved that it shall never happenagain.

Even though the nationalists -the latest cover word for anti-Semites - earn many headlines inthe rest of the Jewish Press, theirinfluence is in inverse proportion totheir publicity.

And we must take care that wedo not allow their waxped vision tomar our judgement.

Finally, we ought to be clear - assome of the "nationalists" are not -that there is no more Jewish prob-lem in central Europe, becausethere are practically no more Jews.

In Eastern Germany there arepossibly four or five hundred. InPoland there are somewhere be-tween five and ten thousand. InAustria some 12,000 and in West-ern Germany 30,000.

At its most basic, for a nationpassionate in the pursuit of prosper-ity, those numbers do not warrantthe effort and attention.

•JIfL

T:asgn?iTgT:a!y:;::t:sEoe:gN::fthe Sternberg Centre works I

admire most profoundly.I wonder whether a slight switch

of language could not render thatwork even more productive.

Our main concern surely is thepreservation of Jewish identity.And that always faces more obsta-cles when one lives with someone ofanother background.

Would it not be more in line withour objectives if we dropped theemotional language of "opposition"to inter-marriage and put in itsplace the practical language of con-sequences?

In addition to all the other adjust-ments necessary in a relationship,where one partner is Jewish and theother is not, the Jewish partnershave to fight for their identity.

Would it not be possible in dis-cussing these unions, to confineourselves to stressing that identityproblem?

In common with most of Anglo-Jewry, we no longer give practicaleffect to expressions of opposition.And they ceased to act as a deter-rent long ago.

If we dropped them, we mightgarner even more success in thesupport and rescue work which isnow one of the community'sgreatest needs.

*T IIE GREAT POSSIBILITY

for strong and effective lead-ership that is built into the

Chief Rabbinate knows almost nolimit. The post is one of the fewwhose exalted label and aura can,with will and skill, be turned intoreality.

That is why the moment when anextremely able and energetic man isappointed, is not one for ventingdoubt and reservation.

Now is the time to wish RabbiDr. Jonathan Sacks every successand fulfilment in the post.

And I do so with all my heart.

Rabbi William Wolff is m!.rzisfcr o/ IVct4;casf/cReform Synagogue. He was fornrerly one ofRabbi Hugo Gryn's assistants at the WestLondon Synagogue and was a Fleet Streetjournalist before he trained as a rabbi.

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Thursday 5th July 1990 -8.00pmTHE SYNAGOGUE AND TEMPLE IN LATE ANTIQUITY

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