Hallerstein, the Chinese Astronomer from Europe

1

Hallerstein, the Chinese Astronomer from Europe

ABSTRACT

We described the life and work of the most important Carniolan astronomer Avguštin Hallerstein.

We estimated the scientific training he accomplished in his native Carniola. He left Carniola in

his mid thirties, but continued to send letters back home until he died. But he had to share the

unfortunately destiny of the great men from the small nations, and that unhappy legacy forced

him to wait so long for his biographer.

KEY WORDS: Hallerstein, Jesuits, Carniola, China, Astronomy, Electrostatics, Aurora Borealis, Vacuum.

INTRODUCTION

The famous astronomer Hallerstein was born three centuries ago. It is more than a great

opportunity for the study of his life and work.

The Jesuit studies are already for a long time in the focus of modern history of science. Some

scholars focused their research on Jesuits schools outside the major centers. The intercultural

relations between Europe and China bring some special flavor to that research. Hallerstein

represents all that. But he was born at the area of today’s small Slovene nation with limited

resources and extremely complicated multinational heritage. Therefore he had to wait a long time

for his biographer, if I deserve that title.

I was fascinated with Jesuit success in teaching and especially scientific research very early

during my studies. I realized that Hallerstein and his fellow Carniolian Jesuits did the scientific

work which far surpassed publications of their predecessors and maybe even their later successor

from Carniolia. I always wondered why.

When the Jesuits of Ljubljana invited me to study the scientific work of their ancestors from the

Old Society I saw their offer as a great opportunity to clear the mystery. Hundreds of publications

already grew up from the collaboration between me as a historian and a physicist, and

Ljubljanian Jesuits as the people interested in their own history. This book is probably the best

we can offer. I know I never really understood the Jesuits’ way of life, but I imagine I know

something about their science.

2

I started my research on Hallerstein with a generous support of the Andrew W. Mellon

Fellowship at the History of Science Department of the University of Oklahoma. The friendly

atmosphere at the Department helped a lot to develop my ideas. The extraordinary rich

collections of the Bizzell Library made the fundament for my studies. I was born in America and

working there had always been my great pleasure. The help of Dr. Kerry Magruder, Dr. Peter

Barker, Dr. Steven Livesey, Dr. Marilyn Oglivie, Dr. Stephen Weldon, and many others simply

cannot be overestimated.

My Hallerstein studies were finished at the Institute of Mathematics, physics, and mechanics of

Ljubljana, the town of Hallerstein’s birth. I grew up in Ljubljana and my ancestors were all from

nearby regions. That fact probably enabled me to understand better the circumstances of

Hallerstein’s early life. Useful Ljubljanian talks with Dr. Tomaž Pisanski, Dr. Rudi Podgornik,

Dr. Peter Panjan, Dr. Milan Hladnik, Dr. Peter Legiša, Dr. Marko Razpet, Dr. Janez Šumrada, Dr.

Lojze Kovačič, S.J., Jani Osojnik, and Marijan Prosen were of great help.

Finally, I appreciate the help of my editors. Tanja Rejc of the Tehniška Založba in Ljubljana

provided the Slovenian edition of Hallerstein book in 2003. I also wish to express my thanks to

the F. Verbiest Institute K.U. Leuven, especially Sara Lievens, Dr. Noel Golvers, and Jean

MacDonald.

The hard work is certainly just one of the aspects that make a good book. For all other in my life

I’m indebted to my wife Nevenka and my daughter Urška. They brought the neccessary peace to

my scholar life, each of them on her own way. Nevenka with excelent apple-pies, which are my

favorite, and Urška with her excelent studies that will make her a great scholar one day.

Two centuries and a half after before me Hallerstein was raised in the southern part of the Holy

Roman Empire called Carniola, the central part of today’s Slovenia. He grew up in Habsburg

monarchy, the powerful middle European state which included even today Belgium. He was a

member of privileged nobility. All that, combined with a good Jesuit education, made him the

citizen of world able to transfer the best European mathematical sciences to China. And vice

versa: the most important European scientific media of his time published his Chinese

measurements. He was among the best and certainly the last of his kind, because soon after his

death the mission of the old Jesuit Society at Beijing came to the abrupt end.

Without Hallerstein as the latest great astronomer of the Old Jesuit Society at Beijing the story

about Jesuit success in China could not be compete. How did that extraordinary man come to be?

What could we learn from his example?

FAMILY

3

Avguštin Hallerstein1 was son of Janez Ferdinand baron Hallerstein (* 1669; † 1736), the owner

of Planina near Rakek (Alben),2 the governor of the Carniolian state, and a member of Saint

Dizma brotherhood in Ljubljana. Hallersteins descended from Frank origin. Ravbar's castle

(Hoffmannsburg, Upper castle) in Mengeš with the land rights was the heritage of Avguštin's

grandmother Marija Rozalia von Hohenwart. One of Hallerstein’s relatives was an educated poet

Jurij Žiga baron Hallerstein (* 1612 Kras na Notranjskem; † 1686) from Carniola, who became

assessor of Carinthian Land Estates and married the Countess Paradeiser. He published his poems

and funny epigrams in 1680 and 1681, Epigrams under the supervision of the Land Estates of

Carinthia (1680), similar work for Land Estates of Carniola (1682), and anonymous marriage

song for his friend.3 In 1702, Janez Ferdinand Hallerstein married and inherited the castle of his

old father Ferdinand.4 His relative was Doroteja Haller von Hallerstein, a sister of komtur Janez

Jakob Hallerstein, a friend of Jurij Žiga count Gallenberg. Doroteja’s first husband was the

Commander in Chief of Military Krajina Rudolf Count Paradeiser († 1647) and they had sons

Janez Ernest and Jurij Žiga. Her second husband was the General Vuk Krsto Frankopan, who had

from his previous marriage with Marija Doroteja Paradaiser a son Franjo Krsto Frankopan (†

1670), who studied in Rome in 1657, became poet and leader of Zrinski-Frankopan insurrection.5

Avguštin's mother was baroness Erberg6 from the Gottschee region, who moved to the manor of

Dol. On September 19, 1688, her father Janez Danijel7 bought Dol. Janez Danijel and his later

brother-in-law J. F. Hallerstein were members of Saint Dizma brotherhood and friends before the

marriage of their children. Their castles in Dol and Mengeš were just over 10 km from each

other. In 1693, Erberg became a member of the Operosorum Academy in Ljubljana with an

academic name "Fidius", connected with Jupiter as the god of fidelity. On June 16, 1714 two

years before he died, he received the title of baron together with his brother Janez Adam Erberg.8

J. D. Erberg and Suzana Margareta Dinzl von Angerburg (1661--1699) had many children, the

uncles and aunts of Avguštin Hallerstein.9 When his wife died after the birth of Janez Benjamin,

1 Ferdinand Avguštin Haller von Hallerstein (Allerstein, Lieou Song Ling K`iao Hien (Šmitek, 1995; Pfister, 1934,

2: 753; Dehergne, 1973, 122) Liu Sung-Ling (Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 454), * August 27, 1703 Ljubljana (Šmitek,

1995, Škrlep, 1996); August 18, 1703 (Sommervogel, 4: 49; Bautz, 1990, 2: 494); August 2, 1703 (Pfister, 1934,

753)); SJ October 27, 1721 Vienna st. Ann; † October 29, 1774 Beijing).

1715--1721 Ljubljana, gymnasium, studied philosophy (Stoeger, 1855, 119; SBL, 1925—1932, 1: 290; Bautz, 1990,

2: 494--495) – 1722--1723 Ljubljana (Lukács, 1987, 1: 501) or Klagenfurt (Kovačič, 2002, 115), novice – 1724

Leoben, revised humanities – 1725 Klagenfurt, lectured grammar – 1726--1727 Vienna, lectured grammar, revised

mathematics – 1728 Ljubljana, lectured rhetoric, lead congregations – 1729--1730 Graz, studied theology –

Judenburg, spiritual year -- 1731--1735 Timisoara, lead congregations (Stoeger, 1855, 120; Bautz, 1990, 2: 494--

495) – September 1735—August 28, 1739 voyage Trieste-Canton with the prolonged stop in Lisbon, where he

studied astronomy – August 28, 1739--1774 Beijing (Sommervogel, 4: 49; Wurzbach, 7: 244; Kovačič, 2002, 115). 2 AS, Stan. I, box 312, fasc. 209, 1009.

3 Vidmar, 2009, 116, 155, 381.

4 SBL, 1925--1932, 1: 331; Smole, 1982, 617. Ferdinand Ignac baron Hallerstein († April 26, 1711 Mengeš (Schiviz,

1905, 417)). 5 Žvanut, 2009, 77.

6 Marija Suzana Elizabeta Erberg (* 1681 Ljubljana; † February 1, 1725 Mengeš (Schiviz, 1905, 417)).

7 Janez Danijel baron Erberg (* December 14, 1647 Kočevje; † March 5, 1716 Dol or Ljubljana).

8 Janez Adam baron Erberg (* about 1668 Kočevje; † March 3, 1723 Dol). According to Umek (1991, 13) he died in

1721 in Ljubljana. 9 Adam Danijel (* 1678; † 1679), Franc Mihael (* September 27, 1679 Ljubljana; † 1760 Ljubljana), Jožef Rihard (*

1685 Ljubljana; † 1706 Bologna), nun of the order of St. Clare Ana Margareta (* 1686 Ljubljana); Ignac Anton (*

1688 Ljubljana), Janez Lenart (* 1689 Ljubljana), Marija Cecilija (* 1690 Ljubljana), Janez Ernest (* 1692

4

J. D. Erberg married Rasp's widow Marija Ana Apfaltrer because his little children needed the

care of a step mother. The second marriage remained childless.

On June 23, 1709, Janez Ernest Erberg defended the optics theses to finish his philosophical

studies in Ljubljana in the class of professor of mathematics Thullner. The telescope was

discussed in the booklet that J. E. Erberg and his classmate published for their public

examination. That booklet and the public orations certainly influenced Erberg’s young nephew

Avguštin who celebrated his 6th

birthday just two months later. J. E. Erberg later made his Ph.D.

in theology and became the canon in Ljubljana; but he eventually died just as Avguštin was

beginning to study of philosophy.

In 1726, Janez Benjamin inherited the manor of Dol. He was the youngest son of J. D. Erberg.

Because of the inheritance he left the Society of Jesus after being a member between 1716 and

1726. In 1716, soon after his father's death Janez Benjamin published the booklet about

astronomy at the end of his studies of physics in the class of professor Stainer.10

At that time

Avguštin still studied the lower classes of the Jesuit studies. Avguštin liked his cousin public

oration about astronomy and grew interested in the field. During the examination, Janez

Benjamin discussed the scientific questions with the baron Maksimilian Anton Taufferer (†

1758), the expert in physics and mathematics. Professor Stainer led the debate. Already in 1709,

M. A. Taufferer was the owner of the manor Novi grad in Peščenik. His ex libris was put in

books that were later given to the library of the Lyceum in Ljubljana.11

He a the member of the

brotherhood of Saint Dizma, the same as the father of Avguštin Hallerstein and the father of

Janez Benjamin Erberg. Later in 1759, M. A. Taufferer's son Inocenc12

eventually became

professor of physics in Ljubljana.

Avguštin Hallerstein was the second of many children in his family.13

His mother felt some

troubles before his birth, so he was the only one born in Ljubljana, but most of his brothers and

Ljubljana, † 1717 Ljubljana), Inocenc Volbenk Anton Franc Erberg (* October 7, 1694 Dol; SJ 1715; † 1763

reduction of St. Ann between the rivers Paraná and Uruguay (Lukács, Catalogus generalis I, 1987, str.295)), Franc

Ksaver Anton Erberg (* October 21, 1695 Dol near Ljubljana; SJ October 27, 1712; † October 3, 1746 Ljubljana),

Marija Jožefa, married von Rasp (* 1697 Ljubljana; † 1765 Ljubljana) and Janez Benjamin (* 1699 Ljubljana; †

November 22, 1759 Dol (Umek, 1991, 82)). 10

Sebastijan Stainer (* July 2, 1679 Wels; † June 12, 1748 Graz). 11

Pivec-Stele, 1969, 112. 12

Inocenc Taufferer (* January 19, 1722 Turn near Višnja gora; SJ October 28, 1738 Vienna; † January 14, 1794

Ljubljana). 13

Franc Adam (* 1702; † 1763 or 1764), Avguštin, Marija Ana Elizabeta (* October 5, 1704; † 1782), Janez

Vajkard, Eleonora Magdalena, Johann Andreas Ignaz († 1739, lord of the manor), Cistercian monk in Stična Father

Abundius (* 13. 4. 1719 Mengeš; OCist 2. 6. 1736; † 20. 8. 1768), Frančiška, nun of the order of St. Clare in Mekinj,

Cistercian priest in Kostanjevica Abbot Aleksander († 1804 Ljubljana), Marija Konstanca Beatrix (* 1712), Marija

Katarina (*1713; † 1783 Michelstetten), Marija Helena Monika (* 1715), Marija Jožefa Genovefa (* 1718), Karel

Jožef Julij (* 1719), Lovrenc Sigmund Ksaver (* 1720), Marija Kristina Cecilija, married baroness Mordax (* 1721;

† 1795), Marija Suzana (* 1725) (Dežman, 1881, 3; Šmitek, 1995, 93). Germanik v Rimu 1552-1780, Jožef II. ga

preseli Pavio, leta 1818 znova v Rimu. Kardinal Andreas Steinhuber o zgodovini Germanika in Hungarika leta 1895

in 1896 ter o pismih s. Ignacija Loyolskega ljubljanskemu škofu Textorju (Benkovič, 1898, 61). 48 gojencev iz

ljubljanske škofije do leta 1780, skupno 68 če prištejemo še oglejske dežele (Benkovič, 1898, 62). Pavel Skalić iz

Like, leta 1553 zagovarjal teze v Bologni tudi o fiziki, nato na Dunaju cesarjev dvorni kaplan, leta 1556 na Dunaju

objavi knjigo Occulta Occultorum Occulta (Benkovič, 1898, 63). S. Ignacij je spooznal nadarjenost Janeza Kobencla

(Benkovič, 1898, 65). Na Germaniku Frančišek baron Apfaltern (* 1681; † 1686) in Hans Herward grof Auersperg

5

sisters were born in their family castle of Mengeš. On August 28, 1703, Avguštin was baptized in

Ljubljana. His godparents were his grandfather, baron Ferdinand Ignac Hallerstein14

and Suzana

Elizabeta Ottin von Rotenbüchel, the widow of Adam Dinzl von Angerburg, and Avguštin’s

great-grandmother.15

Suzana from the castle Turn under Novi grad was too old to attend the

ceremony, so Avguštin’s uncle baron Janez Jožef Hallerstein16

substituted for her. On October 5,

1704, Avguštin’s sister Marija Ana was baptized as Marina Elizabeta at the parish of Saint

Michael in Mengeš. Her bon-parents were her grandfather Janez Danijel Erberg, and his second

wife, the step mother of Marina Elizabet’s mother Marija Ana.17

(PICTURE 1: The relatives of Avguštin Hallerstein on his mother Marija Suzana Elizabeta

Erberg’s side)

Avguštin’s mother died a few months after her daughter was born. Avguštin’s older brother

Franc Adam inherited Ravbar’s castle, but the debts forced his widow to sell the property in

1764. She was born baroness Schweiger von Lerchenfeld. After the year 1745, the Hallersteins

owned the manor Raka (Arch) in the Lower Carniola. On February 24, 1784, Avguštin’s nephew

Franc Karel baron Hallerstein (1758--1820) inherited the property after the death of his brother

Ferdinand (1762--1784), and the contracts with his sisters Marija Antonija, Luiza, and Jožefa.18

On January 10, 1706, Avguštin's younger brother Vajkard19

was baptized in Mengeš. His bon-

parents were the archdeacon Johan Andreas Flachenfeldt and baroness Kristina Moscon. Until

1758, Baron Lovrenc Flachenfeld owned the manor Slap by Vipava. Marija Kristina was the

widow of Franc Erazem Moscon and was the owner of the manor Jablje (Habbach) near

Mokronog in Lower Carniola until 1724.20

Vajkard entered the Jesuit order in Ljubljana. At that

time, the Jesuits were allowed to enter their order in their native colleges to save some expenses.

In 1719, he finished his first high school classes in Ljubljana as the best in his class in Latin

language.21

After he finished his upper studies of philosophy he became the novice in Ljubljana

between 1724 and 1725, two years after Avguštin.22

Two years after his brother in 1728, he

(* 1641 ????) se vpiše leta 1658, a odide leta 1662 ko ga oče (stric??) deželni glavar vzame ven iz šole; ob odhodu si

je pretepu dal zlomiti nogo (Benkovič, 1898, 67). 23 kranjskih bogoslovce na Germaniku med letoma 1700-1780,

med njimi nekdanji jezuitski gojenec Anton Gothard baron Erberg študiral 1717-1717, pozneje 1741-1755

novomeški prošt. Nato na Germaniku njegov nečak Ferdinand Benedikt Baron Erberg med letoma 1741-1744

(Benkovič, 1898, 69). Cerkenopravne teze cum laude je zagovarjal Ferdinand Gottfried baron Apfalterer, gojenec

Germanika med letoma 1745-1749 (Benkovič, 1898, 70), tam je bil tudi Jožef Baron Apfaltrer z Grmač med letoma

1726-1730, za njim Ernest baron Apfaltret med letoma 1760-1766 (Benkovič, 1898, 71). Stična je na Germanik

poslala Marijana barona Raspa med letoma 1736-1742, Frančiška Ksaverija barona Tauffererja med letoma 1752-

1756 in Wolfganga grofa Lichtenberga med letoma 1765-1768, zlasti zadnja da so zelo halili. kostanjeviški

cistercijani pa so na Germanik poslali le Aleksandra barona Hallerja pl.Hallersteina († 1804 Ljubljana), ki je postal

zadnji opat v Kostanjevici, po zatrtju samostana leta 1786 pa je živel v Ljubljani (Benkovič, 1898, 72). 14

Ferdinand Ignac Hallerstein († April 26, 1711 Ravbar’s castle). 15

Adam Dinzl von Angerburg († August 12, 1696 (Smole, 1982, 514)). 16

Schiviz, 1905, 42. Janez Jožef baron Hallerstein (* April 14, 1677 Mengeš). 17

Marija Ana Apfaltrer, widow Rasp (* 1667 Grmače; † 1728 Dol). Schiviz, 1905, 415. 18

Smole, 1982, 291, 410. 19

Baron Vajkard (Weichard) Hallerstein (* January 5, 1706 Ravbar’s castle (Hoffmannsburg) in Mengeš; SJ October

15, 1723 Ljubljana; † October 9, 1780 Dol) (SBL, 1925--1932, 1: 290; Šmitek, 1995, 93). 20

Smole, 1982, 195, 439; Schiviz, 1905, 415. 21

Annua, 495. 22

According to the obituary, he finished his third year of philosophy in 1728 (Annua, 468).

6

repeated the lectures of mathematics with students in Vienna. In 1729, he taught the first classes

of the high school at the college of Passau. In 1730, he began his studies of theology in Vienna.

In 1736, he taught ethics at Vienna University. He was not attracted to enter the foreign missions

and the scientific research. He chose the less distant Habsburg Netherlands province,

approximately equal to the modern Belgium. Habsburgs ruled the province between the peace of

Utrecht in 1713 and French invasion in 1795. From 1738 to 1773, Vajkard was in Brussels and in

Vienna confessing the duke of Lorraine,23

after 1748 the governor of the Habsburg Netherlands

in the approximate boundaries of modern Belgium.24

The duke lived in the beautiful palace built

in 1756/1757, which today houses the museum dedicated to the 18th

century. In 1744, he married

Maria Anna (1718--1744), the younger sister of Maria Therese (1717--1780); but his wife died in

the same year. In 1736, his older brother Franz I. Stefan of Lorraine (1708--1765) married Maria

Therese and became emperor in 1745.

After the suppression of the Jesuit order, Vajkard still lived in Brussels and wrote to his relatives

of Dol on September 4, 1776.25

After the duke’s death, he spent the last months until his own

death in the manor Dol with his cousin Wolf Danijel baron Erberg, who inherited the manor after

the death of his uncle Janez Benjamin in 1759. After W. D. Erberg’s death, the manor went to his

minor aged son Josef Erberg.26

In 1798, Josef looked after the catalogue of his huge library and

the collection of the old Carniolan monuments. He preserved Avguštin’s letters sent from Beijing

to Avguštin’s sister Marija Ana Elizabeta Hallerstein. Until 1810, the library was in the baroque

palace of Ljubljana today’s City Square No. 17 (former Square No. 279), which was renovated in

1748 and 1758. Wolf Danijel baron Erberg27

bought the palace from Raigersfeld’s descendants in

1760.28

At the end of 18th

century, the library had 64 books sorted as physics, but covering also

chemistry, biology and agronomy. They had sixty-nine mathematical works, among them

astronomy, geography and military books. The books in the library used to belong to the different

branches of Erbergs from Ljubljana, most of them from the rich library of Franc Jakob von

Erberg,29

the half brother of the Avguštin Hallerstein’s grandfather.30

The huge Erberg library

was fundamental for the young Avguštin’s intellectual development.

23

Fieldmarshal Karl Aleksander Lotarinški (Lothringen, Lorraine in Bar, * 1712; † 1780). 24

Dežman, 1881, 3. 25

AS, Dol archive, fasc. 200, pp. 577--578. 26

Jožef Kalasanc Erberg (* August 27, 1771 Ljubljana; † July 10, 1843 Dol). 27

Wolf Danijel baron Erberg (Volbenk, * August 27, 1714 Ljubljana; † August 7, 1783 Dol). 28

SBL, 1925--1932, 1: 163; Umek, 1991, 17. 29

Franc Jakob von Erberg (* 1630 Kočevje; † 1690 Ljubljana). 30

Umek, 1991, 14, 18.

7

STUDIES

Avguštin developed his elementary knowledge from the private lessons on the manor or in the

school near the church of Mengeš, where the modern museum is. The teacher was the father of

the later baroque painter Jelovšek.31

Avguštin finished the first high school classes in Ljubljana. Before he left for Vienna, he finished

three years of the philosophical studies in Ljubljana. He did not study philosophy at Vienna32

or

later in Ljubljana, where in 1722 and 1723 he lived in a college as a novice. Unlike from his

brother, Avguštin didn't enter the Jesuit Society in Ljubljana, but at Saint Anna novitiate of

Vienna.

During his stay in Vienna, the young Avguštin met the former professor of mathematics in

Ljubljana, Thullner. On December 4, 1718, Thullner became the rector of the Viennese college.33

Between 1705 and 1709, Thullner taught mathematics at the Jesuit colleges of Linz, Vienna and

Ljubljana. His Geometry (1711) was among the most eminent Jesuit accomplishment of that era.

Thullner directed Hallerstein into the mathematical sciences, because Hallerstein had no

professor of mathematics in Ljubljana. The collaboration between Thullner and Hallerstein

continued after Hallerstein left the country.

Several years later, Hallerstein’s Uncle Anton Erberg, who was eight years older, began to

publish his topological, physical and theological works in Graz. One year later Avguštin was

appointed assessor of the Beijing astronomical bureau, and Anton Erberg became the rector in

Ljubljana on December 8, 1744. In 1720s, Anton gave his heritage of 20,000 fl to the Jesuit

college of Ljubljana and in that way become one of its benefactors. It was badly needed, because

Ljubljana had no professor of mathematics for a quarter of the century after 1718 because of the

lack of funds. Anton Erberg helped his young nephew Avguštin with his huge knowledge of

astronomy and physics.

Hallerstein attended mathematical lessons which included some physics and mechanics at the

first high school classes in Ljubljana. Already at the beginning of the first year of his higher

studies in 1718/19, the Ljubljanese professor of mathematics and physics Kraus34

became ill.

Kraus was listed as professor of mathematics and physics in 1717/18 and professor of physics in

1718/19. His classes in physics went to professor de Giorgio,35

who taught logic the year before.

The new professor of mathematics was not appointed, and Hallerstein studied on his own. He

probably got the necessary mathematical training during the first year and in physics during the

second year of his higher studies in Ljubljana. Because of the considerably insufficient level of

mathematics in the Ljubljana Hallerstein was forced to study his proper mathematics.

31

Franc Jelovšek (* 1700 Mengeš; † 1764). 32

Stoeger, 1855, 199. 33

Janez Krstnik Thullner (* June 24, 1668 Tozenbach in Archduchy of Austria; SJ October 17, 1687 Leoben; †

August 21, 1747 Krems). 34

Jožef Kraus (* November 9, 1678 Styria; SJ October 6, 1696 Judenburg; † November 16, 1718 Osijek). Diar.,

I./37r, 975D/14, 1010D/12. 35

Jožef de Giorgio (* April 22, 1683 Ljubljana; SJ December 24, 1699 Vienna; † February 14, 1764 Ljubljana).

8

In Ljubljana, Hallerstein attended professor Jankovich’s courses of logic during the first year

1718/19, physics during the second year 1719/20 and metaphysics in 1720/21. It was not unusual,

that A. Hallerstein finished his philosophical studies just eighteen years old. Ales Žiga Dolničar

(1685--1708) was not much older, when he in 1703 and on March 16, 1704 wrote the physics

lessons of his professor Thullner in Gorica (Gorizzia).36

Avguštin’s brother Vajkard finished his

first high school classes in Ljubljana when he was just thirteen and a half.37

At that time, the

courses were not as exactly connected with the age of the student as it was after the reforms of

Maria Therese.

In 1719, professor Kaugg38

alone or with the help of a student wrote his lessons of physics at the

college of Ljubljana. The first pages of the manuscript with the title and the name of the author

were later thorn out from the book and were not preserved. Before Kaugg, professor of physics in

Ljubljana was de Giorgio, who between 1715 and 1722 taught philosophy in Ljubljana and

Klagenfurt and after the death of Anton Erberg got the rector’s post at the college of Ljubljana.

Considering the other dated and signed manuscripts preserved in Ljubljana39

the most probable

author of the manuscript was Kaugg.

As many of his contemporaries, Kaugg stated that the word physics has a Greek origin.40

He

criticized the opinion of atomists41

and in a separate article refused to accept the vacuum in

nature because of the fear of the void and because of the well being of angels.42

In the appendix

to the lectures on Aristotle’s eleven books about physics he discussed continuity that later

became one of the central points of Bošković’s physics.43

He discussed Aristotle's books about meteors and described clouds, thunder, fire, comets,

galaxies, volcanoes, waters, different metals, and minerals.44

In Aristotle’s special physics he

described the systems of Ptolemy, Aristotle, Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.45

Special attention

was given to the divisibility of the matter, atoms, aggregate conditions of the solid and liquid

matter,46

and the number of stars in the cosmos.47

In commentaries to Aristotle’s book of generation and corruption he explained the refraction,

reflection, and antiperistasis with the interesting peripatetic reasons why hot water freezes

quicker than cold one.48

He finished his physical part of the manuscript with the discussion of

mechanics, especially the movement of bullets.49

36

Seminary library in Ljubljana, Manuscripts 74 and 75. 37

SBL, 1925--1932, 1: 290. 38

Janez Kaugg (* August 19, 1681 Maribor; SJ October 14, 1699 Graz; † April 28, 1746 Varaždin). 39

Stancker, 1723. 40

Kaugg, 1719, 152v.

41 Artuculus 8 (Kaugg, 1719, 260

v).

42 Artuculus 9 (Kaugg, 1719, 268

v--269

v).

43 Kaugg, 1719, 307

v.

44 Kaugg, 1719, 316

v --328

r.

45 Kaugg, 1719, 331

v --332.

46 Kaugg, 1719, 347

r--347

v, 352

r.

47 Kaugg, 1719, 253

v.

48 Kaugg, 1719, 401

r.

49 Kaugg, 1719, 403

r, 413

v.

9

Kaugg left Ljubljana, became professor of polemical theology in Eger in the north of Hungary

and did not teach physics again. Anton Jankovich50

took over the chair of physics in Ljubljana

after Kaugg left in the school year 1720/1721, and Wimmerl51

took the chair after him in after

him in 1721/22. They did not publish any work about mathematical sciences. Between 1716 and

1718, Jankovich taught the three year course of philosophy in Zagreb, and later did the same in

Ljubljana. Later Stancker and Pitton did the same.52

Most professors in 1820s lectured on the

three year course in Ljubljana after they had already given such a course in another Jesuit

colleges in the province. Jankovich taught Hallerstein and his classmates from the first to the last

year of their higher studies and was at the same time their confessor. Later, he taught philosophy

or physics no more. At the end of his novitiate, Hallerstein met him again in Ljubljana as

professor of theology and the leader of the congregations. Between 1725 and 1739, Jankovich

was confessor of the Slavic students in Italy and certainly kept the ties with his former student

Hallerstein.

In 1722/23, Mayr taught physics in Ljubljana as the second part of the three year course of

philosophy.53

After philosophy he taught two years of moral theology and became professor in

Ljubljana between 1721 and 1725. Similarly, after philosophy Jankovich lectured on moral

theology in Reka (Fiume), and Stancker in Gorica and Reka. Mayr and his students in the time of

Hallerstein’s work in Ljubljana wrote two manuscripts about physics. Later, Mayr translated the

book about chronology written by a Viennese professor of history.

50

Anton Jankovich (* June 13, 1682 Reka; SJ December 6, 1704; † May 7, 1768). 51

Gabrijel Wimmerl (* September 2, 1685 Vienna; SJ October 9, 1700 Vienna; † July 13, 1741 Klagenfurt) 52

Danijel Pitton (* June 24, 1686 Gradišče; SJ October 9, 1704 Graz; † March 19, 1769 Trieste). 53

Janez Krstnik Mayr (* June 17, 1686 Tyrol; SJ November 2, 1703 Judenburg; † December 6, 1748 Ljubljana).

10

Two manuscripts of Mayr’s lectures about general and special physics for the year 1722 are still

preserved in Ljubljana. In the general physics he described siphon and the pumps for water.54

In

the chapter about thunder he described the bad weather in Vienna and Ljubljana.55

In the chapter

about vacuum he put special concern on the works of Bohemian capuchin monk Valeriano Magni

(1586--1661), the sharpest critic of the Jesuit descriptions of vacuum. Mayr accepted Linus’

theory of the vapors of quicksilver above the liquid in barometer, but at the same time he

recognized the pressure of the air. He also described thermometers and hygrometers.56

In the particular physics, Mayr’s student of the last year of philosophy, the Cistercian Monk

Aleksander Tauffer (Taufferer), drew and described the systems of Ptolemy, Copernicus and

Jesuit Riccioli in the paragraph about the world and cosmos.57

Riccioli invented the system of

three planets moving around the Sun, but the orbits of Saturn, Jupiter and stars got their centers in

the center of the Earth. He described the fluid and solid matter separately from the rarefaction and

condensation.58

In the discussion about the elements, he described the fire as the separate basic

entity.59

As usual at that time, the last part of the particular physics was devoted to the areas that

are today a part of biology and psychology: fossils, soul, living mater and the reasons for the

working of the vital forces.60

In his particular physics he did not mention vacuum.

(PICTURE 2: Ptolemy, Tycho, and Copernicus' world systems after the Croatian Zanchi.61

1754.

Philosophia mentis, & sensuum ad usus academicos accomodata, opera, & studio Josephi Zanchi,

S. J. sacerdotis. Tomus tertius physicam particularem continens. Editio Quarta. Viennae:

Kaliwoda.)

As a novice in Ljubljana in 1723/24, Avguštin Hallerstein met the other professor from Tyrol,

Stancker,62

who got Mayr’s chair for physics. After he finished the three year course of

philosophy in Zagreb, Stancker repeated the same course in Ljubljana between 1722 and 1725.

The next year he lectured on the moral theology. Holler wrote his physical lectures at the end of

the school year 1722/23. Holler was not listed among the seminarists of Ljubljana.63

First, he

wrote the appendix with the three questions about the supernatural, natural, and artificial. Next he

discussed the natural magic in the way of Kircher64

from Roman College.65

He described the

54

Mayr, 1722a, 168v.

55 Mayr, 1722a, 181

r, 181

v, 185

v.

56 Mayr, 1722a, 166

v (paragraph 443), 168a (paragraph 447).

57 Mayr, 1722b, 12

r--12

v, 15

r.

58 Mayr, 1722b, 26

r, 97

r.

59 Mayr, 1722b, 105

v --197

v.

60 Mayr, 1722b, 143

r, 148, 158

r.

61 Josip von Zanchi (* August 23, 1710 Reka; SJ October 29, 1725 Reka; † 1786 Gorica).

62 Anton Stancker (* December 16, 1682 »Ananiensis« (Tyrol); SJ October 9, 1700 Vienna; † June 12, 1730 Reka)

(Diar., I./38r, 1160D/4; Lukács, 1988, 3: 1590)). 63

Noted as Joseph (Josip) Holler (Catalogue of manuscripts, NUK, 1980, 64; Stancker, 1723). Avguštin Hallerstein,

who soon after those noted celebrated his 20th

birthday, had quite different handwriting in his letter to Royal Society

of London on September 18, 1750, especially for the letters D and P. Grmek (1963) did not mention the 1723

manuscript. Anton Haller studied in the first high school classes of Ljubljana in 1695, and Avguštin’s younger

brother Lovrenc Sigmund Ksaver Hallerstein (* 1720) studied there in 1736, 1737, and 1738. There were no other

students with the similar names at the Seminary of Ljubljana, nor among the more than hundred enrolled in 1723

(Ljubljanski klasiki, 1999, 178, 180, 239). 64

Athanasius Kircher (* May 2, 1601 Geisa; SJ 1618 Paderborn; † 1680 Rome).

11

geometrical bodies: cube, cone and cylinder.66

He preferred peripatetic philosophy instead of

atomists and Cartesians.67

Vacuum and the experiment with siphon were described on two pages.

He did not name the researchers that published the important experiments with the pumps and

barometers.68

He concluded the discussion about physics with theology and added numerous

prayers.69

At the end of his novitiate in Ljubljana, A. Hallerstein was excited about the Chines missions. On

July 12, 1723 in Graz, he asked to be sent to China for the first time, but was accepted only a

decade later.70

His interest in missions was certainly greater because of his uncle Inocenc

Volbenk Erberg, who worked in Paraguay after 1726, and in 1738 became the head of the

reduction of Saint Ludwig in Uruguay. In 1727, he drew the map of Paraguay, like his nephew

Avguštin later drew the map of Macao and the Chinese province of Mu-lan. Inocenc’s missionary

work was described in Slovene fiction.71

In 1723/24, Avguštin took the repetition of the lectures in higher classes of the Gymnasium in

Leoben. The next year in 1725, he taught in the lower grammatical classes of the Gymnasium in

Klagenfurt (Celovec). In 1726/27, he taught in lower classes of Gymnasium in Vienna. At the

same time he helped the students to repeat their lectures. He may have learned his astronomy and

mathematics in Vienna and in Graz, where he was situated at least when he wrote the letter for

the mission in July 1723.72

In the school year 1727/28, he was back in Ljubljana again as the

Master, the leader of the congregations and professor of rhetoric. His relative Anton73

taught the

lower classes of gymnasium in Ljubljana at that time. Stainer’s former student Valvasor74

taught

physics. Valvasor later became the rector in Ljubljana between September 27, 1741 and

December 8, 1744. In 1727/28, there were twenty-one professors of the higher studies and sixteen

at the first high school classes in Ljubljana. All professors of the higher studies were Fathers, five

professors of the first high school classes, with both Hallersteins included, were masters and ten

professors were helpers (domestica adiutor, coadiutor). Five hundred students enrolled, among

them ten counts, twelve barons, and fifteen of the lower nobility. In that year, count Joseph

Lichtenberg had the public disputation about logic.75

Between 1728/29 and 1729/30, Avguštin Hallerstein studied theology in Graz, the last year

together with his relative Anton. He spent his spiritual year in Judenburg. Then he eventually

65

Stancker, 1723, 15 r--16

v.

66 Stancker, 1723, 27

v.

67 Stancker, 1723, 29

r.

68 Question 9 (Stancker, 1723, 150

v --152

r).

69 Stancker, 1723, 154

r --172

v.

70 Šmitek, 1993, 29; Stoeger, 1855, 120.

71 Jančar, 2000; Šmitek, 1995, 154.

72 SBL, 1925--1932, 1: 290; Šmitek, 1993, 29.

73 Anton Hallerstein (* February 1, 1704 Klagenfurt; SJ October 14, 1720 Vienna; † 1773).

1721--1722 Vienna, novice – 1723--1725 Graz, studied philosophy – 1726--1728 Ljubljana, lectured grammar –

1729 Leoben, lectured humanities, leader of the congregations – 1730 Graz, studied theology – 1761 Linz, head of

the college – 1762--1765 Passau, rector of the processions – 1766--1773 Klagenfurt, the head of the seminary,

librarian, confessor (Lukács, 1987, 501). 74

Volfgang (Jožef) Valvasor (* May 17, 1695 Ljubljana; SJ October 28, 1713 Vienna; † May 27, 1758 Loreto). 75

Annua, 42, 55, 60, 61.

12

became the head of the Jesuit College at Timisoara in Banat.76

On July 21, 1718, the first superior

of the Jesuit College in Timisoara became Lorenz Pez. On May 16, 1727, just a little before

Hallerstein’s arrival, the Jesuits from Timisoara opened the Gymnasium with three classes. At the

Jesuit College of Cluj (Claudipoli, Kolozsvár) in Transylvania 250 kilometers southeast from

Timisoara, the Carniolan Breckerfeld was director of the astronomic observatory after 1734. He

published several works about astronomy and timekeeping.77

Hallerstein and Breckerfeld are not

mentioned in Romanian sources, but Maximilian Hell’s teaching in Cluj between the years 1752-

1755 and printing of his Elementa mathematica there in 1755 was discussed. Bošković noted the

astronomical instruments for eclipses and planet observation during his travel in Moldavian Iasi

where moistly the scholars of Greek origin taught because of their Orthodoxy. Johan Heinrich

Alsted taught in Open Calvin University of Alba Iulia (Efrosina Otlǎcan, Romulus Petru Otlǎcan.

2010. Mathematical Education in Walachia, Moldavia and Transylvania in the 18th

Century.

European Mobility of Highly Cultivated People. Noesis. Travaux du Comité Roumain d’histoire

et de philosophie des sciences. 35: 163-170, p. 165, 166, 168, 169).

JOURNEY TO THE EAST

The foreign lands were not unknown to the Carniolans of Hallerstein's time. Herberstein's

descriptions of Russian lands were still in use. In autumn 1678, the bookseller Mayr offered to

the citizens of Ljubljana many new descriptions of the foreign lands:

76

In 1773, Jesuits of Timisoara also had the residence with a parish. 77

Franc von Breckerfeld (Pleško-Breckerfeldt, Preckenfeldt, Prekenfeldt, * February 17, 1681 Ljubljana; SJ 1697; †

October 29, 1744 Cluj).

1698--1699 Ljubljana, novice – 1700--1703 Vienna, revised humanities, studied philosophy – 1704 Graz, revised

mathematics – 1705 Zagreb, lectured grammar, librarian – 1706--1707 Ljubljana, lectured grammar and humanities,

librarian – 1714--1717 Zagreb, professor philosophy, librarian, historian – 1721--1722 Trnava, professor

mathematics, historian – 1723 Košice, professor mathematics – 1724--1725 Graz, professor mathematics, confessor

– 1728--1733 Košice, professor mathematics – 1734--1744 Cluj, prefect, librarian, astronomer of the king’s

observatory (Grasselli, 1998, 108; Stoeger, 1855, 280; Sommervogel, 6: 1192--1193; Lukács, 1988, 1281).

13

Author Title Area Page in

listing

Format

Schefferi Lapponia, i. e. Regionis Lapponium & gentis Descriptio Lapland 89 4

Caron Beschreibung Japan, Siam, und Chorrea Far East 109 8

Neutzschens Sieben=jahrige and gefährliche Europae=Asiat=und

Afrikanische Welt=Beschauung Old world 115 8

Nubila Jubila Oder Glucks=Werwandlung dess Königreichs Engeland England 115 3

Reiss=Beschreibung durch ganz Italien Italy 117 12

Reiss=Gespann von allerhand

lustigen=Historien

117 12

Echeffers Beschreibung Lappland Lapland 118 4

Viatorium Burgicum, Oder Vollkömmener

Weegweiser in das Nider=und Holland

zureisen

Netherlands 119 12

Wenners Türckisches Reiss=Buch Ottoman

empire. 120 4

Zeilers Itineratium Germaniae (in German) German

empire

120 8

Zeilers Itineratium Galiae (in German) French 120 8

Mayr sold several atlases, among other the cosmography of Valvasor’s collaborator Münster,78

which also contained a map of China. In that way, Hallerstein got some knowledge about the land

where he will spend the second half of his life, while he was still at home.

In Timisoara, Hallerstein waited for the answer to his wish to leave for the missions that he sent

to Vienna on October 8, 1727. The answer was affirmative and in September 1735, he went to

Trieste (Trst). On September 26, 1735, Udalrik Bonbardi (Uderlik, Ulderik, Ulrik Bombardi)

gave him the letter for the missionary Jožef Bonani in Trieste.79

In the school year 1725/26,

Bonbardi was rector of the brand new philosophical college in Reka and professor of philosophy

from 1731 to 1734.80

In the next days, Hallerstein sailed from Trieste to Genoa accompanied by

the Bohemian musician Bahr,81

and the Jesuit from Vienna Laimbeckhoven,82

later last Jesuit

archbishop of Nanking (Nanjing). After Hallerstein death Laimbeckhoven had to order the

suppression of the Jesuits at Bishopric of Nanking and Beijing on June 17, 1775.83

78

Sebastian Münster (* 1489 Nieder Ingelhem in palatinate Rhein between Mainz and Bingen; † 1552 Basel (Dular,

2002, 121)). 79

Šmitek, 1995, 94, 133. 80

Vanino, 1987, 219; Rački, Andrija. 1990. Povijest grada Sušaka, Rijeka: Skupština općine, 153. 81

Florian Josef Bahr (Wei Fou-leang Ki-Tsi Chan-Sieou, Kouei-Ki-Pou, * 1706 Falkwnberg; SJ 1726 Brno; † 1771

Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 300; Hsia, 2006, 348-349)). 82

Gottfried-Xavier Laimbeckhoven (Nan Huairen, 南懷仁Nan Hoai-Jen Ngo-Te, * January 9, 1707 Vienna; SJ

January 27, 1722 Vienna; † May 22, 1787 T'ang-kia-hiang near Su-choua in China (Stoeger, 1855, 201; Šmitek,

1992, 226)). 83

Kaminski, 1966, 33; Kaminski, Unterreider, 1980, 70.

14

On October 30, 1735, Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven sailed from Genoa to Lisbon on the

English merchant ship Penelope. Among the seventeen passengers there was also a monk

capuchin.84

Avguštin was seasick throughout the journey.85

On November 16, 1735, the wind was very strong. Suddenly two strong lights broke the dark air,

one at the back and other at the front of the ship. The light sank and shone from the ropes. When

sailors noticed the event, they began to shout: »Saint Elmo, Saint Elmo!«. They explained to the

worried passengers, that the event means no danger, but it just predicts the better weather. They

observed the sudden changing of the light developing in hardly three minutes.86

The fire of Saint Elmo87

was not a completely unknown event. The sailors connected it with Saint

Erazmus, but his name was later spelled somewhat different. Benedict monk Pietro Imperati

noticed the event in 1602 near Duino (Devin). In 1754, Bianchini88

reported that Italians knew

the event and the reason for the fire of Saint Elmo. The Jesuit Mako89

described the event in a

book that was published in Ljubljana in 1775 in German translation. All the researchers believed

that Saint Elmo’s fire was an electrical event caused by electricity on the surface of the Earth.

Hallerstein and his companions arrived in Lisbon on November 18, 1735. Hallerstein and

Laimbeckhoven stayed on the boat for a day and a half before they occupied the flat at the

college of Saint Anton (Colégio de Santo Antao). A month later on December 21, 1735,

Laimbeckhoven described their journey events in a letter.90

In Lisbon they read Kögler’s letter, sent from Beijing on November 15, 1734 and brought on a

ship from Nanking.91

Professor of mathematics in Lisbon told Hallerstein about the invitation of

the Maharaja Jai Singh II (1686--1743) from Jaipur. Jai Singh was one of the sovereigns in India

Mogul state and he wanted to hire the missionary versed in mathematics and astronomy. Jai

Singh just finished five huge astronomical observatories in North India: in Delhi (1725), Jaipur

(1725), Ujjainu on the river Shipra and in Benares (today Varanasi). Although Hindu Jai Singh

collaborated with Hindu astronomers, he took himself as the descendant of Ulugh Beg in Moslem

Arabic tradition.92

He used the works of Ptolemy, Flamsteed, and de la Hire.93

In a letter to Jesuit General in Rome, Portugal court astronomer Giovanni Baptista Carbone from

Naples proposed to Jai Singh to employ Hallerstein, Laimbeckhoven, or both. Laimbeckhoven

was at that time still interested in astronomy and natural history. Jesuit Carbone taught

Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven to observe the stars, and lent them the mathematical books and

instruments.

84

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 7. 85



Also st. Ermo, Helm, Helene (Mako, 1775, 93; Bianchini, 1754). 88

Giovani Fortunato Bianchini (1719--1779). 89

Paul Mako von Kerek Gede (1721--1793). 90

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 28, 47. 91


Ulugh Beg (* 1393 Soltaniyeh in Persia; † October 27, 1449 Samarkand). 93

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 300.

15

In considering the Indian offer, Hallerstein used the help of the missionary from the Sicilian

province Francesco Tambini, who worked for fourteen years in the kingdom of Maduraj in India,

also as the general procurator for Indies.94

The later missionary Destinati taught in the Jesuit

Colégio des Artes in Portuguese Coimbra. Emanuel de Campus was professor of mathematics

and Carbone was professor of astronomy at the college of Saint Anton in Lisbon. Carbone had a

great influence on King Joao V. The Jesuits also governed the University of Évora, but not the

University at Coimbra.95

At the University of Coimbra they still have twelve kilogram magnet,

which emperor of China gave to King Joao V.96

At that time the missionary work was forbidden in China, therefore Hallerstein liked the offer of

Jai Singh. While waiting for the answer from Rome, Hallerstein learned his astronomy and

Portuguese language in Lisbon. He lived in the house designated for the people at preparation for

the travel to »India«. He swore that he will stay most of all in the church, college and eating

room, that he will not consume wine and will care for his outlook. Among the Jesuit books he

found the Spanish book of Sousa (1590--1649) about the Portuguese colonies in Asia. In his

spare time, he reproduced from the book the pictures of the Portuguese castles in East Asia near

the Chinese border. He added the drawings designated for the ornamentation of Viennese rector

Thullner’s mathematical cabinet to the letter for the provincial. Thullner’s influence therefore

followed Hallerstein also on his way to China.97

In 1731, Sousa’s book about the Jesuits in China

was published in Lisbon in collaboration with Alvaro Semieda (1585--1658). In later editions

contained the descriptions of Tartar wars, missionary Martin Martini from Habsburg Trient

(Kaminski, Unterreider, 1980, 53) also collaborated.

Hallerstein was never allowed to go to India. Therefore in April 1736, he was preparing to go to

China again, although Carbone made some intrigues. Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven

participated in the meeting with the Portuguese queen Maria Ana.98

The queen gave each of the

missionaries 250 Portuguese crusados, the shoe of pure gold, the little hand organ, and the watch

in glass ball for the college of Saint Joseph in Beijing.99

She was a daughter of the Habsburg

emperor Leopold I. (1640--1705), the wife of King Joao V. (* 1689; † 1750), and the mother of

king D. José I. (* 1714; † 1777). She exchanged letters with Hallerstein after he sailed for

Beijing. Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven met Carniolan Gallenfels100

at the queen’s court. From

1706 to 1708 Gallenfels taught logic, physics and metaphysics in Ljubljana. Later he went to

Lisbon to be the confessor of the queen until he died. He replaced the deceased Anton Stief, who

accompanied the queen in 1708 from Vienna to Lisbon,101

and Spindler,102

who became the

rector in Ljubljana. In 1721, Gallenfells published obituary for the Jesuit missionary Stumpf,103

94


Dežman, 1881, 5; Hallerstein, 1735, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 810; Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 57. 96

Martins, Fiolhais, 2003, 156. 97

Hallerstein, 1735, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 816; Keller, 1755. Hallerstein wrote Thullner’s last name with

one »l«. 98

Maria Ana of Austria (* 1683; † August 14, 1754). 99

Hallerstein, 1781, 29; Dežman, 1881, 5. 100

Karel Gallenfels (* January 6, 1673 Bled; SJ October 22, 1689 Ljubljana; † September 18, 1741 Lisbon). 101

Rodriguez, 1990, 42. 102

Jožef Spindler (* March 3, 1674; SJ October 12, 1689 Vienna; † June 21, 1730 Graz (Kovačič, 1998, 56, 60)). 103

Kilian Stumpf (Ki-li-ngan, Chi-Li-An, Ji Lian Yunfeng, Ji laoye, * September 13, 1655 Würzburg, SJ July 17,

1673 Mayence; † July 24, 1720 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 261--262)).

16

and Hallerstein certainly read that during his studies in Ljubljana. Stumpf studied the philosophy

and natural history with Schott’s104

successors in Würzburg. In 1695, emperor invited Stumpf

from Canton to Beijing. Two years later, Stumpf developed the production in the first glass

factory in China. In 1710, he was the rector of the college. From 1714 to 1718, he was the visitor

at the Far East, and from 1711 to 1719 the president of the astronomical; bureau in Beijing. In

1732, his post of president was inherited by Kögler,105

and later Hallerstein. With the publication

of Stumpf’s letter, K. Gallenfels influenced Hallerstein’s interest for the missions to China. On

November 1, 1743, Hallerstein wrote to Gallenfels from Beijing.106

Gallenfels’ younger brother, Franc Genuin baron Gallenfels (* 1/2/1680 Bled), was the

commander of the several Portuguese castles in India.107

Their other brother108

died as the abbot

in Stična. Their father Johan Andreas was the governor in Bled.109

Hallerstein knew Karl’s

nephew Franc well.110

Franc taught philosophy and physics in Ljubljana after Hallerstein left in

1728/29.

On April 24, 1736, Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven went to the ship Saint Peter of Alkantar that

sailed the next day for Goa. Eight Portuguese Jesuits sailed with them: father Custodo Arnaut,

father José Pereira, and brother novices Filipo de Macedo, Manuel Soares, José Pinto,

Constantino de Amaral, Joao Pereira, and Verissimo de Carvalho. Hallerstein was 1837th

among

the Jesuits that sailed on Portuguese ships for the Far East.111

During the trip, Laimbeckhoven and Hallerstein computed the geographical longitude with

trigonometry and with the maritime quadrant. They used French and German equipment that was

4 foot high and 8 line width. They used the books of Dechales,112

Fournier, and Nikolas Bion

(1652--1735), king’s engineer for the mathematical instruments. In 1764, Dechales’ published

comments on Euclid with mixed mathematics. The Jesuit of Ljubljana bought Deschales’ book

four years after it’s printing as their very first mathematical book. Hallerstein used it as a student.

The Augustinian monks of Ljubljana had Fournier’s geography (1649). In the pocket issue, 651

pages long and 4 x 7 cm in size, Fournier described European lands with a part of Turkey and

Tartar. He described Carniola “on the Upper Sau” on one single page.113

Fournier taught

mathematics at Jesuit Colleges of La Flèche, Diepe, and Hesdin from 1628 to 1644. In 1654, he

published the pamphlet about fortifications.114

104

Kaspar Schott (Gaspar, * 1608 Königshofen near Würzburg; SJ 1627 Würzburg; † 1666 Würzburg). 105

Ignatius Kögler (Tai Tsin-hien Kai-Pin, * May 11, 1680 Landsberg-am-Leich in Bavaria, Upper German

province; SJ October 4, 1696 Landsberg; † March 29/30, 1746 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 136-137; Pfister, 1934, 643;

Dežman, 1881, 11, 14; Montucla, 1799, 2: 471; Koláček, 1999, 24)). 106

Šmitek, 1995, 89, 130. 107

Šmitek, 70-71, 96; Diar., I./36r: 763/3; Lukács, 1987, 1: 389; Stoeger, 1855, 94; Sommervogel, 3: 1121. 108

Georg Andreas Gallenfels (monk Anton, * 1654 Bled; † 1719 Stična (Pascoletti, 1998, 69)). 109

Dežman, 1881, 4, 6. 110

Franc Gallenfels (* January 25, 1696 Bled; SJ October 27, 1711 Ljubljana; † June 4, 1733 Ljubljana). 111

Wicki, 1969, 326. 112

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 71. Claude François Millet Dechales (* 1621 Chambéry 100 km east of Lyon; SJ 1636; †

March 28, 1678 Turin). 113

Fournier, 1649, 650, 590--591. 114

FEINGOLD???***, Mordechai, 2003, 34; Baldwin, 2003, 325.

17

Mathias Presheren bought the German translation of Bion’s handbook of mathematical

instruments published in 1713 and 1717 in Ljubljana in 1728. At that time Hallerstein taught at

the Jesuit College of Ljubljana. Bion described and drew the instruments that Hallerstein also

used: micrometer in the older de la Hire115

version, specially adjusted for the measurement of the

passage of Mercury over the Sun,116

and the astronomical quadrant.117

He described the

instruments used on ships: the compass, the instrument for the measurement of the apparent

height of stars, quadrant, and maps.118

The numbered circular shaped in the same manner as in

the watches was very useful for the prediction of the eclipses of the Sun and Moon,119

because

the accurate predictions of the eclipses was the area where the Europeans were better than

Chinese. In the latter addition Bion added the drawings and descriptions of the optical and

hydrostatic instruments: water balance of de la Hire and Dutch Nicholas Hartsoeker (1656--

1725), camera, microscope and magical lantern.120

Chinese invented the magical lantern in the

3rd century B.C. They used it for the projection of the enlarged picture of the small objects on the

white screen, or as the remote ancestor of the modern cinema. After he returned from China,

Martini121

used the magic lantern at his lecture in Luvain122

in 1654. For Europeans, Chinese

missionary Magalhaens described the magic lantern in the mid 18th

century.123

The Jesuit from

Ljubljana bought the magic lantern in 1755.

Laimbeckhoven and Hallerstein measured the apparent height and the parallax of Sun from the

reflection of its rays from the sea. They measured the heights of 15o 49' and 16

o 24' with the error

estimated to 1'. They used the Wolff124

and Dechales’ triangulation that made Bošković famous

several years later.125

Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven used the big ship compass to measure the

declination according to French manual published in the revue for the physical and botanical

observations. They used compass to measure the place of Polar star. They used the instrument of

Stevel-Leutha to measure the apparent height of Sun. The compass was essentially Chinese

invention126

and the Chinese also had some interest in the philosophers’ stone.127

115

Hallerstein, review 1774, 157. 116

Bion, 1713, 231--232, 260/261 (table 18, picture 1). 117

Bion, 1713, 208. 118

Bion, 1713, 261--288. 119

Bion, 1713, 253--260, 260/261 (table 18, picture 5). 120

Bion, 1717, 18, 23, 36, 45, 47. 121

Martin Martini (Wei K'ouang-Kouo, Tsi-T'ai, * 1614 Trente (Trident), the capital of the Italian part of Tyrol; SJ

October 8, 1632 Rome; † June 6, 1661 Hangchow (Koláček, 1999, 17)) arrived to China in 1637, and returned to

Europe in 1650 because of the quarrels about the Chinese rites. 122

Leuven (Luvaine) is 30 km east of Brussels. In 1960, the Catholic universe of Leuven separated and moved to

Louvain-La-Neuve 30 km south of Brussels. 123

Temple, 1991, 87--88. Portuguese Gabriel de Magalhaens (Joao Hyacint Magellan, * 1722; SJ; † 1790) measured

after 1756 in Paris, and after 1764 in London . In 1765, Magalhaens showed to Royal Society of London his

invention of »aerostathmion«, composed of the barometer and medicine thermometer (Bernoulli, 1771, 88; Mädler,

1872, 529; Martins, Fiolhais, 2003, 154). That Magalhaens was not identical with missionary Gabriel de Magalhaens

(Ngan Wen-Sseu, King-Ming, * 1610 Pedragao in Portugal; SJ 1625 Portugal; † May 6, 1677 Beijing (Koláček,

1999, 17)). 124

Christian Wolff (* 1679 Breslau; † 1754). 125

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 70--75. 126

D’Entrecolles’ letter to du Halde dated November 4, 1734 (Vissière, Vissière, 2000, 220). 127

D’Entrecolles’ letter to du Halde dated November 4, 1734 (Vissière, Vissière, 2000, 222).

18

One nice day, they reached the Horn of the Good Hope, where Dutch governor Jan van Riebeeck

observed the comet a century before them as the very first published observation from that point.

In 1685, Tachard and his collaborators on their way to Siam stopped at the Cape of the Good

Hope and established the first temporary observatory there. In 1707, German Pieter Kolbe made

few observations at the Cape. After Hallerstein left the Cape, Lacaille128

between 1750 and 1754

lead the expedition to the Cape of the Good Hope. There he measured the meridian, described

10,000 stars of the South hemisphere, rightly measured the magnitude of the parallax of Sun and

Moon and computed from the distance between the Earth and Moon. For the parallax of Moon

they got very good measure of 57' 05'', and for the parallax of Sun they got 9.5, just as Cassini

had done before them in Paris.129

In 1761, Lacaille observed the passage of Venus across the Sun.

The catalogue of the stars of South hemisphere was published only after his death in 1763. At the

Cape of the Good Hope, Hallerstein and Laimbeckhoven repeated Tachard’s geographical and

astronomical observations.130

On October 29, 1736, Hallerstein and other passengers sailed into the Mozambique harbor and

waited for the more appropriate weather to continue their voyage. On Mozambique Island there

was a Jesuit College, but just the rector lived there. Laimbeckhoven sent the beautiful map of the

island and the buildings on it to Europe.131

On August 16, 1737, they continued their trip on the

ship Europe under the command of the English Catholic Tempest. Among Jesuits there were also

Neugebauer and Bohemian novice Carolus Slamenski, who eventually died very early. Slamenski

first served among the dragons in Transylvania, later went to Danzig (Gdansk), and finally via

boat to Amsterdam and Lisbon. In Beijing, he replaced the physician Siebert. physician,

Tonkin (North Vietnam) 1739, puis en Cochinchine: mathématicien du

roi Johann Sibert (Jan Siebert, * 28 May 1708; SJ 9 oct. 1723; † 12 sept. 1745

Hué (http://ricci.rt.usfca.edu/biography/view.aspx?biographyID=1109)),

Carolus Slamenski (* 1708 Bohemia; SJ 1736 Goia; † 7 June 1747,

Cochinchine).

On September 19, 1737, they arrived to Aguada near Goa. In Goa, Hallerstein tried to find the

precious stone named »ariquirize«, which should be found on the islands of Japan, as his brother

Vajkard told him in 1736. But nobody had ever heard about such a stone.132

Laimbeckhoven reported about the blessed Italian Rudolf Aquaviva (* 1550; SJ; † 1583), the

nephew of the fifth Jesuit general Claudio Aquaviva (* 1543; SJ 1567; † 1615). Rudolf was the

superior in Salsett South of Goa. He was killed during his visit in one of his missions.133

128

Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (* 1713 Rumigny; † 1762 Paris), the member of Paris academy in 1741. 129

Ševarlić, 1986, 46. Parallax in our Solar system is the half of the angle with the top on the object and the base

between the ends of the Earth’s equator. Parallax of the Sun is at the same time the angle the observer from the Sun

would see the semidiameter of the Earth. For the parallax of the stars, the base is the diameter of the Earth’s orbit. 130

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 86--87, 89, 107, 131. 131

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 264--265. 132

Dežman, 1881, 6, 7; Šmitek, 1995, 113; Hallerstein, Dežman’s handwritten copy of the letters from Welt-Bott,

822. 133

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 363.

19

After the death of emperor Yongzheng (Yung-cheng) in 1735, his 24 year old son Qianlong

became the emperor. Qianlong was more tolerant of the Jesuits. On May 11, 1738, Hallerstein’s

led eleven Jesuits who boarded on Portuguese merchant ship for Macao. Besides three

Portuguese the Jesuits were: Laimbeckhoven, Gogeisl, Bahr, Neugebauer, Venceslav Palaczek,

Bohemian Johann Sibert (Jan Siebert), and Johann Gruber, a relative of the later Ljubljanese

professor Gabriel Gruber. Palaczek and Gruber had to go to the province of Japan, and others

went to China.134

The preparations took them whole five days. During their sailing, Hallerstein

and Laimbeckhoven helped in calculating their way with the measurement of the declination and

the apparent height of the stars at noon. They measured with the quadrant and also with the naked

eye.135

Laimbeckhoven also reported about his natural historical observations: the changed color

of the blood and turtles which dug into the sand.136

Robert Mayer used the changed color of the

blood near equator to prove the energy law a century later.

On June 29, 1738, they stopped one mile from the Portuguese harbor of Malacce (Malakka) on

the peninnsula of the similar name. Of his group of Jesuits just Hallerstein stayed in the castle

and on August 4, 1738 sailed on a French ship to China. On August 28, 1738, they stopped near

Portuguese Macao (Aomen) in China. On September 1, 1738, Hallerstein landed in Canton

(Guangzhou) and three days later in Macao 100 km to the south. At the end of 1738, he made the

map of the town and the neighborhood as he was asked by the governor. The map was printed

next year in French language for the use of governor. Neugebauer copied the map for king of

Portugal.137

On December 4, 1738, Laimbeckhoven reported from Macao of his joy for Hallerstein’s

invitation to Beijing. Laimbeckhoven himself wanted to work for the souls in the mission. He

found that Hallerstein surpassed him in sciences and with his mathematical abilities he will

probably have the opportunity to lead emperor of China himself into the Christian religion. In

China »they specially valued the bettering of the calendar, the computation of the eclipses of the

Moon, Sun, and the first moon of Jupiter «.138

On October 10, 1739, Laimbeckhoven reported

about the Chinese medicine. On December 3, 1739, he wrote to Europe about the necessary

measures for the careful observation of the eclipses of Moon in Macao.139

134

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 369; Koláček, 1999, 65. 135

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 377--378. 136

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 161, 274, 388. 137

Dežman, 1881, 9. 138

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 424, 426, 430. 139

Stoeger, 1855, 201; Dežman, 1881, 4.

20

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES IN BEIJING

Before Hallerstein

As a future missionary, Hallerstein knew the works of his predecessors in Beijing. In 1743, he

reported about the work of the Italian Jesuit Ricci,140

who was Clavius’ student until 1577 at the

Collegio Romano. From 1577 to 1582, Ricci was a missionary in India. According to

Hallerstein’s data, after the year 1601 he was missionary in China under emperor Wan Li (Chin-

tsong), and began the Jesuit mission. Before Ricci, the Muslims calculated the ephemerides

according to Arabic tables in the first class of the astronomical bureau in Beijing. The Muslim

bureau for astronomy began in 1268 and used trigonometry which was not popular among the

Chinese. In the second class Mandarins themselves observed the sky.141

There were 4 classes at

the time of Jesuit arrival, but just 3 in the time of Montucla writing.

Ricci translated the first six Euclid’s books, the tractate of Clavius and the shortened extract from

Clavius’ works to Chinese. In 1607, he published the very first trigonometry in Chinese.142

With

the use of the sign for equivalence and the other elements of algebra, the Jesuits brought to China

comparatively new European inventions.143

Besides Ricci, Hallerstein also described the work of the architect Schall,144

who studied

mathematics with the Bohemian German Christoph Grienberger (1564--1636), Clavius’

successor at the Collegio Romano. In 1618, Schall arrived in Macao. Emperor Chongzhen (Chun-

tsci) invited him to continue the necessary changes of the inaccurate calendar used for the wrong

prediction of the eclipse in 1630. Schall was invited together with the Jesuit Rho145

as the

successor of the deceased Terrentius.146

Schall and Rho were supposed to continue the reform of the calendar of the Chinese Catholic Xu

Guangqi,147

who collaborated with Ricci between 1604 and 1607. Schall also researched

earthquakes.148

In 1640, he developed a portable sundial with compass.149

Sundials were one of

the main research areas of Jesuits, especially Kircher in Rome in the following years.

140

Mattheo Ricci (Li-Ma-Tou, Li Ma-teou, Si-T’ai, * October 6, 1552 Macerata near the Adriatic coast; SJ August

16, 1571 Rome; † May 11, 1610 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 219)). Hallerstein, 1781, 5; Dadić, 1982, 1: 200. 141

Montucla, 1799, 2: 474; Huff, 1993, 241. 142

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 110. 143

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 114. 144

Johann Adam Schall von Bell (Tang Ruowang, T'ang Jo-wang, Tao-Wei, * May 1, 1592 Köln; SJ October 21,

1611 Rome; † August 15, 1666 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 241)). 145

Giacomo Rho (Jacobus, * January 29, 1592 Pavia; SJ August 24, 1614 Arona; † April 26, 1638 Beijing

(Dehergne, 1973, 215)), sailed for China in 1617. 146

Johann Schreck Terrentius (Terrenz, Terentius, Tëng Yü-Han Han-P'o, Teng, Tchen Lo-Han, * 1576 Konstanca

or the environs; SJ April 17, 1618 S Carlos; † May 11, 1630 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 242)) arrived to Beijing in

1618. 147

Paul Xu Guangqi (Guan-qi, Siu Kong-k'i, Paul Siu, or Hsü Kuang-ch'i, * 1562 Shanghai, † 1633), according to

Wongu (1963, 31), he died in 1630. 148

Hallerstein, 1781, 5. 149

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 312.

21

Schall lived in China for forty-seven years. With his collaborators he wrote 150 Chinese

astronomical books about the eclipses, telescopes, shadows of cosmic bodies, trigonometry, and

calendar. Schall corrected the calendar and the ephemerides. In 1644, when the new Manchu

dynasty Qing got the power, Schall became the very first European (temporary) director of the

astronomical bureau and therefore inherited the Terrentius’ former job.150

Schall became the

teacher of the first Manchu emperor of the dynasty Qing named Shunzhi, who after the death of

the regent took the power although underaged in 1651. In 1658, Schall became Mandarine of the

first rank. But emperor eventually died just three years later, when he was only 23. The new

emperor Kangxi did not like Schall. Schall was accused for the wrong prediction of the happy

date of marriage in the emperor’s family and that was considered high treason. On the trial on

Yang Guangxian (Kuang-hsien) charges, Schall avoided the worst as his group was able to make

a better prediction of the Sun eclipse on January 16, 1665 compared with their Chinese

competitors. But Schall was exiled to Canton anyway. His duties in Beijing were given to his

assistant Verbiest. On May 15, 1665, Verbiest and the emperor’s grandmother arranged Schall’s

return to Beijing, where he eventually died next year. Immediately after Schall’s death, Kircher151

published the whole story. In that way it entered all the modern histories without considering

eventual Chinese sources. The Jesuit time of troubles continued until the end of 1668/early 1669,

after Verbiest’s calculations of planet positions and comparative shadow length predictions had

proved the superiority of western astronomy.

Jesuits brought to China about 7000 printed scientific works. Ricci’s collaborator in Beijing

named Trigault152

brought to China Agricola’s De re metallica. In Schall’s time the book was

translated to Chinese between 1638--1640 and given to the emperor. The emperor wished to use

it as the handbook for mining in the country. But the minister of finance Ni Yuanly was against

the idea, as he feared, that the development of the mining would damage the farmers of China.

The quarrel ended with the Manchu occupation of Beijing on June 4, 1644. Hallerstein did not mention the Croatian missionary and astronomer Ureman,

153 who landed in

China in 1615 and lived mostly in Macao. Kircher in Rome published Ureman’s letters about the

magnetic declination.154

Before Hallerstein’s time, Verbiest155

worked at the astronomical bureau. He arrived in Macao in

1658 and made his way to Beijing two years later. Verbiest published three theological and 9

philosophical and natural history works in Chinese language. Verbiest was the first in China to

use steam engine to drive a ship, many years before Fulton. In 1670 he made the thermometer on

air similar to Galileo’s that worked under the huge influence of the atmospheric pressure. His

hygrometer used the inside organs of the animals, but the Chinese used the carbon for that

150

Montucla, 1799, 2: 469--470. The different data in Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 444--445. 151

Kircher, 1667, 110--112. 152

Niklaas Trigault (Kin Ni-Ko Sseu-Piao, * March 3, 1577 Douai in Netherlands; SJ November 9, 1594 Tournai in

Belgium; † November 14, 1628 Hangchow (Dehergne, 1973, 274)). 153

Ivan Ureman (Vreman, Wo Jowang Tchan-Yu, * April 6, 1583 Split; SJ February 1, 1600 Rome; † April 22, 1621

Nanking (Dehergne, 1973, 277; Dadić, 1982, 1: 198—201; Pfister, 1932, 149-150)). 154

Dadić, 1994, 196. 155

Ferdinand Verbiest (Nang-hoai-gin, Nan Huai-Jen, Nan Houai-Jen Touen-Pei, * October 9, 1623 Pitthem near

Brugge in Belgium Flanders; SJ September 29, 1641 Malines (Mecheln) in Belgium; † January 28, 1688 Beijing

(Dehergne, 1973, 288--289)).

22

purpose even earlier.156

The Chinese astronomers accused Verbiest that he got rid of the older

Chinese astronomical instruments and replaced them with the European ones. But Verbiest left

Europe too early to be aware of the modern science of Cassini, Halley, Flamsteed, and Picard.157

Stumpf made the quadrant from the material of the old Chinese astronomical instruments. When

the Chinese historian of mathematics Mei Juecheng158

accused him, Stumpf defended himself

that a Mandarin brought melted artifact of brass and Stumpf just used it as he could prove.159

Mei

Juecheng was the very influential grandson of the famous mathematician Mei Wending (1633-

1721), whose second edition of mathematics Li suan quan shu was published in 1726. Mei

Juecheng collaborated with He Guozong and refused to change the mathematical methods of his

grandfather, because he believed in the strength of the Chinese astronomical tradition. He

separated the astronomy from astrology, because the astronomy was Confucian discipline and the

astrology was not.160

Mei Juecheng’s work was discussed in Biography of the great astronomers

and mathematicians Chourenzhuan published in 1810 in 4 volumes with the appendices about

Western astronomers from Schall’s data from about 1645.161

The similar accusation went to Kögler and Pereyra, who successfully defended themselves.162

To

get some peace, Kögler invited emperor into the Jesuit College and gave him the tobacco from

Brazil in a bottle which was very well accepted.163

156

Needham, Ling, 1959, 466, 470. 157

Montucla, 1799, 2: 470. Jean Picard (* July 21, 1620 La Fleche; † July 12, 1682). 158

Mei Juecheng (Gucheng, Ku-Chhëng, Ku-ch'eng, * May 19, 1681; † 1763 (Wong, 1763, 35; Sivin, 1965, 202;

Jami, Qi, 2003, 105)). 159

Dežman, 1881, 14; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 380, 452. 160

Pingyi Chu, 2003, 196, 197, 200, 201. 161

Pingyi Chu, 2003, 193, 213. 162

Steska, 1918, 146. 163

Hallerstein, 1781, 45.

23

Collaborators

Portuguese mission

On March 1, 1739, Hallerstein went to Beijing as court astronomer and mathematician and lived

there for the last thirty-five years of his life. His friends on the route were Bahr and Gogeisl,164

both trained in astronomical observations. Gogeisl was appointed as mathematician, and Bahr

was employed as a musician.165

More than thirty Jesuit priests and some Russian Orthodox

priests were in Beijing at the time. Verbiest stated that between 1551 and 1681, hundred-five

Jesuits worked in China.166

Between 1580--1773 920 Jesuits went to China. In 1701 the maximal

number of 96 Jesuits lived in China, with French Jesuits prevailing among them. But that was just

a small part of the 22,000 Jesuits all over the world. Between 1731--1743 French Jesuits

prevailed in China and between 1748--1767 Chinese Jesuits prevailed with French ones

outnumbering them only in 1755. In the mid 18th

century, the Chinese Jesuits formed a third of

all the missionaries in China. In average, Jesuits stayed in China for 20.5 years.167

A quarter of

the Chinese Jesuits were of noble origin.168

Hallerstein described his new collaborators in the letters sent in 1739 and 1740. Among the most

interesting Jesuits in Beijing was Stadelin.169

He studied watches in Switzerland and in the large

European cities for eighteen years. Between 1689 and 1700 he was »director for watches« in

Breslau (Wroclaw) and later in Brünn (Brno), Liegnitz (Legnica in Poland) and elsewhere. In

1707, he arrived to Beijing and emperor and the court found his instruments very amusing.

Chinese liked to watch European mechanical watches because they forgot them as the

development of the Chinese own inventions from the 8th

century.170

Before the end of the year

1739, Hallerstein moved from Nant’ang to the residence Tongt’ang near the church of Saint

Joseph which was the nearest to the Observatory, where he lived together with the superior

Dominic (Domingo) Pinheyra, Bahr, the painter and architect Castiglione,171

and the sculptor and

mason Andreas Moggi from Florence. Pereyra, Portuguese preacher Karl de Resende, Rocha,172

Kögler, Gogeisl, the physician and pharmacist Giuseppe de Costa from Naples, the bishop of

164

Anton Gogeisl (* October 30, 1701 Siegenburg in Bavaria; SJ September 13, 1720 Upper German province;

arrived to China in 1738; † October 12, 1771 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 110--111)). 165

Dežman, 1881, 10; Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 424. 166

Dežman, 1881, 1. 167

Standaert, 1991, 4, 8, 9, 15; Koláček, 1999, 114. 168

Duteil, 1994, 30. 169

Hallerstein, 1781, 54; Hallerstein, 1737, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 844. Franciscus Stadelin (Stadlin, Lin

Tsi-ko, Yu-Ts'ang, * June 18, 1658 Zug in German Switzerland; † April 14, 1740 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 260)). 170

Temple, 1991, 9, 103--104. Valentin Chalier (Cha K’eou-Yu Yong-Heng, * December 17, 1697 Briançon; SJ

September 8, 1715 France; † April 12, 1747 Beijing) arrived to Beijing on December 3 or December 12, 1733 and

became clockmaker (Pfister, 1934, 718). 171

Giuseppe Castiglione (Castiglioni, Lang Che-Ning, * July 19, 1687 Milan; SJ January 16, 1707 Genes (Janov); †

July 16, 1766 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 48--49)) arrived to Beijing on December 22, 1715 (Hallerstein, 1781, 49;

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 426; Koláček, 1999, 27), according to other sources only in 1749 (Steska, 1918, 148). 172

Felix de Rocha (D'Arocha, 1713 Lisbon in Portugal »Ulissiponensis«; SJ; † 1781 Beijing) became the

collaborator of the Beijung astronomical bureau in 1751.

24

Beijing Polikarp de Souza, Walter,173

and Chinese missionaries Julian Chim and Ludwig Fan

stayed in Portuguese Jesuit College Nant’ang.174

In 1743, Costa cured the Chinese empress after

all the Chinese physicians were unable to cure her wounds.175

Hallerstein’s scientific supervisor Kögler continued Ricci’s work in Beijing with the accurate

numeric tables that attracted emperor. »Mathematics was besides astronomy highly praised in all

missions of China and in particular the astronomical calculations.«176

Kögler, Ignaz; Murr, C. G. (ed.). 1806. Versuch einer Geschichte der

Juden in Sina Nbst P. Ignaz Köglers Beschreibung ihrer heiligen Bücher

in der Synagoge zu Kai-fong-fu, und einem Anhange über die Entstehung

des Pentateuchs. Halle: J.C. Hendels.

Report of Chinese missionary Peter Cibot (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 16).

Father Jean Paul Gozani the Jesuit, writes to the father Joseph Suarez in

Portuguese on November 15, 1704 from Cai-fam-fou, the capital of the

province Huan (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 21) and described the magnificent

Synagogue (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 23). Editor’s comments on Gozani’s

letter: the Sznagogue he described is much different from those in

Europe (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 34). Also the monks Predicateurs described

the Jews of China (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 38). Kögler about the Greeg zear

1933 (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 60) also states that Synagogue was not in the

European form (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 61). The comments of the

missionary Johann Anton Sartorius on February 8, 1738 (Kögler, Murr,

1806, 62). The doctor Claudius Buchanan, viceprovincial of the college

in Bengal (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 70). Kögler about two Jewish books

prior to Macabeians (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 73) which also Ernest Ludovic

Rathlef commented in 1738 (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 74). About the

geography and people on the Earth (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 108). The

theology of Benedict de Spinoza translated by prof. Karl Philipp Conze

in Tübingen and Stuttgart in 1808 (Kögler, Murr, 1806, 115).

173

Jan Xaver Walter (Johann Valter, Lou Tchong-Hien, Chang-Tö, * January 6, 1708 Žilina (Bilmae, Biline) in the

northwest Bohemia; SJ October 10, 1729 Bohemia; † June 24, 1759 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 296; Koláček, 1999,

299)) arrived to Beijing in 1742 as an artist. 174

Šmitek, 1995, 101, 102; Dežman, 1881, 11; Verhaeren, 1940, 6, 7. 175

Dežman, 1881, 15; Steska, 1918, 147; Giuseppe de Costa (Josef, Casta, * 1679 kingdom of Naples; SJ kingdom

of Naples; † 1747 Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 150--151, 190)). 176

Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 424, 426, 430.

25

Renn, Jürgen; Schemmel, Matthias. 2000. Waagen und Wissen in China.

Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte.

Obravnavata predvsem moderne mere in uteži na etnološki način z nekaj

citati iz Needhama 1989 v zvezi z tehtnicami (Renn, Schemmel, 2000,

29). Miselni modeli pri Galileju (Renn, Schemmel, 2000, 46) kot model

za rekonstrukciji mehanskega načina mišljenja (Renn, Schemmel, 2000,

37). Leta 1988 so raziskavo opravili v Pekingu ob vaganju nakupljenega

na tržnicah (Renn, Schemmel, 2000, 19), preučevanju mer in načina

tehtanja (Renn, Schemmel, 2000, 31)...

Kögler was between 1712--1714 professor of mathematics at the university of Ingolstadt in

Germany. Later, he sailed for China and arrived on August 30, 1716. His four years younger

student Grammatici replaced Kögler in Ingolstadt. Grammatici studied in Ingolstadt and

Freiburg. Later he taught the Gymnasium classes of Grammar and Poetry in the college of Trient,

and theology at the Lyceum of Amberg. In 1720, he became professor of Hebrew and

mathematics at the University of Ingolstadt. He used his own version of Newton’s and

Copernicus ideas. King Philip V. invited him to Madrid at the new seminary for the nobles where

he taught mathematics. After three years, Grammatici returned to Ingolstadt. From 1730 to 1732,

he was professor of moral theology at the Lyceum of Amberg, and later spiritual in Regensburg.

Kögler translated Grammatici’s tables of the eclipses of the Moon to Chinese.

Kögler’s assistant was Pereyra,177

the only Jesuit of the English descent in Beijing. Pereyra was

descendant of the Jackson family. Because of the wine trade they moved to Porto (Oporto) and

accepted Portuguese citizenship.178

Pereyra was a good friend of Kangxi’s successor, emperor

Yongzheng (Yung-cheng),179

who forbade missionary activity in 1724, but kept Pereyra on his

post.180

French Jesuits

In 1739, the French Jesuit residence in Beijing numbered 13 persons: the leader Gaubil,181

Parrenin,182

Mailla,183

la Charme,184

Francois-Xavier D'Entrecolles, Bouvet,185

Foureau,186

and

177

Andrés Pereyra (Andrew Pereira, Jackson, Sui-men-te, Hsü Mou-Të, * February 4, 1689 Porto (according to

Pfister (1934, 652) and Viegas (1921, 257) born on February 4, 1690) Porto; SJ June 17, 1707; † December 2, 1743

Beijing). 178

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 448. 179

Parennin’s letter to Mairan dated August 11, 1730 (Vissière, Vissière, 2000, 183). 180

Šmitek, 1995, 133. 181

Antoine Gaubil (Gobil, Gaubille, Song Kiun-Yong K'i-Ying, Song Junrong Qi Ying, Sun Kiun-yung, * July 14,

1689 Gaillac in Langedoc; SJ September 13, 1704 Toulouse; † July 24, 1759 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 106)). On

June 26 or June 27, 1722, he arrived to Canton.

26

two Chinese priests.187

The superior Chalier was the watchmaker and he worked at the court

together with watchmaker brother Thibault. He made the clock in the burse of jade for

emperor.188

French brother Attiret189

was a praised painter at the court, and brother Rosset was a

physician.190

In 1743, the French residence had only 6 Jesuit fathers and 4 brothers.

Parrenin arrived in Beijing in 1698. He was among the rare Europeans to get emperor

Yongzheng’s (Yung-cheng) permission to stay in the city. He served three emperors as translator

and natural philosopher. Chinese did not have a world for God and it was inventend during the

bite contravery concerning the rites, or already in Ricci’s book of 1603 (Gernet, 2010, 18). In

Beijing, he founded the Latin College for the young Manchu diplomats. He baptized the ducal

Manchu family Sunu (Sourmiana). He told the Chinese about the new successes of European

anatomy. He exchanged letters with Bayer and Nicolas Fréret (1688--1749). Mairan191

exchanged

the letters regularly with Parrenin in 1730s about the Chinese astronomy and language.192

Mairan

was the expert for meteorology, a member and later secretary of the academy of Paris.

In his letters, Gaubil193

several times highly praised the measurements of his young friend

Hallerstein. On March 16, 1730, Gaubil became the foreign member of the Petersburg academy.

He was botanist, astronomer, and cartographer. Between 1742 and 1748 he was superior of the

French residence. He studied with Cassini and Maraldi194

in Paris and was the first to remind the

182

Dominique Parrenin (Parenin, Parennin, Pa To-ming K'e-an, * September 1, 1665 Grand-Russey in parish

Besançon; SJ September 1, 1685; † September 20, 1741 Beijing (Sommervogel, 6: 284, 9: 757; Pfister, 1932, 501--

517)). 183

Joseph Marie Anne de Moyriac de Mailla (Maillá, Maillac, Fong Ping-Tcheng, Touan-Yeou, * December 16,

1669 Maillac; SJ September 12, 1686; † June 28, 1748 Beijing). 184

Alexander de la Charme (Suen Tchang Yu-Fong, Sun Chang, * July 18, 1695 Lyon; SJ September 7, 1712 Lyon;

March 1729 arrived to Beijing; † June 27, 1767 Beijing). 185

François Joachim Bouvet (Bouffel, Pei Tsin Ming-Yuan, * July 18, 1656 Mans; SJ October 9, 1673 France; †

June 28, 1730 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 34)). Together with Caude de Visdelou (Viscous, Liu Yig Zhengwen, Lieou

Ying Cheng-Wen, * August 12, 1656 Trébry in France; SJ June 5, 1673 Paris; † November 11, 1737 Pondichéry in

India (Dehergne, 1973, 294--295)), the leader Jean (François) de Fontaney (Hong Jo Che-Teng, * February 17, 1643

S. Pol de Léon in Brittany; SJ February 18, 1658 Paris; † January 16, 1710 Paris (Pfister, 1932, 419)), Louis-Daniel

Le Comte (Compte, Leconte, Li Ming Fou-Tch'ou, * October 10, 1655 Bordeaux; SJ October 15, 1671 Bordeaux; †

April 19, 1728 Bordeaux (Dehergne, 1973, 146--147)), Guy Tachard (* 1648 Marthion (Charente); SJ September 20,

1668 Bordeaux; † October 21, 1712 Chandernagor in Bengal (Dehergne, 1973, 263)) and Gerbillon sailed on the

mission of Ludvik XIV. In 1685, king sent the group of six Jesuits with presents and the best instruments for the

measurement to China. Tachard described their voyage in 1688. In 1699, emperor sent Bouyet with the presents back

to Europe. In 1700, he returned to Canton and later to Beijing. Together with Gerbillon he taught mathematics to

emperor. He developed the very first chemical laboratory in China. 186

Pierre Foureau (Wou Kiun To-lou, * November 13, 1700 department Mains; SJ September 26 1720; † November

10, 1749 Paris). 187

Šmitek, 1995, 102. 188

Duteil, 1994, 289. 189

Jean-Denis Attiret (Dyonysis, * July 31, 1702 Dole; SJ July 31, 1735 Avignon; † December 8, 1768 Beijing

(Amiot, 1943, 472; Koláček, 1999, 27)). 190

Dežman, 1881, 11--12; Hallerstein, 1781, 44. 191

Jean Jacques Dorotheus (Dortoux) de Mairan (* November 26, 1678 Béziers; † February 20, 1771 Paris). 192

Mairan, 1759; Gough, 1981, 20. 193

Antoine Gaubil (Gobil, Gaubille, Song Kiun-Yong K'i-Ying, Song Junrong Qi Ying, Sun Kiun-yung, * July 14,

1689 Gaillac in Langedoc; SJ September 13, 1704 Toulouse; † July 24, 1759 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 106)).

Between June 26, and June 27, 1722 he landed in Canton. 194

Cassini’s nephew Giacomo Filippo Maraldi (* August 21, 1665 Perinaldo near Nice; † December 1, 1729 Paris)

27

Europe about the antique Chinese astronomical records.195

Gaubil’s manuscripts about the

Chinese antique observations of the points of Sun’s orbit, the orbit of Earth around the Sun,

precession, and other astronomical observations were published by Laplace nearly a century

later.196

Among the most important French Jesuit astronomers was Benoist,197

who served for thirty years

under Emperor Qianlong. He studied in Dijon and in Saint Sulpice in Paris. After three years of

repeated asking to be sent to the missions of China, he finally succeeded. Before the departure, he

had to finish his astronomical studies in Paris with Delisle,198

Lacaille and Monnier. Later, he

exchanged many letters with them from China. In 1745, Benoist got the title of emperor’s

mathematician.199

In the time of Benoist’s arrival in Beijing, the missionaries were suppressed

there, but he was able to make himself necessary at the court because of his knowledge. He was

hired to build the huge system of the fountains at the emperor’s gardens.200

He worked

successfully on that project for many years. He erected houses in European style in the gardens

and put the interesting water clock in front of the Italian-style house. He used local Chinese

motives. The Manchus marked 24 hours of the day with 12 animals of different kind. On the two

sides of the triangular water reservoir Benoist put the statues of the three animals. Guided by an

mechanical tool, the water flowed each two hours from the mouth of a different animal. On May

21, 1766 Benoist and Attiret visited the minister to get the orders about the pictures that would

adorn the palace.201

The French king Luis XV ordered Benoist to make extra copies of the 16 copperplates of the

emperor’s battles. Benoist therefore invented the new methods for the wetting of the paper and

the use of ink.

In the company of such an important scientists in Beijing, Hallerstein was ready to do his part of

the work. As a newcomer, he had to learn the Chinese language and script with Chinese converts.

The new Chinese visitor Simonelli supported Hallerstein.202

The emperor was glad to see how

195

Ho, 1970, 261; Laplace, 1982, 280. 196

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 173, 761. 197

Michel Benoist (Benoît, Tsiang Yeou-Jen Tö-Yi, * October 8, 1715 Dijon; SJ March 19, 1737 Nancy; arrived to

Beijing on July 12, 1744; † October 23, 1774 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 30)). 198

Joseph Nicolas Delisle (d’Isle, De L'Isle, * 1688 Paris; † 1768), the member of the Paris academy in 1714, the

first astronomer of the Petersburg academy between 1726 and 1746, the member of the academies of Berlin and

London. His brother Guillaume Delisle (1675--1726) was geographer, éleve (1714) and the member (1716) of the

Paris academy and professor of mathematics in king’s college after 1718 (Woolf, 1962, 7). In 1757, his relative Jean

Baptiste Romé de l'Isle (*1736 Gral, 1790 Paris) became the secretary of the artillery forces in Pondichérry in India,

where he fought against English during the seven years war. In 1764, he returned to Paris and published numerous

books. In 1778, he published the critique of the theories of the count Buffon. In 1775, he was accepted into

Academia naturae curiosorum in the town of Halle with the academic title Archelaus II, at the same time as Janez

Krstnik Mihael Žagar (Mušič, Batis, 1975, 55-56). 199

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 122; Benoist, letter from Beijing to Papillon d'Auteroche dated November 16, 1767. 200

Šmitek, 1995, 113; Hallerstein’s letter dated November 28, 1749, published: 1781, 28--29. 201

Amiot, 1943, 470. 202

Šmitek, 1995, 109, 136; Steska, 1918, 147; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 454; Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 427. Giacomo

Filippo Simonelli (* 1680 Macenta, Italy; † 1754 Macao). One of Chinese Jesuit scientist was Hsü Ta-Shëng (* 1716

province Jiangxi; † 1784/85 in jail during the persecution of Christians). Two other famous Chinese Jesuit scientists

were Johannes Ho (* 1744; SJ; † 1773) and Philippus Maria Huang (* 1711 Beijing; † 1776 China). Between 1729

and 1763, Huang studied and lectured at the college of Holly Family in Naples.

28

quickly Hallerstein learned Chinese language. In November 1740, Hallerstein sent his

computations of the Solar and Moon eclipses to his brother Vajkard. Soon he was recognized as

an excellent organizer, who knew how to choose the accurate cooperators from the Portuguese

college. At first, mostly his travel companion Goigesl helped him. Later in 1751, Rocha and

Espinha arrived from the Pyrenean peninsula. A year before the talented Amiot203

arrived to

China and soon became Hallerstein’s best collaborator among French Jesuits. Amiot translated

the book about the Chinese wars and maps and improved Thomas’ measurement of the meridian

of Beijing from the year 1702.204

In 1760, Amiot published Confucius’ biography entitled »Vita

Confucii”. Although he did not publish theological papers, Hallerstein also carefully reported

abut his own experiences with »Mohamedians«, about political circumstances in China, and

about his own work at the court.205

Jesuits had residences in the provinces of Chi-li, Shanxi (Shan-si), Shen-si, Shan-tung, Ho-nan,

Sichuan (Sze-ch'wan), Hu-kwang, Kiang-si, Kiang-nan, Che-kiang, Fu-kien, Guangdong

(Kwang-tung), and Guangxi (Jiangxi, Kwang-si). They were not very successful any more in

converting Chinese to Catholic faith in Hallerstein’s time, because they had many problems with

the authorities.206

They were much better in teaching Chinese about the important discoveries of

European scientists, especially astronomers. But that knowledge didn’t have much influence on

Chinese social system.207

Chinese

Hallerstein’s Chinese collaborators were listed in the register of the officials of the emperor’s

astronomical observatory in 1754. The first president of the emperor’s observatory was Yun Lu

(Lou) prince Zhuang,208

the 16th

son of emperor Kangxi. In the time of his father’s reign he was

not in good relations with his half brothers. Together with his half brother, 13th

son of Kangxi

named Yin-hsiang (November 16, 1686 —June 18, 1730), he supported Yongzheng (Yung-

cheng) when he ascended to the imperial throne. Therefore, the new emperor named Yun Lu as

the successor of Boggomo (1650--1722), the first prince Zhuang (Chuang) early in 1723.

Boggomo was the grandson of emperor Taizeng (T'ai-tsung), but he had no descendants. Yun

Lou studied music and mathematics. He lead the commission for the new edition of the

encyclopedia Lü-li yüan-yüan and probably also Gujin tushu zhicheng (Ku-chin T'u-shu chi-ch-

eng), both under the leadership of the yin-chien scientists.209

203

Jean-Joseph-Maria Amiot (Ts'ien té-ming jo-ché, * February 8, 1718 Toulon; SJ September 27, 1737 Lyon;

arrives to Beijing on November 1, 1754; † October 8/9, 1793 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 12)). His father was king’s

notary. He studied philosophy for three years and one year theology in Toulon. He entered novitiate in Avignon. He

lectured in Besançon from 1739 to 1741, the higher classes of Gymnasium in Arles et a Aix from 1742 to 1744 and

Rhetoric in Nimes between 1744 and 1745. On November 21, 1749, he sailed for China and the next year landed in

Macao. Two days before his departure he sent the letter to Delisle on November 19, 1749 Rochemonteix, 1915, 6, 8,

11). 204

Hallerstein, 1761, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 851; Hallerstein, 1781, 37--38, 42; Šmitek, 1995, 114;

Montucla, 1799, 2: 478. 205

Hallerstein, 1761, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 852; Imeli so dve domovini, 1988, 46; Dimitz, 1861, 84. 206

Forgeot, 1747, 918. 207

Huff, 1993, 361. 208

Yun Lu (Yin-Lou) the second prince Zhuang (Tchoang, Chuang, Yün-lu, * July 28, 1695; † March 20, 1767). 209

Hummel, 1944, 926; Chu, 1994, 390.

29

The second president of the emperor’s observatory was Ngo Eul-Tai, a duke of the third rangE,

the former minister and the president of the military tribunal. The third president of the

observatory was Changchao (Tchang-Tchao),210

the president of the tribunal of Mandarins. He

was a famous calligrapher. Between 1733 and 1742 he served as the vice-president and president

of the tribunal for punishments. In 1736, he fell into disgrace and he was sentenced to death. But

his especially fine handwriting eventually saved him. Emperor pardoned him, because nobody in

all China was his equal in calligraphy. Changchao collaborated in the work of the emperor’s

observatory as the expert for music.

Besides three presidents, the observatory also had two vice presidents. The first was Kio-Lou-Le-

Eul-Chen, the vice president of the court tribunal and substitute for the Marchal of the flags of the

red coins among Manchu. The second vice president was He Guozong (Ho Kuo Tsung),

mathematician and the editor of Lü-li yüan-yüan, published for the first time in 1723. In 1739, He

Guozong (Ho Kuo-Tsung, Ho Kouo-Tsung) became the leading teacher at the emperor’s

academy in Beijing. In 1755 and 1756, he collaborated with Espinha on the map of the land of

Eleuts211

and Tartars. In the beginning of 1757, He Guozong became president of the ministry

(tribunal) for the rites. Between 1757 and 1759 he taught mathematics in the palace for princes

(Nan-shu-fang, Shang-shu-fang).212

The astronomers were Kögler, president of the bureau and the candidate with the title of vice

president at the ministry for rites, his successor president Hallerstein, and vice president Gogeisl.

In 1755, Rocha joined them.

Nine persons had the status of experts for calculating.213

The first among them was Ming'antu,214

who was in charge for the seasons of the year at the astronomical bureau. Already in 1721, he

worked at the calendar department.

Between 1756 and 1760, Ming'antu collaborated with Rocha and Espinha on the map of Xinjang

(Xinjiang Uygur, Sinkiang), the province that emperor just occupied. Later between 1759 and

1762, he was together with the president Hallerstein the second (Manchu-Mongolian) president

(Jianzheng) of the astronomical bureau. He wrote the book about the quick computing of the

trigonometric functions and squaring the circle. Although written in 1774???, the book was

published as late as 1839. In that book, he used the infinite series as the first one in China.215

In 1754, Ming'antu headed the group of three specialists in charge of the seasons of the year:

spring, summer, and winter. Besides them, they had five computing experts with the title of

doctor (Boshi, Bo Shi).

210

Chang Chao (* 1691 Lou-Hsien in the province Kiangsu; † February 19, 1745). 211

Amiot, 1943, 436, 438. 212

Hummel, 1944, 286; Chu, 1994, 380; Jami, 1994, 241. 213

Tsuchihashi, Chevalier, 1914, II. 214

Ming'antu (Ming Antu, Myangat, 明安图, * about 1692 from Sharaid Clan based in Urt Tsagaan Khoshuu in

Mongol; † 1764). 215

Jami, 1990, 39, 156.

30

Observatory had 5 students (Tian wen sheng, Tian Wen Sheng). Among them was the famous

painter Changgong (Tchang Kong).216

After his studies with Chen Shu (Ch'en Shu, 1660--1736)

he published several books about the history of painting. They also had other painter and three

additional students in the office.

Hallerstein advises Korean scientists

Europeans of Hallerstein’s time were not able to visit Korea or Japan. Japan was completely

isolated between 1616 and 1720. In 1725, Japanese opened the first modern astronomical

observatory in Japan, and under the leadership of director Nakane Genkei (1661-1733)

completely accepted Copernican ideas.

Koreans learned European science, technology, and religion from the books published in classical

Chinese language. The Western mathematics, astronomy, and technology pleased them much

more than cosmology.

In Korea, due to a wrong computation, the errors in the calendar were numerous and the

predictions of the astronomical events in ephemerides were not accurate any more. Every type of

calendar had its errors therefore Koreans changed the type several times. They had to change the

whole map of the stars, because the evening and the morning stars were not at their computed

posts any more. Han Hungil (1587--1651) got a book in Beijing that explained the Western

calendar. But after the decade of study of Hungil’s book Koreans were still unable to make

completely useful calendar.

From 370 B.C. until 1742, Chinese made 100 calendars or editions of the astronomic tables with

the constants for the measurement of solstices, movements of planets, the length of the day,

month and year.217

Between 1636 and 1637, they accepted the Western ways for computing the

calendar. Later, the new Chinese calendar influenced the neighboring Korea. But as foreign

citizens Koreans were not allowed to have a look in the computing of the Chinese calendar.

Therefore Koreans got the copies of the new ephemerides from the translators at the bureau of

astronomical observations. From that date they searched the methods used for the computation of

the calendar.

Kim Yuk (1580--1658), one of the highest administrators in Korea (Choson), supported the use

of the new Western technologies for the computation of the calendar. In 1645, as the director of

the bureau of the astronomy and meteorology in Korea he successfully convinced the ruler to

accept the Western science of calendar. In 1653, his efforts enabled Koreans to compute the

calendar according to the new Western methods.

The admiration of the Western calendar did not necessarily imply the admiration of all Western

culture. Koreans were willing to accept Western technology without the higher value of European

people. The technical experts were subordinated to the Confucian teachers. Koran Seongho Yi Ik

216

Chang keng (1685--1760). 217

Needham, 1984, 3: 210.

31

(* 1681; † 1763) ignored religion in Diaz’s work, but used the technique (Baker, 1983, 215, 231).

Yi Sǔngun (* 1756; † 1801) was the first carrier of Catholicism to Korea, but in the fall of 1791

two Korea’s first Catholics were executed (Baker, 1983, 215, 234). Anyway, Pak Chega

(* 1750; † 1815) argued in 1786 to invite the Jesuit priest to teach Koreans about astronomy,

mathematics, the manufacture of firearms, and the constructions of city walls and bridges.

Ricci convicted Confucian scientist to accept the European novelties. The first accurate

geography reached Korea with the work titled “World Geography” (Zgifang waiji, Chih-fang

wai-chi), written by the Italian Jesuit Giulio Aleni (1582--1649) in 1623.218

With the accurate

description of people and cultures he completed the Renaissance maps of the world. Yi Ik was

glad to have the new information and prepared Koreans to accept them. Just like Kim Manjung

before him, Korean scholar Yi Ik also introduced Aleni’s work as the improvement of the

Confucian geographical tradition while still keeping China at the center of the world (Lim, 2008,

186 188). Yi Ik used Jesuit geomagnetic measurement to demarcate jin an jang and placed China

at the center of jang. He run for government position until his brother was beaten to death

According to Korean ideas, the Earth was in the center of the spherical cosmos. The earth doesn’t

move and the cosmos makes one turn every day. Because the cosmos is huge, a great centripetal

force was needed to keep all stars on their positions. Therefore the old Korean cosmology was

nearer to Ptolemy, than to Copernicus.

Koreans were able to meet Europeans only in China. During his diplomatic visit to China in

1631, Chong Tuwon (* 1581) met Rodrigues, Catholic missionary from the Japan Jesuit

province.219

Rodrigues gave him several European books and hand-made presents and Chong

Tuwon later eventually brought them to Korea. Among the presents there was also a telescope;

but Tuwon supported it’s military and not astronomical use. Before the Manchu invasion

Rodrigues moved to Macao in 1632.220

Early in the 18th

century, Yi Imyong (1658--1722) visited the Jesuits of the Portuguese mission in

Beijing, Kögler and Portuguese Suares.221

He discussed the Western astronomy and religion with

them. Suares’ letter about Christianity in China, sent in 1692 from Beijing, was also brought to

the attention of the famous Leibniz.222

In 1708, Korean Tyentung Sanguiko published the important book with the description of the

unusual events in the East sky.223

In 1741, Korean astronomer An Kuk-pin broadened his

astronomical knowledge in the Jesuit College of Beijing with Pereyra. Kuk-pin and Pyon

Chunghwa were the Korean ambassadors in China. Kögler gave them the ephemerides of the

218

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 584. 219

Joao Rodrigues (Tçuzu, Lou Jo-han, * 1561 Sernacelhe (Sarnancelhe) in parish Lamego in Portugal; SJ December

1580 in Japan; † August 1, 1633 Macao (Dehergne, 1973, 227)). 220

Needham, Gwei-Djen, Combridge, Mayor, 1998, 176. 221

Joseph Suares (José Soares, Sou Lin P'ei-tsang, * February 15, 1656 Santa Comba Dao near Coimbra; SJ March

1673; † September 15, 1736 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 256; Baker, 1983, 227)). 222

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646--1716): Standaert, 2008, 183. 223

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 683.

32

Sun, Moon, and planets, logarithmic tables, the list of eclipses of Sun and Moon, papers about

mathematics and the copy of Kögler’s planisphere.224

Hallerstein had a particularly favorable opinion about the clever Koreans who were supposed to

ask the questions all the time and at the same newer answered any questions. In 1766, the Korean

Hong Taeyong (1722--1809 or 1731--1783) visited Hallerstein and Gogeisl in Beijing. They

discussed astronomy which interested the Korean, and theology, which interested the Jesuits.

Hong Taeyong mostly researched, but he also served at minor posts and finally became the

county judge. His uncle was the Korean ambassador in China. Therefore he was among the rare

Koreans of those times, who were able to visit China, the center of the Confucian civilization.

During his summer visit to China he researched the base of the Korean cosmology and

philosophy. He presented his questions as a dialogue between the traditional neo-Confucians and

comparatively free minded man from the mountain Iwulu in the province of Liao-ning near the

Chinese-Korean border. Neo-Confucianism supposed that the Earth was not just spherical, but it

also revolved each day around its axis. The supposition was not completely Copernican, because

it did not move the Earth from the center of the universe. Hong Taeyong also did not consider

any scientific reasons for the revolving of the Earth. He posted the philosophical supposition

without the base in experience and in that way showed the new way of Korean thought under the

European influence.

Between 1759 and 1761 Taeyong erected a private observatory in Korea. He used the force of

gravity to drive the sphaera armillaris and the clock. He rotated his star globe with the force of

water. His observatory was repaired in 1777.225

HALLERSTEIN WRITES TO EUROPE

Hallerstein’s letters traveled for a long time across the oceans to Europe. They had considerable

influence on the contemporaries. Most letters were published in scientific journals, ephemerides

and books. In 19th

century the letters were also transcribed, mostly by Karl Dežman (1821--1889)

and Raigersfeld. Raigersfeld also copied Hallerstein’s letters as a relative. In 1725, Avguštin’s

first cousin Marija Ana Elizabeta baroness Erberg (1710--1752) married Franc Henrik von

Raigersfeld (1697--1760). We don’t know the fate of the letters that Hallerstein received in

China.

Letters to sister Marija Ana Elizabeta of Ljubljana

Hallerstein wrote to his sister in German. On October 31, 1750, he sent her a letter from Beijing.

He reported about the European missionaries in China and about European astronomy.226

He

224

Šmitek, 1995, 117; Needham, Gwei-Djen, Combridge, Mayor, 1998, 178--179. 225

Needham, Gwei-Djen, Combridge, Mayor, 1998, 98, 113--114, 168. 226

Hallerstein, 1750, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 892.

33

described the problems of father Attimis,227

who studied philosophy in Parma for three years and

sailed to China in 1744 or 1745. He was arrested as the propagator of the Catholic faith and he

fell sick in the jail. A year later on November 28, 1749, Hallerstein described how the Chinese

executed Attimis to his brother Vajkard.

In 1750, Hallerstein wrote about his Beijing collaborator Rocha, who together with the superior

of the French Jesuits in Canton, Joseph Louis Lefebvre helped to save the accused preachers

before 1747 also according to André-Nicolas Forgeot’s (1716 Burgundija-1761 Macao, odpotuje

1746 iz Lizbone in je od 30. 8. 1746 v Macau, prvih pet let bolan) letter to his French friends.228

At the end of the letters Hallerstein send special greetings to his sister that he loved so much.

On October 17, 1756, Hallerstein wrote again to his sister from Beijing. She received the letter in

Ljubljana only two and the half years later, on March 25, 1759. A century later, Raigersfeld

copied the letter. Hallerstein described the journey from Canton to Beijing in 1753 and the duties

of the Chinese master of the rites.229

Marija Ana Elizabeta Hallerstein never married, so her brother Vajkard took care of her. Vajkard

sent money from Brussels to his cousin Erberg at the manor Dol for his sister. He also gave her a

capital of 3000 fl.230

She probably bought Avguštin’s works in Ljubljana, published in Hell and Pilgram’s

ephemerides. In 1784, Mihel Promberger announced in Laibacher Zeitung an offer for the sale

the ephemerides, the year old Vega’s logarithmic tables, and others.231

Letters to brother Vajkard in Brussels

The letters traveled a long time from Brussels to Beijing. It took them about two years from June

21, 1763 to February 1765, and between June 28, 1764 and August 11, 1766.232

A. Hallerstein

wrote to his brother Vajkard on April 24, 1736. He described his farewell visit to the queen of

Portugal before he sailed for the Far East. In that time, Vajkard was professor of ethics in Vienna.

Avguštin described the English ships near Lisbon, and the Jesuit College in Portugal.

In 1781, the Hungarian Jesuit Georg Pray published eight Hallerstein’s letters sent between 1743

and 1766 to his brother Vajkard on fifty-five pages. Pray published letters at the end of his book

as the final appendix. Pray published 4 unnumbered pages for his reader, two pages of the index,

and 272 numbered pages of polemics against the Piarist Father Benedict Cetti (Josephus

227

Tristan Attimis (Trustram Attims, Atemis, Attemis, * Venice area (Koláček, 1999, 204, 213)). 228

Hallerstein, 1750, AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 94: 893-894; Forgeot, 1747, 918; Steska, 1918, 148. 229

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 886--887, 889; Umek, 1991, 419; Dežman, 1881, 17. 230

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 200: 563, 571--572, 575. 231

Dular, 2002, 165. 232

Hallerstein, 1781, 45, 48.

34

Innocentius Desericius). Cetti claimed that the Chinese culture was a barbarian one.233

The

statement was connected with the debate of the Hunan origin of Hungarians. In 1775, Pray

published a book about the origins of Hunan and Avarians where he mostly cited Hallerstein’s

letters.234

Leibniz had already written against the criticism of Chinese culture because Grimaldi235

reported about Chinese discoveries to him. Grimaldi used Verbiest’s memorial to the throne in

1671 to come from Canton to Beijing. From 1683 to 1685 we find Grimaldi traveling through

Manchu lands. In 1711, he drew the map of stars in Beijing. Between 1686 and 1691, he visited

Rome, Paris, Vienna, and München, and then crossed to Smyrna and Persia to return to China in

1694. In 1689, he met Leibniz in Rome and corresponded with him until December 6, 1696.

As the head of astronomical bureau in Beijing, Grimaldi collaborated with Verjus,236

Joachim

Bouvet and Gerbillon.237

On December 3, 1693, Grimaldi wrote to Leibniz from Goa. Christian

Wolff, the follower of Leibniz’ ideas, learned about Chinese inventions by reading the works of

Jesuit missionary, linguist and astronomer Noël, who calculated the geographical coordinates of

many Chinese places. Noël and Leibniz praised the work of Chinese scientists.238

Pray published the following Hallerstein’s letters:

Letter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Date 6/ 10/ 1743 28/ 11/ 1749 21/ 10/ 1753 6/ 10/ 1757 29/ 10/ 1761 12/ 2/ 1764 27/ 10/ 1765 24/ 9/ 1766

Page 1--16 17--29 29—32 33—37 37--40 40--44 45—48 49—55

Place Beijing Beijing Guangdong Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing Beijing

The brothers exchanged many letters, although some of them needed as much as two years to

reach the destination.239

A. Hallerstein began his first letter with the description of the events

from the time of his arrival to Beijing. He thanked his brother for the letters sent from Hungary

on December 2, 1739 and from Vienna on December 28, 1739. He was very sorry to hear that

Timisoara Bishop de Falkenstein died, because he admired his long life. Baron Adalbert de

Falkenstein was appointed Bishop in 1733, when Emperor Karl VI moved the seat of the

Bishop’s office to Timisoara. In that time, they erected the cathedral, Bishop’s palace and several

houses for the staff. On August 6, 1736, after Hallerstein’s leave, they began to build the famous

Dome. Hallerstein’s links with Falkenstein were probably connected with the college of

Timisoara which Hallerstein left in the summer of 1735. Count Falkenstein later became the

name of emperor Josef II (1741--1790, co-regent 1765, emperor 1780) on his secret travels. The

future emperor Josef II was just two years old at the time of Hallerstein’s letters.

233

Šmitek, 1995, 89. 234

Šmitek, 1995, 89; Pray, 1775. 235

Claudio Filippo Grimaldi (Min Ming-Ngo Tö-Sien, * September 27, 1638 Cineo in Piemontu; SJ January 13,

1658 Chieri; † November 8/9, 1712 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 120)). 236

Antoine Verjus (1632--1706), Jesuit mandatary (procurator) for the Middle East. 237

Jean François Gerbillon (Geradils, Gerbils, Tschang Tsch’eng Che-tai, * June 11, 1654 Verdun; SJ October 6,

1670 Nancy; March 25, 1717 or 1707 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 108; Koláček, 1999, 20)). 238

Ching, 1989, 242; Hallerstein , 1781, 34; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 454. 239


35

In the next letters Hallerstein described Macao and Beijing. He proved the sanctity of Christianity

with the ideas of the Beijing Jesuits Pereyra, Parrenin, and Suares.240

He described Russians in

Beijing and the quarrel on the arrival of the special Russian diplomat. In 1743, the Ruissian

announced to the Chinese emperor that the new empress Elizabet Petrovna (Elizaveta, 1709--

1761/1762) ascended to the throne. She was the daughter of Peter I. (1672--1725), and in 1741

the Guard raised her to the throne after the death of her relative Anna Ivanovna (1693--1740).

Russian diplomats did not want to accept the presents of the Chinese court because they didn’t

have the presents of their own, and that caused the diplomatic quarrels.

Hallerstein reported about the death of father Fridelli,241

who lived in China for thirty-seven

years. Hallerstein described the earthquakes of 1720 and 1730 which badly damaged missionary

church in Beijing. After Fridelli’s death, Hallerstein rebuilt the new church in 1740. The new

church was supposed to be higher than the previous one. Some Chinese did not like that and tried

to block the Jesuit building with a story about the subterranean dragon, living under the proposed

new church. A Chinese teacher reported to emperor that the dragon would cause a new strong

earthquake on December 18, 1740 if the Jesuit continued their construction. Dragon probably

didn’t like to carry such a huge burden. Emperor postponed the building until the next year.

Hallerstein did not describe the European theory about the earthquakes,242

developed after the

Lisbon earthquake of 1755. Later, Hallerstein reported about the other earthquakes in China.243

In the second letter Hallerstein reported about the invitation to collaborate with the academies of

Petersburg, London, and Paris. Hallerstein was very proud about the exactness and the volume of

the Beijing observations. They observed the eclipses of Sun and Moon, the satellites of Jupiter

occasionally immersing under the shadow of Jupiter, eclipses of some fixed stars, planets and

moons, and the coordinates of planets compared with fixed stars. They used micrometers, high

quality pendulums, a quadrant with the radius of two foot with a telescope, and a huge

micrometer in a box.244

Hallerstein wrote his third letter from outside Beijing in Guangdong (Quantung).245

A.

Hallerstein mentioned Cochin-china246

with the capital Saigon in the modern Vietnam to his

brother several times. He was interested in the development of Christianity in Cochin-china. In

1739, the Jesuits sent an expedition there with mathematicians and physicians, among them

Slamenski, Siebert, and Chrysostom Joseph Neugebauer from Austrian Jesuit province.247

Numerous Neugebauer’s letters in German language were published by Jesuit Stöcklein

(Öttingen, Bavaria, July 30, 1676; d. Graz, Austria, Dec. 28, 1733. He

240

Hallerstein, 1781, 14. Probably Francisco Suárez (* 1548 Granada; SJ 1564 Salamanca; † 1617 Lisbon), professor

of theology at Collegio Romano from 1580 to 1585. 241

Ehrenwert (Erenbert) Xaver Fridelli (Friedel, Fridelly, Fei Yin Ts'uen-Tch'eng, * March 11, 1673 Linz; SJ

October 12, 1688 Leoben; † June 4, 1739 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 102; Zerlik, 1962, 39, 52, 59, 65)); Kaminski,

Unterreider, 1980, 66. 242

Steska, 1918, 146--147; Dimitz, 1861, 83; Dežman, 1881, 14; Hallerstein, October 4, 1743, published: 1781, 6--7;

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 848. 243

Hallerstein’s letter on September 27, 1766, published: 1781, 54. 244

Hallerstein, 1781, 22--23; Steska, 1918, 148; Dežman, 1881, 16. 245

Dimitz, 1861, 83; Hallerstein’s letter on October 21, 1753, published: 1781, 32. 246

Hallerstein, 1781, 17, 26, 37; AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 851. 247

Hallerstein’s letter on November 28, 1749, published: 1781, 26; Koláček, 1999, 65.

36

entered the Society of Jesus Oct. 9, 1700, and received his theological

training and was ordained in Vienna. As a priest he was chief field

chaplain (1714–18) with Prince Eugene in Serbia. In this capacity he saw

action in 11 field battles. Later he was rector at the College of Vienna-

Neustadt (1720–23)). The mathematician Neugebauer was niot a priest before he went to

the missions.

(PICTURE 3: The front page of Stöcklein’s Welt-Bott published in 1726, where in later issues

many Hallerstein’s letters were published)

On October 29, 1761, A. Hallerstein sent a letter from Beijing to his brother Vajkard in Brussels.

Vajkard sent a copy of the letter to Raigersfeld of Carniola that is still preserved as part of the

archive of his relatives Erbergs of Dol in the Archive of Slovene Republic. Latin letters became

somewhat pale, but are still readable. At the end of the text several lines of German text were

added later, written by a different hand using darker ink. Pray published this letter as the fifth

letter collected in his book.

Hallerstein described the mapping to his brother. He reported about Amiot, the procurator of the

French Jesuit mission in Beijing.

After the first stroke on July 29, 1774, Avguštin wrote the very last letter to his brother Vajkard

in Brussels on October 12, 1774. On August 26, 1775, Vajkard reported from Brussels to his

cousin Wolf Danijel baron Erberg of Dol. Erberg wrote in German and in French. On November

13, 1773, Avguštin offered his resignation to the emperor, but the emperor gracefully ordered that

he should continue to work as much as he could. After the stroke on July 29, 1774, Avguštin was

unable to use the right side of his body was also temporally unable to speak. His condition

improved later, so he was able to speak and to dictate the last letter to his brother. Vajkard was

very sad. He had seen his brother for the last time forty years ago and now he was certain, that

they were never to meet again.248

Avguštin’s death was announced in Europe for the first time in Kölner Zeitung.249

On October

12, 1774, Vajkard received the report of the Bishop Laimbeckhoven from Nanking about the

death of Avguštin. On October 18, 1775, Vajkard forwarded the sad news to his cousin in the

manor of Dol.250

On July 24, 1776, Vajkard wrote French report about his brother’s testament. Avguštin left silver

worth 800 fl. Vajkard wrote his note on the both sides of the squared leaf from the notebook.251

A

century later, Dežman reported about the 200 ounces of silver mentioned in Hallerstein’s last

will, and 500 fl of that value were left after his funeral expenses were paid.252

248

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 200: 574--575; Dežman, 1881, 20. 249

Dežman, 1881, 20. 250

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 200: 576. 251

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 923. 252

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 944; Dežman, 1881, 20.

37

Letters to Vienna

Two weeks after his arrival to Lisbon, Hallerstein reported to father provincial Franciscus

Molindes on December 7, 1735. He wrote about father Franciscus Fambini and about his friend

Laimbeckhoven.253

On January 13, 1738, Hallerstein reported to Vienna about his travel experiences in Mozambique,

Molucco and Macao. He wrote again about Laimbeckhoven, about the rector of the Jesuit college

and about the meeting with Russians whom he called »Moscovites«.254

On November 4, 1739, Hallerstein reported to his brother already from Beijing. The excitement

after the hard journey was certainly great, but Avguštin was very realictic. At the end of his

letters, he reported about his possibilities for the scientific work: »I think that we must have some

more useful books in our mission. Some books are not in Beijing because the city is so closed to

the outer word. We need some numerical tables for the stars and planets. I am convinced that the

Chinese printing of the tables of Halley, Delisle from Petersburg, and Marinoni255

from Vienna

would save many expenses«.

He was probably writing about some of the older Marinoni’s works, because Marinoni’s famous

astronomy was printed only in 1745. Ten years later, B. F. Erberg bought it for the Jesuits of

Ljubljana. In 1720, Marinoni erected the first observatory in Habsburg monarchy in Vienna,

considered the best in Europe. In that way, he paved the way for his successors, J. Franz. Franz

was later director of the observatory at the Viennese academic college for 20 years,256

and Hell

replaced him afterwards. In those decades the Jesuits Hell, Bošković, and also Hallerstein made

their names known among the best astronomers in the word. In 1739, Hallerstein suggested the

publication of the astronomical works of the Jesuits, and his idea was used somewhat later.

On November 6, 1740, Hallerstein reported to his brother about his friend, the French Jesuit

Father Foureau. He also wrote about his collaborators at the Beijing mission, Kögler, Pereyra,

and Jacob Antonini from Modena who had just died. He mentioned Foureau again in the letter to

his brother sent on October 6, 1743.257

253

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 812; Keller, 1855. 254

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 828, 845. 255

Johann Jakob Marinoni (* 1676 Videm; † January 10, 1755 Vienna). 256

Vanino, 1969, 153. 257


38

Cooperation with European academies and observatories

Hallerstein collaborated with the three most important academies of his time in Petersburg,

London, and Paris. He was interested in the measurements of Italian academicians, especially

from Bologna.

Berlin and Leipzig

Hallerstein did not personally cooperate with the academy of Berlin, which was established by

King Fredrick I in 1700. Hallerstein did not publish much in Acta Eruditorum of Leipzig. The

magazine was established in 1682 after Leibniz put forward the idea.258

Acta Eruditorum

published Valvasor’s work in 1689, and later French missionary Noël’s259

China reports; they

also published a very positive comment on Hallerstein’s book of 1768. Daniel Bernoulli260

published a German translation of Hallerstein’s mathematical paper in Berlin.

(PICTURE 4: The front page of the positive comment on Hallerstein's book about astronomical

measurements, published in Vienna in 1768 (Nova acta eruditorum anni 1772 publicata (June),

No. 4. Lipsiae. P. 155))

(PICTURE 5: The last two pages of the comment on the Hallerstein’s book of astronomical

measurements published in Vienna in 1768 (Nova acta eruditorum anni 1772 publicata (June),

No. 4. Lipsiae. Pp. 155))

The quarrels among Jesuits and Protestants were just one of the reasons for the relatively poor

Hallerstein’s collaboration in the publications from Berlin and Leipzig. The collaboration with

the Protestant London Royal Society was carried out without trouble at least one decade between

1742 and 1752, and Hallerstein’s students published their works in London in when Hallerstein

died, in 1774.

Petersburg

Collaboration with Sanchez261

Sanchez was a Portuguese Jew. He studied medicine in Portugal and in 1724 become a physician

in the town of Benevente. Because of the persecution of Jews he was forced to leave Portugal

258

Pogrebskij, 1971, 247. 259

François Noël (Wei Fang-Chi, Wei Fang-tsi, * August 18, 1651 Hestrud in Hainautu, today Départment du Nord;

SJ September 30, 1670 Tournai; † September 17, 1729 Lille) (Dehergne, 1973, 185--186)). 260

Daniel (* January 29, 1700 Groningen; † March 17, 1782 Basel) 261

Antonio-Nuñes Ribeyra Sanchez (Ribeiro Sanches, * March 7, 1699 Penna-Macor; † October 14, 1783 Paris).

39

before Hallerstein’s arrival in Lisbon. He was practical physician for two years in London, but he

left the town because he didn’t like the climate. He moved to Leyden and studied with

Boerhaave.262

Among Sanchez’ classmates van Swieten263

was just several months his younger.

They corresponded all the time and van Swieten made his career as the reformer of the education

system of the Habsburg monarchy.

Willemse, David. 1972. Gerard van Swieten in zijn brieven aan Antonio

Nunes Ribeiro Sanches (1739-1754). Scientiarum Historia (Antwerpen).

14: 113-143.

Okoli 600 pisem v Nationalbobliothek Wien, 33 fascikel od januarja

1739 do februarja 1754 (Willemse, 1972, 113). Morda sta oba v isti dobi

nehala biti prijatelja jezuitom. Swieten 21. 6. 1741 Sanchesu porca o

Abrahamu Kaau (Willemse, 1972, 120). Swieten 6. 5. 1750 poroča o

epidemiji na Teresianumu (Willemse, 1972, 136). Swieten podari

Sanchesu komentarje Boerhaavejevih aforizmov (Willemse, 1972, 142).

Van der Korst, J. K. 2003. Een doktet van formaat, Gerard van Swieten,

lijfarts van keizerin Maria Theresia. Amsterdam: Uitgeverij Bert Bakker.

Austrian National Library has Swieten’s correspondence with António

Nunes Ribero Sanches from the time he was in Russian court between

the years 1737 and 1754 (Korst, 2003, 5). Sanches was in his first times

the supporter of Beijing Jesuits, although they did not have any of his

works in Beijing library. Swieten also corresponded with his own enemy

Albrecht von Haller, John Pringle, Linnaeus, and René Réaumur (Korst,

2003, 6). Swieten was Boerhaave’s student and even Voltaire liked

Swieten (Korst, 2003, 8). Sweeten corresponded with the Englishman

Abraham Trembley and also with Pieter van Musschenbroek, in October

1741 in London Swieten met Trembley and French Buffon (Korst, 2003,

35-36). Sanches used clinical thermometer in Russia. Swieten mentioned

262

Dutchman Herman Boerhaave (1668--1738). 263

Gerhard van Swieten (1700--1772).

40

Leyden lections of Boerhaave and Sanches in his Commentaria (Korst,

2003, 50-51). Swieten stimulated pharmacy and Sanches was in Leyden

in 1730 with the student Philippe de la Cour (Korst, 2003, 50-51).

Swieten’ student Antonius de Haen was also in Russia and later he

practiced in Vienna (Korst, 2003, 52; Goodman, 2000, 226). In August

1735 Swieten in Amsterdam got in touch with Linnaeus (Korst, 2003,

53). In 1744 Maria Theresa’s sister Naria Anna had her first child in

Brussels and Swieten went there to help with Kaunitz in November 1735

(Korst, 2003, 63). No mention of Kobencl, Vajkard Hallerstein or

Boskovic whom he probably met in Brussels. Swieten writes to Sanches

on April 8, 1743 (Korst, 2003, 74). Swieten’s Commentaria, Sanches

wanted to publish it with the Empress Elisabeth (Korst, 2003, 76). Haller

was jealous and became Swieten’s great rival (Korst, 2003, 82). Haller

was a Protestant and Swieten was Catholic. (Korst, 2003, 96). Swieten

described his antagonism with Haller in his letter to Sanches (Korst,

2003, 97). Haller was probably copying Johannes Wilhemus Heyman’s

work (Korst, 2003, 103). Haller publicized his Praelectiones in

Bibliothèque britannique (Korst, 2003, 108). In 1741 Sanches went to

Russia (Korst, 2003, 109). Swieten in Maria Theresa’s office (Korst,

2003, 126). Rudolph count Chotek collaborated with Swieten in

commission for reforms of education (Korst, 2003, 135). Swieten’s

friend Nicolaas Jozef Jacquin from the Leyden University whom he

protected. The Jesuit fathers Franz and Debiel in Viennese science

(Korst, 2003, 148, 224, 232), and Swieten had some conflicts with the

Jesuits (Korst, 2003, 234-235) which were abolished a year after Swieten

death. A part of new Viennese scientist from Leyden University of

Boerhaave’s school, other part form the Emperor’s Loraine. Swieten

relied on the Emperor and suffered a great loss after his death (Korst,

2003, 249), also in collaboration with the count Coblenz, As

protomedicus Swieten was unable to help Josef’s wife Isabella von

Parma and therefore earned Josef’s disfavor (Korst, 2003, 249). The

personal physician of Polish king Giovanni Ludovico Bianconi (Korst,

2003, 149). Sanches about lepers or syphilis (Korst, 2003, 163). Swieten

wrote about his Comentarius (1746) to Sanches up to the year 1772

(Korst, 2003, 148) and the Chinese Jesuits obtained a copy with

41

Portuguese bookplate drawn only in 1780, 34 years after the Venetian

publication: “Iste Liber pertnet ad bibliothecam Stephani Johannidis

Nobilissimi Domini De Pace Ducis Tervia-schow. Anno 1780 Junii 20

die”. Swieten writes to Sanches in 1749 about his Commentaria (Korst,

2003, 148). In 1745, Switen made a new fascade for Viennese library

(Korst, 2003, 215). In 1753, Swieten hired Popovič as the first director of

the Viennese Law Faculty (Korst, 2003, 226), and built anatomy theatre

(Korst, 2003, 227). Swieten for Olmoutz, Graz, Trnava and Leuven

(Korst, 2003, 231). Swieten wrote to Sanches in August 1752 about the

Viennese Babylon tower with all sorts of language used (Korst, 2003,

244). The vaccination in Vienna (Korst, 2003, 260), on April 26, 1768

John Pringle recommended Ingenhousz to Vienna, also in a letter to

Haller, so Ingenhousz was supposed to heal the children diseases (Korst,

2003, 261). In 1769 Ingenhous was in Florence (Korst, 2003, 262), and

in 1768 in Vienna on Swieten recommendation got a job instead of de

Haen who also wanted the former Swieten’s job of Empress’s personal

physician (Korst, 2003, 169). In 1743 Swieten was in Vienna, in

November-December 1744 in Brussels in the court of Maria Anna. On

June 7, 1745 Swieten went to Vienna and on June 25, 1745 he became

the Library Prefect just after the publication of his Commentaria,

republished on May 19, 1753 with his baron title. In 1750 Swieten

became the associated fellow of the Paris Academy and in 1754 the

honorary member of Petersburg Academy (Korst, 2003, 294).

Cañizares-Esguera, Jorge. 2006. Nature, Empire, and Nation.

Exploration of the History of Science in the Iberian World. Stanford

California: University Press.

The British defeated Spanish in the Seven Years War (Cañizares-

Esguera, 2006, 12). Linnaeus’s science lived the life of its own in tropics

(Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 13). On the Iberian Peninsula they first

recognized that moderns surpassed the ancients (Cañizares-Esguera,

2006, 16). Frasncisco Hernández (1571-1577) spent 7 years in Mexico

1571-1577 experimenting in the hospitals for natives and interviewed the

42

local Nahua intellectuals versed in Latin. In those times the Spaniards

tried to shut down all the information about American to get rid from

their European rivals, so Recchi’s compilation of Hernández’ work had

to wait for 60 years and his Maecenas the king died in between

(Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 28). For 40 years Federico Cesi, Schreck,

Johannes Faber and other continued to add notes and the work Tesoro

Messicano appeared in 1651 while Cesi and other Roman and

Neapolitans were the subjects of Spanish king (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006,

29; Oreste Trabuco, Natura in Cirnice, Appunti sul paratesto del Tesoro

Messicano, Archives internationales d’histoire des sciences, 61/166-167:

457-468, tu str. 457). Hernández’ work did not reach Europeans just

through Juan Eusebio Nieremberg’s Historia naturae (1635) because

many others included part of the circulating manuscripts of Holland,

Spain, Britain and Mexico into their books (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006,

40). Francisco Hernández also translated Plinius into Spanish language

(Chaulet, Rudy, Francisco Hernández traducteur et commentateur

espagnol de Pline au XVIe siècle, Archives internationales d’histoire des

sciences, 61/166-167: 175-468, tu str. 175-184) The amalgamation of

Alvaro Alonso Barba (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 34), Ignaz von Born

wrongly attributed it to Europeans. Zuñiga supported Copernicus with

the citations of the book of Job in the University of Salamanca in 1561,

but later had to deny that (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 37). Changing of

demographic patters in the USA brings Spanish originals of Garciá

Céspedes’s Regimento de navigación instead of his copy in Francis

Bacon’s Instauration magna (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 45), as the USA

Jesuits once promoted the Jesuit science studies. The Jesuits were

officially appointed the cosmographers of the Indies from 1628 to 1767

when they were expelled from Spain (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 48).

Condamine complained on the hostility of locals in Latin America, bur

Humboldt praised them in his thirty volumes (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006,

62). How derivative was Humboldt? (Cañizares-Esguera, 2006, 112).

In 1731, Boerhaave asked the Russian empress Ana Ivanovna to employ Sanchez and two other

physicians. Sanchez left for Russia that same year, became physician of the cadets in Petersburg,

and in 1747 also a foreign member of the academy. He was the physician of Empress Elizabeth

43

and of the later empress Catharine II. On May 9, 1740, Euler wrote a long Latin letter about

mathematical analysis, Bernoulli’s method of the infinite rays, Huygens, and the weather

conditions in England to Sanchez.264

Euler arrived in Petersburg on May 24, 1727, four years

before Sanchez. In 1733, he got the chair for mathematics after Daniel Bernoulli. A year after his

letter to Sanchez, on June 19, 1741, he left Russia and went to Berlin. On June 17, 1766, he

returned to Petersburg. In the same year he reported to Sanchez in Paris about his problems with

his eyes265

which caused the lose of his right eye in 1738 and the almost complete blindness in

1771.

In spite of his success, Sanchez was fired in 1747 because of his Jewish origin and left for Paris.

Razumovski later reported to him about the racial reasons used by empress Elizabeth to get him

out of the job. In Paris, Sanchez kept in touch with the leading scientists of his era, among others

with Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717--1783). On November 3, 1782, d'Alembert reported from the

Louvre about his health problems to Sanchez.266

Sanchez also corresponded with the Beijing Jesuits. Pereyra sent his observations of the Sun

eclipse observed on July 15, 1730, and of Jupiter’s moons in 1729 and 1730 to Sanchez’ friend

de Castro Sacramento.267

Sacramento was also a Portuguese Jew and a physician, just like

Sanchez. He found a comparatively quiet place in London, where he became Fellow of the Royal

Society. Sacramento and Sanchez corresponded with the Russian Beijing linguist and sinologist

of German origin named Bayer.268

Bayer was a pioneer of sinology and professor of ancient

Greek and Latin in Petersburg academy. In 1737, he Sacramento arranged the publication of

Kögler and Pereyra’s Beijing astronomical observations in Europe, not in Souciet’s publication

of the observations from French and Portugal mission in 1729 and 1739 but in Phuil.Trans. via

Carbone. Souciet accomplished huge printing errors that made Kögler very angry and therefore

he decided later to publish in Italy. Jezuiti kot hermafroditski red, katerega člani se znajo

predstaviti kot karkoli vključno v vlogi ateistov; jezuit kot človek s krinko primeren za vse vloge

(Hsia, 2009, 3, 147).

Hallerstein sprejme novico o prepovedi po domala 200 letih jezuitov na Kitajskem (Hsia, 2009,

4), pred tem pa izda svoja opazovanja pri Hellu po radodarnosti svojih evropskih oskrbovalcev z

astronomskimi napravami (Hsia, 2009, 127).

Antoine Gaubil je ostro kritiziral Étienne Soucietovo francosko izdajo svojih del; za primer je

postavljal veliko boljše in bolj vestno Thomas Gouyjevo uredništvo kitajskih jezuitskih dosežkov

jezuitov v službi pariške akademije iz let 1688 in 1692; Gouye je neurejene zapiske uredil v lepo

celoto, Sauciet pa se ni tako zelo potrudil in ga je Gaubil kritiziral posredno namigujoč da je

uredniško delo opravil nekdo drug bolj z levo roko (Hsia, 2009, 93, 122-123).

264

Carvalho, 1955, 199, 200. 265

Rocha, 1980, 340; UB Wien, cod. 12713, p. 564. 266

UB Wien, cod. 12713, pp. 575, cod. 12713; Rocha, 1980, 198, 339, 341; Carvalho, 1955, 197, 198. 267

Jacob de Castro-Sacramento (Sarmento, * 1692 Portugal; † 1762 London (Viegas, 1921, 261)). 268

Teophil (Gottlieb) Siegfried Bayer (* 1694 Königsberg; † 1738 Petersburg (Martzloff, 2000, 315; Viegas, 1921,

257--259)).

44

Veliko o vzporednih jezuitskih dosežkih v Evropi pa tudi v Siamu, na Kitajskem pa se Hsia

osredotoči predvsem na francosko misijo in Gaubila, ki ga je še posebej preučevala. Posebno

popiše Guy Tachardove uredniške izdaje Voyage de Siam (1686); možakarju sta z astronomskimi

napravami pomagala Dominique Cassini in Jacques Borelli (Hsia, 2009, 55). Pariška akademija

je imela načeloma zaprte seje in je skrivala svoje povezave z neakademiki (Hsia, 2009, 55); kljub

temu je neposredno usposobila »kraljeve matematike« iz jezuitskih vrst poslane na Kitajsko

Verbiestu v pomoč. V času tik preden je Hallerstein priplul na Kitajsko so francoski misijonarji

tam znova obnovili neposreden stik s pariškimi akademiki, predvsem preko A. Gaubila. Louis-

Daniel Lecomte je pripovedoval o izgubljenem jezuitskem observatoriju v Siamu, ki je bil že

grajen ko je politična tragedija izsilila njegovo opustitev čeravno je bil mišljen kot razširitev

dejavnosti pariške akademije navzven (Hsia, 2009, 115).

Verbiest je Astronomia Europaea leta 1687 posvetil cesarju Leopoldu I.; Verbiestova domovina

belgijska flamska je bila pozneje po utrechtskem miru iz leta 1716?? tudi pod neposredno

habsburško oblastjo, vsekakor pa je bila del Leopoldovega cesarstva in je bil Verbiest zatorej po

rojstvu cesarski podložnik. Leopold I. je dobro poznal moč in vpliv tovrstnih knjig potem ko je

njegov oče Ferdinand III. leta 1655 ukazal sestaviti Machina Fernandea za kitajsko jezuitsko

misijo; naprava je igrala različne melodije, projicirala sliko kralja Davida z njegovo harfo, merila

čas v kitajskih urah in kazala položaj Sonca v zodiaku. Schott jo je opisal v Magia universalis

naturae et artis (Hsia, 2009, 46-48).

Du Halde je uredil jezuitski opis Kitajske v Description, sledi pa piratska izdaja v Haagu in

angleški prevodi (1736, 1738, 1741) (Hsia, 2009, 142). Halde je namigoval, da si bili znanstveni

dosežki kitajskih jezuitov omejeni, saj so bili večinoma zavzeti z dolžnostmi spreobrnitev v

katoliško vero (Hsia, 2009, 140); kljub temu pa na Kitajskem nikoli ni prišlo do tako masovnih

spreobrnitev kot na Japonskem 16./17. stoletja.

Kljub temu med jezuiti na Kitajskem ni bilo mnogo mučenikov, čeravno je Ricci bržkone postal

svetnik kljub temu da zadnja leta v Pekingu ni uspel srečati cesarja in je imel z dvorom stik

predvsem preko popravljanja obeh ur, ki jih je daroval; na osnovi priljubljenosti ure mu je bil

omogočen sprva pristop preko navdušenega guvernerja province, vendar se je zaverdal, da

potrebuje za ustaljeno misijo cesarsko dovoljenje. Slike svetnikov in Marije niso veliko

pomagale, končno pa je celo cesarja urni mehanizem in označevanje celih ur dovolj navdušil, da

je omogočil Riccijev pogreb v Pekingu, medtem ko so dotlej mrtve jezuite odpeljali na obalo.

Hallerstein gave two volumes of the Beijing astronomical observations to Sanchez in

Petersburg269

before Sanchez left in 1747. Those observations were probably eclipses and della

Briga’s map of the Moon, which were published between 1744 and 1747 in Rome and in Lucca

in four volumes.270

In that way the Beijing Jesuits continuously publicated their measurements in

Europe.

Pereyra wrote to Sanchez on September 12, 1732, July 25, 1734 and for the very last time in

1742, just a year before he died. Pereyra studied philosophy for four years and before he sailed

for China in 1715 taught at the higher classes of the Gymnasium in Coimbra. In Coimbra he

269

Gaubil, 1970, 652 (Gaubil’s letter to Mortimer, sent on November 18, 1751). 270

Whitaker, 1999, 91; Sommervogel, 2: 163; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 454, 791.

45

probably met Sanchez, who was ten years older. In 1721, Pereyra was already in Canton. On

December 30, 1736, he thanked Sanchez for Gregory's books about physical astronomy and

geometry, in particular for Wolff's works brought by ship from Genoa. He described the positions

of the Portuguese and French colleges in Beijing, their common friends from the University of

Évora in Lisbon and from the University of Coimbra. He also reported about the Chinese

emperor and about the president of the astronomical bureau Kögler.

In his next letter, Pereyra thanked Sanchez for his letter dated September 12, 1734, which he

accepted at the end of December 1737. He again described the philosophical and mathematical

studies in Coimbra and Lisbon of his Beijing collaborators, among them Polikarp de Souza, who

studied philosophy in Portugal with Joseph da Silveyra and also with Manoel Baptista. After he

defended his mathematical theses with Paolo de Masquita, he left Coimbra in 1725 and sailed for

China. Together with Pinheyra he arrived to Beijing court in 1729.271

After the unexpected death of Pereyra at the age of 53, Sanchez continued the correspondence

with Hallerstein, Pereyra’s successor in the post of the vice president of the astronomical bureau.

Sanchez sent scientific books and instruments to Hallerstein as the exchange for the seeds,

vegetables, and the data about the natural history of China. The Jesuits from Beijing also sent to

him Chinese porcelain pottery.272

Just before he left Petersburg in 1747, Sanchez told his London

friend de Castro Sacramento to send Collinson’s electrical machine and Bevis’ instrument for the

observation of eclipses to Hallerstein.

Collaboration with Jelačič273

Oeodosii Smorženski je bil rojen na Poljskem, izobrazil pa se je pri jezuitih v Lvivu. Nato je

postal profesor kijevske akademije. Aprila 1742 je postal menih v Kijevsko-Sofijskem

samostanu. 12. 12. 1742 mu je bil dovoljen odhod na Kitajsko, zato je bil 17. 1. 1743 postavljen

za iermonaha in poslan v Peking kot član četrte ruske pravoslavne misije pod vodstvom

arhimandra Ilariona Trusa za sedem let ne upoštevajoč pot tja in nazaj. Misija je imela deset

članov pod načelnikom arhimandrom Gervasijem razen ierod. Josifa, ki je bilo zelo dobro zapisan

na kitajskem dvoru, dodali so ji še štiri učence (Nikolai, 1887, 171-173). Za razliko od jezuitov

Kitajci niso preganjali ruskih pravoslavnih menihov; drektor karavane Lebratovski je dobil od

jezuitskega škofa Polikarpa vel kot povrnjene potne stroške po žurnalu sinode 12. 5. 1753, kot je

Polikarp pisal Riberiu Sančezu v Rusijo 13. 6. 1746 (Nikolai, 1887, 193). 1 9. 1745 so prispeli na

kitajsko mejo, zavoljo slabih konj v mongolskih stepah pa so v Peking prispeli šele 27. 11. 1745,

kjer so se 15. 12. 1745 predstavili tribunalu za zunanje zadeve. Direktor karavane Lebratovskii je

z dvema učencema zapustil Peking 6. 6. 1743 (Nikolai, 1887, 180-181). 12. 5. 1753 se je iz

Pekinga proti Rusiji odpravila sibirska karavana pod vodstvom Alekseja Vladikina, nekdanjega

učenca pekinške misije (Nikolai, 1887, 176). Leta 1742 je direktor karavane Lebratovskii vzel s

271

Viegas, 1921, 262; Rivista (espanhola) de Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos, ano VIII, No. 10, octubre 1904, 3.a

época, t. XI, pp. 307--311 (documents and letters of Beijing Jesuits sent to Sanchez); Professor Maximiano Lemos,

Noticia de alguns Mss. de R. Sanches existentes na Bibl. Nac. de Madrid, Porto, 1913. 272

Viegas, 1921, 261. 273

Franc Luka Jelačič (Franz-Luka, * 1720 Vienna; † after 1776 Moscou).

46

seboj iz Pekinga proti Rusiji učenca Alekseja Vladikina in Ivana Bikova, Vladikin pa se je kot

novi direktor karavane vrnil v Rusijo leta 1755 (Nikolai, 1887, 188-189). Aleksej Leontev (†

1786) se je leta 1742 odpravil s četrto misijo kot učenec, nato pa je s pomočjo svojih prevajalcev

pri ruski akademiji znanosti zbral mnogo kitajskih in mandžurskih virov (Nikolai, 1887, 173,

189-190).

Po odhodu Bratiševa je v Peking prišel novi ruski kurir, Zamoščikov konec leta 1756, kot

poslanec sibirskega gubernatorja Matleva. Jezuiti so mu predali kopije devetih pisem, ki naj bi jih

predal njihovim dopisnikom v Parizu, Torinu, Lizboni, Češki in drugam, kot je Zamoščikov

poročal 29. 3. 1757. Bratiščev je odpotoval iz Moskve 27. 1. 1757, v Peking pa je prispel 29. 8.

1757. Jezuitskih devet pisem je bilo naslovljeno na Raumovskega kot predsednika Akademije,

Amiotovo († 1793) pismo Delatouru iz Pariza datirano 24. 11. 1756 o šestih geodetih za

zemljevid Čungarije (Eleuts) vključno z Rocho in Espinho, ki sta zato postala mandarina tretje

oziroma četrte stopnje, Augustina iz Torina, arhimandrit bržkone Gevrasij, menih Oedosij

(Smorževski), Fračišek Ksaver iz Lizbone, Frančišek Biedo s Češke (Nikolai, 1887, 228-229,

237). Mandžurski gospodarju so v službo sprejemali le jezuite s posebnimi znanji, leta 1768 pa je

predsednik matematičnega prikaza nasprotoval jezuitom s silo (Nikolai, 1887, 239).

Leta 1757 je arhim. Ambrozij sodeloval z rektorjem Patrom Gaubilom po poročilu arhim.

Ambrozija (Nikolai, 1887, 233). Leta 1753 je Hallerstein spremljal odposlanca portugalskega

dvora in prevajal avdience glede pristanišča Makao; zato je dobil nagrado 2000 (kitajskih) langov

oz. 3400 rubljev in državni uradniški položaj; sprva naj bi na Kitajsko prišel sam portugalski

kralj, zato so tozadevno ukazali osmim vojnim divizijam, ki so se nahajale v Pekingu. Hallerstein

je vse to prevajal z mandžurskega na portugalski jezik. Rocha je bil pozneje delegiran v kitajsko

armado, za kar je prav tako prejel državni uradniški položaj (Cordeir, Biblioteca Sinica 1: 523;

Nikolai, 1887, 234). Rusi so na Kitajsko odpravili skupno 8 pravoslavnih misij med letoma 1685-

1808.

Kropotov je vodil odposlanstvo z obvestilom o Katarine II. nastopu vladavine, oktobra 1762 pa

se je skupaj z Jelačićem z moskovske univerze Petra Jakimova odpravilo na pot in prešel mejo

29. 4. 1763, junija 1763 pa je prispel v Peking in opravil avdienco pri ministru Fugunomu glede

plovbe ruski ladij po reki Amur (Nikolai, 1887, 247). Arhimandritu Ambroziju (* 1717; † 1. 7.

1771) so po smrti nagrobni napis sestavili prijatelji jezuiti, na drugi strani s kitajskimi črkami

(Nikolai, 1887, 251).

In early April 2015 Dmitri Bajuk happened to be in St. Petersburg, and I

spent some time in the Archives of RAS. It seems to me that there are a

lot of very interesting material on the topic of interest to us, but their

search requires considerable time. I have great interest the thick volume

of documents on a trip to Beijing Jelacic in 1754/55, but, unfortunately,

could not read - a letter of the 18th century is very different even from

47

the 19th century, and the word is very difficult to disassemble. I was also

attracted autograph letters Miller to Hallershtenu from December 27,

1760 I plan to publish the translation in our magazine and you'll be very

grateful for any information about his previous publications.

I am very interested in the letters of our academics to Gobilyu (Gaubil),

but I have found nothing. But I got an autograph letter Gobilya to

Lawrence Lang, in which Gobil talks about mapping the northern

regions of China in the 1720s and that made a copy of these cards for

himself, since he was not sure that they safely reach Europe. This story I

was particularly interested in because there is a certain parallel with

Delisle, who was expelled from the Academy in 1748, because he copied

the Russian card and took up with him in Paris.

Hallerstein collaborated with two Petersburg physicians, Jelačič and in Sanchez. After 1745,

Hallerstein and his Beijing collaborators exchanged astronomical data and books with Korff.274

Korff was the president of the Petersburg academy between 1734 and 1740 and at the same time

special minister in Kopenhagen. Between 1740 and 1744, Karl von Brevert was the president. In

1745, the academy had no president, and between 1745 and 1748 Korff was the special deputy in

Stockholm.275

Because of the political quarrels he was later called back to Kopenhagen.

The exchange of books between Korff and Beijing Jesuits is not surprising, because Korff was

among the greatest collectors of books of his time. His collection of 30,000 printings and

manuscripts was later the base of the Academic library in Petersburg. Korff gave the Beijing

Jesuits three issues of the acts of the Petersburg academy, one issue for each college in Beijing.

The Jesuits gave him different books that they themselves published in Chinese language in

return. Later in 1747, the Petersburg academicians gave the Beijing Jesuits more books and the

new map of Siberia.276

One of the members of that Russian expedition was Jelačič.

274

Baron Johann Albrecht (Ivan Alber) Korff (* November 30, 1697 Eegendorf in Kurlandia; † June 7, 1766

Kopenhagen). 275

The letter to his brother Vajkard on November 28, 1749 (Pray, 1781). 276

Hallerstein, 1781, 23--24; Dimitz, 1861, 83; Dežman, 1881, 16.

48

Hallerstein’s scientific collaboration with Petersburg academicians continued under

Razumovski,277

who was president between 1746 and 1798. Razumovski’s name is connected

with the successful reforms of the academy although he himself was no scientist. He was a

descendant of Ukrainian Kazakhs, who served the Polish kingdom. He was the last hetman of

Ukraine (1750—1764), and later general field marshal. His physician du Fay278

studied in

Montpellier, was a friend of Balthazar Hacquet in Ljubljana and used Linné’s ideas. The older

brother of president Razumovski, Aleksej Grigijevič Razumovski (1709--1771), was morganatic

husband of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

Razumovski organized the expedition that visited Beijing in 1747. One of the members of the

expedition caravan was a Russian physician of Croatian origin Jelačič who moved from Croatia

to Petersburg in 1740. He graduated in medicine in 1743 at the general hospital at Petersburg

where he collaborated with Sanchez. He participated in three expeditions to China in 1747,

1754—1756, and 1757--1764.

In the letter to Delisle sent on November 3, Gaubil reported about the visit of the »Hungarian

physician« Jelačič in Beijing.279

In 1754, Vladikin lead the expedition,280

but letters and books

for the Beijing Jesuits were given to Jelačič.281

During his visit to Beijing, Jelačič collaborated

with Hallerstein in collecting astronomical observations, and data about the Chinese vegetables

and animals, and in buying of 42 Chinese books for the Petersburg academy. Among them, there

were books about history, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. The Beijing Jesuits gave

Jelačič five books: the star map, the old map of China, the general description of the Yunnan

province, the historical description of the Hu-Kuam province and in particular of the town Ngan-

Lu there.282

The star map was probably the catalogue of 3083 stars, which was already completed

at that time, but eventually printed several months later. Today we can find in Petersburg among

the Chinese books of the 18th

century nine »mathematical« works,283

probably the books that

Hallerstein found for Jelačič. The titles of the books are connected with astronomy, geometry,

and architecture. The total number of books is several times greater than the Jelačič’ collection

was. Several books were about history and architecture.284

Sixteen preserved books were listed as

astronomy and geometry.285

The books about physics were not listed as a separate group.

The medicine department of the Petersburg academy ordered Jelačič to bring back the famous

root Panax (ginseng), and to research its particularities. Visdelou (1685) had already described

the root, as did Le Comte after him,286

and Jartoux on April 12, 1711 in a letter sent from Beijing

to the general procurator. He reported that Chinese and Tartars near the Mongolian border

considered the root to be very powerful. He had drawn the root and pointed to the parts of the

277

Count Kiril Grigorjevič Razumovski (1728--1803). 278

Jean Thadée Felicité du Fay (* 1728 Clermond Ferrand; † 1770 (Siemion, 1996, 98--99)) 279

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 73. 280

Aleksej Vladykin, translator for the Chinese and Manchu in Petersburg college for the foreign affairs. 281

Gaubil (1970, 803) wrongly called him “surgeon Slatzitz«. 282

Šmitek, 1995, 110. 283

Walravens, 1998, 401 (books 35--43). 284

Walravens, 1998, 409--411. 285

Walravens, 1998, 411--412 (books 149--164). 286

Duteil, 1994, 340.

49

root with the letters A, B, C, and D.287

Root was described in the acts of the Paris academy in

1718. Hallerstein and French Jesuits gave Jelačič the description of the plant and helped him get

several samples of it. But Vladikin, the leader of the caravan, later took the roots away from

Jelačič.

After he returned from China, Jelačič became the main surgeon in the Moscow hospital in 1756.

After he returned to China with the second expedition of Kropotov, he became the main surgeon

in the Petersburg hospital in 1764. Jelačič’s descendants still live in Russia and they are aware of

their relation with the famous Croatian ban (governor) Jelačić. Jelačič promably carried Müller’s

letter of 27. 12. 1760 to Hallerstein.

Correspondence with the Petersburg academicians

Razumovski supported the development of the Petersburg academy with his high political

connections. In Hallerstein’s time, Kratzenstein288

became a corresponding member of the

Petersburg academy in 1748, immediately after Sanchez. Musschenbroek289

and van Swieten

were elected in 1754. The Jesuit Bošković and Styrian Slovene Žiga Popovič (1705--1774) were

elected corresponding members in 1760.

After two centuries of collaboration with Petersburg academy, Hallerstein became honorary

member in 1762.290

In 1765, he was elected corresponding (foreign) member of Petersburg

academy together with Leonard Ximenes (1716--1786), a Jesuit from Habsburg Italy. After

Hallerstein’s death, Ignaz von Born became corresponding member of the Petersburg academy in

1776. Born correspondent with several Carniolan naturalists, and published their research.

Hallerstein also corresponded with the Parisian and Petersburg academician Delisle even before

1747, when Delisle was still in Petersburg. In 1749, Delisle in the long letter to Gaubil in Beijing

described the circumstances of the astronomy research in Europe and the research of the fellows

of the Royal society in London, academies of Paris, and Bologna. He was especially interested in

the reparation of the measured values of the movement and other properties of planets. Delisle

asked for particular measurements, which should be sent from China to Paris. The Beijing Jesuits

were asked to measure the effects which promised the best development of the astronomy and

287

Gaubil, 1970, 176--177; Aimé-Martin, 1843, 3: 183--185. Pierre Jartoux (Tu Të-Mei, Tou Tö-Mei Kia-P'ing, *

August 2, 1669 Embrun; SJ September 29, 1687 Avignon; * November 30, 1720 St. Andre in Tartar (Dehergne,

1973, 131--132)). 288

Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein (* January 30, 1723 Wernigerode; † July 6, 1795 Köbenhaven). 289

Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692--1761). 290

Šmitek, 1995, 124.

50

improved the older results. »But some Chinese dared to murmur as they saw their astronomy

changed from the ancient one after the Jesuits were in charge for the Beijing observatory«.291

Delisle collaborated with Hallerstein and offered three times to publish his astronomical

observations in Paris.292

For the measurements of the transition of Mercury, Hallerstein used his own measurement of the

relative time difference between the observatory in Petersburg and emperor’s observatory in

Beijing. He planned to publish his measurements together with Kögler’s, and they were

eventually published in Vienna in 1768. But the astronomers of Petersburg were most of all

interested in the computation of the time difference between their own observatory and the

observatory of Beijing. Therefore they again printed Hallerstein’s measurements after his death,

before they heard that he had passed away.

(PICTURE 6: The first page of the summary of the Hallerstein’s computation of the time

difference between Beijing and Petersburg (Hallerstein 1775, 70)).

Hallerstein had already computed the time difference in 1754, when he calculated the exact

geographical latitude and longitude of Beijing from Kögler’s observations of Jupiter’s moons in

Beijing between the years 1713 and 1745 and from Delisle’s observations in Petersburg. Hell293

have sent Delisle’s book with astronomical observations from Vienna to Beijing. Delisle’s

observations published in the acts of Petersburg academy were brought to Beijing with the

Russian caravan. Therefore, Hallerstein was able to compare the numerous Delisle’s and

Kögler’s observations. Hallerstein compared their times of observations of the same coordinates

of Jupiter’s moons to get as accurate result as he could. In the book of 1768, Hallerstein

published the difference between the meridian of Petersburg and of Jesuit College in Beijing: 5

hours 44 minutes, and 16 seconds. The distance between the Jesuit College and the imperial

public observatory in Beijing was 14 seconds,294

although Rodrigues later published the

difference of 13 seconds. The imperial observatory was 7 seconds away from the Beijing

meridian.295

According to the older Kögler’s measurements, the distance between Petersburg and

Beijing was 5h 44' 55''.

296

In his paper for the Petersburg academy, Hallerstein was aware of the fact that Delisle measured

with a longer telescope than Kögler. Joseph Jerome le François de Lalande (1732--1807) and Hell

had already considered the effects of the measurement with the different telescopes, therefore

Hallerstein used their calculations.

291

Šmitek, 1995, 92; Hallerstein, November 28, 1749, published: 1781, 24--25; Dežman, 1881, 17. 292

Dimitz, 1861, 82. 293

Maximilian Hell (Höll, * May 15, 1720 Schemnitz (Schemnitzium, Selmecbánya, Banská Štiavnica); SJ October

18, 1738 Trenčin; † April 14, 1792 Enzerstorf (Stoeger, 1855, 128--129)). 294

Hallerstein, 1770, 187; Hallerstein, review 1774, 157. 295

Rodrigues, 1799, 30. 296

Hallerstein, review 1774, 157.

51

Hallerstein again calculated the time difference between the observatories in Petersburg and

Beijing, especially for the emersions and for the immersions of the satellites behind Jupiter. The

result differed for 8 seconds. Therefore he published the average time difference between the

observatories of Petersburg and Beijing, which was 5 hours 44 minutes, and 20 seconds,297

four

seconds more than he published in 1768.

London

A year after the Russian invitation, the Beijing missionary received the issue of the Philosophical

Transactions and accepted the invitation to collaborate with the Royal Society of London, signed

by the secretary Mortimer on February 5, 1746.298

Hallerstein’s eventual doubt in Copernicus’

ideas did not affect the exchange of the data with the London Royal Society. The calendar caused

some problems because before September 1752 the Gregorian calendar was not used instead of

Julian in Britain and its colonies. The Royal Society first published two unsigned Hallerstein’s

letters and several more with his full name afterwards. Hallerstein was eventually not elected

Fellow of the Royal Society.299

Comets above China

Observation of comets had a long tradition in China, and the Jesuits just continued the job. On

October 28, 1701, Thomas observed the comet C/1701 U1 that was also described by the French

in the town of Pau under the Pyrenees. On October 11, 1723, Nicholas Giampriamo (already

returned to Italy) and Kögler observed the comet C/1723 T1 in Beijing. Gaubil and Motel

Jacques also observed the same comet in Beijing and published their measurements in Paris six

years later. In the last months of 1723, the same comet was observed by Carbone and

Bianchini300

in Italy, and in England by Lord Paisley and priest Bradley. All published their

observations in the acts of the Royal Society of London. Bianchini erected his observatory at the

Alban hills 20 km southeast of Rome. He discovered three comets, observed the surface of the

Moon and Mars, and from the moving of the spots over Venus estimated the time of Venus’

revolution to 24.5 days. The claim was later changed, because the astronomers found the surface

of Venus invisible because of the density of its atmosphere. In 1711, the academy of Paris

published the description of Bianchini’s machine for the fabrication of mirrors or lenses with

great focuses.301

On July 3, 1737, Kögler of Beijing discovered the comet 109P/1737 N1. That was the second

comet observed in that year, researched also by W. Swift-Tuttle.

Carbone probably helped Hallerstein in his first contacts with the London Royal Society. The

first Hallerstein’s letter sent to London contained the Beijing observations of November 1740. He

297


Hallerstein 1781, 24; Pray, 1781, 94. Cromwell Mortimer (* Essex; † 1752 London). 299

Šmitek (1995, 110) noted the election in October 1751; but there is no document yet to support the hypotheses. 300

Francesco Bianchini (Blanchini, * December 13, 1662 Verona; † March 2, 1729 Rome). 301

Ševarlić, 1986, 87; Olson. Pasachoff, 1999, 334; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 761; Gaubil, 1729, 105.

52

had shown the familiarity with the astronomical symbols of his day that were necessary for the

exchange of data between the experts. The report contained dates, symbol for planets, and their

coordinates relative to the stars that were also marked with the symbols.

In the second letter Hallerstein described the trajectory of the comet, observed in Beijing from the

beginning of March until the beginning of April 1742. Besides the data about the trajectory

Hallerstein added some explanations. That was the very first comet observed in that year. At the

Cape of the Good Hope they observed it on February 5, 1742. Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia

observed the same comet in the last days of February 1742. On March 2, 1742, March 4, 1742,

and March 11, 1742 he reported the observation in his own magazine American Weekly Mercury

of Philadelphia. He mentioned the well known theory of comets of William Whiston,302

and the

astronomical lectures of Whiston’s critics Keill.303

In March 1742, the comet was seen over

Europe with the naked eye as it had a longitude of the tail 5o to 8

o.

In his computation of the orbits of comets, Hallerstein probably used Newton’s method, as did

astronomer and hydro-engineer of Bologna before him. E. Zanotti computed the orbit of the

comet of 1739.304

Hallerstein later asked his brother in Brussels to send him the work of the astronomers of

Bologna. Between 1739 and 1741, Hallerstein had enough data about Zanotti’s method, so he

was able to use it in his own observations of the comet. But Hallerstein was not yet aware about

the additions to the Newton’s method published by Bošković only a year later in 1746.

Hallerstein was able to use Bošković’s data only later, in observations of the comet in 1748.

Hallerstein’s superior, the vice president of the astronomical bureau Pereyra, collaborated on the

research of the comet in 1742 and on the computation of its trajectory. Unlike Kögler and

Hallerstein, Pereyra published most of his works in Lisbon, as did the other members of the

mission who were of Portuguese origin. In 1737, he sent 82 volumes of astronomical annotations

that also contained the maps of nebulas to the Lisbon academy of science.305

Hallerstein did not publish his opinion about the nature of matter in comet and its tail. The

problem caused huge polemics a century and a half later in 1874, when the comet Coggia was

seen all over the Europe. The astronomers believed for quite some time that the repulsive force of

the Sun as a light pressure forces the gaseous part of the comet away from its nucleus. The

frequent talk about the comets in the house of James Clerk Maxwell (1731--1779) in Cambridge

caused the domestic terrier Toby to run in a circle trying to catch his own tail each time he heard

people talking about the comet’s tail.

302

William Whiston (1667--1752), primary Newton’s friend and collaborator. In 1702, he succeeded Newton on

Lucas’ chair in Cambridge. In 1711, he was fired because of his liberal views in theology and he later lectured in

London. 303

John Keill (* November 1, 1671 Edinburgh; † August 31, 1721 Oxford in England), the student of David

Gregory, fellow of the Royal Society in London after 1700, Salvin’s professor of astronomy in Oxford in 1712 and

defender of Newton’s ideas. 304

Olson, Pasachoff, 1999, 335. 305

Dinis, 2000, 166.

53

On November 6, 1748,306

in his next letter to Mortimer Hallerstein described the Beijing

measurements during the winter 1747/1748. The letter was read to the Royal Society on January

18, 1749. On December 6, 1747, Hallerstein observed Mars, apparently covered by the Moon. He

illustrated his description with a useful picture.

(PICTURE 7: Hallerstein’s drawing about the transition of the Moon across the surface of the

Mars on December 6, 1747 (Phil.Trans. 1752 (1749--50) 46: 313))

Hallerstein described the transition of Venus across Jupiter’s surface on the on January 1, 1748

and somewhat more than two months later also the transition of Venus over Mars. He illustrated

the second transition in the diagram. He drew the positions of Venus on the horizontal and

vertical axes, and he drew the positions of Mars on the line in between.

(PICTURE 8: Hallerstein’s transition of Venus over the surface of Mars in March 1748

(Phil.Trans. 1752 (1749--50) 46: 314))

He reported about the observations of the comet C/1748 H1 between April 27, 1748 and June 18,

1748. Several times the clouds bothered him. He used the catalogues of Flamsteed, Hevelius

(1690), and Lacaille, published in the acts of the Paris academy in 1742.307

He got the acts of the

Paris academy from Gaubil. Several days later on November 9, 1748, Gaubil reported to the

Royal Society about the observations of comet in 1748. Both letters were probably carried to

London on the same boat. On January 18, 1749, they read the letters and published them one after

the other in the Transactions of the Royal Society. The letters were carried from Beijing to

London in only a month and a half.

The comet was observed for the first time with the »astrophysical« emperor’s mirrors, placed into

the rings of zodiac. It was observed approximately on 18 degrees of the Fish constellation, and 27

degrees of south longitude. It was seen in Pegasus constellation, near the stars λ and μ. Later, the

comet crossed the space without the particular constellations.308

(PICTURE 9: The picture of the comet trajectory on May 29, 1748 compared with the stars

(Hallerstein, 1752 (1749--1750), 311, Table I, Figure 2 and 3))

Hallerstein and Gaubil observed the first comet in 1748 which was also visible in Paris at the end

of April, and also in South America and in Greenwich. It was clearly seen with the naked eye

because its tail was 20o long. Maraldi saw it in Paris as late as on June 30, 1748. At the same

time, a comet with the lighter nucleus, but without tail in the other end of the sky over Haarlem

was observed three times. Because those were just approximate observations it was hard to

compute the trajectory of the other comet.

Laimbeckhoven described 1755, and May-June 1759 comets in letter to his sister Maria

Elisabetha von Sumerau sent on May 28, 1760, and to her husband Antonius Thadeus von

306

Hallerstein, 1752 (1749--1750), 306. In the protocol of the Royal Society of London (January 18, 1749, 223--224)

the letter was wrongly dated on November 8, 1748. 307

Hallerstein, 1752 (1749--1750), 308, 309, 310. 308

Hallerstein, 1774 review, 158--159.

54

Sumerau on April 20, 1761.309

The sentond of those comets disappeared on April 26, 1759 and

on May 15, 1759 it was visible again in the Leo constellation.310

Before Hallerstein and Gaubil’s letter, the fellows of the Royal Society discussed the

irregularities of the movement of the Moon which apparently contradicted Newton’s theory. The

fellows were asked to sent the results of their research to the president of the Petersburg academy

Razumovski with a deadline on January 1, 1751. They were supposed to sent unsigned papers in

Russian, Latin, or French and write their names on a separate pieces of paper.311

In the time of

Hallerstein’s observations, Europeans saw the total Sun eclipse on July 25, 1748, which

Doppelmayer described in his star map. Messier also published his own observations of the

eclipse in Paris.

On September 18, 1750, Hallerstein sent a new letter to Mortimer from Beijing. With the letter,

Hallerstein sent two Chinese books. The first contained the logarithms of the sinuses, tangens,

secans, and the natural numbers. In 1827, Charles Babbage (1792--1871) by comparing the

included mistakes proved that Hallerstein or Gaubil sent to the Royal Society Valcq’s tables of

logarithms of numbers between 1 and 100,000 published in 1628, which were reprinted in China

in 1713. In 1721, other Vlacq’s (1636) handy tables of logarithms were reprinted in Chinese312

for emperor Kangxi.

In the second book, Grammatici’ tables of the coordinates of Moon and Sun were printed in

accord with Newton’s method. The book was used in the astronomical bureau of Beijing for the

ephemerides and eclipse computation. Kögler translated them into Chinese.313

Hallerstein thanked Mortimer for the 1749 Transactions of the Royal Society which he had just

accepted in Beijing. Probably it was the 46th

volume with Hallerstein’s former letter about comets

and other observations, read for the Royal Society on January 18, 1749.

On December 19, 1751, Hallerstein’s letter of 18. 9. 1750 was read for the Royal Society and

published in 1753 issue. They published the first two pages and almost the half of third page in

English translation. The translator divided the first and the third paragraph in two parts. For

unknown reasons they didn’t publish the continuation of the third page and the last 4th

page

where Hallerstein wrote just nine lines. Only Hallerstein’s address and signature found at the end

of the original letter were printed.

Hallerstein sent his astronomical observations for 1746 to London and promised to send the

observations for the next two years in his next letter. But no more of his letters were ever

published in London. The extract from his observations of the years 1746314

and 1747 were read

309

Laimbeckhoven, 2000, 97, 110. 310

Amiot, 1774, 557, 558. 311

The manuscript protocol of the Royal Society of London January 18, 1749, 223--224. 312

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 53, 745. 313

Dimitz, 1861, 83; Hallerstein, November 28, 1749, published: 1781, 24. 314

In the title of the paper the year 1744 was wrongly noted.

55

to Royal Society on March 5, 1752 and published as the letters and comments of the astronomer

Dr. Bevis315

sent to Dr. De Castro Sacramento, the member of the Royal Society.

It is hard to understand why Hallerstein ceased to publish with Royal Society after his September

18, 1750 letter. Incomplete publication of his last letter certainly was not reason enough, and

Hallerstein did not immediately develop collaboration with some other European center. He tried

to publish Beijing observations for the time between 1717 and 1752 in a book, eventually

succeeding in 1768 in Vienna. After he ceased to publish in London and did yet not begin to

publish in Vienna, Hallerstein published some observations in the mid-1750s with the Petersburg

academy, and also cooperated with Petersburg later.

Hallerstein didn’t publish any Halley comet observations. On December 24, 1758, the amateur

astronomer Johann Georg Palitzsch (1723--1788) observed the Halley comet near Dresden.

Comet flew across perihelion on March 13, 1759.316

Hallerstein’s reports about comets for Royal Society would certainly be appreciated at any time.

Between the years 1655 and 1840 they published 90 reports about comets, the most of them from

1737 to 1795. In 1759, they published as much as seven reports about Halley comet. They

published somewhat less about meteors.317

In April 1755, Gaubil sent the maps of the Chinese lands together with Hallerstein’s works to the

new secretary of London Royal Society Thomas Birch. In 1758, the Royal Society of London

published Gaubil’s description of Beijing with a picture.318

In 1772 or 1773, Hallerstein’s collaborator in the Beijing astronomical bureau Cipolla319

sent a

packet of measurements to London on the cargo ship of director of the East India Company in

Canton. John Blake, merchant in Canton, delivered the package to his father with the same name

and father eventually gave it to the Royal Society of London.320

On November 4, 1773, the Royal

astronomer in Greenwich Maskelyne321

read the observations to Royal Society, and they

published them next year. In Cipolla’s collections of the measurement of the Portuguese college

of Jesuits there was some Hallerstein’s work already published by Hell in Vienna.

315

John Bevis (* October 31, 1695 Old Sarum, Wiltshire; † November 6, 1771 London) graduated in Oxford and

became the physician in London and the fellow of the Royal Society. He published a lot of astronomical observations

in Phil.Trans. He published Halley’s tables and the experiments with the electricity. In 1731, he discovered the

nebula, later called Cancer. On May 28, 1737, he was the only one ever to observe the shadow of the planet on

another planet, the shadow of Venus on Mercury. Between March 6, 1738 and March 6, 1739 he made the most

accurate map of stars. It was never published, but influenced the similar Hallerstein’s work (Kilburn, Pasachoff,

Gingerlich, 2003, 132). 316

Olson, Pasachoff, 1999, 29; Beljaev, Čurjumov, 1985, 39, 69. 317

Olson, Pasachoff, 1999, 32--33. 318

Gaubil, 1759, 708--710. 319

Luigi Cipolla (Aloys Cibolla, Louis, * October 6, 1736 Caltavuturo near Palermo on Sicily; SJ November 5, 1757

Sicily; arrived to Beijing in 1771; † after 1805 (Pfister, 1934, 964--965; Dehergne, 1973, 56)). 320

Cipolla, 1774, 31. 321

Sir Nevil Maskelyne (1732--1811) the fifth royal astronomer after Flamsteed, Halley, Bradley and Nathaniel Bliss

(1700--1764).

56

(PICTURE 10: The front page of the Beijing observations that Cipolla sent to London

(Phil.Trans. 1774 64: 31))

Maskelyne claimed that the majority of the Cipolla Beijing observations were accomplished by

the eight-foot telescope with micrometer. They also used Roemer322

telescope of the same length

with two lenses in the objective. Because in the emperor’s observatory they had better equipment,

they began to observe the total Moon eclipse of November 12, 1761 some 34 seconds before

others and finished 18 seconds before others. The time of observations of the Moon eclipse was

measured with the pendulum, as Beijing Jesuits noted on November 12, 1761. Cipolla sent the

following measurements to London:

1. Transition of Venus across the surface of the Sun on June 4, 1769, measured before

Cipolla’s arrival to China.

2. Sun’s eclipse on May, 25 1770, measured with the micrometer.

3. The beginning and the end of the Moon eclipse on October 23, 1771.

4. Emersion of the Jupiter from Moon’s shadow on July 5, 1770.

5. The beginning and the end of the Moon covering the brightest star in the constellation of

the Virgin (Spica Virginis) on January 25, 1772.

6. The beginning and the end of Moon covering the constellation of the Scorpion on January

29, 1772.

7. Observation of Venus parallel to the Sun with a difference of apparent heights and the

declination of Venus and Sun on January 5, 1772.

8. Total Moon eclipse on November 12, 1761 observed with the telescopes of 5, 7 and 8

feet. At the same time, the event was observed from the emperor’s observatory 14'' to the

west with 8 foot telescope with two glass Roemer’s objectives. They measured the time of

the beginning of the eclipse, total eclipse, the duration of the shadow and the end of the

eclipse with the telescopes of 5, 7 and 8 feet in the Jesuit observatories of Beijing, where

they also made other observations. The paper with those observations was lost and later

found again the next day after the observations, on October 12, 1772. The results were

published in Europe only in Cipolla’s collection of the Royal Society in London.323

9. Observations of the Moon eclipse in Canton on October 11, 1772, given to Blake by an

unnamed Jesuit.

Cipolla studied medicine because the Chinese needed physicians and painters at those times. On

March 20, 1770, Cipolla and Poirot324

departed on the ship and on October 20, 1770 landed in

322

Olaus Christianson Roemer (Römer, Rømer, * September 25, 1644 Aarhus on Jutland; † September 19, 1710

Köbenhaven). 323

Cipolla, 1774, 32--33. Later, the one week later date of the finding of notes was dated on October 19, 1772

(Cipolla, 1774, 45). 324

Louis de Poirot (Ho Ts’ing-T’ai, * October 23, 1735 Lorraine; SJ July 9, 1756 Florence in Roman province; in

Beijing on August 14, 1771; † October 13, 1813 Beijing (Pfister, 1934, 965--966; Dehergne, 1973, 207). promu

mandarin de 6e ordre, le 19 août 1793 (LSF, 326). traduit la Bible en chinois vulgaire et en tartare (Pf. 968);

commence, dès le 4 nov. 1778, les démarches auprès de la Congrégation de la Propagande pour faire rétablir les

jésuites en Chine (CCS, 1940, 969) et il demande en sept. 1802 aux jésuites de Russie de venir en aide à la mission

chinoise (ZALENSKI II, 136).

P. 1765 ou 1766, en seconde année de théologie, Rome (Rom. 108, 156v et 203v).

57

Canton. After the suppression of the Society, Cipolla was the propagandist in Beijing in 1776.

Although he was in the French mission, Cipolla demanded to become a member of the

Portuguese mission. As member of the Portuguese mission he was able to become member of the

astronomy bureau. In September 1802, Poirot demanded to become part of the Russian Jesuits of

the former professor Gruber from Ljubljana. Cipolla put the similar demand in 1805. The Jesuit

general Gruber sent three Russian Jesuits to China in January 1805, but the Propaganda Fide

stopped the process from Rome.325

Most of the Jesuits including Attiret praised the path

irregularly arranged in Emperor’s gardens but Poirot criticized the garden in his letter signed on

October 3, 1772. Poirot came to China as a painter, and arrived to Beijing in 1771. Poirot

translated the Bible in Manchu and Chinese and he was a translator during the China visit of the

Lord James McCartney in 1793, therefore Qianlong appointed Poirot mandarin (Rinaldi, 2006,

263). The visit was a disaster because both McCartney and Qianlong thought about themselves as

fairly superior, but history eventually proved McCartney to be nearer to the truth a half of century

after during the Opium Wars.

V. 15 août 1771, pr. (Rom. 109, 245), les formules sont perdues; voeux renouvelés par autorisation de PIE VII à la

Toussaint de 1806 (CCS, 1940, 976).

Alojzy Jan Rusnati (Aloysius, * 26. 7. 1751 Italija; SJ 3. 6. 1768 Milano; † 26. 8. 1820 Ferarra was probably

Boscovic's student in Milano-Brera before he left to teach Physics in White Russia 325

Inglot, 2002, 358.

58

Musk-deer

In the letter of September 18, 1750, Hallerstein sent the data about the instruments in Beijing

observatory, about the geographical maps of China and its cities, and about the dictionaries of the

Chinese language. He described the musk-deer, deer without the horns from the high mountains

of inner Asia.

Hallerstein reported that the male musk-deer defend himselfs with the upper teeth. Their

shoulders were half a meter or more above the ground, and the animal was 85 to 100 cm long

with a mass of 10 to 18 kg. Musk-deer had long legs and the back pair was especially strong. It

had long ears, the root of a tail and a long, brown, sharp hair. The males had musk gland and very

long canine teeth jutting out from the upper jaw. The musk-deer lived in the woods of Himalayas

west of Gilgit in north India and in Tibet, Siberia and southwest Asia. The musk-deer lived in the

high regions outside the horde and it ate leaves and grass. The south species in the east China had

different long, black ears. From the male musk gland, which was similar to orange size, the

aroma of the strong smell called musk was produced and used for perfumes. Musk predominantly

contained nitric compounds. The best was fabricated in China and in Tibet under the name

Tongking, probably in connection with the gulf with the ports for exportation. The perfume was

exported packed in the small ornamented tea boxed with sides of lead and tin. The smell was first

discovered by the Chinese Mandarins. Europeans already wrote about the musk in the 10th

and

11th

century, but they didn’t know the animal. Martini mentioned it in 1655 and on November 2,

1717 Jesuit missionary reported from Beijing to Europe about the musk-deer (Xiang Zhangzi, in

a French transcription Hiang-Tchang-tse). The first Chinese word in French transcription was

used for the smell, and the last two for the animal. Poor villagers caught the male and the female

animal in the mountains west of Beijing. The Missionary bought the male from them and

conserved the part with the musk. Contrary to the different reports, the missionary already knew

that the musk was made just by males. But he believed the stories, that the smell was useful

against snakes and the Chinese used it for that purpose. He believed that musk-deer with its musk

was the real snake hunter. There were not many reports about the musk-deer and especially about

the export of musk from China before Hallerstein’s time.326

Musk was the main export article in

Canton, where they packed it in sacks, of the somewhat same size as the animals themselves. In

the beginning of the 19th

century, they were selling sacks for 65 to 80 American dollars. The

degree of musk purity was determined after few days of it’s bathing at the spirit of wine.327

326

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 3: 286--287. 327

Ljungstedt, 1836, 313.

59

The Jesuit Sickelbarth328

painted the musk-deer for the first time. His model was death female

brought to the college. Sichelbarth was in the time of his already five years admitted to the

Beijing Court Workshop still in the shadow of more famous Castiglione and Attiret.329

Hallerstein described the differences between the sexes of musk-deer. The modern description of

the musk-deer was published by the English Brian Houghton Hodgson (1800--1894) from

Katmandu in the reports of Asian society in 1839.

(PICTURE 11: Hallerstein’s letter Royal Society on September 18, 1750 with Hallerstein’s

signature (Archive of the Royal Society in London))

(PICTURE 12: Protocol of the meeting of the London Royal Society, where on December 19,

1751 they read Hallerstein’s letter about the musk-deer, page 11 (Archive of the Royal Society of

London))

(PICTURE 13: Hallerstein’s description of the musk-deer (lat. Damula odorifera, today Moschus

mochiferus (chrysogaster, sifanicus) from the species musk-deer (Mochidae); Chinese: Xiang

Zhagzi (Hiam cham su)) (Phil.Trans. 1753 (1751--1752) 47: 321)

(PICTURE 14: Sickelbarth’s painting of the musk-deer (Phil.Trans. 47: 321, tab. XIV))

The French Jesuit Pierre Nicholas le Chéuron d'Incarville (1706--1757) was the best animal and

plant expert in Beijing, and Emperor’s gardener until d'Incarville’s death when Cibot replaced

him (Rinaldi, 2006, 210). d'Incarville was in Canada between the years 1730-1739 where he

probably found the data about the climate favoring for ginseng so that later the variant of Chinese

ginseng was found in Canada by the Jesuit near his home. D'Incarville sent his collections of

insects, butterflies, shells and the like to Paris. In 1749, Hallerstein sent such a collection to

London, as he mentioned at the end of the published part of the letter, sent on September 18,

1750. D'Incarville’s description of Hallerstein’s collections was published in 1754, in the next

volume of the Philosophical Transactions. On November 15, 1751, D'Incarville sent to Europe

the seeds of the ailanthus (Ailanthus altissima), which was grown wild in China and on the

islands of Mollusk. At the end of the century it was brought to America. For a while it was used

widely as an ornamental tree and for producing special sorts of silk.330

D'Incarville also sent the

leaves and the flowers of the Japanese tree from Nanking province used for the fabrication of the

varnish, and it was different from the tree at the Royal gardens of Paris. Each year, he also sent

the leaves and flowers to Paris. He also described the white wax, used in the emperor’s palace,

and a plant for the fabrication of the indigo. He was also collecting the fossils from Chinese hills

and studied the fabrication of the cinnabar in the Yunnan province.331

Hallerstein probably helped

him, because he knew the process from Idrija in his native Carniola, the greatest quicksilver mine

of that time.

328

Ignac Sickelbarth (Sichelbarth, Ngai K'i-Mong Sing-Ngan, * September 26, 1708 Neudeuk (Neudeck, Nedejk) in

north Bohemia; SJ October 20, 1736 Bohemia; † October 6, 1780 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 247)) arrived to Macao

in 1744 and next year to Beijing, where on February 26, 1767 he succeeded his teacher Castiglione as director of the

art Academy at the court of Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 41). 329

Olivová, 2010, 1433. 330

Brus, Dakskobler, 2001, 224. 331

Incarville, 1753, 253, 255, 257, 259, 260.

60

Paris

French Jesuit Gaubil made it possible for Hallerstein to exchange the astronomical observations

and literature with the Paris academy.332

In November 1748, Hallerstein sent some astronomical

notes to Paris. Also Rocha, Hallerstein’s successor at the post of the president of the astronomical

bureau later cooperated with the astronomers of Paris.333

Counting Chinese

Hallerstein used the state statistics for the year 1760 and 1761 in the 25th

and 26th

year of

Emperor Qianlong’s rule, and calculated the number and the increase of people in the Chinese

empire. The increase was very high compared to European circumstances. French Jesuit

Bourgeois (Bourgeois) sent Hallerstein’s calculations to France and raised many comments there.

Hallerstein’s estimation of the number of inhabitants in the Chinese empire was much more

accurate than Amiot’s from the year 1743. Amiot just approximately counted about 200 million

of people considering the number of taxed families. Hallerstein’s calculations sent on July 31,

1778 from Beijing, arrived to Paris the next year. They were approved on November 10, 1779

and published the next year, six years after Hallerstein’s death.334

Hallerstein used the data about the inhabitants in nineteen Chinese provinces which he got from

the Bureau for Rites (in French transcription Heou-pou, containing also Qingtian or Qintianjian).

Hallerstein headed the Bureau for Astronomy, working at the back of the building of the Ministry

of the Rites in the palace built in 1442. The building was repaired soon after Hallerstein’s

computation of the number of inhabitants in 1766 and later moved from the today’s southeast

part of the Tian An Men square.

The Chinese provinces of Hallerstein’s time had between two and twenty-five million

inhabitants. This census made difference between adult, male and female inhabitants. Hallerstein

only used the total number of all Chines people in his calculations. For some provinces he also

listed the capital and the connections with the other provinces. His statistics also listed the

number of the cities of the first, second, and third order, according to the number of inhabitants.

In 1760, Hallerstein counted 196,837,977 Chinese people and 1,375,741 more of them for the

next year. Hallerstein's successors sent the statistics in Chinese, the copy of the statistics on

which Hallerstein had marked with red the important notes, the explanation of the marked

characters in Portuguese and the translation into French to Paris. Hallerstein wrote in Portuguese

because he could not properly write and speak French, although he also read French books.335

Therefore the text was translated into French by the French Jesuits in Beijing.

332

Hallerstein 1781, 17 (second letter dated in 1749), 23--24. 333

Hallerstein, 1781, 22--23. 334

Šmitek, 1995, 114, 137; Hallerstein, 1780, 374, 380. 335

Gaubil, 1970, 678.

61

(PICTURE 15: Hallerstein’s computing of the number and the increase of the inhabitants in

Chinese empire, posthumously published in Paris. His family name was wrongly spelled as

«Allerstain«. (Mémoires, concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages etc.

des Chinois, par les missionnaires de Pe-kin. Paris: Nyon. 1780 Tome 6, page 292)

Hallerstein made three minor errors in his counting. He counted 15,222,040 inhabitants of the 2nd

province Beijing (Pe-tche-ly, Tche-ly), but the official Chinese statistics showed nine hundred

more, because the next to the last number in the Chinese note was »jiubai (Kieou Pei)«, in the

French of that time »neuf cens«.336

In modern French that is »neuf cents«, which means 900

inhabitants not being counted in Hallerstein’s337

calculation.

(PICTURE 16: The number of inhabitants in the 2nd province called Beijing (Pe-tche-ly or Tche-

ly) (Mémoires, concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages etc. des

Chinois, par les missionnaires de Pe-kin. Paris: Nyon. 1780 Tome 6, page 374, 375)

The 6th province called Tche-kiang (Che-kiang, today Zhijang) had, according to Hallerstein’s

count 15,429,692 inhabitants, but the Chinese official statistics showed two less, because the last

number was nonante (jioushi, Kieou Che). Nonante or »neuf fois dix«338

was in the French of that

day 90, the world still used in Belgium and Switzerland. In modern France the number quatre-

vingt-dix is used instead.

(PICTURE 17: The number of inhabitants in 6th province (T)che-kiang (Mémoires, concernant

l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages etc. des Chinois, par les missionnaires de

Pe-kin. Paris: Nyon. 1780 Tome 6, page 376))

The 11th province Ho-nan (the modern Henan) had according to Hallerstein’s calculations

16,332,570 inhabitants, but according to Chinese official statistics 63 less, because the last

number was sept (Tsi), which means 7. Septante was in the French of that day the number 70 that

is still in use today in Belgium and Switzerland but in France proper the world soixante-dix

prevailed later. Hallerstein therefore counted altogether 835 inhabitants less than he should. The

correct yearly increase of the Chinese inhabitants was 1,376,576 and not 1,375,741, as

Hallerstein had at first calculated.339

They later corrected the data.340

We don’t know if

Hallerstein took into account all Chinese province of that time, for example Xinjiang Uygur on

the very west of the empire which was invaded by the Chinese emperor just between the years

1758 and 1759.

(PICTURE 18: The number of the inhabitants in the 11th province called Ho-nan (Mémoires,

concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages etc. des Chinois, par les

missionnaires de Pe-kin. Paris: Nyon. 1780 Tome 6, page 377)

336





Hallerstein, 1780, 400; Šmitek, 114.

62

At the time of the rule of emperor Qianlong between 1736 and 1796 the number of inhabitants of

China increased from about 150 million up to more than 300 million. In 1766, the average

property of the Chinese dropped to less than one hectare of cultivated land.341

Bologna

On October 27, 1765, A. Hallerstein wrote to his brother Vajkard of Brussels and asked him for

the issue of the astronomical magazine from Bologna or Lacaille’s tables from Paris.342

The

Bolognese magazine was probably the ephemerides of Eustachius Manfredi (1674--1739)

published in 1750, whose older printing was used by Gaubil.343

On the other hand Hallerstein

could have had E. Zanotti’s work published in 1763 in mind. B. F. Erberg and his collaborators

bought both works for the Jesuit college of Ljubljana. Zanotti observed the transition of Venus

across the Sun's surface in 1761. He cooperated with Hell and helped Bošković and Ximenez in

their hydrodynamic expertise. Zanotti’s ephemerides, made according to Grergorian calendar,

were given to printer on February 17, 1761.

Vienna: collection from the year 1768

Hallerstein copied and arranged in chronological order and in groups of the observed planets the

Chinese astronomical notes of the late Kögler and his collaborators, measured between the years

1718 and 1748. The book was at first intended to be published in Lisbon, but the statesman

Pombal344

exiled the Jesuits from Portugal in 1759. Until 1762, the exile extended also to the

oversea properties of Portugal Macao included where 24 Jesuits were arrested disregarding their

nationality.345

At the same time the number of Jesuits in Beijing increased for 17 novices between

the years 1763 and 1773.

In August 1763, Hallerstein gave his notes to the Russian delegate Ivan Kropotov for

Razumovski. In May 1763, Kropotov arrived in Beijing to announce the ascent of Empress

Catharine II Alesksejevna (1729--1796) on the Russian throne the previous year.346

On October

18, 1768, Kropotov was again in Beijing to sign a bilateral contract. Slovak Hell, the astronomer

of Viennese emperor, got the notes from Razumovski and finally printed them in two parts on

total of 830 pages on May 4, 1768.347

So began the prolific collaboration between Hell and

Hallerstein which would last until the latter’s death. In 1770, Hallerstein’s book was praised by

anonymous French, and in 1771 by J. Bernoulli348

in Berlin. Hell’s issue from the years 1768 and

341

Peyrefitte, 1991, XXVI, XXXI. 342

Wrongly dated in 1767 by Dimitz (1861, 84) and Dežman (1881, 19). 343

Hsia, 1999, 163. 344

Sebastiaõ Jozé de Carvalho de Pombal (* 1699; † 1782). 345

Vissière, Vissière, 2000, 27. 346


Hallerstein, 1770 review, 155. 348

Joannes Bernoulli (1710--1790 or his son with the similar name Joannes III. Bernoulli (1744--1807) who became

director of the mathematical class of the academy of sciences in Berlin (Bernoulli, 1771, 153).

63

ephemerides from the years 1773 with Hallerstein’s observations were preserved in Beijing Jesuit

library.

Hell was born in the family of a mining engineer in Schemnitz (Banská Štiavnica) in Slovakia.

He studied mathematics with Frölich.349

He became the assistant of Franz,350

the famous

researcher of the electricity and the early telegraph at the University of Vienna. He taught in

Schemnitz and in Trnava. Later he became professor of mathematics in Cluj, probably after the

death of the Cluj astronomer Breckerfeld. In 1755, Hell became professor of astronomy and

director of the emperor’s observatory in Vienna. In 1745, 1751, 1755 and 1761 he published a

textbook of arithmetic for the Jesuit schools. He had troubles with the rheumatism and therefore

healed himself with the iron and magnet. The procedure looked good enough to him to be used

for others who asked for his help. As the emperor’s astronomer in 1762 in Vienna, he published a

book about the magnets that was reprinted in 1770 in Graz. He cited the British, most of all John

Michell (1724--1793) and Canton.351

In 1766, a young graduate from the Jesuit university of

Dillingen, Franz Anton Mesmer (1734--1815) borrowed the magnets from his friend Hell, began

with the healing, and paved the way to the modern mesmerism.

In 1760s, Hell published the map of the Moon according to Hevelius, but he added some invented

objects.352

In 1767, he accepted the invitation of the Danish king to attend the observations of the

transition of Venus across the Sun's surface in 1769 in Lapland. His success soon raised some

jealousy. Hell’s opponents were backed by Littrow, who inherited the post after his father Joseph

Johann Littrow (1781—1840) who at his turn got the appointment after Hell’s death. Littrow

published that Hell’s original notes of 1769 were later corrected with different ink to fit better

with theory. The suspicion was cleared from Hell’s scientific fame only by the American

astronomer Simon Newcomb (1835--1909). Newcomb proved Hell’s measurement to be correct

and found that K. Littrow wrongly estimated the difference between inks because of his color

blindness.

Content of Hallerstein’s first volume from the year 1768:

I. 25 Moon and Sun eclipses, observed between October 21, 1717 and October 21, 1744.

II. 150 notions of stars hidden behind the Moon.

III. Nearly 200 apparent contacts between the Moon and planets or stars, not counting the

eclipses.

IV. More than 50 apparent contacts of planets between themselves.

V. 300 to 400 apparent contacts of the planets with the fixed stars, not counting Mercury.

VI. More than 100 immersions and emersions of the Jupiter’s moons.

Index of the first 320 pages.

Appendix containing the list of apparatus, used for the measurement between years 1746 and

1752 (De instrumentis astronomicis, quibus observationes…, pp. 321--382).

About the time keeping (De Horologio, pp. 321--324).

349

Erasmus Frölich (Froelich, * 1700 Graz; SJ 1716; † 1758 Vienna). 350

Joseph Franz (Frantz, * February 23, 1704 Linz; SJ; † April 12, 1776 Vienna (Vanino, 1969, 153; Poggendorff, 1:

994). 351

Hell, 1762, 10, 11. John Canton (* 1718 Stroud; † 1772 London). 352

Whitaker, 1999, 93--94.

64

About the micrometer (De Micrometro, pp. 325--330).

The measurement of the geographical longitude of the observatory in Beijing (De

Longitudine Geographica Pekini, pp. 331--361 with numerous tables).

Chinese measures (De Ratione Pedis Sinici Regii ad Pedem Gallicum Regium, pp. 361--

363).

Geographical longitude of the Beijing observatory (De Latitudine Geographica Pekini, pp.

364--372).

About the telescope (De Telescopio Meridiano, pp. 373--382 with tables).

Errors to be corrected at the text (p. 383).

The second part of the book contained Hallerstein’s observations between 1746 and 1752 in the

similar row as in the first part. He published the following paragraphs on 448 pages:353

I. Two Sun and Moon eclipses.

II. 150 notions of stars hidden behind the Moon.

III. About 30 apparent contacts of the Moon with the planets.

IV. Apparent contacts between planets.354

V. About 200 apparent contacts of the planets of the first order with the stars, among them 5

touches of Mercury, observed in the five different years.

VI. Immersions of the Jupiter’s moons. At the end, Hallerstein added the ephemerides of comet

observed at Beijing in 1748.

Errors in the text (p. 449).

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN BEIJING

Apparent hiding behind the astronomical objects

In Hallerstein’s time, the eclipses and other apparent contacts between the trajectory of the

planets, Moon and Sun were the best opportunities to measure the distances between observed

objects. From the ratios of the apparent diameters during the observations of Earth and from the

known distance between the Earth and the Sun (astronomical unit) they could calculate the

distances between the objects according to Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe or Copernicus’ system.

Transitions of Mercury across the Sun's surface

353

Hallerstein, 1770 review, 155. 354

The French review described the apparent contacts between the Moon and the Planets in the third paragraph; in

the fourth paragraph about the apparent contacts of the planets with stars, but probably because of the error

(Hallerstein, review 1770, 182)

65

The French Jesuit missionary de Fontaney observed the transition of Mercury on November 10,

1690 and November 3, 1697 in Canton. His results were published in his reports to Paris

academy. In 1737, Bošković published his famous book about the transition of Mercury.

Delisle assured the collaboration of the Jesuit observers of the transition of Mercury on May 6,

1753 in India, Macao, and Beijing. He sent the technical data about the measurement, and about

the influences of the telescope length on the times of observed transitions to his collaborators.355

Gaubil observed the transition of Mercury in Beijing and his results were published at the

Petersburg academy. Gaubil used the fifteen foot telescope. Mercury apparently touched the disc

of the Sun at 10h 6' 10'' or 12'' and crossed it on the other side at 17

h 52' 5.5'. It was cloudy with

rain and strong wind, so it was impossible to observe anything fort certain. The predictions of the

Paris and Bologna ephemerides and Cassini’s tables were very accurate.356

The May 6, 1753

transition was observed in Europe, among others by Canton and Short. Short used Gregory’s

refraction telescope.357

In 1753, Hallerstein began to observe the transition of Mercury from the Jesuit College at 6h 44'.

At 10h 9', the center of Mercury was the closest to the center of the Sun. The reporter did not note

the sort nor the dimensions of Hallerstein’s telescope.358

Hallerstein began his observations three

minutes after Gaubil and didn’t make very exact notes, because he did not list his times in

seconds. According to Gaubil’s report on September 11, 1753 received in Paris on November 26,

1755, Hallerstein and Gogeisl were on their duties in the palace and could not excuse themselves

to observe the transition. Amiot and Benoist arrived to the observation spot too late. Amiot

observed the transition with just the ordinary telescope, and Benoist observed it at the French

house in Haitian (Hay tien, Hai Tien) 8 km (2 miles, lieue) northwest from Beijing, but he just

tired his eyes out and accomplished nothing.359

Espinha observed the 1753 transition of Mercury

too.360

Some astronomers claimed the Mercury transition to be even more important for the

measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Sun than the Venus transition in the next

decade. Mercury was expected to transit nearer to the center of the Sun.361

On November 7, 1756, Hallerstein and Gaubil separately observed the transition of Mercury from

the different observatories in Beijing. On the same day, Gaubil described his 5--10 observations

and the measurement of the distance between the Mercury and Sun described in the letter sent to

Delisle. Delisle accepted the report in Paris a year later, on November 12, 1757.362

Mercury

apparently contacted the disc of the Sun at 9h 29' 49'' in the morning, and the transition was over

at 14h 56' 23''. Gaubil observed the transition with the seven foot telescope and the micrometer.

363

355

Woolf, 1962, 15, 18. 356

Gaubil, 1760, 473. 357

Phil.Trans. 1753, 48/1: 199. 358

Rodrigues (1799, 31) wrongly cited 10 days later date of observations as May 16, 1753. 359

Gaubil, 1970, 732. 360

Gaubil, 1970, 853, wrongly cited as Spinha. 361

Woolf, 1962, 10. 362

Gaubil, 1970, 842--843. 363

Gaubil, 1760, 473, 477--478.

66

Hallerstein probably sent his observations of the 1756 transition to Delisle,364

and published those

eight years later in Petersburg. Bošković published the famous theory of the eclipses in 1737. A.

Hallerstein knew Bošković’s work about the transition of Mercury at least from the letters of his

brother Vajkard Hallerstein sent from Brussels. As the confessor of the governor of the Habsburg

Netherlands, Vajkard had met Bošković’s friend Cobenzl.365

In 1753, Cobenzl became the prime

minister for the Habsburg Netherlands. Cobenzl gathered a collection of more than 6000 pictures

from almost all European schools in Brussels. During his money troubles in 1768, empress

Catharine II bought his collection for the Hermitage of Petersburg. Cobenzl established Literary

Society of Brussels in 1769, which was granted the title of Imperial and Royal Academy of

Sciences and Humanities of Brussels three years later.

On December 27, 1760, Bošković visited Cobenzl in Brussels and twice had lunch with him. He

gave Cobenzl the beautifully ornamented booklets about the eclipses just printed in London.

Cobenzl sent two of them to Vienna to the count Karl Joseph Firmian (1716--1782), the empress’

minister of Lombardy.

(PICTURE 19: The title page of Hallerstein’s observations of Mercury, published at Petersburg

academy (Novi Commentarii. 9: 503))

(PICTURE 20: Photograph of the observatory in Beijing about the year 1925. The second

apparatus on the right is the Sphaera Armillaris (hengli chengi, hëng fu chhen i) according to the

Tycho Brahe’s movable equatorial system built after 1744 by Kögler, Hallerstein, Gogeisl and

probably also the French Gaubil and la Charme. At the observatory, all instruments except

Verbiest’s were made half of a millenium earlier at the time of Djingis khan’s (1155--1227)

grandson Kublaj khan (1215--1294). Hallerstein showed the instrument to the many generations

of the students of the mathematical academy of the imperial college during their first steps in the

astronomical measurements. The instruments were moved to Nanking and later back to Beijing.

In the first decades of the 20th

century one of them was kept for a while at Potsdam. (Needham,

1959, 3: 450/451 (plate 67))

(PICTURE 21: The Sphaera Armillaris (hengli chengi (hëng fu chhen i) of Tycho’s movable

equatorial system. Fabricated in 1744 by Kögler with the help of Hallerstein, Gogeisl and

probably also the French Gaubil and la Charme. (Needham, 1959, 3: 450/451 (plate 60)))

On November 7, 1756 the transition of Mercury was not observable in Europe because the Sun

was there under the horizon. The next transition of Mercury was expected only on November 9,

1769 therefore Hallerstein and Gaubil’s measurements were expected with curiosity.

Hallerstein used the 14 foot telescope that Sanchez had given him in 1750 or a little earlier. For

some observations he used the 8 foot telescope with Graham’s micrometer.

Hallerstein measured the time with a French pendulum clock. The beginning of the transition was

at 9h. 29 minutes 15 seconds. The whole shadow of Mercury on the Sun was observable a minute

364

Gaubil, 1970, 842. 365

Janez Karel Filip Cobenzl (* 1712 Ljubljana; † 1770 Brussels).

67

and a quarter later at 9h 30 minutes 30 seconds. At 14

h 56 minutes 6 seconds in the afternoon the

transition was over. Hallerstein began to observe 36 seconds before Gaubil and finished his

observation 22 seconds before Gaubil. Both used the micrometer, but Hallerstein had a telescope

that was one foot longer.366

The errors of Hallerstein’s measurements of the transition of Mercury and eclipses were of the

same order as the European measurements of that time.367 Therefore Petersburg academicians

praised Hallerstein as valuable successor of Schall, Verbiest and Kögler at the astronomical

bureau of Beijing.

Transitions of Venus across the surface of the Sun

After the expulsion from Portugal (1759), Spain, and France (1764), Jesuits operated thirty-two

observatories in Europe.368

That was nearly a quarter of all hundred and thirty working

observatories. The exceptional net of observatories and the correspondence with the missionaries

around the world enabled the Jesuit overview of the natural phenomena at the different points of

the Earth, which were not at the reach of the other researchers.

Transition of Venus over the disc of the Sun was anticipated with great attention of the

astronomers of Hallerstein’s era. The phenomenon was similar to the Sun’s eclipse, although

Venus appears to be much smaller than the Moon and therefore covers just a little part of the Sun

surface. Transitions follow each other ins 1631, 1639, June 6 1761, June 3, 1769, December 9,

1874, December 6, 1882, June 8, 2004, June 6, 2012, and December 11, 2117. Kepler had

already mentioned them as the possibility for the measurement of parallax and with it the average

distance between the Earth and Sun, the basic astronomical unit. Kepler rightly claimed from

Tycho’s observations of Mars the parallax of Sun less than 1'. Richer measured the parallax of

the Sun in Cayenne after the year 1671 and Lacaille did the same at the Cape of the good Hope in

1750.369

In Rudolphine tables, Kepler predicted the transition of Venus on November 7, 1631. Gassendi370

waited in vain for the event, because Sun had already set in Paris at that time. Kepler used too

low a value for the distance between the Earth and the Sun and therefore wrongly predicted, that

Venus will pass apparently south from the surface of the Sun on December 4, 1639. The Belgian

astronomer Philip van Lansberge (1561--1632) rightly predicted the transition, which was the

first transition to be observed. The observers were Horrox371

in a village Holle, 24 km north of

Liverpool, and his friend, the cloth merchant William Crabtree in Manchester. Pole Jan Hevelius

366

Gaubil, 1760, 477--478; Hallerstein, 1764, 503, 510. 367

Shi, 2000, 142. 368

Scheiner in Rome at the beginning of 17th

century, Beijing 1644, Marseilles 1702, Lyon 1745, Graz 1745, Port-a-

Mouson 1750, Prague 1751, Trnava 1753 (later Buda), Florence 1755, Parma 1757, Milan (Brera) 1760, Augsburg,

Avignon, Parma, Venice, Brescia, Breslau, Coimbra, Lvov, Naples, Olomouc, Posen (Posnan), and Siena. Some

observatories were established by the civil authorities and later given to the Jesuits: Lisbon 1722, Vilna 1753, Vienna

1755, Würzburg 1757, Schwetzingen 1764 in Mannheim 1772 (Udías, 2000, 151--152). 369

Ševarlić, 1986, 32, 35. 370

Pierre Gassendi (1592--1655). 371

Jeremiah Horrox (Horrocks, * 1619 Toxteth near Liverpool; † 1641).

68

(1611--1687) published Horrox’ measurements in Gdansk in 1662. Horrox had to interrupt his

observation during the transition because of his official duties. The total time of is observation

was just 30 minutes until the Sun set at 1550

. Like Gassendi did for the transition of Mercury in

1630, Horrox also calculated a much smaller diameter of Venus than expected. He got 1', but the

correct highest value is 1' 5.2'', middle 37.3'', and the lowest 9.5''. He did not calculate the

distance between Venus and Earth.372

Scott James Gregory (1638--1675) in Optics (1663) and English Edmond Halley (1656--1742)

during the similar transition of Mercury across the surface of the Sun on November 7, 1677 on

the Island of St. Helene described the event more accurately. Halley predicted ins 1691 and 1716

that the transition of Venus in 1761 was the right opportunity for the accurate measurement of the

distance between the Earth and the Sun from measurements of the parallax of the Sun, as did

Giovani Domenico Cassini (1625--1712) in Paris, and John Flamsteed (1646--1719). A few hours

of the transition of Venus were to be observed from the distant geographical points with accurate

clocks and in sextants in order to measure the changes between the apparent centers of the Venus

and the Sun.

Observations on June 6, 1761

Bošković373

described the measurement, but he missed his observation in Constantinople.

London scientific instruments merchant Benjamin Martin (1714--1782)374

described his

observations of the transition of Venus across the Sun with his own “universal microscope”.

French academy sent Abbé Jean Chappe d’Auteroche (1728--1769) to observe the transition in

Tobolsk in Siberia, and G. Josef Hiacint Jean Le Gentil de la Galaiser (1725--1792) sailed to

Pondichéry, the center of French property in East India. Unfortunately Gentile was unable to

observe the event on that occasion nor was he able to se it eight years later;375

but he did observe

an interesting fata morgana. Russian Mihail Vasiljevič Lomonosov (1711--1765) discovered the

atmosphere of the Venus during the transition.376

His achievement was unknown to the West and

Herschell discovered it again three decades later.

Bevis observed the transition from the Kew observatory near London. He was among the first to

describe »the event of the black drop«, which obstructed the more accurate measurement of time

at the beginning and on the end of transition.

In Rome and Siena, the Italian Jesuit Asclepi,377

organized the observations of the transition of

Venus across the surface of the Sun on June 6, 1761. He got Bošković’s chair for mathematics

just a year before. In 1765 he warned in his discussion about the micrometer objective, that the

theoretical and the experimental measurements of the diameter of Venus during the transition

across the Sun did not give the same results. Wargentin378

in Stockholm and Brjus379

in

372

Chapman, 1990, 30; Maor, 2000, 31, 37, 38; Moore, 2002, 174. 373

Bošković, 1760; Marković, 1969, 1107; Bošković, 1930, 99--100. 374

Olson, Pasachoff, 1999, 41. 375

Martin, 1759, 123 (Postscript); Marković, 1969, 2: 609--610, 1107. 376

Ševarlić, 1986, 87. 377

Giuseppe Maria Asclepi (1706--1776), 1761; Asclepi, 1768, 32. 378

Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin (Vargentius, * September 11, 1717 Sunne; † December 13, 1738). 379

Jakov Vilimovič Brjus (Braunius, * 1670; † 1735).

69

Petersburg had already noted the difference before him. Wargentin measured the viewing angle

of the diameter of Venus as 50'', and Brjus gave 64''. With the micrometer objective they got the

results between 57'' and 59,8''.380

Unlike today, the base astronomical unit in those times was the diameter of the Earth, and the

decimal Briggs logarithms were used for calculations. Halley measured the ratio between the

distances from Venus to Earth and the diameter of Earth and the decimal logarithm of the result

was 3,733577. The ratio between the distance and diameter is indeed about 10,000 therefore he

got a considerably accurate result. He lowered the older measurement of the apparent diameter of

Venus for 0,7'' and got 32,05''.381

Asclepi described the use of the dioptrics tubes similar to

micrometer using the example of such measurement. Observations of Hell between May 21, 1761

and May 23, 1761 were in accordance with Halley’s measurement of the distance between Venus

and Earth. For the apparent diameter of the Venus, he measured the highest value of 71''.382

On

May 22, 1761, he measured the decimal logarithm 3.51033 for the ratio between the distance

Venus- Earth in opposition and the diameter of the Earth. That was about 40 million km, and was

close enough to the modern value. Because of that result, they had to change the measurement of

the apparent diameter of Venus to 54", because the observations with micrometer proved, that the

diameter should be 17" lower. Besides Hell, Short in Edinburgh and Asclepi also developed

methods for the observation of the transition of Venus across the surface of the Sun. Asclepi used

the micrometer to get rid of the chromatic aberration of the picture. With the comparison between

the apparent diameter of Venus or Mars in the known distance from the Earth he calculated the

diameters of planets. Cassini de Thury measured the diameter of Mars during the opposition in

1751. His father Jacques (1677--1756) also measured the data, and Hell got his own results in

1764.383

Between 1762 and 1765, Rieger was professor of mathematics and »cosmographer« in Madrid.

There he published seven pages of his June 6, 1761 observations of the transition of Venus across

the surface of the Sun.384

A group of observers in Ljubljana was led by Schöttl,385

ten years his

junior. Schöttl had already cooperated with Rieger already in Theresianum between 1754 and

1757. In 1762, J. Schöttl returned to Teresianum precisely at the time Rieger’s left for Spain.

They met again in Passau, where Rieger was the rector of the Traunkirchen domain in 1772,

before he became a rector at Ljubljana.

In June 1761 Hell organized the observations of transition of Venus across the surface of the Sun

in numerous Jesuit colleges, among them in Ljubljana and Beijing. He published the report about

Schöttl’s, Riegler’s and other observations of the transition of Venus on June 6, 1761. Schöttl’s

measurement was praised by the Paris academy386

and that makes it the most important

observation in Carniola of those times. Observers in Habsburg monarchy were also in direct

contact with Parisian observers. Director of the Paris observatory César-François Cassini de

380

Asclepi, 1768, 7. 381

Asclepi, 1768, 32--33. 382

Wrongly noted as 71’ (Asclepi, 1768, 32). 383

Asclepi, 1768, 21--23, 24, 32--33, 37. 384

Kristjan Rieger (* May 14, 1714 Vienna; SJ October 17, 1731 Vienna; † March 26, 1780 Vienna). 385

Janez Krstnik Schöttl (* June 23, 1724 Steyr; SJ October 28, 1739 Vienna; † 1777). 386

Hell, 1761, 83--84, 100, 103, 120--121; Lukács, 1988, 3: 1499; Stoeger, 1855, 320--321; Sommervogel, 7: 859;

Murko, 1974, 19.

70

Thury (Toires, 1714--1784) measured the transition of Venus in Vienna, because in Paris the

event was unobservable. The joung emperor Joseph II was in his company.

In the ephemerides for the year 1761, Hell first described the older observations of the transition

of Venus, and then he noted all the observations accomplished on June 6, 1761. He also added

the observations of the eclipse, and shadowing of Jupiter and it’s satellites by the Moon. First, he

described the observations of Kepler, Horrox (Horrocii), Halley, Weiss, Lacaille, Cassini de

Thury and Eustachius Zanotti (1709--1782).387

He also mentioned »Observations of Rieger from

Vienna, the mathematician of the Spanish king. He translated the English publication of Halley’s

method corrected by Dunthorn388

and Streete to Latin.389

Rieger arranged their computations for

the Viennese meridian«. Hell also described the observations of Delisle and Gentile. He reported

about the measurement in Beijing without mentioning Hallerstein.390

Hallersteins discussions

published at the Royal Society of London two decades earlier had failed to mention his name.

Amiot also observed the transition of June 6,1761 at 3 p. m. in Beijing. The weather was cloudy

until 8 a. m., but cleared up until 4 p. m.391

Hell also reported about the observations in Macao, Arhangelsk, Petersburg and Paris. He

described the useful methods for the observations of the transition of Venus with the mirror and

lens telescopes with the use of Hevelius, Lacaille and Cassini’s tables.392

He also added some

copper engravings with the pictures of the transition of Venus and below them a picture of two

astronomers with a telescope.

At the end of the ephemerides for the year 1761, Hell added hundred twenty-three pages of

discussion with a separate title and listing of results of measurement and the theory of the

transition of Venus, Moon eclipse, as well as the observations of Jupiter’s moons. He concluded

his book with the copper engravings showing the transitions of 1761, June 3, 1769, and

December 9, 1874.393

Hell began with description of his own observations in Vienna, and then listed the methods of

spherical trigonometry.394

He described the measurements of Cassini de Thury and Liesganig,395

as well as Jesuits Kara Mastalier and Leopold Müller.396

Hell explained the use of micrometer,

Clairaut’s measurement of the apparent Venus diameter, and Horrox’ observations in 1739.397

He

explained the work of Newton’s telescope, which he used to observe the transition of Venus at

Vienna. Hell’s telescope was 4.5 feet long. The Jesuits Baron Ignac Rain (1737—1794 Lvov? as

Liesganig’s assistant (Aspaas, 2012, 174)) from Reka and Anton Pilgram (Pilgrim, * 1730

387

Hell, 1761, 1--5. 388

Englishman Richard Dunthorn (1711--1775). 389

Hell, 1761, 5 (unpaged). Englishman Thomas Streete researched between 1621 and 1689. 390

Hell, 1761, 11 (unpaged). 391

Amiot, 1774, 522 392

Hell, 1761, 6--9, 14--19. 393

Hell, 1761. 394

Hell, 1761, 5. 395

Hell, 1761, 17, 20. Joseph Xaver Liesganig (* February 12, 1719 Graz; SJ October 28, 1734 Vienna; † March 4,

1799 Lvov). 396

Hell, 1761, 19, 20. 397

Hell, 1761, 22, 23, 25.

71

Vienna, SJ 1747; † 15. Januar 1793 Vienna) used a telescope, that was a half of a

foot shorter in Vienna. Hell listed the measurements of the French researchers Monnier, Lalande,

Messier,398

as well as the Jesuits Cluét and Merveille from the college Louis the Great in Paris.

Among German and British researchers he mentioned Wolff and Short.399

Next he described the

observations of the Jesuits Wendlung, Benovente, and Antonio Exmente under Rieger’s direction

in Spain. Rieger used Bradley’s micrometer and the eight foot »English«, perhaps Newton’s

telescope. Marinus, E. Zanotti, Jesuit Zacagnini, and Frusi from Pisa measured in Italy.400

Rieger

miled to Hell from Madrid on April 30, 1761 and Hallerstedin mailed to Hell from Beijing on

September 5, 1770. Hallerstein’s letter is preserved in J. Bernoulli’s heritage copy (Aspaas,

2012, 434).

Hell described »the observations of a professor of mathematics in Ljubljana, the Jesuit Janez

Schöttl, with the dioptrics tube 16 foot long. Venus touched the surface of the Sun at 9h 18’ 15’’.

Venus crossed the surface of the Sun in 18’ 5’’. The geographical longitude of Ljubljana was

measured during the Moon’s eclipse on May 18, 1761, and at the same time they bettered the

value of the geographical latitude«.401

Hall did not mention any Schöttl’s collaborators. Hell

listed the Ljubljana observation before any German ones, although Ljubljana was certainly part

of the German empire. Among the observers in Germany, he listed the Jesuit Joseph Stepling

(1716--1778) in Prag and Weiss in Trnava.402

He tabulated the basic characteristics of the

different measurements in Europe: the length and the sort of the telescope, the time of the

transition and the weather. In Ljubljana, unlike most other places, they had clear weather, which

gave Schöttl the opportunity for breaking results. With the exception of Hauser in the German

city of Dillinger, Schöttl used the longest telescope, which he bought after 1755 with the grants

of 25 fl per year.403

Liesganig in Vienna observed Venus through a longer telescope with lens; the

instrument was 11 feet long. Cassini de Thury used a 9 foot telescope. Herbert, I. Rain, Scherffer,

Hell, and D. Lysogorski used mirror telescopes in Vienna.404

On the next pages Hell computed

the distance between the meridians for Ljubljana, Paris, and Madrid, which enabled him to

398

Hell, 1761, 32. French Pierre Charles Lemonier (Le Monnier, 1715--1799) together with Maupertius and Clairaut

measured the meridian on Lapland between 1736 and 1737, later he taught physics at Collège-de-France. Joseph

Jérôme Le François de Lalande (La Lande, * July 11, 1732 Bourg-en-Brese; † April 4, 1807 Paris) studied at the

Jesuit college in Lyon and later studied law in Paris. In 1751, he became a member of the Berlin academy, in 1753

Paris academy, in 1763 Royal astronomical society in London and the next year of Petersburg academy. In 1760, he

taught in Paris at Collège-Royal. He was the leader and founder of the freemason lodge in Paris (Košir, 2002, 100).

Famous French researcher of comets Charles Messier (* June 26, 1730 Badonviller between Nancy and Strasbourg;

† 1817) was Delisle’s assistant in 1751. In 1770, he became a member of the Paris academy, and six years later also

academies in Berlin and Petersburg. 399

Hell, 1761, 38--41, 42. 400

Hell, 1761, 45--49. 401

Hell, 1761, 83--84. 402

Smolka, 1968, 134; Hell, 1761, 84. Director of the observatory Franz Weiss (1717--1785) liked Bošković’s

physics. He published the astronomical observations in Trnava in 1759 and 1768 (Mädler, 1872, 529). 403

Kersnik listed telescope with micrometer and telescope with the paper tube in the cabinet for physics of Ljubljana

Central school among the instruments for the "Optics and astronomy" (Kersnik, 1811). Kersnik noted the first if

them in 1847 under the number 146 in section "VII Optics". The separate notes for astronomical instruments began

only in 1854. 404

Hell, 1761, 96.

72

compute the time of the apparent transition of Venus in Ljubljana and compare that with times in

Paris and Madrid.405

Hell published similar computations for the other observed points.

Hell also published the copper engravings a map of the Moon from the observations through the

telescope. Thomas Harriot (1560--1621) produced the first map of that kind. At the end of the

discussion, Hell added the observations of Jupiter’s moons and Moon eclipse. Among others, he

accurately listed J. Schöttl’s measurements, which lasted 1 hour 19 minutes and 56 seconds from

the first observed shadow until the total shadow of the Moon. The eclipse was divided into 20

phases, which were described considering the beginning and the total shadowing of some objects

on the Moon, for instance: »Gassendi altogether at the shadow«, »shadow on Aristarh«, »Aristarh

totally in the shadow«, »the beginning of Tycho«, »the nucleus of Tycho«.406

On September 24,

1766, Hallerstein reported to his brother, that Benoist gave him Hell’s ephemerides for the year

1761. The book contained Hallerstein’s and other observations of the transition of Venus across

the Sun observed at Vienna and in other colleges and universities. Therefore it’s possible that

Hallerstein wrote to Ljubljana, because Hell published Schöttl’s observations from 1761.

Therefore, Hallerstein had in his hands his own and other observations of the transition of Venus

at least five years after the publication in Vienna. He received other works from Europe and

thanked his brother Vajkard for them on October 27, 1767.407

Measurements in June 1769

Five years after the first observation of the transition of Venus, Asclepi published the discussion

about the micrometer objectives as a useful instrument for the second observation of the

transition of Venus on June 3, 1769, which raised great hope. Because the Ljubljanese professor

of physics Janez Krstnik Pogrietschnig was also preparing himself for the observation, he

published the theses for his examination with Asclepi’s text and with Boškovoć’s physics in

September 1768. At the same time, Biwald published his theses with Asclepi’s book in Graz, but

he had already published the Bošković’s book three years before Ljubljana. In 1765, Bošković’s

work was reprinted in Paris in a similar way.408

Transition of June 3, 1769 was observed from 151 observatories at 77 different places. G. Schöttl

and G. Gruber both arrived to the Jesuit’s college of Ljubljana just a year before the transition,

and both were able astronomers. Former Bradley’s assistant Charles Green ant captain James

Cook (1728--1779) observed the transition in Tahiti in Hudson’s bay and in Madras. On August

30, 1769, Cook observed the comet C/1769 P1 above the southern Pacific. The tail of the comet

covered the angle 42o.409

405

Hell, 1761, 100, 101, 103. 406

Observationem Satelitum Jovis et Lunae Eclipses Anni 1761. Ejusdem Eclipsos Lunae Observatio facta Labaci in

Carniola à R. P. Joano Schöttl è S. J. Math. Prof. (Hell, 1761, 120--121). 407

Hallerstein, 1781, 50; Dimitz, 1861, 84. 408

Varićak, 1925, 198--199. 409

Olson, Pasachoff, 1999, 43.

73

The Danes observed near the North Cape in today’s Norway, and Swedes in Finland. Mayer,410

a

member of the Royal Society in London from 1765, directed the Russian observations. In

Lapland and in Siberia they used Short’s mirror telescopes. Bošković with the orders from the

London Royal Society planned to measure with his assistant Liesganig in California. But

California was Spanish property and they prohibited the Jesuits the entering of their lands in

1767. The seven year war just ended with England as the enemy of the Habsburg monarchy.

Therefore the chancellor Wenzel Anton Prince Kaunitz-Rietberg (1711--1794) prevented

Bošković’s journey, because at that time he was professor in the Habsburg university of Pavia.

Royal Society of London sent Chappe to California and he eventually died there during the

epidemic.411

Hallerstein and his collaborators observed the transition of Venus across the surface of the Sun

on June 4, 1769, a day before the Europeans. At the Saint Joseph college they used the 8 foot

telescope of with Graham's micrometer.412

(PICTURE 22: The first page of Beijing observations of the transition of Venus in 1769

(Phil.Trans. 1774 64: 34))

In a report published in London, Hallerstein’s name was not mentioned. Just a few months later

he lead the observations of the Aurora Borealis, therefore it can be claimed, that he vas also

active during the measurement of the transition of Venus. Hallerstein’s substitute was Rocha and

his collaborators were Gogeisl and Espinha. They certainly cooperated on observations of the

transition of Venus in 1761.

Venus touched the western edge of the disc of Sun at 4h 42’ 5’’ a. m. The objects were

completely separated at 9h 26’ 32’’.

413 Maskelyne paid special attention to the wrong Beijing

notes of the times 7h 18' 31'', 8

h 3' 28'' and 8

h 24' 48''. Maskelyne compared the Beijing times with

the tables of S. Horsley in his remarks under the line.414

Maskelyne je bil 5. Kraljevi astronom od leta 1765, ob podelitvi Copleyeve medalje 1775 pa ga

je John Pringle imenoval ljubitelja planin (Reeves, 2009, 323). Že Newton je opisal o

gravitacijski privlačnosti planin, sledila pa je perujska ekspedicija; le redki so dvomili v

410

Christian Mayer (* August 20, 1719 Modric near Brno; SJ 1745; † 1783 Mannheim). 411

Bošković, 1980, 231, 329; Casanovac, 1991, 237; Marković, 1969, 2: 695; Supek, 1989, 150; Gurikov, 1983, 146;

Inglot, 1997, 45. 412


Cipolla, 1774, 34, 36. 414

Samuel Horsley (* September 15, 1733 London; † October 4, 1806 Brighton) was a son of the priest John. In

1751, he began to study theology in Cambridge, but he was more interested in mathematics. In 1773, he became the

secretary of the Royal Society of London. The next year he got the post at the University of Oxford as the Ph.D. of

law. In that time he wrote the astronomical tables that Maskelyne later used. In 1759, he became the Anglican priest

in Newigton Butts in Surrey. In 1781, he got the archbishopric St. Alban. He criticized the theology of Joseph

Priestley in letters he published in 1784 and 1786 in Oxford. Between 1779 and 1785 he edited the illustrated edition

of Newton’s works. In 1788, he became bishop at St. David in Wales, in 1793 at Rochester, and in 1802 at St. Asaph

in Wales.

74

gravitavcijkski privlak planin v 1770ih letih, Maskyline pa ga je prvi spravil v številke (Reeves,

2009, 324). Vdova si je prisvojila Bradleyeve zapiske opazovanj na observatoriju po njegovi

smrti 1762 (Reeves, 2009, 326). Maskelyne 1771 predlaga nov poskus za meritev privlaka hribov

(Reeves, 2009, 332), 30. 6. 1774 pa je sam meril (Reeves, 2009, 324).

Beijing observers did not just measure the position of Venus on the apparent touches with the

edge of the surface of the Sun; they also measured at 18 positions in between. They noted the

apparent position of the Sun and Venus at twice as many different times (36), that were measured

accurately to the half of the second. For the first measurement of the particular pair, they

measured the position of the Western edge of the Sun at particular time, and for the second

measurement in the same pair they measured later time, when the center of Venus apparently

reached that point.

During the very first measurement, between 4h 42' 5'' and 4

h 44' 21'' the interval of time 2' 16''

passed. During that interval, the point on the western edge of the disk of the Sun moved to the

point at the sky, which was before on the eastern edge of the Sun. From that data they calculated,

that the diameter of the Sun passed over the angle of 31' 38'' in the time of 2' 16''; that was a very

good result for the apparent diameter Sun. They measured the apparent diameter of Venus which

was 34 times smaller than that of the Sun. Therefore Venus passed the viewing angle 56'' at a

shorter time of only 4''. They calculated with the accuracy of 0.3 %, because the correct ratio

among the apparent diameters of the objects was 33.9 and not 34. The calculation for the

apparent diameter of Venus was in accord with the results which Asclepi published in Rome. The

calculated ratio 34 between the apparent diameters of Venus and Sun was relatively good,

although too high.

Next, for every interval of time they measured the position of the western edge of the Sun and the

interval of time that separates it from the center of Venus. The difference between both times,

therefore the distance between the western edge of Sun and the center of Venus, was smaller with

each measurement. From the primary 1 minute 16 seconds that passed between 4h 54 minutes 39

seconds and 4h 55 minutes 55 seconds, the intervals diminished, and for the last measurement

between 8h 29 minutes 2 seconds and 8

h 29 minutes 21 seconds they had the time interval of just

19 seconds. The distance from Venus to the north edge of the Sun gets longer each time. From

the primary 5 minutes 5 seconds at 4h 55 minutes 55 seconds it grew to 8 minutes 58 seconds at

8h 29 minutes 21 seconds.

At 9h 6 minutes 50 seconds the surface of the Venus apparently lengthened and covered the rays

from the apparent west edge of the Sun. At 9h 7 minutes 32 seconds the disk of Venus apparently

touched the inner edge of the Sun. East415

edge of Venus reached same the position at 9h

22

minutes 8 seconds, which was reached by the east edge of Sun 2 minutes 11 seconds later at 9h 24

minutes 19 seconds. At that very moment, Venus was 9 minutes 54 seconds separated from the

north edge of Sun.

Courtiers helped the observations, although they were not particularly careful with the

timekeeping. During the observation of the transition of Venus the clouds dispersed.

415

Latin ort.=ortus.

75

Johann Franz Encke (1791--1865) researched the observations of the transitions of the Venus

across the surface of the Sun between 1761 and 1769. He worked in Gotha from 1816 to 1825

and in Berlin in 1835. Karl Powalky (1817--1881) repeated the work in 1864. Encke knew

geographical longitude of the observational stations more accurately than Hell and he was able to

compute the parallax of the Sun and the great axis of Earth accurate to nearly 4 %. Measurements

from the year 1761 gave the value of the parallax of the Sun between 8’’ and 10’’, and in 1769

between 8’’ and 9’’. The computed average value for the great axis of the Earth orbit was just 4

million km higher than the modern 149,597,870 km for the parallax of the Sun 8.794148''.416

Modern astronomers expected the transition of Venus across the surface of the Sun in 2004 with

great expectations and new measurements.

Other observations of Venus

On January 5, 1772, the observations of Venus took place in Beijing college. They measured the

difference of the apparent heights and the declination of Venus and Sun. They measured from 55'

5 seconds after midnight until 6 hours 35' 47 seconds next day.417

The Sun and the Moon

Hallerstein heard the correct explanation of the eclipse for the first time already at the college of

Ljubljana in the student examination theses defended and published in 1716 by Hallerstein’s

cousin Erberg, the student of professor Stainer. The correct prediction of the Sun eclipses was

particularly important for the Jesuit, because it brought them the respect at the mission countries

and especially China. Hallerstein’s astronomical bureau had to predict all eclipses and unusual

cosmic events a year in advance. Than for each month they sent predictions to the provinces,

where the event was expected. They added the astrological explanation, connected with the

destiny of emperor and the highest aristocracy to each prediction of the eclipse, and the

prediction was therefore a state secret.418

Hallerstein measurements of the eclipses between September 21, 1717 and October 21, 1744

published in 1768, and some eclipses measurements were already described in Kögler’s Science

about the eclipses in 1747.419

Sun eclipses

Emperor doubted the official prediction of the eclipse to be expected on June 13, 1760. But

Hallerstein accurately predicted the degree of the eclipse for the province Hunan (Hu Kuam) and

416

Ševarlić, 1986, 46--48; Berry, 1946, 218, 242--244. 417

Cipolla, 1774, 42. 418

Shi, 2000, 145; Ricci, 1953, 32. 419


76

Shandon (Xan Tum). He knew that the people will get scared the most at the moment of the

greatest darkness.420

Hallerstein’s office accurately predicted the eclipse on October 17, 1762, but the scribe made

some errors during the transcription. The errors were not noticed soon enough, so the prediction

with wrong data about the eclipse was sent to the governors of the provinces to announce the data

to the people. When the eclipse occurred at a unpredicted time, emperor called about hundred of

Mandarines from Hallerstein’s bureau for the astronomy. Hallerstein explained that it was a

matter of scribe’s rather than scientific error. He left the decision to the emperor’s mercy.

Emperor did not fire the astronomers unlike several previous times.421

After 1725, there was a

proposed penalty of being hit 60 times with a cane for the officers of the astronomical bureau,

who overlooked or wrongly predicted the time of the astronomical events.422

Hallerstein reported about the Sun eclipses in Beijing on March 22, 1746,423

on May 25, 1770424

at seven o’clock and on March 23, 1773 to Hell.425

On May 25, 1770 Hallerstein measured the

relative diameters of the Sun 31' 40'' and 32' 10'', which was about equal to the today accepted

value of 1900''.426

Observation was one hour and 39 minutes long, from 7h 30’ 44’’ until 9

h 9’

44’’. The smallest apparent distance between the centers of the Moon and Sun was 9' 48'', the

average value of the distance at all phases of the eclipse was 10' 18''. Hallerstein used his own

new method for the computation of the minimal apparent distance between Sun and Moon during

the eclipse. He compared the results with the measurements of the Sun eclipses on June 13, 1760,

1715 and May 12, 1706. Hire,427

observed the last two eclipses together with Cassini.s student,

professor of logic and mathematics, Jesuit Faber (Fabri) of the Holy Trinity college in Lyon. In

1719, the visitor did not allow Foucquet428

and other Beijing Jesuits to use Hire’s Copernican

tables published in 1702. Later, Hallerstein was able to use them, and B. F. Erberg bought the

German translation of Hire’s tables in 1750s for the Jesuit college of Ljubljana.

Hallerstein took into account Monnier’s instructions for the measurement. Hell rightly claimed,

that the accurate time of the end of the eclipse was much harder to observe than the time of the

beginning. Special consideration was given to the curvature of the sky because of the refraction

of the light in the atmosphere.

In 1770, Hallerstein gathered the results in a five column table. The first contained 18 measured

times from the beginning of the observations until the highest degree of eclipse at 8h 22’ 22’’,

when the Moon covered the part of the diameter of Sun, observed at the viewing angle 18' 28''.

That was the 58 % part of the whole viewing angle of the diameter of Sun, estimated to 31' 40''.

The second column contained the part of the light which falls on the micrometer during the

420

Rodrigues, 1799, 31. 421

Laimbeckhoven, 2000, 158; Shi, 2000, 140, 141. 422

Corradini, 1994, 349. 423

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 19. 424

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 20; Hallerstein 1772, 6: 248. 425

Hallerstein, 1774, 18: 157; Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 18. 426

Maor, 2000, 169. 427

Philippe de la Hire (* 1640 Paris; † 1718 Paris). 428

Jean-François Foucquet (Fu Shëng-Tsë, * March 12, 1681 Vézelam in department Yonne; SJ September 17, 1681

Paris; † March 4, 1741 Rome (Witek, 1982, 74)).

77

darkening of the eclipse. The third column contained 18 times for which during the arrival of the

Sun from the Moon’s shadows they measured the same luminosity as during the darkening of the

eclipse. The forth column contained 17 times at the end of the eclipse, for which Hallerstein

calculated the minimal distances between the centers of the Sun and Moon, measured in viewing

angles. The last two columns were tabulated again at the end of the reports. In 16 rows,

Hallerstein repeated some data from the first table. Twice in two years Hell published the same

table with Hallerstein’s measurement. The textual explanation did not change.429

In the first

publication he just mentioned the new Hallerstein’s geometrical and analytical method for the

calculation of the minimal distance between the centers of the Sun and Moon during the eclipse.

In 1772, Hell completed Hallerstein’s observations of the Sun eclipse of May 25, 1770 with the

simultaneous observations of Father Espinha at the residence of Saint Joseph in Beijing. Espinha

used a telescope like Hallerstein’s with lens almost 8 feet long, and the diameter of the aperture

7,34' inch (nearly 20 cm). His measured maximal diameter of the Sun was for 4'' 16''' less than

Hallerstein’s, and he used the sign ''' to note sixtieth part of the arc second. Espinha started to

measure the diameters 3.5 minutes before Hallerstein, and finished his work 1.5 minute after him.

Hell tabulated Espinha’s measurements in 6 columns and Hallerstein’s in 5 columns.430

Cipolla later published slightly different measurements of the same eclipse. According to his

report, the eclipse began at 7h 31’ 7’’, and ended at 9

h 19’ 52’’. Therefore his beginning was few

second later than Hallerstein’s, but it lasted as much as 10 minutes longer. The diameter of the

Sun was estimated to be 31' 35'' 44'''.431

In Hallerstein’s reports about the Sun eclipses we calculated the time into the decimal fractions of

the hour. The Chinese divided the diameters of the Moon and Sun during the eclipses into 10

equal parts (fingers). The fingers were divided into 60 minutes, and minute were further divided

into 60 seconds. We converted the Chinese notes432

into decimal units of thousandth part of the

hour:

Date Length First touch Middle Last touch

19/2/1719 -- 14.642 -- --

4/8/1720 0.725 10.717 12.217 13.700

24/7/1721 -- 17.350 -- --

15/7/1730433

0.842 -- 12.850 14.453

29/12/1731 -- -- -- 8.600

16/10/1735 0.833 7.783 8.963 10.292

3/7/1742 0.700 -- 7.533 8.550

22/3/1746434

0.745 9.246 10.817 12.433

429

Hallerstein, 1774, 18: 157, 161. 430

Hallerstein, 1771, 16: 249. 431

Cipolla, 1774, 37, 39. 432

Rodrigues, 1799, 31--32. 433

Hallerstein, 1768; Viegas, 1921, 257; Shi, 2000, 140. There was some rain at the beginning of eclipse, but later

the clouds dispersed. Kögler and Pereyra observed with the six foot telescope in the emperor’s observatory

(Rodrigues, 1799, 36--37).

78

25/5/1751 0.487 6.698 7.550 8.435

25/5/1751 0.487435

6.708 7.558 8.434

13/6/1760436

0.970 16.433 17.950 18.384

17/10/1762437

0.567 16.667 17.667 --

25/5/1770438

0.413 7.594 -- 9.341

25/5/1770 0.580439

7.528 8.373 9.162

25/5/1770 -- 7.470440

-- 9.179

23/3/1773441

0.400 13.003 -- 15.622

6/9/1774442

0.420 7.258 8.217 9.321

The standard error of the measurement of the beginning, middle and the end of the Sun’s eclipse

was equal to 3.4 %, and systematic error was 1.3 %. The greatest errors were to be found at the

estimation of the time of the last contact because of the “effect of black drop«, which was already

known to the theorists of the observations of those times. They were also more accurate in

estimating the percent of the covered part of the Sun during the eclipse.443

Moon eclipses

On June 20, 1750, Hallerstein and Gogeisl observed the Moon eclipse from the emperor’s

observatory of Beijing. On October 31, 1750, Gaubil reported about their measurement to Delisle

in Paris, but he did not write the numerical results of the observations,444

that Hallerstein

published in 1768.445

During the evening of November 12, 1761, Jesuits observed the total Moon eclipse from their

home observatory of Beijing. Bahr used the 5 foot telescope, Ignacius Francisco the 7 foot

telescope, and Joseph Bernardo the 8 foot telescope. An unnamed observer was using Roemer’s 8

foot telescope in the emperor’s observatory at the same time. He was able to begin his

observations 34 seconds before others and he finished 18 seconds or more after them. He used

handy watch with a pendulum. The weather was clear and calm without wind. The extreme points

434

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 19; Hallerstein, 1768; Shi, 2000, 140. 435

Those and the older measurements in table: Hallerstein, 1768; Shi, 2000, 140. On May 25, 1751, La Charme

observed the Sun eclipse at the college of French Jesuits in Beijing with 7.5 foot telescope. He measured 45 %

eclipse (Gaubil, 1970, 640--641; Gaubil, letter to Delisle om May 25, 1751). 436

Rodrigues, 1799, 31; Amiot, 1774, 571. 437

Rodrigues, 1799, 31; Amiot, 1774, 599. 438

Rodrigues, 1799, 32. 439

Eight foot Telescope with lens and Canton’s micrometer (Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 20; Hallerstein 1772, 16: 248). 440

Espinha in the residence of Saint Joseph used the telescope with lens, almost 8 foot long with diameter almost 20

cm (Hallerstein, 1771, 16: 249). 441

Hallerstein, 1774, 18: 157; Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 18. That eclipse, observed with 6 foot telescope differed much

from the prediction of the astronomical bureau in Beijing (Rodrigues, 1799, 32). 442

Six foot telescope (Rodrigues, 1799, 32). 443

Hallerstein, 1769, 1: 3; Shi, 2000, 136. 444

The name wrongly noted as Gogails (Gaubil, 1970, 633). 445

Shi, 2000, 141.

79

of the Moon’s shadow were clearly dissoluble, but there were some spots anywhere. Moon had

the color of the glowing iron. Just after the beginning of the eclipse a bright little star was seen

vertical above the Moon about 2/3 of the Moon diameter away. They expected that they will see

the little star again after the eclipse ended. But after the eclipse the star was to close, just a finger

away from Moon, and nobody was able to recognize it. The middle time of the eclipse was

compared with the expected time for Beijing according to the tables of Halley, Cassini,

Grammatici, Monnier, and the Parisian ephemerides of an unknown author. The best were

Monnier’s tables, the error being less than minute.446

On October 23, 1771, the Jesuits observed the Moon eclipse from the residence of Saint Joseph in

Beijing. Observer reported in first person and he was probably Cipolla himself. The eclipse began

at 23h 22' 6 '' and ended the next day at 1

h 37' 13''. The maximal eclipse was not noted.

447 They

used the 8 foot telescope.

During the night of October 11, 1772 in the night, Hallerstein observed the total Moon eclipse in

Beijing. He used shorter, six feet long telescope with Short’s »English« micrometer.448

The same

eclipse was also observed by the Jesuits of Canton. Their data with measurements did arrive in

time to the Alexander Hume’s boat Osterley, and Hume’s co-member of Canton East Company

council, Blake, delivered the notes in time, and was only found later. Blake became the member

of the permanent Canton council (established 1762) in 1767, and A. Hume joined ithe council

with 10 members in 1770 and became president of the council in 1773 (BALLOU MORSE,

HOSEA. 1929. The Chronicles of the EAST INDIA COMPANY trading to CHINA 1635-1834,

Oxford: THE CLARENDON PRESS, p. 130, 149, 176). Observer was not listed. Maskelyne had

doubts about the accuracy of the observations, because the watch was adjusted to the Sun just the

day earlier. The sky was clear most of the time. They observed from 22h 54' 26'' until 3

h 4' 4'' the

next day.449

The Jesuits from Canton used telescope with 6 spans of length, and the pendulum,

which (John) Arnold fabricated in London. He simplified Harrison’s models and introduced

bimetal rings with counterweight for the changing of the lever on spring to compensate for the

changes of temperature.450

(PICTURE 23: The title page of Hell, Rain and Gusman’s451

ephemerides, where Hallerstein’s

observations of the Moon eclipse on October 11, 1772 and the eclipse of Sun on March 23, 1773

were published (Hell, Ephemerides astronomicae 1776. Vienna 1775)).

Hallerstein reported about the following measurement of the moon eclipses, where the time is

computed in the decimal fractions of the hour:

446

Cipolla, 1774, 44--45 447

Cipolla, 1774, 39. 448

Šmitek, 1995, 131--132; Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 17. 449

Cipolla, 1774, 47. 450

Bud, Warner, 1998, 113. 451

Franz Güssmann (Güsman, * September 30, 1741 Wolkersdorf in Austria; SJ; † January 28, 1806 Seitenstetten

(Poggendorff, 1863, 972--973)).

80

Date Length The first contact Middle The last contact

21/9/1717 0.637 0.417 1.842 3.267

3/16/1718 1 21.785 23.557 1.328

10/9/1718 1 1.708 -- --

30/8/1719 -- -- -- --

13/1/1721 0.600 21.200 22.683 0.167

2/1/1722 1 20.317 22.283 0.250

22/12/1722 -- -- -- --

22/10/1725452

1 0.725 No notes. 4.358

16/4/1726 -- -- -- 22.258

19/8/1728 0.650 23.033 0.517 2.000

14/2/1729 1 2.642 No notes. 6.294

29/7/1730 -- -- -- --

13/11/1731 0.412 18.300 19.450 20.683

8/6/1732 1 -- -- 23.750

2/12/1732 1 -- 3.750 --

29/5/1733 0.700 1.367 3.258 --

21/11/1733 0.742 19.250 20.863 22.075

7/4/1735 -- -- -- 19.983

16/3/1737 0.450 22.708 23.626 1.217

16/3/1737 0.457 22.711 23.641 1.217

25/1/1738 0.683 5.408 6.833 --

20/7/1739 -- -- -- --

14/1/1740 1 4.000 -- --

2/1/1741 Under the horizon 6.086 Under the horizon Under the horizon

19/5/1742 -- -- -- --

12/11/1742 0.575 18.833 20.100 21.367

12/11/1742 0.575 18.800 20.061 21.328

21/10/1744 No notes. 19.100 No notes. 21.814

20/6/1750453

1 2.967 Under the horizon Under the horizon

1/10/1754454

0.600 6.794 7.352 7.883

12/11/1761455

1 -- -- --

30/8/1765456

1 21.850 -- 1.511

25/2/1766457

0.357 2.312 3.250 4.509

23/12/1768458

1 21.079 -- 24.699

23/10/1771459

0.402 23.368 No notes. 1.620

452

Shi, 2000, 141. According to the other sources Slavicek (Slaviseck, Slaviczeck, * 1678 Jimramov ijn Mioravia on

the border with Bohemia; † 1735 Beijing), Pereyra, Kögler, and others observed a day later (Souciet, 1729, 53).

Slaviczek was famous for his research of the liberation of Moon (Duteil, 1994, 289). 453

The older measurements in table are from Hallerstein (1768) and Shi (2000, 141). 454

Gaubil did not tell us if he measured in the morning or in the evening (Gaubil, 1760, 473--474). 455

Cipolla, 1774, 44--45; Amiot, 1774, 588. 456

Rodrigues, 1799, 31. 457

Rodrigues, 1799, 31. The day before, Liesganig observed the Moon eclipse in Vienna (Mémoires de

mathématiques et de physique, 1774, 6: 17--18). 458

Rodrigues, 1799, 32. Six foot telescope in the residence.

81

23/10/1771460

-- 23.339 -- 1.631

11/10/1772461

1 23.228 2.040 3.225

11/10/1772462

-- 22.907 No notes. 3.068

The apparent transition of Jupiter under the Moon

On October 12, 1740, Gaubil observed the obscuration of Jupiter and it’s satellites behind the

Moon. La Charme observed the event at the same time with a 7.5 foot telescope.463

The Beijing Jesuits observed the immersion of Jupiter into the Moon shadow on July 5, 1770

from the college of Saint Joseph with 8 foots telescope. Observation began at 7h 57’ 29’’. Two

and a half minutes later Jupiter was totally covered at the west side of the Moon. Observation was

finished at 10h 18’ 37’’.

464

Other observations of the Moon

On January 25, 1772, Jesuits from the residence of Saint Joseph in Beijing observed the

beginning and the end of the Moon shadowing the brightest star in the Virgin constellation from

5h 27' 41'' to 6

h 34' 7''.

On January 29, 1772 from 4h 16' 35'' to 5

h 33' 31'', Jesuits observed the beginning and the end of

the event when Moon was covering the constellation of Scorpio. They used the 8 foot telescope

at the residence of Saint Joseph in Beijing.465

Date Covered Object First Contact Last Contact

19/4/1766466

The halve of Jupiter 8h 59' 30'' 9h 8' 55''

5/7/1770467

The halve of Jupiter 7h 57' 29'' 10

h 18' 37''

25/2/1772468

Alfa Virgin 5h 27' 41'' 6

h 34' 7''

29/1/1772469

Scorpio 4h 16' 35'' 5

h 33' 31''

Scorpio 4h 16' 33''

470 5

h 33' 0''

459

Cipolla, 1774, 39. 460

Šmitek, 1995, 131--132; Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 17. The Jesuits form residence measured with the five foot

telescope (Rodrigues, 1799, 32). 461

Rodrigues, 1799, 32. 462

Measured in Canton (Cipolla, 1774, 47). 463

Gaubil, 1970, 640--641; Gaubil’s letter to Delisle on May 25, 1751. 464

Cipolla, 1774, 40, 41. 465

Cipolla, 1774, 42. 466

Rodrigues, 1799, 31. 467

Cipolla, 1774, 40, 41. 468

Cipolla, 1774, 42. 469

Cipolla, 1774, 42.

82

26/12/1773471

Aldeber 16h 54' 5

h 34' 0''

The Distances between astronomical objects

In 1774, Hell published Hallerstein’s letter dated October 5, 1770 with a procedure for estimation

of the minimal distance between two astronomical objects with micrometer. Professor of

experimental physics at Basel Daniel Bernoulli (1700--1782) translated Hallerstein’s work in the

same year for the recently established Bode’s magazine.472

Like Hallerstein, D. Bernoulli and

Bode were members of the Petersburg and other academies.

(PICTURE 24: Title page of Bernoulli’s translation of Hallerstein’s computation of the minimal

distance between two objects in space (Bernoulli, Daniel. 1774. Des Herrn Pater Hallerstein's

d.G.P. Mandarinen und Presidenten des Collegii Matematici in China, Beobachtung der

Sonnenfinsterniss den 25sten May 1770 früh, zu Pekin in dem Jesuiter Collegio, durch ein

achtfüssiges mit einem Englischen Micrometer versehens Fernrohr; nachdem um 7 Uhr mit

diesem Micrometer der Durchmesser der Sonne von 31'. 40'' befunden worden. J. E. Bode's

Astronomisches Jahrbuch oder Ephemeriden für das Jahr 1776. Berlin 1774. 1/2: 169))

Bernoulli wrongly stated that he is translating Hallerstein’s discussion from Hell’s ephemeride

published in 1772. In fact, that publication included just the table of measurement from the year

1770 on the page 249, but not Hallerstein’s calculations, which were published with the reprint of

the table only in 1774. In translation, Bernoulli preserved Hallerstein’s pictures. He did not

publish Hallerstein’s citations. At the end of the discussion he added Hell’s note that was not

published with the first publication of Hallerstein’s calculations. In note, Hell mentioned

Audifredi’s comments of Sun eclipses, published in 1766 in Rome. Dominican Audifedi was

famous for his observations of the transition Venus in 1761 and comet in 1769 in Rome. The

beginning and the end of the eclipse in 1764 was discussed with Lalande’s methods. From the

observations of Hell’s friend Wargentine from Stockholm, Lalande calculated a time difference

between Paris and Stockholm that was 52'' to short. Based on that Hell suggested the use of the

method of the parallax for the calculation if the measurements of Sun eclipse in 1767.473

Hallerstein developed a special method with parallaxes for the estimation of the distance between

Moon and Sun during Sun’s eclipse at Saint Joseph college in Beijing.474

He measured several

stages of the eclipse. He solved the problem in both the trigonometric and analytic way. The

analytic solution was equivalent to the procedure developed by Lalande, and Hell’s collaborator

Pilgram after him in 1769.475

Lalande used Beijing observations with the difference of the Paris

and Beijing meridian.476

470

Rodrigues, 1799, 32. 471

Rodrigues, 1799, 31. 472

Šmitek, 1993, 25; Šmitek, 1995, 91. Johann Elert Bode (* January 19, 1747 Hamburg; † November 23, 1826

Berlin). 473

Hell, 1774, 174. 474

Stroeger, 1855, 120, 131; Hallerstein, 1774, 18: 156, 159. 475

Hallerstein, 1774, 18: 158; Stoeger, 1855, 120, 131. 476

Hell, 1773, 17: 77--78.

83

Hallerstein was the very first to express trigonometrically the minimal distance between the

astronomical objects. In the first picture, Ca is the axis of Moon, and CA is the axis of equator.

The line Gg represents the trajectory of the Moon, GP and gp are the distances between the

centers of the Sun and Moon at the beginning and at the end of the eclipse. Rectangular triangles

with the hypotenuses GP and gp are drawn one besides the other in the different picture and

Hallerstein searched the connections between its sides and angles.

The equality of GP and gp is evident from the simple picture, because both represent the radius of

the Sun, which Moon crosses between the first and the last contact with the Sun. The minimal

distance between the centers of the Sun and Moon was certainly at the middle between the first

and last contact. In that way, Hallerstein proved the equality between the distances GP and gp.

The triangle GPB is than isosceles, and the point Z halves it’s hypotenuse GB. The distance PZ is

the height of the triangle GPB and at the same time the minimal distance between the centers of

Sun and Moon.

From the measurement of the eclipse we can calculate in the same way the length of the chord in

circumference of the Sun, whose ends are the first contact with the Moon (G), and the last contact

with Moon (g). We can also compute the distance Bb, which is equal to the distance Pp and the

distance Bg. The lines Gg and Bg were the catheti of the rectangular triangle, therefore their ratio

is the same as the tangens of the angle PGZ.

If we add to the small angle BgG the known angle PGZ, we get the angle PGF. PGF is the angle

on the known hypotenuse GP, and we are able to calculate all the unknown elements in the

triangle PGF, i.e. that is the catheti GF and PF.

In that way we know the length of the sides and the angle between the side and hypotenuse in the

isosceles triangle PGB. That is enough for the solution of the triangle and in that way for the

calculation of the height of triangle, which is the smallest distance between the Sun and Moon

during the eclipse.

Next, Hallerstein complemented his original trigonometric solution of the problem with the

analytical one. There were far more problems with analytical calculation, than with the

trigonometric one. Hallerstein used square roots, exponents, and Pythagoras’ theorem in a page

and the half long calculation. He used the results on the part of the primary table with

observations, which is for the 16 times between 9h 17' 53'' and 9

h 18' 21'', when the apparent

distance between the center of the Sun and Moon changed very little.

The geometrical demonstrations were much more common to Bošković, Hallerstein, and other

Jesuits than the more modern mathematical ways with calculus. On the other hand, Chinese

mathematicians seldom used geometry, which also influenced the astronomy. In that way, the

Chinese did not feel the serious need for geometrical or mechanical model of the universe and

solar system before the arrival of the Jesuits.477

477

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 177, 446.

84

(PICTURE 25: Hallerstein’s scheme for computing the minimal distance between two points in

space (Hallerstein, 1774, 18: fig. I, II))

(PICTURE 26: The sketch of the observatory of Beijing, published in Verbiest’s book in 1687

(Sitar, 1983, 113))

(PICTURE 27: The words on the Hallerstein’s tombstone at the Jesuit Portuguese cemetery in

Beijing (Šmitek, 1995, 127))

Jupiter’s moons

Galileo was the first to describe Jupiter’s moons. He tried to name them in honor of his patrons,

dukes de Medici. He advised the sailors to observe the satellites for the accurate timekeeping on

the open sea. But the development of mechanical watches in Hallerstein’s time lowered the

importance of the observation Jupiter’s moons for the accurate timekeeping on boats.

Astronomers of Hallerstein’s time therefore observed Jupiter’s moons a lot. Hallerstein used the

theory and tables of Jupiter’s moons, which the Fellow of the Royal Society Dr. Jakob Hodgson

sent him.478

Hallerstein measured the immersion of three of Jupiter’s moons in the shadow of the planet

between July 29, 1750 and October 22, 1750. He made eight observations in the early morning

before sunrise, and the other four at the evening after sunset. He observed the first satellite six

times, the second four times and the third two times. Gaubil sent the measurements of his

colleague Hallerstein to Delisle in Paris in October.479

Between January 10, 1756 and July 8, 1756, Gaubil observed the immersion of three Jupiter’s

moons from Beijing fifteen times. He used the 13 foot telescope, and for three measurements he

also used the longer one, measuring 20 feet.480

Hell published the observations of Jupiter’s moons of Graz professor of special astronomy

Tirnberger.481

Tirnberger measured at the observatory in Graz on February 14, 1770, April 22,

1770, July 29, 1770, and August 5, 1770. On July 10, 1770, Jupiter was in opposition: the earth

was between Jupiter and the Sun and Jupiter looked larger. Therefore at least some of

Tirnberger’s observations were completed during the favorable nights when Jupiter and its

satellites appeared bigger.

478

Gaubil, 1753, 317. 479

Gaubil, 1970, 632--633. 480

Gaubil, 1760, 480. 481

Karl Tirnberger (Tirenperger, Tirenberger, * October 27, 1731 Ptuj; SJ October 19, 1749 Vienna; † 1780

Schottwein in Lower Austria).

1744--1750 Graz, Gymnasium - 1750--1751 Vienna, novice – 1752 Leoben, revised humanities – 1753--1757

Vienna, studied philosophy, revised mathematics – 1758 Judenburg, professor humanities, head of seminary – 1759--

1762 Graz, studied theology – 1763 Judenburg, third approbation – 1764--1771 Graz, professor special astronomy,

head of observatory, custodian of physical cabinet – 1772--1773 Schemnitz, professor mechanics, hydraulic– 1773--

1780 Schottwein (Lukács, 1988, 3: 1716; Stoeger, 1855, 365--366; Sommervogel, 1898, 8: 52).

85

Tirnberger first observed the immersion of the first satellite, them the emersion of the third one,

and on the last two occasions emersion of the first Jupiter’s moon. The sky was completely clear.

During the first two observations, serene during the third, and cloudy during the last. On

February 5, 1770, he observed how 2/3 of the darkened Moon covered the constellation of Bull at

33 minutes 12 seconds after midnight.482

In 1772, Tirnberger became professor of mechanics and

hydraulics at the Mining academy of Schemnitz. There he replaced the Jesuit Nikolaus Poda von

Neuhaus (Boda, 1723--1798), who at the end his lectures published a book about the mines of

Styria. Tirnberger had already cooperated with Poda in 1766 in Graz museum on fossil

researches. Poda was a professor of mathematics and physics in Graz, and he also directed the

Museum for Natural History and the observatory. When Poda took the chair for mining at the

Mining academy at Schemnitz, the directorship of the observatory in Graz was passed to

Tirnberger. In 1770, while in Vienna, Poda described the work of the famous Hell’s mining pump

used to pump the water from the mine in Schemnitz.

Hallerstein was getting close to his 70th

birthday and left the observations of Jupiter’s moons to

his younger collaborators. He used the huge area of China for the coordinated measurements at

very distant places. In the time from October 15, 1772 to December 15, 1773, he measured with

Father Joseph Bernard’s 13 foot telescope. Father Cipolla used the same instrument between May

13, 1772 and January 20, 1773.

Felix de Rocha measured on the other side of the wall. Simultaneously, he mapped the west

Tartar,483

the modern Xinjiang Uygur. He reported: »The country was very distant from Beijing

meridian. It has already been a part of the Chinese empire for 16 years. In the south it borders

Tibet and India at 35 to 36 degrees of geographical longitude. To its north there is Siberia at 50 to

52 degrees of geographical longitude.«

First of all, he observed the Argalintu river which flows from the mountains until it merges the

bigger river Behapacan at 47o 48' of geographical longitude, 24

o 15' west of Beijing meridian in

the area of the modern east Xinjiang Uygur. On the evening of July 9, 1772, the Moon covered

the observed star. Rocha began to measure at 9h 8’, and finished after an hour and 37 minutes. He

was not able to observe the eclipse, predicted by Beijing ephemerides, because of the clouds. He

used tables of Christian Mayer.484

Rocha completed the second observation in Abaha-Oula at 47o 20' longitude. On July 13, 1772,

seven minutes before noon, Cipolla observed the orbit of the first satellite leaving the Jupiter’s

shadow in Beijing. The satellite was hidden during the month of June. According to Parisian

ephemerides, it was supposed to be visible on July 28, 1772 at 3h 22’ 40’’. According to Beijing

ephemerides, it would have been visible 69 seconds later. Cipolla continued the observations on

August 6, 1772, but Rocha observed on July 13, 1772 and the next day at different places in

Tartar.

482

Tirnberger, 1772, 256. 483

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 21--22. 484

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 23.

86

Rocha made the third observation in Ili in western Tartar at the geographical latitude 43o 59'. The

river Ili flows in the south of modern Kazahstan into the lake Balhare. During the night of

October 11- 12, 1772, Rocha observed Moon eclipse that began two hours and 23 minutes before

the eclipse in Beijing. The total eclipse was observed at Beijing six minutes less than three hours

later as at Rocha’s site on the banks of the river Ili. The Moon left the area of eclipse in Beijing

two hours and 24 minutes later than at Ili. At Ili, the whole event was observable 9 minutes less

than three hours, and in Beijing just two minutes longer. From those observations Rocha

calculated, that the distance from Ili to Beijing is exactly 36o.

In Ili, lama Tartshi was in power after his father’s death. He also controlled the places as far as

Caucasus and on the banks of Amur-Darja on the border of the present-day Uzbekistan and

Turkmenia. Lama Tartshi also controlled the area as far as Tobol in the north of modern

Kazahstan on the border with Russian Siberia. Islam was predominant religion in the province. In

that way Hallerstein’s reports on astronomical work of his collaborators combined with the

ethnology and politics.485

Six hundred kilometers east of Tobol in Siberian Tobolsk, d’Auteroche

observed the transition of Venus in 1761.

Hallerstein gave the report of his scientific research of the observations of Jupiter’s moons

between years 1717 and 1774 to Hell and Souciet.486

The oppositions of Jupiter were on August

20, 1772 and September 25, 1773. Therefore the circumstances for the observations of the details

of the planet were not specifically good during the measurements of Hallerstein and his

collaborators. However, that didn’t bother them to much, because they wanted more to research

the periodic times of the satellites and not the surface of Jupiter. With their new telescopes of

excellent dissolubility Beijing Jesuits were able to compete with the European astronomy of

planets. Planetary astronomy was greatly developed with the introduction of Lambert’s 487

specialized magazine Astronomisches Jahrbuch, founded in the year of Hallerstein’s death. For

quite some time, all the observations of Jupiter were published in Lambert’s magazine.488

Qing doubled the Chinese state area (Hostetler, 2000, 623). John Fairbank (1948) relied largely

on British-China relations. Max Weber and Karl Marx described China as static, unchanging

(Hostetler, 2000, 629). In 1720 Qing military entered Tibet and conquest Xinjiang in 1760

(Hostetler, 2000, 630). They also used strategic marriages with their northern neighbors

(Hostetler, 2000, 631). The Jesuits’ cannons (Hostetler, 2000, 631). Russian expansion and

Chinese cartography (Hostetler, 2000, 632). The prefaces of albums (Hostetler, 2000, 641), the

1786 album compiler Fang Ting as official in 1784 (Hostetler, 2000, 643). Paintings of American

Indians (Hostetler, 2000, 649). Qing’s use of early modern cartography (Hostetler, 2000, 651)

commissioning the French Jesuits of 1755 and 1775 atlases (Hostetler, 2000, 652) with cannons

and maps of the Jesuits (Hostetler, 2000, 653). First French maps in 1744, Russian empire in

1745, well after China in 1717. Gaubil after Kang Xi death debated with other about his

knowledge of the differences between Russians, Dutch and Portuguese (Hostetler, 2000, 654)

with Russian expansion and French-Portugese scientifically trained Jesuits (Hostetler, 2000,

655). The Qing Emperor was important player in the international scene. Delisle as a member of

485

Hallerstein, 1776, 20: 25. 486

Dežman, 1881, 2. 487

John Lambert (* 1728 Mulhouse; † 1777 Berlin). 488

Hockey, 1999, 39, 207.

87

the France and Russian academy, his correspondent Gaubil also of the British one (Hostetler,

2000, 656). Gaubil had problems getting the geographical information about the border areas

between China and Russia where the Jesuits were not allowed to go and got not enough

information even in 1752, and Delisle got Kang Xi’s map of Petersburg (Hostetler, 2000, 657).

Qing dynasty was one of the largest and most successful centers of the globe participating in the

worldwide contest for territory and forming modern Chinese nation, in relation to Western power

which did not subordinate China (Hostetler, 2000, 661-662).

Sambiasijev zamljevid okoli leta 1639 (Hierman, de Troia, Parmentier, 2009, 29). Leta 1610 je

leto dni predaval matematiko v Macau preden se je posvetil pastorali (Hierman, de Troia,

Parmentier, 2009, 30). Amabasijeva mapa sveta (Hierman, de Troia, Parmentier, 2009, 35).

Sposojanje toponimov za Afriko in Azijo med jezuiti, med Sambasijem in Riccijem (Hierman, de

Troia, Parmentier, 2009, 39). Ohranilo se je šest Sambasijevih zemljevidov primerjanih v tabeli

(Hierman, de Troia, Parmentier, 2009, 41).

Stars above China

In 1744, Hallerstein and Kögler began to collect and arrange the study of astronomical

instruments and the catalogue of stars as the part of the encyclopedia Quinding Yixiang

Kaocheng of Beijing. Many Chinese and Manchu collaborators of the emperor’s observatory

cooperated on that project. Later, Rocha and Gogeisl joined them. In 1757, the catalogue was

published in thirty-five volumes with the foreword from the Chinese emperor.489

Contrary to the European customs, the names of the authors were not listed on the title page. The

Chinese habits were different. The first part of the book began with emperor’s introduction dated

January 1757. The first book was entitled Tseou-i, the thoughts about the purpose of the work.

The first series of papers considered the bettering of Verbiest’s sphaera armirallis. The oldest

discussion in the book was dated 1744, and the last 1754.

Other series of papers discussed the publication of the new catalogue of nebulas, that were more

complete than Verbiest’s. In 1687, Verbiest classified 1129 stars into 259 constellations. Kögler,

Hallerstein, and collaborators classified 3083 stars into 300 constellations.490

The first discussion

in the second series was dated 1744, although the reparation and bettering of Verbiest’s work had

already begun under Kögler’s leadership. The very last discussion, where emperor announces to

the reader that the work is ready for publication, was dated 1753. The author discussed a lot about

the preservation of the old Chinese names of the stars, from the literary standpoint as well. The

eminent Chinese from the highest class helped Kögler and Hallerstein with the great knowledge

of Chinese literature, They were able to recognize the old Chinese names in the new catalogue.

Hallerstein and his collaborators used the most accurate instruments of their time.

489

Šmitek, 1995, 91, 132; Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 454. 490

Tsuchihashi, Chevalier, 1914, III--IV.

88

Work was composed of several catalogues: shortened list of the stars, known already to the

ancient researchers, the first total catalogue of the stars, arranged according to their geographical

sky longitude in elliptical coordinates, annual variation and luminosity for each star, similar

catalogue with stars arranged according to their increasing luminosity in twelve »palaces«, which

could be connected with the signs of our zodiac, catalogue of the stars with coordinates below the

ten degrees of the ecliptic, where they were usually in shadow of the planets or the Moon, and

last, but not least, the catalogue of the positions of the stars along the Milky Way.

(PICTURE 28: Chinese map of nebulas, made between years 1744 and 1754 by Hallerstein and

collaborators (Tsuchihashi. P., Chevalier, Stanislas, S. J. 1914. Catalogue d'Étoiles fixes,

observés a Pekin sous l'Empereur Kien Long (Qianlong (Chhien-Lung)), XVIIIe siècle.

Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei. Annales de l'Observatoire Astronomique de Zo-Se (Chine). Chang-

Hai: Mission Catholique. Vol. 7 (1911) No. 4: IV))

(PICTURE 29: Chinese map of nebulas, made between years 1744 and 1754 by Hallerstein and

collaborators (Tsuchihashi. P., Chevalier, Stanislas, S. J. 1914. Catalogue d'Étoiles fixes,

observés a Pekin sous l'Empereur Kien Long (Qianlong (Chhien-Lung)), XVIIIe siècle.

Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei. Annales de l'Observatoire Astronomique de Zo-Se (Chine). Chang-

Hai: Mission Catholique. Vol. 7 (1911) No. 4: IV))

Copernicus in Beijing

Terrentius brought telescope with him to China and gave it to the emperor in 1634. He published

astronomy in geography in Chinese language.491

Soon after Galileo, he was elected seventh

member of the Cesi academy in Rome. Just before he sailed for Far East, he entered the Jesuit

order. He wrote to Galileo from China, but the great man from Florence was not interested in so

far out places. He was more successful in his correspondence with Kepler (1571--1630) and sent

him the Chinese method for the computation of the eclipses.

In Terrentius’ time the movement of the Earth was not considered particularly problematic and

therefore he got Copernicans among his collaborators. Heliocentric world view prevailed in the

Sabbatinus de Ursis’ (1575--1620) work about the Planisphere (1611) and in astronomy of

Diaz492

(1615), who took into account Galileo’s telescopic discoveries.493

Short before his death Kepler used the Copernician Boym,494

who stopped in Macao in December

1646, to pass the Rudolphine tables (1627) to Smogulecki495

from Beijing. Boym experimented

491

Montucla, 1799, 2: 471. 492

Emmanuel Diaz (Manuel Dias, Yang ma-No Yen-si, * 1574 Castello-Ybranoco in Portugal; SJ February 2, 1593

Portugal; † March 4, 1659 Hangchow (Koláček, 1999, 17). 493

Sivin, 1965, 201. 494

Pole Michael Petr Boym (Boim, Pou Tche-Yan Mi-ko, * 1612 Lvov; SJ August 16, 1631 Krakov; † August 22,

1659 Tonkin/Kwangsi (Koláček, 1999, 17)) 495

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 444; Sivin, 1973, 86.

89

with crabs as noted by Boyle in his works about minerals (1665-1667) Although Copernician, the

Rudolphine tables sold good in Ljubljana in 1678. Later, the Ljubljana Jesuits bought them and

Hallerstein read them at an early age.

Terrentius’ collaborators Kurwitzer496

and Smogulecki,497

who worked in Nanking were also

Copernicans. Among Smogulecki’s collaborators was his Chinese student after 1653, Xue

Fengzuo (Hsüeh Fëng-Tsu, Tso, about 1620--1680). At that time, they published the paper about

the eclipses Tianbu zhengnan (Thieng Pu Chien Yuan, The real ways (The real sources) of the

moving at the sky) where they used logarithms in Chinese language for the first time. In 1653,

Xue Fengzuo published the first Chinese logarithmic tables and the discussion about them.498

They used the handy tables of Adriaan Vlacq (1600--1666), published in 1636 for the

businessmen and scientists and brought to China by Jesuits.

Before the arrival of the Jesuits, the Chinese imagined the empty space between stars without the

solid crystal spheres of Ptolemy. In that way they had no problems with the idea of vacuum

debated in European science as late as at the time of Hallerstein’s birth. Discussion was already

alive before the first Torricelli’s vacuum experiments in 1643, and flourished in the fifty years

after them. Vacuum in barometer, pump or intergalactic space was impossible for Aristotle’s and

also Descartes physics. The problem of the cosmos and intergalactic space was interesting for

Hallerstein’s Viennese correspondent Hell, who devoted a book to it in 1789.

The Jesuits brought to China the outdated equatorial coordinates and Ptolemy-Aristotle’s

geocentric cosmos with the solid crystal spheres that were getting outmoded in Europe of Tycho

Brahe and Copernicus. They were the source of partly legitimate Chinese critics of the Jesuit

astronomy.499

Copernicus’ ideas were abandoned among the Chinese Jesuits after Galileo’s

process, although there were some exceptions, among them Foucquet, who in 1710 tried to

introduce Copernicus’ theory in China. In April 1716, he presented his tractate about the five

planets in Copernicus’ spirit, with de la Hire’s tables and Vlacq’s logarithms to the emperor in

Beijing. Foucquet gave Vlacq’s tables to the emperor. French Jesuits supported Foucquet, but

Portuguese Jesuits with visitor Stumpf in 1719, and Kögler were against him.500

Hallerstein did not publicly expose his opinion about the movements in Solar system. In 1757,

the Roman congregation withdrew the anathema against “all the books, that claimed moving

Earth” with Bošković’s cooperation. When the news arrived to Beijing, the French Jesuits

immediately made use of it for the public propaganda for heliocentrism. Benoist was the first

Jesuit, who taught Copernicus’ system inside the palace. He presented heliocentrism to the

emperor in 1760501

with a map for Emperor’s birthday. Emperor’s uncle, very able

mathematician, examined Benoist’s work. He Guozong502

and Copernician and historian Qian

Daxin (Ch'ien Ta-hsin, 1728--1804) corrected Benoist’s Chinese book in language and style.

496

Bohemian Wenceslaus Kurwitzer (Wenzel, Václav Pantaleon Kirwitzer, * 1588 (Lukács 1982, 1: 641) or 1590

Kadan in Bohemia; SJ February 28, 1606 Brno; † May 22, 1626 Macao (Koláček 1999, 15)). 497

Nicholas Smogulecki (Mu Ni-Ko, * 1610; † 1656 (Sivin, 1973, 86)) 498

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 52, 454. 499

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 438; Scheiner, 1630, 4: 765. 500

Witek, 1982, 181, 184, 186, 188, 238, 329, 330. 501

Wong, 1963, 46; Sivin, 1973, 95. 502

He Guozong (Ho Kuo Tsung, Ho Kouo-Tsung, Ho Kouo-Tsong, * Beijing; † 1766).

90

Manuscript circulated among leading Chinese astronomers until the publication in 1799, 1802,

and 1803.503

Benoist’s heliocentric theory confused some Chinese astronomers, because they did not know the

European background of the quarrels around Galileo’s process. In spite of that, Benoist was still

welcomed Emperor’s guest. He taught the Emperor how to use the new reflection telescope,

which Frenchmen brought into China on January 12, 1773. The emperor praised the instrument

and wanted to know how it works. The emperor’s eunuchs also approved the new telescope

during the meal. Emperor at once found the advantage of the reflecting telescope in comparison

to the other he saw before.504

Emperor used the opportunity to ask Benoist if “all European astronomers believe in the movable

Earth?” Benoist confirmed that almost all did. But the problem was not so much in the real

system, but mostly a bettering the way for calculating of the movement of the celestial bodies.

During the meal, emperor asked about the taste of the European wine and the French Benoist was

pleased to give him the first hand information from his huge knowledge of that field.505

The Beijing astronomers began to use new French Copernican tables to predict the celestial

phenomena instead of the older Halley’s, Monnier’s and Grammatici’s.506

But the Chinese for the

most part only accepted the results of the new methods, and not their heliocentric principles.

Benoist’s maps (Di Qiu Tu Shuo) were used as the corrigendum in the older maps.507

In that way,

Copernicus finally replaced Tycho Brahe in China only at the end of 18th

century.508

Electricity, vacuum, maps

Experiments with electricity

Hallerstein already measured the declinations of the magnetic needle while on the ship to China.

Later, he made some similar observations in Beijing.509

In 1750, the Jesuits of the Portuguese

college of St. Joseph in Beijing received the electrical machine and the instrument for the

observation of the eclipses. Sanchez510

provided the instruments from his friends in London and

Holland. The bishop of Beijing de Souza511

helped in the shipping.512

The nature of the electrical

503

Sivin, 1973, 95; Zurndorfer, 1988, 75, 88. 504

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 196--198, 208; Benoist, letter to the unknown on November 4, 1773. 505

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 217, 220; Benoist, letter to the unknown on November 4, 1773. 506

Nichloas Grammatici (Nicasius Gramaticus, * 1684 Trient; SJ 1701; † 1736 Regensburg). 507

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 122; Benoist, letter from Beijing to Papillon d'Auteroche sent on November 16, 1767;

Yusheng, 2000, 225. 508

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 443--444. 509

Amiot, October 2, 1784 Mémoires, 11: 563; Pfister, 1934, 760. 510

Gaubil, 1970, 617. 511

Polycarpe de Souza (Sou Tche-Neng Joei-Kong, * January 26, 1697 Coimbra; SJ October 31, 1712 Portugal; †

May 26, 1757 Beijing (Pfister, 1934, 701)).

91

machine was not specified, but it was certainly the Leyden jar invented in 1745. As the former

Leyden student Sanchez knew about Musschenbroek’s work on Leyden jar. At the same time,

Collinson513

of the Royal Society of London shipped the Leyden jar to Benjamin Franklin across

the Atlantic. Sanchez was in correspondence with Collinson and sent him the plant of rhubarb

obtained from the Jesuits from Beijing.514

****Rabarbara pri francoskem misijonarju apotekarju in ginseng (Gaubil, 1970, 37). Soucetu v

Peterburg se je 13. 6. 1732 pritožil, da ne more opraviti vseh opazovanj gibanja kompasa, ker

nima barometra (Gaubil, 1970, 315). Marin mu je poslal svoj spis o Severnem siju avgusta 1736

(Gaubil, 1970, 472).

O zasliševanju Hallersteina med prošnjami proti eksekucijam, se je vprašal, kaj naj reče, ko je vse

na tehtnici »qoud dicendum est, id omne est in libello« (Gaubil 1970 (30. 11. 1746), 572). Junija

1747 so v provinci Kiang-si zaprli frančiškana, bržkone patra Urbana de Canzio (Gaubil, 1970,

573-575). Hallestein pa je poskušal urediti njegovo prostost. Hallerstein in Gogeisl sta 20. 11.

1758 poslala pozdrave Delislu preko Gaubila (Gaubil, 1970, 860).

Hallerstein je zelo dober opazovalec; na Dunaju ima brata, ki je spovednik Karla Lotarinškega

(Gaubil, 1970, 476). Kongregacija Propaganda fide je leta 1703 dovolila kapucinom misijonarje

v Tibetu, tako da so bili v Lasi med letoma 1702 in 1712 ter 1716-1745, do preganjanj 1742-1745

(Gaubil, 1970, 472, pismo Delislu 12. 8. 1752).

As the leading scientist among the Beijing Jesuits, Hallerstein took part in the experiments with

the electricity. His collaborator from French college Amiot was especially interested in

electricity. French college of Beijing probably had no electrical instruments. Therefore Amiot

then used Hallerstein’s equipment at the nearby Portuguese college. At that time, Amiot,

Hallerstein, and Gogeisl also cooperated on the measurement of the height of the star Gamma in

Andromeda to match the order of Pézenas515

and two other Jesuits, who made similar

measurement in Marseilles.516

In 1755, the Jesuits from Beijing electrified a thin glass plate by friction and put it on the glass

coverage of the magnetic needle. The needle suddenly raised and adhered to the inner side of the

glass wall for some hours. Later it returned to its normal position. When the Jesuits removed the

previously electrified glass plate the needle rose again and remained in touch with the glass

cover. When they returned the plate, the needle fell down again. The experiment could be

repeated many times.517

On January 12, 1755, Gaubil received the undated letter of Richman518

and Kratzenstein’s letter

dated April 12, 1753. Both were addressed to the Jesuits of Beijing. Gaubil wrote back to both

512

Gaubil, 1970, 703. 513

Peter Collinson (* January 14, 1694 Hugal Hall; † August 11, 1768 London). 514

Chalmers, 1816, 27: 88. 515

Espirit Pézenas (* November 28, 1692 Avigon; SJ; † February 4, 1776 Avignon). 516

Gaubil, 1970, 840, 843, 850. 517

Aepinus, 1979, 130. 518

Georg Wilhelm Richman (Richmann, * July 11, 1711 Pernau; † July 26, 1753 Petersburg).

92

Petersburg academicians on April 30, 1755, and mentioned Amiot’s experiments “that should

make you happy.” Gaubil added that the Chinese were not very interested in electrical

experiments519

compared to the European and American euphoria of that time. Around August

1755, Gaubil sent many items to Razumovskii, among them two Amiot’s packets.520

Richman and Kratzenstein published about electricity. Eventually Gaubil was not aware that

Richman died on July 26/August 3, 1753. Soon afterwards on August 13, 1753, Kratzenstein left

the academy of Petersburg and became professor of medicine and physics at the University of

Copenhagen.521

Zeiher522

replaced Kratzenstein in 1756 and replied to Gaubil reporting about

Richman's death.523

Richman was replaced by Aepinus, who was born in Rostock in Prussia where he completed his

studies and taught. He collaborated with his Swedish student Johann Karl Wilcke (1732-1796) on

the early type of condenser that Volta later developed into electrophorus at the gymnasium of

Como in 1775. After working in Berlin for a short time, Aepinus was appointed member of the

Petersburg academy to replace Richter. On May 10, 1757,524

Aepinus arrived at Petersburg and

remained professor of physics at the academy until 1798.

The data about Beijing experiments were immediately passed to the new professor of physics

Aepinus.525

Just few months later he submitted the report of the Beijing experiments to the

Petersburg academy526

and read it on March 9, 1758. Aepinus explained the experiment from

Beijing with the small conductivity of glass with the induced charge on the glass coverage of the

magnetic needle, slow movement of the charge into the attached needle during the experiment,

and equally slow returning of the charge after the induced charge was removed. Aepinus

successfully repeated Beijing experiment and added twelve similar experiments of his own. He

stated, that Beijing experiment fully confirms Franklin’s theory.527

On September 7, 1758, Aepinus delivered the lecture about the forces of electricity and

magnetism at the academy and dedicated it to the empress. He used experiments with Leyden jar

to forward the analogy between electricity and magnetism but didn’t mention the Beijing report.

In autumn 1758 Aepinus developed his mathematical theory of the electric and magnetic effects.

On June 4, 1759, Aepinus presented the book to the academy. The book was published at the end

of November528

and dedicated to Razumovskii. He used his favorite Franklin’s theory of one

fluid, again without mentioning the Beijing experiments.529

519

Gaubil, 1970, 803, 810-811; Heilbron, 1979, 405; Kloss, 1987, 41; Koplevič, Cverava, 1989, 55; Cverava, 1986,

58. 520

Gaubil, 1970, 818. 521

Koplevič, Cverava, 1989, 80. 522

Johan Ernst Zeiher (* 1720 Weissenfels; † January 7, 1784 Wittenberg). 523

Cverava, 1986, 58. 524

Novik, 1999, 10. 525

Franz Maria Ulrich Theodosius Aepinus (* December 13, 1724 Rostock; † August 10/22, 1802 Dorpath). 526

On November 17, 1757 (Novik, 1999, 11) or on December 1, 1757 (Aepinus, 1979, 492). 527

Aepinus, 1761, 23-24. 528

Novik, 1999, 12-13. 529

Aepinus, 1979, 130-131.

93

Aepinus’ explanation didn’t please everyone. Symmer530

conducted two sets of experiments

similar to the Beijing ones that he apparently hadn’t hear about. Symmer presented his results to

the Royal Society of London between February 1 and December 20, 1759. He concluded with an

essay about two distinct powers in electricity531

which pleased Franklin’s opponents.

Cigna532

was the first to comment on Aepinus’ analysis of Jesuits’ experiment.533

Cigna’s uncle

Beccaria534

was also interested in Beijing experiment. In 1747, Beccaria became professor of

experimental physics at the University of Turin. In 1767, he added a new similar effect to Jesuit

experiment. He charged the coated glass plates. He removed the coating from the negative plate

and put other neutral uncoated glass plate nearby. He coated uncharged plate and used the

conductor to connect its coating with the coating of charged plate. The plates touched and leaned

on each other with the whole area. If he separated the plates after they were in touch for some

time but before the fusion, the charged plate got the positive charge on both sides and the

uncharged plate got the negative charge on both sides. If he separated the plates after the fusion,

the charged plate became negative on both sides, and the uncharged became positively charged

on both sides. If after the fusion he separated and again joined the plates, the small circle of paper

under the uncharged plate fused to it after each separation and got repelled after each touch.

Beccaria was able to repeat the experiment for as many as 500 times after he charged the plate

only once.535

In 1769, Beccaria reprinted the Beijing report, mentioned Aepinus explanation as incomplete, and

used the explanation of his own. He offered the idea of the special “electricitas vindex”.536

Alessandro Volta was not satisfied with Beccaria’s explanation and his search for other possible

explanations led him to the invention of electrophorus several years later described in a letter to

Priestley dated June 10, 1775.537

Priestley also analyzed the Beijing experiment in his

masterpiece.538

In that way Beijing electrical experiment became the forerunner of modern

electricity.

V mineraloškem kabinetu je Gruber hranil drage kamne in vzorce rud ter samorodnih kovin:

almaze, rubine, safire, topaze ter samorodno zlato, platino in srebro. V fizikalnem kabinetu je

imel tri električne naprave in elektrofor s premerom več kot 6 čevljev (1,83 m) po Voltovi

iznajdbi razviti iz raziskav našega Hallersteina in drugih jezuitov v Pekingu. Tik pred

Gruberjevim prihodom v Belorusijo so po naročilu Katarine II. v Sankt Peterburgu sestavili

530

Robert Symmer (* about 1707 Galloway; † June 19, 1763 London). 531

Symmer, 1759, 380; Aepinus, 1979, 406. 532

Gian Francesco Cigna (* July 2, 1734 Mondovi; † July 16, 1790 Turin). 533

Aepinus, 1979, 200. 534

Giacomo Battista Beccaria (Beccheria, * October 31, 1716 Mondovi; † May 27, 1781 Turin). 535

Beccaria, 1767, 297-298. Beccaria (1767, 297) noted the wrong volume citation of the Aepinus’ comment of

Beijing experiment (Phil.Trans.ne Petersburg Acta 8: 276, the right volume was 7: ). Priestley (1775, 1: 316) later

repeated the error. 536

Beccaria, 1769, 44-47; Heilbron, 1979, 405-410. 537

Aepinus, 1979, 131; Volta, 1816, IV, 108. Joseph Priestley (* March 13, 1733 Fieldhead; † February 6, 1804

Northumberland). 538

Priestley, 1775, 1: 315-316.

94

poldrugi meter dolg elektrofor, ki je bil med največjimi na svetu. Za izdelavo so porabili 36 kg

španskega voska in 81 kg smole.539

(PICTURE 30: Aepinus’ pictures for the researches of Beijing Jesuit experiments (Aepinus.

1761. Descriptio ac explicatio novorum quorundam experimetorum electricorum, Novi

Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae. 1758--1759. 7: 302))

Aurora Borealis

The oldest Chinese description of the Aurora Borealis was written about the year 2600 B.C.

Chinese noted different occurence of the Aurora Borealis under the different names during the

period from 208 B.C. until A.D. 1639,540

with an average of one event every forty years. They

were not aware that all the observed phenomena are basically the same. They usually referred to

them as fires or animals, especially dragons.

Kepler thought that the refraction of the Sun rays in the atmosphere of the Moon causes the

corona of the Sun. In 1683, Cassini contradicted Kepler and claimed, that the light of the zodiac

transforms in the same way as Sun spots and both phenomena come from the Sun. Kepler’s claim

was refuted only when the parallax zero was measured during the total eclipse in 1860;541

the

experiment proved that the rays don’t refract much during their trajectory near the Moon.

In 1621, the Aurora Borealis was clearly visible in Europe. Galileo corresponded about the event

with his former student, consul of the academy in Florence Mario Guiducci in 1616 and 1622. In

their letters they already used the name Aurora Borealis. Gassendi was the first methodical

student of Auroras, and he introduced the scientific name Aurora Borealis.

The era of Maunder’s542

minimum followed from 1650 to 1710 with no perceived sunspots and

Auroras. Period ended dramatically with huge Aurora Borealis on March 5, 1716, March 17,

1716 and March 18, 1716. The event was observable all across the central Europe from Ireland to

west Poland and Russia. Hallerstein certainly observed it as a thirteen years old Gymnasium

student in Ljubljana.

During the observation, Halley anticipated the connection between the Aurora Borealis and the

magnetism of the Earth. He wrote, that »the magnetic field changes the trajectory of the particles

and causes the rays. The rays are parallel to the magnetic field of the Earth, and they are shaped

into arch because of the perspective«.

539

Schiffer, 2003, 58. 540

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 482. 541

Guillermier, Koutchmy, 1999, 96--97. 542

According to Greenwich astronomer Edward Walter Maunder (1851--1928 (Guillermier, Koutchmy, 1999, 20)).

95

Halley’s friend Newton estimated the height of Aurora Borealis as 33 to 281 English miles,

which is 53 km to 452 km. Later, Mairan (1740) and Franklin543

published better evaluations.

Englishman Henry Cavendish (1731--1810) calculated nearly the correct height of Aurora

Borealis in 1790.

Mairan researched the Aurora Borealis in 1731 and published a discussion about it two years

later. His Aurora Borealis was a mixture of the atmosphere of the Sun and very rarefied

atmosphere of the Earth at very high altitudes. He connected the changing intensity of the zodiac

with the frequency of Aurora Borealis. The light of zodiac is the atmosphere of the Sun, which

shines or is lighted with the sunrays. He also found the connection between the number of spots

on the Sun and the frequency of Auroras. He proved that Sun is losing its mass; the effect is now

called Sun wind. He collected numerous observations of Auroras and arranged them according to

the time of observations.544

Ambschell545

later claimed that the atmosphere of the Sun doesn’t

have such a distant reach, but the modern theory is based on Mairan’s ideas.

In 1685, the missionary Noël observed zodiac light in China.546

In 1718, 1719 in 1722, the

Aurora Borealis was observed in three different Chinese province. In 1730, Parrenin observed

Aurora Borealis in Tartar on 48o to 47

o of the north longitude. On September 28, 1735, Parrenin

reported to Mairan, that Aurora Borealis is not as frequent in Beijing as it is in Paris. Therefore

he could hardly wait for Mairan to send him his book about the Aurora Borealis, including the

explanation of the zodiac light and other phenomena. Parrenin highly praised Mairan’s book

about ice that received an award from the academy of Bordeaux in 1716.547

The Jesuits of

Ljubljana bought the German translation in 1758. Gaubil highly praised Mairan’s ideas about the

atmosphere and Aurora Borealis in the letter he sent on September 20, 1740.548

Leonhard Euler (1707--1783) worked in Berlin and above all in Petersburg, where he saw a lot of

Aurora Borealis. He claimed that Auroras are made of Sun rays, some of them very strong, that

are invisible in the daylight and look like the light sources or illuminated bodies.549

In 1738, Bošković published the discussion about the Aurora Borealis in Rome and supplemented

Mairan’s theory of the effects of the atmosphere of Sun on the atmosphere of the Earth. In third

of six propositions of 1738, he used Maraldi’s observations of Aurora Borealis made on October

27, 1726 in the Paris observatory, and Bianchini in observatory of Tusculum above Frascati,

southeast of Rome. Mairan compared their measurement. In 1726, Bošković observed Aurora

Borealis as a novice in Rome, and Hallerstein observed it as the assistant master of students of

mathematics in Vienna. In the third proposition, Bošković discussed the night-time Aurora

Borealis, observed by professor in Padua marquise Giovanni Poleni on December 16, 1737. That

Aurora Borealis was seen all over Europe at the time when Hallerstein was in Goia. In fifth

proposition Bošković described calculation method of nineteen-year old Christian Mayer for the

543

Ambschell, 1807, 2: 128. 544

Guillermier, Koutchmy, 1999, 96--97. 545

Anton Ambschell (* March 9, 1751 Györ (Raab): SJ October 17, 1767 Trenčin in Slovakia; † July 14, 1821

Bratislava). 546

Mairan, 1754, 33. 547

Aimé-Martin, 1843, 3: 698; Mairan, 1754, 460, 464, 465. 548

Duteil, 1994, 306. 549

Ambschell, 1807, 2: 123--124.

96

estimation of the height of Aurora Borealis over the surface of Earth on the basis of a single

observation published at Petersburg academy. In sixth observation he summarized Mairan’s

theory where atmosphere of the Sun has the shape of double convex lens because of the rotation,

and it sometimes extends longer than the Earth. It’s in the highest parts of the Earth atmosphere

and also glows above the equator. It rises ands spreads towards the poles and carries with the

most clear and rarefied air with the matter of atmosphere of Sun. Mairan explained the outflow

with the rotation of Earth, but Bošković had to adopt the unmovable Earth and with it different

model of outflow.

François Jacquier of the Minorite order sent the discussion of his friend Bošković (1738) to his

acquaintance Mairan of Paris. Mairan personally liked that Bošković supported his estimation of

the height of Aurora Borealis, which Serantoni in Lucca criticized. Mairan took Bošković’s

model as an additional source for the formation of the Aurora Borealis.550

Bošković began to

correspond with Mairan. In 1747, he wrote about the Aurora Borealis again in the notes to the

work of his teacher Noceti.551

Next year, Bošković was accepted to the Paris academy where

Mairan was a secretary.

Lomonosov began to research Aurora Borealis in Russia. He found the probable cause of the

effect on a piece of unfrozen surface of the Arctic Ocean.

Before the earthquakes of London on February 8, 1749 and March 8, 1749, noticed very frequent

Aurora Borealis of the extraordinary color had been noticed. He believed that Aurora Borealis

predict the earthquakes, in connection with Franklin’s opinion, that electricity causes the

earthquakes.552

Some gas erupted from the Earth as Aurora Borealis, and smaller quantity of gas

caused the earthquake at the same time.

In 1741, Swede Celsius553

and his student Olav Peter Hiorter (Hjorter) discovered the influence

of Aurora Borealis on magnetic needle in Uppsala. Beccaria also noticed the phenomena and

heard the sounds when Borealis was low in the atmosphere. Bergman554

reported in a letter to

London Royal Society on April 14, 1761, that the high Aurora Borealis influenced compass, but

he was unable to accumulate the electrical charge from Aurora Borealis.

In 1753, Canton supposed in London, that Aurora Borealis was the scintillation of the electrical

fire form the positive to the negative clouds on the far distances through the higher rarified parts

of the atmosphere, where the resistance is the lowest. Aurora Borealis was supposed to cause the

electrification of the warmed air above the Earth. It mostly shows up in the northern places,

because the greatest temperature differences between the Earth and warmed atmosphere,

especially during the thaw occur there. He found the substance of the Aurora Borealis

comparable to the recently discovered tourmaline, which emits and absorbs the electric fluid

during the cooling or warming without resistance. Aurora Borealis was observed in laboratory

550

Marković, 1968, 1: 79--80. 551

Marković, 1968, 1: 208. Carlo Noceti (* 1694 Bagnone; SJ; † 1759) taught logic in 1729/30, physics in 1730/31,

metaphysics in 1731/32 and scholastic theology from 1733 to 1742 on the Jesuit college in Rome. 552

Priestley, 1765, 1: 448. 553

Anders Celsius (* 1701 Uppsala; † 1744 Uppsala). 554

Šved Tobern Olof Bergmann (Bergman, * 1735 Katrineberg; † 1784 Uppsala), professor of chemistry in Uppsala.

97

circumstances in a three foot long sealed Torricelli's vacuum glass tube. He took one end of the

tube in his hand and connected the opposite end through the conductor to the Leyden jar. The

whole tube flashed up at once. When he moved the tube away of the conductor, it shone forth,

sometimes as long as the quarter of an hour. When he pulled the tube in whatever direction with

the other hand, it glowed even more in his hands. The tube discharged in between, but it still

glowed if Canton held it only on one side without motion. When he touched the tube with the

other hand, he enticed strong sparks of light as late as twenty-four hours after the electrifying. He

was able to produce an excellent simulation of sparking in the dark with small vacuum bottles of

unregular shapes.555

Between 1756 and 1759, Canton continued Bergman’s observations of the compass disturbances

during the clear Aurora Borealis and discovered the phenomena, which is today called magnetic

storms. He rightly looked for the electric charges high over the clouds,556

where Appleton found

them later.

On September 17, 1770, Hallerstein observed Aurora Borealis in Beijing at 39

o 54' degrees of the

north longitude, more than 50 degrees from North Pole. Beijing is few degrees south of Slovenia

and that makes Aurora Borealis rare. It was almost never seen in Beijing in such great

Hallerstein’s shape. Before 19h, the Aurora first showed up in the north in place of dusk. Later its

red color slowly moved to the west. In the clear sky it slowly rose and spread to east and west. At

19h, half of the Aurora appeared on the horizon as a purple ring or purple ball. After 20

h, the

Aurora lowered and rarefied. At 21h, it thickened again and ascended at about 22

h. It ganged on

horizon forming the angle of 40o with the vertical and moved towards the North Star.

557 In waws

viewable at the angle 100o to the west and to the east, that is 200

o altogether. The rarefied purple

colour ascended almost to the height of trees; it looked as through it originated below the

horizon. In the vertical direction, the Aurora was composed of red colours without pale shades.

Hallerstein well recognized the changing of Aurora as rarefying and condensing, enfeeblement

and amplifying, prolongation and shortening in the vertical or south direction. Hallerstein and

collaborators observed the handful of thirty or forty fire rays as through they were in theatre.

Later the whole Aurora moved towards the horizon and ascended at the same time. The red part

of the Aurora ascended to the north. Below Aurora, the darker glow was seen on the horizon with

the mixture of blue and yellow colour in the sky. It rose high, grew and got darker and darker.

The rays grew pale, rarefied and disappeared in the wind. At last the dark night ruled, although

after midnight there was still a little red on the horizon. Some parts of the Aurora were clearly

distinguishable until two in the morning.

At the meantime during the disappearing of the stained light, Hallerstein found it comparable

with the beloved Chinese celebration with fireworks.

Eight or ten questions were raised about that Aurora. The Beijing astronomers searched the

answers in books that claimed Aurora Borealis to be extremely rare at the geographical latitude

less than 40o. The winds also obstructed the Aurora observations in the Chinese regions. Emperor

specially ordered the Beijing astronomers to research the Aurora Borealis. They were expected to

555

Priestley, 1765, 2: 162--163; Ambschell, 1807, 2: 124. 556

Priestley, 1765, 1: 34, 285, 389, 410, 436--437, 2: 75. 557

Hallerstein, 1771, 16: 250.

98

take into account the natural laws published in the historical Chinese work »The net of the

glowing north fire« (Beigang huoguan, Pefang-ho-guang). Hallerstein wrote to the Royal Society

of London (?**** to his Viennese friend Hell) that he will report about his further work in his

next letter,558

but it was never published.

At the same time as Hallerstein, his French college Amiot observed the Aurora Borealis at half

past eight. Amiot described Aurora Borealis followed by the bright bands of light. Nineteen days

after the observations, he sent his report together with other data to Paris, and it was published

there more than two years later.559

Amiot observed in Haitianu (Hay tien, Hai Tien) near the emperor’s house two mils (lieues) from

Beijing. Aurora had very clear red color. Exactly at the north side of the sky it covered about the

30o. The Aurora progressively spread 1

o towards east and west and then stopped. At half past

eight, Amiot observed calm sky, but half of an hour later it was covered with exhalations.560

The

exhalations later lowered and the Aurora was even nicer. In the middle of the red color light

shone and disappeared in the distances. Towards three o’clock a. m. the phenomenon was over.

The same glow was observable again on September 20, 1770 at nine in the evening, but with

considerably less shine as three days earlier, because there were clouds over the sky. On

September 22, 1770 at half past seven p.m., Amiot observed the pale rays that covered the sky

from northeast to southwest. Amiot described Chinese and Tartar books in the other parts of his

report.

(PICTURE 31: Hallerstein’s Aurora Borealis from the year 1770, as seen in Paris (Angot, 1896,

pp. 24/25 (picture 7))

On September 17, 1770, Aurora Borealis was also observed in Burgundy, Paris, Montmorency,

Gurzelen, Vienna, Lübeck and Boeringen (Böringen). In Boeringen, it was observed at the south

side of the sky, which was a rare exception. Cotte561

observed the phenomenon in Montmorency

on September 17, 1770, and the next day. He found the extraordinary influence of Aurora

Borealis on the magnetic needle. It was an extraordinary wet autumn day, so that the magnetic

needle trembled even before night. The declination changed for a half of degree. Cotte got rid of

all the keys and other iron objects as he thought they were causing the irregular activity of the

compass. But the trembling of the needle was observable anyway. At half past seven, he observed

a band of light that covered the sky from the west to zenith. The short phenomenon developed

into a small Aurora Borealis and Hell observed it in all it’s glow in Vienna. Cotte observed the

similar strong effects of the Aurora Borealis at Montmorency on February 29, 1780 and July 28,

1780.562

558

Hallerstein, 1771, 16: 251. 559

Amiot, 1773, 2: 111--112. 560

Cotte, 1788, 340, 344. 561

Louis Cotte (* 1740 Laon; † 1815 Montmorency (Montmorenci)), priest in Montmorency and the corresponding

member of the Paris academy. 562

Angot, 1896, 199; Fritz, 1873, 72; Cotte, 1788, 1: 343--344.

99

On September 16, 1770, Captain Cook was on his first trip on Endeavour. He observed the south

Aurora at 10 p. m. at 10o south of the equator near the island of Timor north of Australia. Sidney

Parkinson and the botanist Banks,563

later president of the Royal Society in London, noted the

phenomenon in the diary. The Aurora shone 20o over the horizon and covered the viewing angle

of at least 90o or 100

o. The light was very lively all the time without any vibration, and the center

of the Aurora arch stood still at the direction of south-southwest.564

On the same day September

16, 1770, the Aurora was also observed in the Ji-Zhou county of the Chinese Hebei province at

40o 1' of north longitude and 117

o 4' south latitude, that is just a little northeast of Beijing. The

phenomena were also observed in the neighbor Chinese province of Shandong several degrees

further to the south. The red color prevailed in the Aurora. On September 16, 1770, the Japanese

did not observe the Aurora Borealis, but during the next night of September 17, 1770, the

phenomena were seen in fifteen Japanese. Koreans didn’t see anything at all, as thee was heavy

rain.

Hallerstein’s Aurora Borealis from the year 1770 was the first one in history with the clear notes

of observers on both hemispheres. The extraordinary colors showed up almost exactly a year after

the greatest number of the sunspots in 1769. Six hundred of them were counted, more than ever

before.565

On September 17, 1770 at 7 p.m., Hell observed Aurora Borealis in Vienna at 48o 4' of the north

geographic longitude. Therefore he began his observation just several minutes after Hallerstein.

According to Hell’s measurement, the Sun was at 25o in the constellation of Virgin on the north

declination of 2o 5'. There were just two days left the new Moon that took place on July 19, 1770

at 8h. The Aurora Borealis angle of sight lessened until midnight. The luminosity of Aurora

Borealis outmatched the luminosity of the Sun, when the Sun was 60o under the horizon.

566 The

phenomena agreed with Hell’s claims about the extraordinary strength of Aurora Borealis that

was also seen all night in Beijing.

Hell published Hallerstein’s report in the first part of his general ephemerides, where he also

published about Tirnberger’s observations of Jupiter’s moons. In a hundred-sixteen pages long

appendix to his ephemerides he published the measurements of parallax of Sun during the

transition of Venus in 1769.

In 1776, Tirnberger reported about the observations of the Aurora Borealis in Graz at 47o 4' 10''

of north longitude. He observed nine months before Hell and Hallerstein. On December 14, 1769

he began to observe at 9 p. m. and on December 27, 1769 a half hour earlier. On December 30,

1769 at half past five a.m. he observed the glowing colors that continued during the evening of

December 31, 1769. Unlike Hell and Hallerstein, he did not just observe the light, but also

measured the phenomena with the magnetic needle. The needle moved towards the east when the

thunder clouds covered the sky over the mountains. Tirnberger used a special goniometer to

563

Joseph Banks (* 1743 London; † 1820 Isleworth). 564

Cotte, 1788, 339. 565

Willis, Stephenson, Singh, 1996, 737--741. 566

Hell, 1772, 16: 252; Gazette de France, October 1, 1770.

100

measure the wrench of the compass that oscillated around the angle 35o displaced the north

direction.567

In 1769, after ten years of the very rare Aurora Borealis observable between 46o and 55

o of

geographical longitude, the phenomena became more often for a quarter of a century. But there

were no other reports about Tirnberger’s Aurora Borealis, and he is not mentioned in later listing

of the observations. The closest to Tirnberger’s was the observation of Aurora Borealis at the

castle of Deainvilliers on December 20, 1769 published by the Paris academy. Aurora Borealis

was observed on October 24, 1769 in Graz and in Vienna, and on January 18, 1770 in Vienna,

Trnava, and several points in Germany.568

The astronomer Tirnberger’s observation of Aurora Borealis was published with his

meteorological measurement. In 1768 and 1769, he measured the relative humidity of the air.569

Between 1765 and 1768, he measured wind, clouds, average pressure and temperature for some

months.570

He found that the highest changes of temperature during one single day were in April

1769.571

He wrote the data about two earthquakes on December 31, 1767 at twelve thirty and on

February 27, 1768 at 241 p.m. But he didn’t connect the earthquakes with the Aurora Borealis.

572

The Aurora Borealis interested several Jesuits and other astronomers. Therefore Hell in 1777,

five year after the publication of Hallerstein’s description of the Aurora Borealis, devoted the

entire appendix of the ephemerides to the Aurora Borealis. He wrote the discussion in the form of

instructive statements, propositions, and proofs, like Newton did in his Principia nearly century

before him. Hell published hundred-twenty-five points on hundred-eighteen pages with several

pictures. He described the photometry researches of Kircher, Mairan, Musschenbroek, and

Lambert in 1761. He mentioned the mathematical estimation of the height of Aurora Borealis573

in observation of Novaja Zemlja in Russia.574

He used his own experiences in heeling with

magnets and the Aurora Borealis in connection with the electrical charge of the Earth.575

In 1769,

Hell measured the transition of Venus from Lapland, where he often observed the Aurora

Borealis. His claims were published in five points:576

1. The substance that reflects the Aurora Borealis, is much denser than the substance in the

atmosphere of our regions.

2. The light is very vivid.

3. In the brightened part of the Aurora Borealis we observe the movement of many quick

particles.

4. Upon rarefying the golden-yellow color of the Aurora Borealis pales. We see the similar colors

as in the refraction on a prism.

567

Tirnberger, 1770, 33. 568

Angot, 1896, 95, 97 199; Fritz, 1873, 72. 569


Tirnberger, 1770, 7--16. 571


Tirnberger, 1770, 34--35. 573

Hell, 1777, 21: 112. 574

Hell, 1777, 21: 54. 575

Hell, 1777, 21: 8, 115. 576

Hell, 1777; Ambschell, 1807, 2: 123.

101

5. The south side of the sky is usually almost dark during the Aurora Borealis.

In 1778, Mako published a discussion about the electrical nature of the Aurora Borealis.577

The

former Ljubljanese professor Ambschell accepted Mairan’s (1733) and Hell’s Cartesian opinion

about the Aurora Borealis originating after the reflection of the light of the Sun and Moon on the

particles of ice under the horizon. In Ambschell’s time it was known from Cook’s and other

observations that the similar colors show up in the southern hemisphere.578

In the second half of the 19th

century intensive research of the conduction of the electricity

through the rarefied gases that in the higher regions of the atmosphere shows itself as Aurora

Borealis began.579

Most of the researchers agreed that it is caused by the raising electric charges,

but they offered different explanations. In 1850, Faraday discussed the dependence of the Aurora

Borealis on magnetic properties of the atmosphere, and he published a lot of the measurement of

his collaborators.580

Faraday considered “the magnetic constitution of the oxygen and the

magnetic state of the atmosphere” and its annual and diurnal changes very important. Although

small, they certainly influenced the magnetism of the Earth, E. Becquerel581

claimed at the same

time in 1850. Paris academician Pouillet582

claimed that the many different theories of the Aurora

Borealis show how little the researchers knew about the Auroras.583

The effect of atmospheric charges on the compass needle interested British sailors of the

Victorian era. They used Faraday’s ideas. Canton began the electrical theory of Aurora

Borealis.584

During the turbulent debates about the Crookes fourth aggregate state in 1869, Scott

Balfour Stewart (1828--1887) compared the Earth with the center of the Ruhmkorff’s spool,

where the electric current flows through the higher layers of the atmosphere.585

In 1875,

Lemstrom compared the Aurora Borealis with the discharges in Geissler’s tubes electrified with

Holt’s instrument. In 1878, E. Edlund developed more perfect description in Stockholm with the

use of W. Weber’s ideas of the unipolar induction.586

In 1878 and 1882, Stewart published that

the horizontal electric currents high in the atmosphere cause the diurnal changes in the direction

and the strength of the magnetic field of the Earth in the order of 10-8

T. In 1887, Stewart’s

former student Schuster published similar idea, but it was considered to immoderate at his time.

Many problems and questions were not posed in the correct way. Therefore in 1888, German

researchers discussed if the atmospheric air could be staticaly electrified at all. Later it was

proven that the Aurora Borealis occurs because of the radioluminiscence of the charged particles

that the Sun radiates in the higher parts of the atmosphere of the Earth. After 1859, it was proved

that the frequency of the Aurora Borealis raises and falls during the eighteen year period of

sunspots.587

577

Cotte, 1788, 334. 578

Ambschell, 1807, 2: 128--129. 579

Penning, 1957, 1. 580

Faraday, 1952, 2796 (August 2, 1850), 2957 (September 14, 1850). 581

Faraday, 1952, 2442, 2847, 2968 (September 14, 1850); Alfvén, 1963, 207. 582

Claude Servais Mathias Pouillet († February 16, 1791 Cuzance (Doubs); † 1868 Paris). 583

Pouillet, 1853, 2: 791. 584

Angot, 1896, 158; Cotte, 1788, 322. 585

Angot, 1896, 146. 586

Angot, 1896, 161--162. 587

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 436, 483.

102

The Aurora Borealis raised considerable interest in Carniola, although at our geographical

latitude the event was very rare, for example at the end of the 19th

century happened just on

October 24, 1870, October 25, 1870, and February 14, 1892. The Aurora Borealis of October 24,

1870 was observed as far south as Bagdad, and also in Trieste, Šentpeter near Gorica, Reka, and

several other European places.588

Hundred years after Ambschell, Križan published the first

discussion about the polar light in Slovene language.589

Although he was affiliated with Croatia, Križan590

also published many works in Slovene

language. He finished his studies at the Varaždin Gymnasium between 1855 and 1863. Between

1851 and 1855, Martin Matunci (1823--1910) from Podravian Novigrad taught mathematics in

Varaždin. Matunci was especially interested in the polarization of the light and published about it

at the high school (Gymnasium) of Varaždin in 1854 and in Zagreb in 1856. That is why Križan

grew interested in optics already in his teenager years.

Between 1863 and 1867, Križan studied mathematics, physics, and philosophy in Graz. Between

April 1, 1864 and March 11, 1867, he assisted professor Ernst Mach on experiments with the

acoustical interference.591

Križan made his professorial exams in 1867, and he was awarded a

doctorate in 1869 at the University of Graz, where Boltzmann taught.

Before Križan, two other Croatian high school professors published about the Aurora Borealis.

One was Josip Torbar (1824--1900), professor of physics and natural philosophy at the high real

school in Zagreb. He used Olmsted’s592

theory about the cosmic genesis of Aurora Borealis. He

rejected the theory of De la Rive593

about the electricity as the cause of Aurora Borealis. The year

after Torbar’s paper, professor at the real school in Rakovac near Karlovac Martin Sekulić (1833-

-1905) criticized Torbar. Sekulić fabricated his own machine for the laboratory Aurora Borealis

and the spectral analyze of its light.594

The paper was written in response to the extraordinary

sight of the Aurora Borealis in our lands on October 24 1870 and the next day between 37o and

53o of the north longitude and between 11

o and 20

o of the east geographical longitude.

595

Križan’s discussion about the Aurora Borealis was published in beautiful Slovene language. Lavo

Čermelj (1889--1980)596

admired it after long years of the authors work in Croatia. Discussion

was popular and without equitations, although it requests the knowledge of basic relations

between electricity and magnetism.597

The modern theory of Aurora Borealis is much nearer to the Olmsted-Gronemann’s than to the

De la Rive’s theory. The periodical strong outflows of electrified particles on the surface of the

588

Angot, 1896, 250--251. 589

Križan, 1874, 360; Šubic, 1900, 70; Strnad, 1993--1994, 51. 590

Josip Križan (* 1841 Kokoriči near Ljutomer; † 1924). 591

Križan, 1870, 4; Križan, Wien.Ber. January 23, 1865. 592

In 1825, Denison Olmsted (1791--1859) became professor of natural history at the university Yale. 593

Avgust Arthur De la Rive (* 1801 Genf; † 1873 Marseilles), professor of physics in Genf. 594

Sekulić, 1872; Dadić, 1982, 2: 257--258. 595

Križan, 1874, 360. 596

Čermelj, 1964, 301. 597

Križan, 1874, 366.

103

Sun cause the Aurora Borealis. Part of those particles on their way to Earth declines towards the

magnetic poles. During the fall toward the surface of the earth they glow by way of knocking

with the molecules of the nitrogen and oxygen, as Križan598

had already described.

The theories of the Aurora Borealis could be sorted into the following general groups:599

Electromagnetic Optic Cosmic Indeterminate

Descartes

De la Rive Olmsted

Spiller 1870 Torbar 1871

Sekulić 1872 Wolfert 1872 Gronemann 1871

Mohr

Prestel 1873

Muhry 1873 Križan 1874

Plivelić 1888 S. Šubic 1900

The modern theory

The interest in Stewart’s electric charges in the atmosphere grew after December 12, 1901, when

Marconi and his collaborators managed to send the radio signal from Cornwall to Newfoundland.

Most of the researchers followed Irishman Georg Francis FitzGerald (1851--1901) and claimed,

that the diffraction of the waves near the sphere of the Earth enable the spread across the Atlantic.

That was not the only possibility, because already in 1902 English engineers with the

mathematical abilities explained the Marconi’s success with an old Stewart’s hypothesis. They

were Bombay born Arthur Edwin Kennelly (1861--1939) in USA and Oliver Heaviside (1850--

1925) some months later. Kennelly was the telegrapher at first, like Edison, whom he assisted

from 1877 to 1894. Later he made his fortune as an engineer adviser.

In June 1902, Heaviside put forward the groundbreaking ideas in the short notice to his paper

about the “theory of the electric telegraphy” for the British encyclopedia.600

He correctly claimed,

that the ionization radiation of the Sun rise the conductivity of the atmosphere layers.

The calculation of the diffraction of the radio waves in the atmosphere were complicated enough,

so it was not easy to decide between the both ideas until the Dutch radio physicist B. van der Paul

gave advantage to Heaviside. Heaviside’s hypothesis was developed further in 1912.601

Ionosphere is composed of a few Heaviside-Kennelly’s layers of different content and stage of

ionization. Layers were not fixed relative to each other. Their number and the distances between

them changes during the revolution of the Earth as the intensity of the ionizing radiation.

In December 1924, a month-and-a-half before Heaviside’s death, Heaviside-Kennelly’s layers

were measured for the very first time by Englishman Edward Victor Appleton (1892--1965) from

598

Asimov, 1985, 14; Križan, 1874, 368. 599

Angot, 1896, 147. 600

Bolomovskij, 1985, 172, 250--251. 601

Bolomovskij, 1985, 176.

104

Cambridge and American Samuel Jackson Barnett from the Carnegie Technological institute in

Washington, 19 years his senior.

Results of Barnett’s measurement of the reflection of the electromagnetic waves on ionosphere

were proved to be correct by his successors at the Technological institute Carnegie in 1926. They

were Gregory Breit (* 1899) and Merle Antony Tuve, two years his junior, from the department

for the magnetism of the Earth. The name ionosphere was used instead of “Heaviside’s layer”

after the proposition of Wattson-Watt,602

the inventor of the radar and the descendant of the

famous James Watt.

Rockets and satellites research in the beginning of 1960s proved the influence of the flows

around the Earth on its magnetic field. Two flows were felt in the area of the magnetic equator at

the height of about 100 km with the current from the west to the east and from the north to the

south. The rockets crossed the other currents at the height of 22,000 km. The Van Allen’s603

group from the University of Iowa researched the data of satellites Explorer I, III and IV, shoot in

January, March and July 1958. They discovered bands of the charged particles of the cosmic

origin, caught into the heterogenous magnetic field of the Earth.604

Research of the Auroras in the

highest layers of the atmosphere was therefore the beginning of the later space research with

satellites.605

In the last quarter of the century the fields of the Earth are researched in connection

with the cosmic flights and the bettering of the broadcasting.

Modern Scandinavian scientists updated Hell’s research of Aurora Borealis in Lapland. Between

1908 and 1913, Norwegian professor Birkeland606

connected the Aurora Borealis with “the

cathode rays” connected with Arago’s607

description of Davy’s arc lamp in 1820. Birkeland and

his assistant Olav Devik of Oslo tried to make the artificial Aurora on iron sphere in a huge

vacuum vessel. He called the sphere Terella after Gilbert’s608

hundred-year old example.

Mairan 1732, popravljena izdaja 1754 inspirira Šveda Samuela Triewlanda leta 1744 (Kragh, 2009, 379). Glede spektroskopije se iskaže Nemec Heinrich Kayser 1910 (Kragh, 2009, 381, 384). Filozof in logik v ZDA Charles S. Pierce v domnevnem avrorealnem plinu (Kragh, 2009, 383). Birkeland 1897 na Norveškem in za njim Lars Vegard prav tam (Kragh, 2009, 385), potem ko je 1908-1910 študiral pri J.J. Thomsonu v Cavendishovih laboratorijih (Kragh, 2009, 386), nato pa v Würzburgu (Kragh, 2009, 387). 1912-1913 Vegard na Severnem Norveškem (Kragh, 2009, 388).

602

Škot Robert Wattson-Watt (* April 13, 1892 Brechin; † December 5, 1973 Inverness) 603

James Alfred Van Allen (* September 7, 1914 Mount Pleasant, Iowa). 604

Needell, 1987, 106. 605

Akasofu, 2002, 49. 606

Olag Kristian Bernhard Birkeland (Olaf, * December 13, 1867 Oslo; † June 15, 1917 Tokyo). 607

Dominique François Jean Arago (* February 26, 1786 Estagel; † October 2, 1853 Paris). 608

William Gilbert (* May 24, 1544 Colchester; † December 10, 1603).

105

Between 1907 in 1911, Norwegian mathematician Störmer609

grew interested in Birkeland’s

experiments and the theory of the Aurora Borealis.610

He proved that, in addition to electrons,

Sun’s protons also interact with oxygen and nitrogen of the higher layer of the atmosphere to

make the Aurora Borealis.611

Alfvén612

continued the research of the Norwegian professors. He

proved that Aurora Borealis develops because of the radioluminiscence of charged particles of

Sun, radiated at a high layer of the Earth atmosphere.

Aurora is the biggest vacuum discharge with the Sun electrons playing the role of cathode rays.

The whole upper layer of the atmosphere is the cathode ray tube with the high vacuum in the area

where the Aurora Borealis develop. Very quick electrons from the Sun collide there with the

molecules and atoms. The nitrogen molecules ionize and radiate violet and ultraviolet light.

Secondary electrons knocked out from the nitrogen molecules have enough energy to dash out

the electrons from the oxygen molecules that radiate white-green light. If the incident electrons

have enough energy, the lower part of the Aurora falls as low as 88.500 km. There the electrons

don’t have enough energy for the ionization of the nitrogen molecules, but they could collide

them into a higher energy state. After their return into basic state the nitrogen molecules radiate

the purple red photons in the lower part of the Aurora. Ultraviolet and violet part of the Aurora

spectrum is absorbed in the higher parts of the atmosphere before it reaches the surface of the

Earth.

The study of the Auroras of other sky bodies enables us to research their atmosphere. The

greenish radiation should prove that there is some oxygen on a particular planet. But Mars and

Venus have the violet Aurora because of the hydrogen.613

Therefore the Martians and Venus-

people are not particularly probable.

Vacuum for the Chinese emperor

On January 12, 1773, the new French missionaries with the help of the superior in Canton le

Fevre brought the excellent mirror telescope, many presents, and the first vacuum pump to

Beijing. The missionaries were the watchmaker Méricourt614

and the artist Panzi,615

who traveled

609

Carl Frederik Mülertz Störmer (* September 3, 1874 Norway; † August 13, 1957 Bindern). 610

Akasofu, 2002, 44--45. 611

Guillermier, Koutchmy, 1999, 25, 100--101. 612

In 1970, Swede Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén (* May 30, 1908 Norrkorping; † April 2, 1995 Stockholm) got the half

of the Nobel price for the physics. 613

Akasofu, 2002, 58, 64, 65. 614

Father Hubert de Méricourt (Li Tsuen-Hien Si-Tschen, * November 1, 1729 France; SJ January 8, 1754 France; †

August 20, 1774 Beijing). He arrived to Beijing on January 12, 1773, but he soon died (Pfister, 1934, 975). 615

Brother Joseph Panzi (Pansi, P’an T’ing-Tchang, Jo-Ché, * 1734 Italy; SJ 1768 Genes; † before 1812 Beijing). In

1771, he was in French mission for China. He arrived to Beijing on January 12, 1773 (Pfister, 1934, 971) and

supported Poirot’s contacts with Gruber (http://www.riccimac.org/doc/forumpdf/s3/Liu%20Jingjing.pdf p. 12-13).

http://www.riccimac.org/doc/forumpdf/s3/Liu%20Jingjing.pdf

106

according to the order of French minister Bertin.616

Both Jesuits knew the working conditions of

the pump. On January 18, 1773, emperor ordered to bring the pump into the Ru yiguan (Jou-y-

koan) building where the European artists worked. Benoist and Sickelbarth had the duty to

present the pump and explain how it works to the emperor in the spring.

Benoist worked on the pump for a few months to make it usable for the demonstration. He

explained to one of the Chinese how to handle the pump and trained him as the assistant. He

chose the most interesting experiments for the emperor, made copper engravings of their

drawings, and explained them in a little book. He kept the pump in a room with controlled

temperature to avoid extreme cold. Méricourt and Panzi taught the eunuchs to handle the pump

and Yuen-Ming-Yuen translated their orders.

For the first vacuum experiments on March 10, 1773 in Ru yiguan (Jou-y-koan), four eunuchs

ran the pump. Three missionaries Méricourt, Archange, and Ventavon, examined all parts of the

pump in their clockmaker shop. The eunuchs were excited when Benoist showed them pressing,

rarefying and other properties of the air. At eight o’clock p.m., the emperor demanded the

explanation of all experimental results. He examined the inside parts of the pump. Benoist had to

explain the meaning of the numerous copper engravings about the pump to him. The emperor

ordered Benoist to repeat all the experiments from Ru yiguan (Jou-y-koan) that eunuchs arranged

for him. On the next day March 11, 1773, eunuchs reported to Benoist immediately after his

arrival to Ru yiguan (Jou-y-koan). They described the events of the previous day. Emperor

ordered the preparation of new experiments. Therefore Benoist took the pump apart to examine if

all of the pieces were in working condition. Before noon, Benoist explained to the emperor the

use of the different valves, great pipe on the other side of the piston that prevents the outer air

entrance into the pump, and the outer security valve, which prevents the transition of the outer air

into the recipient. When emperor learned about all parts of the pump, he asked for experiments to

begin. During the preparation of the experiments, as usually, emperor posed thousands of

questions. Benoist showed twenty-one selected experiments to emperor. The first six of them

proved the existence of air pressure. The experiments followed each other. When emperor

listened to the explanation of the previous experiment, they were already preparing the next one.

Benoist brought barometer and thermometer to the hall. Emperor posed several questions about

the mechanism how the air pressure lowers the level of the quicksilver in barometer, how it raises

the water in pump and why the change of the pressure is proportional to the height of the

quicksilver. Benoist used the explanations common in Europe of that time. He described how the

density of the air changes with the weather conditions.

The second group of Benoist’s experiments showed the elasticity and the compressibility of the

air. Emperor liked them very much.

616

Henri-Léonard-Jean-Baptiste Bertin count de Bourdeilles (* March 24, 1720 Périgueux; † 1792 Spa in Belgium)

was the minister for the agriculture, and in 1774 for the foreign affairs. He was a honorary member if the Paris

academy (Amiot, 1774, 519).

107

In Ru yiguan (Jou-y-koan), Benoist wanted to call the pump »the tube for the air research«

(steam, yan qi tong (yen chhi thung), Nien-ki-tung in French transcription). Emperor decided to

use the word hou (Heou in French transcription) instead of yen (Nien in French transcription).

That word was considered more noble and they used it in classical Chinese books for the

description of the sky observations, for the observations for predictions of the agricultural

activities and the changing of the seasons. Therefore the emperor chose the name »tube for the air

observation« (climate, hou chhi thung, in French transcription Heou-hy-tung).

However, this chapter does not only require English corrections; the translation of Chinese is also faulty. In

explaining the initial proposal to translate “vacuum barometer” into Chinese as yan-qi-tong, the author notes that the

Emperor proposed hou-qi-tong (p. 145). The first he translates as ‘the tube for the air research’ and the second as

‘tube for air observation’. I should note that while he does provide a pinyin transliteration for the first, alongside two

other forms, he fails to do so for the second. Anyhow, the rather convulted explanation provided makes it clear that

the terms yan and hou are not to be translated as ‘research’ and ‘observation’. ‘Houqi’ is ‘climate’ and ‘yanqi’ is

‘steam’. (http://www.riccimac.org/ccc/eng/ccc93/reviews/br3.htm (huda kritika: Edmund

Ryden SJ, of the Jesuit Mission Office of the Fu Jen Catholic

University, New Taipei City, is Associate Professor in the Law

Department, and in the Human Rights Programme of Soochow

University, Taipei. Chinese Cross Currents)

At the end of the presentation of the pump, emperor thanked his wives and other ladies for their

help during the experiments. The emperor stood near the pump for the entire duration of a very

long exhibition. After it was over, he retired to his rooms and ordered the servants to bring the

pump. He abundantly presented Benoist, Méricourt, and Panzi with three huge pieces of silk.617

In the next year, Benoist died after a stroke, just a few days before the twelve-year older

Hallerstein. Panzi later drew a huge emperor’s portrait.618

We don’t know exact kind of the vacuum pump, that minister Bertin sent to the Chinese emperor.

In those times, Hauksbee pumps from the beginning of the century still prevailed. In 1721,

Swedenborg619

fabricated a new type of pump. He used table with the two high legs that held the

evacuated sailed bell. The iron vessel was connected to the iron tube with the quicksilver flowing

through it. Joseph Baader later used the same principle in his pump, as did Frenchmen Michel

and Cazalet after him. Most contemporaries did not know about Swedenborger’s discoveries, so

Gren620

reprinted it with the comments.621

In 1847, Strutt baron Rayleigh published in London

the translation of Swedenborg’s papers under the title Principles of Chemistry. Ten years later,

Geissler used Swedenborg’s principle in Bonn to evacuate the first cathode ray tubes. Bertin

probably sent the Paris pump of Michel and Cazalet to Beijing. The use of the quicksilver in

vacuum pump probably caused numerous imperial questions about the quicksilver.

617

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 451; Francis Burgeois (Bourgeois, Tch’au Tsuen-Sieu, Tsi-Ko, * March 21, 1723

Pulligny (Meurthe) in Lorraine; SJ September 17, 1740 Nancy; † July 29, 1792 Beijing (Pfister, 1934, 926)). Also

agitated for Gruber’s Jesuits in China (Inglot Marek, 1997) as his Lorraine compatriot Poirot. Burgeois wrote to

father Dupre on November 1, 1773 or November 29, 1773 (unpublished, Recueil de Zi-ka-wei, pp. 37--41, 42

(Pfister, 1934, 948); Aimé-Martin, 1843, 4: 223--224; Benoist, letter to the unknown on November 4, 1773). 618

Amiot, 1943, 457. 619

Emanuel Swedenborg (Emmanuel Svedenborg, * 1688 Stockholm; † 1772 London). 620

Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren (1760--1798). 621

Gren, 1791, 409--410.

http://www.riccimac.org/ccc/eng/ccc93/reviews/br3.htm

108

(PICTURE 32: French vacuum pump (Pouillet. 1853. Élements de physique expérimentale et de

météorologie. Paris: Hachette. Plate 5, fig 1, 2))

(PICTURE 33: M Horace Benedict de Saussure (1740--1799) from the university of Geneva

made the manometer that was also used in Ljubljanese physics cabinet (Pouillet. 1853. Élements

de physique expérimentale et de météorologie. Paris: Hachette. Plate 5, fig 1, 2, 19))

French minister Bertin sent to Beijing the vacuum pump elaborated in Paris. The most important

Paris pump manufacturer was Fortin,622

the collaborator of the bureau for the longitude. After

Lavoisier’s initiative, Fortin began to fabricate the experimental tools. In 1778 and 1779, he

presented his vacuum pump to the Paris academy using the double walk as the very first in

France. In 1784, he fabricated the gas gauge, and in 1788 he prepared a big accurate balance for

Lavoisier. Fortin invented a very useful transportable barometer with quicksilver. After

Lavoisier’s execution, Fortin’s laboratory was sold on November 10, 1794. During the time of

Napoleon’s empire, Fortin completed the scientific instruments, and in 1806, he made the gauge

for Gay-Lussac’ research of the air expansion.

Fortin’s vacuum pump had two pumping mechanisms made of brass. The chain with hooks

directed the pistons in the opposite directions of the lever. Fortin connected both pistons to

diminish the force used to overcome the air pressure. Denis Papin (1647--1712), Willem Jacob

‘sGravesande (1688--1742) in Francis Hauksbee (about 1666--1713) already developed that idea.

Two conducting tubes coming out of the pump merged in one and opened in the middle of the

horizontal plate with the vacuum vessel. The pressure on the vessel worked on the side test tube

that contained »truncated« siphon barometer with the equal legs. The barometer measured the

small pressures as the difference of the quicksilver lever in both legs. The rest pressure in

barometer could be measured by the vertical tube on the second side hole, with the ends sunken

into the vessel full of quicksilver. When the pressure in vacuum vessel lowers, the vessel

quicksilver ascends. The pipe in front of the plate releases the air into the vessel, which would be

impossible otherwise because of the air pressure. In a later improvement the second barometer

and the small side pipe in front of it were added to release the gas into the previously evacuated

vessel.

622

Jean Nicolas Fortin (* 1750 Mouchy-la-ville (Oise); † 1831 Paris).

109

The maps of China

Ricci drew the first maps of China for the Europeans. Xu Xiake (1587-1641) had the very first

systematic research of the Chinese Karst published posthumously in 1642. In 1688, Casati623

used the map to end his book about the physics of the atmosphere with the description of

Dalmatia and the province Xinjiang Uygur, where the powder was invented, and in 1040 its

composition published for the first time.624

The Jesuit Sanbiasi drew the maps of Ricci’s kind. In

1680, Verbiest made the maps in stereographic projection625

and completed them in 1682/1683

during his trip to Tartar in the emperor’s suite.

Martini published a collection of the China maps in 1655. He described the famous 626

Latin

translation of the Chi Ssu-pen’s (1311/1312) work. Athanasius Kircher (1601-1680) republished

Martini’s description and other letters of the Chinese missionaries. In the fourth part of his book

Kircher described the Chinese mountains, waters, vegetables, mammals, birds, fishes, snakes,

stones, and minerals. Among Kircher’s collaborators was the Chinese missionary and Beijing

court astronomer J. Gruber627

who traveled for three years before he returned to Rome in 1664.

Gruber worked in India, Persia, Mongolia and Tibet, and described China in a letter to

Haffenecker on March 7, 1658.628

In 1655, Gruber cooperated with Martini on the new map of

China, and in 1659 he arrived to Beijing. In 1664, after three years of travel he returned to Rome

together with the Jesuit Roth, who made the dictionary of the Chinese language published in

Kircher’s book for the first time. Kircher summarized Martini’s (1655) description of the iron

chain bridge An-Lan over the karst river in the provinces of Kouei-tcheou and Koey-tscheou 629

in China 630

together with the letters of Albert de Dorville and Gruber.631

In 1666, Gruber, Boym,

and Henry Roth gave their manuscripts about China to Kircher personally. On his way to Rome,

Gruber stopped in Florence to see the duke of Tuscany Ferdinand II.632

The secretary of the

Florentine Academy del Cimento Count Lorenzo Magalotti (* 1637; † 1712) published his talk

with Gruber as an interview in 1665 in Florence and in 1678 Magalotti examined Boyle’s

vacuum pump in London. The final Italian version of Gruber’s itinerary was issued in 1697 in

Filorence, French translation in 1672 in Paris, and abridged English version in London in 1676

(Rinaldi, 2006, 179, 263).

623

Paolo Casati (* 1617 Piacenza; SJ; † December 22, 1707 Parma (Poggendorff, 1: 386)). 624

Casati, 1747, 57--59; Temple, 1991, 228. 625

Needham, Ling, 1959, 584--585. 626

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 586. 627

Janez Gruber (Johann Grueber, Pei Nai-Sin K’ouei-Yang, * October 28, 1623 St. Florian near Linz; SJ October

13, 1641 Vienna; † September 30, 1680 Sáropatak in Hungary (Šmitek, 1995, 35--36; Koláček, 1999, 17; Kaminski,

Unterreider, 1980, 61; Zerlik, 1962, 1)). 628

Steska, 1905, 41; Stoeger, 1855, 110--111; Kopatkin, 1934, 8. Johannes Ferdinand Haffenecker (*1605 Vienna;

SJ 1622 Austria; † September 29, 1699 Graz (Stoeger, 1855, 110--111)). 629

Po Hallerstein (1780, 292, 378) Kouei-tcheou in Koey-tscheou, today Guizhou. 630

Temple, 1991, 61--62. 631

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 586. 632

Mordechai, 2003, 269, 284.

110

Between 1689 and 1698, the astronomer and geographer Jean François Gerbillon (1654-1717)

accompanied the Chinese emperor to Tartar eight times. In 1692, he finished the map of the Great

Tartar in the northern China. On emperor’s order, Joachim Bouvet (1656-1730) and Jean Baptiste

Régis mapped the Great Wall. In June 1708, the Jesuits Pierre Jartoux, 633

Ehrenwert Xaver

Fridelli (1673-1739), Cardoso, de Tartre, Joseph Marie Anne de Moyriac de Mailla (1669-1748),

Roman Hinderer, Bouvet, Régis634

and the Augustinian monk Bonjour began to draw the maps of

the lands near the Korean border between June 4, 1708 and January 10, 1709.635

After two

months, Bouvet got ill and returned to the capital. In 1711, the Portuguese Fransis Cardoso and

the Augustinian Bonjour636

as the only one outside the Jesuit Society worked on mapping. In

1712 to 1714, Vincent de Tartre, de Mailla, and Hinderer also cooperated. For seven years,

Fridelli traveled through the empire and issued a map of the whole empire with Mongolia and

Manchuria up to the Russian border.637

At the same time, they completed maps of Tibet reaching

all the way to the sources of Ganges.

Jartoux sent the Jesuit maps to Du Halde in Paris. After Jartoux’ death in 1721, Quomolangma

published Chinese maps in Beijing. Régis sent the publication named after the emperor Kangxi to

Du Halde. Du Halde638

published the Jesuit maps of China compiled by the best geographer of

his time d'Anville639

and with Régis’ comments. D'Anville compilation became the foundation of

the modern maps of China.

Hallerstein continued the mapping of China. In 1738, he drew his first map of Macao. In 1748,

Hallerstein and his assistant Felix de Rocha (1713-1781) made the relief map of the province of

Mu-lan, today Mulan Paddock on the north side of the easternmost end of the Great Wall in

Hebei province. Mulan Weichang was built already in 1681. Nine years later, emperor defeated

the Mongol rebels at a battlefield situated just 15 km south of Mulan Hunting Ground.640

on the

other side of the great wall near Korea. Hallerstein and Rocha completed the map in 1748.

633

In 1701, Jartoux showed Chinese numerous equations for the endless rows and influenced Chinese research

(Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 145). 634

Jean Baptiste Régis (* January 29 1663 Istres in Provanse; SJ September 13, 1679 Avignon; † November 24,

1738 Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 21)) arrived in Canton on November 4, 1698. 635

Šmitek, 1995, 113--114. 636

Guillaume Bonjour (Bonjoury, † December 23, 1714 Sečuan (Sičuan, Sze-chuan)). 637

Steska, 1918, 147; Dimitz, 1861, 83; Dežman, 1881, 14; Hallerstein’s letter of October 4, 1743, published: 1781,

6--7. 638

Jean Baptiste Du Halde (* 1674; SJ; † 1743). 639

Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville (* 1687 Paris; † 1782), Paris academician in 1773. 640

Šmitek, 1995, 113. On November 28, 1749, Bahr wrote to Filipa Voltera (* August 6, 1707 Leovalensis in

Slovakia; SJ October 9, 1723 Brno; † September 29, 1748 Olomouc) about the district called Muran (Koláček, 1999,

216--217). Mu-lan in the Hebei Province should not be confused with over ten degrees southern Mulan in the

northern part of the County Huangpi near the suburbs of the town Wuhan in Hubei Province, the home of the

legendary Chinese girl warrior Mu-lan. Hallerstein’s Mu-lan is today preserved as one of the few natural grassland

resorts. A part of Mulan Hounting Ground is included in Saihanba National Forest Park with forest covering over

three quarters of all area. The park entertains eighty-one families of higher plants, eleven families of animals and

twenty-seven families of birds. Mu-lan p'i is the legendary over ocean land of Chinese sailors. The modern Hebei

Province has three geological parks: the Baishi (White Stone) Mountain in Laiyuan, Liujiang of Qinhuangdao, and

Tiansheng (Heaven-made) Bridge of Fuping. On north, the White Stone covers 60 square km with the only marble

rock forest, ten water falls (Shipu), and Juma River. The Liujiang Park is situated 280 km away from Beijing and

covers 186 square km with the mysterious Xuanyang cave. In that area the Chinese began conducting their first

geological survey after Hallerstein’s mapping. The Heaven-made Bridge is located about 25 km west of Fuping and

111

In 1749, Hallerstein and his collaborators carried on the topographic and horographic mapping of

Mu-lan, the Tartar land on the northern side of the Great Wall. Besides mapping in modern sense

of the world they described the waters, climate, soil, vegetable, and animal world of the area. In

between, Rocha performed some astronomical observations. Hallerstein described the

uninhabited lands called Har-zin and Oguiot to his brother Baron Vajkard Hallerstein (1706-

1780) in Brussels. It was a single continuous chain and labyrinth of mountains and valleys,

without inhabitants, but full of wild animals such as red deer, wild boars, bears, and tigers. The

soldiers guarded all passages to the valleys, and nobody was allowed to pass through them.641

Every third autumn the emperor hunted in Mu-lan and urgently needed an accurate map with the

description of his chase. During the hunting season emperor stayed for three or even five months

in those places beyond the Great Wall. The Chengde Mountain Resort of Hebei Province used to

be the largest summer resort of the Qing Dynasty.

Rocha and Hallerstein mapped the area one degree wide and one degree long between 41,5o and

42,5o of north latitude. To the west, they reached the meridian of Beijing. The Chinese used that

meridian as the basis for geography and astronomy. They mapped the north part of the modern

province of Hebei with the characteristic karst of the moderate warm, half dry climate. They

marked the most suitable hunting areas. Emperor was very pleased. Upon Hallerstein’s return

emperor gave him a most gracious reception, and asked many questions concerning the mapped

country.642

(PICTURE 34: Hallerstein’s description of the karst province of Mu-Lan (Phil.Trans. 1753

(1751--1752) 47: 322))

The northwest corner of Hallerstein’s map was on the border of the modern Inner Mongolia (Nei

Monggol) near the town Doulun. To the northeast, Hallerstein mapped the area up to the modern

province of Liaoning well known for its oil slates that extends up to the Korean border to the

east. Hallerstein’s map was a square with a side four feet long. Therefore he used the

approximate ratio 1 : 90,000.643

That was already a good map that emperor urgently needed

because he used that area every third year for hunting from his summer residence in Jeholo.644

The European Palaces Xiyanglou (=Jeholo??) concerned a T-shaped strip of land oriented south-

north at the westernmost part of Yuanmingyuan as the part of Changchunyuan. Castiglione took

care of architecture, Castiglione’s companion Attiret645

and Sickelbarth of peculiarities and the

decoration of buildings, Gilles Thébault (* 1703; † 1766) on ironworks, and Benoist was in

charge for hydraulics (Rinaldi, 2006, 210). At the same time, Hallerstein’s Italian friend

Castiglione painted his famous Mulan Hunt.

covers an area of 32 square km. The bridge sits above the 112-meter high waterfall, which is formed by metamorphic

rock. 641

Pray, 1781, 28. 642

Ravbar, 2002, 192; Pfister, 1934. 643

The degree of the geographical longitude is approximately 112 km. 644

Hallerstein, 1753 (1751--1752), 321--322; Hallerstein, November 28, 1749, published: 1781, 28--29. 645

Attiret’s letter to d’Assaut dated November 1, 1743 (Vissière, Vissière, 2000, 244).

112

At the same time, maps similar to Hallerstein’s were beginning to be produced in Habsburg

monarchy. In 1744, Ivan Dizma Florjančič de Grienfeld (1691-after 1757) published the

comparable map of Hallerstein’s native Carniola in the approximate ratio 1 : 111,000. Between

1784 and 1787, twenty-two military surveyors under the leadership of the colonel Neu measured

and mapped Carniola, Lower Styria, and the parts of Carinthia and Gorica (Goritia) at the ratio 1 :

28,800, which was three-times more accurate than Hallerstein’s map.

On November 28, 1749, Hallerstein made and apology to his brother and later also to the

secretary of the London Royal Society, because he was unable to send copies of the maps. He did

not mention any military secret of the kind that later protected Habsburg Josephine military

maps. Perhaps Hallerstein’s map was among the ones Gaubil sent in April 1755 to the Royal

Society of London.646

Hallerstein also knew well the karst region between south of Beijing very well. He traveled

through it on his arrival and four later times on the diplomatic duty.

Table 1: Hallerstein’s voyages south of Beijing

Date Direction of the travel Purpose of the trip

1/3/1739 – 13/6/1739 Macao-Beijing Taking over the job at the court

25/10/1752 – 13/12/1752 Beijing–Macao Came to meet the Portuguese delegates

20/12/1752 – 1/5/1753 Macao-Beijing Suiting diplomats

8/6/1752 – 6/10/1753 Beijing–Macao Suiting diplomats

9/10/1753 -- 21/10/1753- Macao-Beijing Returning to the court

Therefore Hallerstein was not “Abbé G.” who described his voyage form Canton to Beijing on

September 15, 1768 which is kept in MCC, tome VIII, Paris 1777 (Rinaldi, 1006, 196).

In 1751, the Emperor ordered the mapping which was finished in 1761 and published in 1805

(Walravens, 1972, 32). In 1752, Hallerstein described Germany, Bohemia, Loraine, and his

native land as 5000 li North-West from Portugal in paragraph 298 of Szu-i-k’ao (research of the

foreign people at four direction of the sky), which lat 6 of 300 paragraphs were began in 1747

and finished in 1786/87 (Walravens, 1972, 34).

In 1752, the emperor ordered the local authorities to help Hallerstein’s land transport and river

navigation. He had many delays because of the huge suite. On August 15, 1752, the Portuguese

ambassador Francisco Xavier Pacheco Lampayo arrived to Macao with the presents for the

emperor.647

He replaced the former ambassador Metéllo de Souza, who took the duty in 1727.648

646

Šmitek, 1995, 113. 647

Gaubil, 1753, 312; Rodriguez, 1990, 47.

113

The group numbered 71 people and they traveled to Beijing for four months. Hallerstein’s

journeys with smaller groups were certainly much faster. The travelers had troubles with the

ground obstacles, high prices, accidents and illness on the numerous meanders they had to travel

through. The four successive trips drained all of Hallerstein’s power and he had to rest for few

months. After his return to Beijing his friend was curious, how he suddenly grew so old. He

traversed 5000 km in a year, and he found the old fashioned Chinese ceremonies especially

tiresome.

They traveled on land and rivers with the help of the local authorities on emperor’s order. They

were late because of their numerous travel companions. They traveled mostly through the karst

regions. On December 25, 1752, Hallerstein, Tartar mandarin Shu, and diplomats arrived from

Macao to Canton. On April 20, 1753 they arrived at Chi-Hoa. Not far north from Macao he

traveled through the tropic and subtropic karst in the provinces of Hunan and Hubei, described by

Xu Xiake more than hundred years before.649

Hallerstein and his companions continued north

through the karst of the moderate warm half dry climate in the provinces of Henan and Hebei.

They returned from Beijing back to Macao in the company of the mandarin Hay.650

Thirty-nine

years later, Chinese made the reception for the English delegate Macartney (Lord James

McCartney) according to the rites Hallerstein used in 1753.651

In October, Hallerstein finished his diplomatic mission. On October 21, 1753, he described the

travel events to his brother. He sent the letter from the camp between Im-te-hien and Hao-chen-

sub in Guangdong Province, which he called Quan-tum.652

In March 1756, Rocha, José d'Espinha (1722-1788), Ho Kuo Tsung († 1766), and Ming'antu

(1712-1764) mapped the recently conquered northwest land of Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang).653

Rocha traveled to the north to the river Ili, and Espinha to south and later west. They met each

other in the locality of Su-cho, where they compared and completed their observations. In 1759,

they returned to Beijing, and Benoist prepared the fabricated copper engraved map in the ratio 1 :

14,000,000.654

In 1758, Chinese conquered the new areas of Turkestan, but the aged Hallerstein

preferred to avoid the job. In 1760, Espinha and Rocha mapped the Chinese lands in Turkestan

near the Russian border. In 1761, Hallerstein and Benoist corrected the maps and gave them as

the birthday present to emperor Qianlong.655

Benoist also completed the map of the world of the

dimensions 4 x 2 m, with the important astronomical and geographical details. The Chinese

experts made 104 copper engravings in 70 x 40 cm with the map of the empire and the

neighboring lands.656

In 1744, the Chinese geographers published a series of the maps of the Chinese coast.657

648

Peyrefitte, 1991, LIV. 649

Ravbar, 2002, 191--192. 650

Ljungstedt, 1836, 103--104. 651

Peyrefitte, 1991, LVII. 652

Dimitz, 1861, 83; Hallerstein October 21, 1753, published: 1781, 30--31. 653

Šmitek, 1995, 114. 654

Semans, 1987, 180--181. 655

Šmitek, 1995, 113--114. 656

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 451. 657

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 517.

114

Hallerstein’s maps were later included in the China map in the ratio 1 : 1,500,000.658

Hartmut

Julius von Klaproth (1783--1835) a posthumously in 1836, Ritter, and Humbolt (1823) published

Rocha’s maps in Europe. 659

Hallerstein was the first Carniolan researcher of the Chinese karst. On November 28, 1749, he

reported about his observation of Mu-lan karst to his brother Vajkard. On September 18, 1750, he

sent a similar, somewhat longer description to Mortimer of the Royal Society. Hallerstein was not

able to send them the copies of the maps yet, because the drawing was not accurate enough.

Later, his horographical maps were published in Chinese language in Beijing on 120 pages

(Bernard 1960, 379). In April 1755, his French friend Antoine Gaubil (1689-1759) sent several

maps of the Chinese lands to the Royal Society, probably with Hallerstein’s map included.

Pedagogical work in Beijing

Chinese education for the military and official posts was based on the three stages of

examinations. The recognized emperor’s teachers gave the first degree at various bigger cities

and at the public academy in the capital. Every third year, the candidate with the finished first

degree could compete for the second degree tests. After the success at the second degree, he was

expected to apply for the examination of the third degree. That was always one year after the

examination of the second degree, but it only took place in the province of Beijing. Each time,

the third degree was given just to three hundred candidates from all over the country. In 1604,

they announced 308 new scientist of the highest degree.660

It was different in other professions,

like medicine. The future physicians could get their exams in Nanking or in Beijing, but they did

not get many special privileges after the success.661

In the emperor’s bureau for the astronomy, the scientists observed and calculated, but also taught.

In 1644, they had 66 students. In 1670, they added new students to the former 68. In 1666, the

number of students climbed up to 94. As in the former dynasties, science was mostly taught in

the emperor’s bureau for the astronomy and in the emperor’s college.

Verbieist had 160 to 200 students and officials, which occasionally listened to his lectures on

astronomy in his astronomical college at the emperor’s court of Beijing. He experimented with

making his lectures more attractive. In 1713, they founded the mathematical academy at imperial

college, which had similar status as the systematic education at the palace for the prince (Nan-

shu-fang, Shang-shu-fang) established in 1677. In 1734, the third emperor’s son Yin-chih

reported about the examinations of the school lead by the minister especially trained in

mathematics.

658

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 586. 659

Rodriguez, 1990, 50, 59. Alexander baron Humbolt (* 1769 Berlin; † 1859 Berlin). 660

Ricci, 1953, 34, 35, 38, 40, 452. 661

Ricci, 1953, 32.

115

In Chinese schools they lectured between 1 and 5 p.m. Foucquet also taught there. At the

beginning of each day, the emperor himself explained to the students parts of Euclid.

Verbiest and his collaborators used European Jesuit programs at the bureau for the astronomy,

and while teaching emperor personally. The study of philosophy was divided to logic, physics,

and metaphysics. They wrote textbooks for particular subjects in Manchu or Chinese language.662

The lectures were in Manchu or Chinese language. After they finished the introductory classes,

the students attended two subdivisions of the National academy. First, they attended the section

for the mathematics (Suan-hsueh), and later the division for astronomy (Tianwen, T'ien-wen).663

In 1818, the study of mathematics and astronomy on Beijing academy for the mathematics (suan

xueguan (Suan-Hsueh Kuan)) of imperial college lasted five years. They studied mathematics for

the first three years about the lines, surfaces, and bodies. Next two years they researched the

astronomy. First, they learned about the Sun, Moon and next year about the planets.664

In 19th

century, the imperial college and the astronomical bureau had their exams together.665

On Hallerstein’s arrival in 1739, the mathematical class had 52 students. Twenty students were

Manchu, twenty civilians, six Mongols, and six Chinese.

On July 15, 1730666

they wrongly predicted the eclipse with the methods of old Li xiang kao

cheng. The work was made on the emperor’s order in 1721, and was published in 1723 as the

first part of Lu li yuan yuan. Lu li yuan yuan contained three parts: Li xiang kao cheng, Shu-li

jing yun, and Lu lu zheng yi. Li xiang kao cheng was published in two books: Shang buan with

16 chapters and Xia bian with 10 chapters.667

Therefore in 1738,668

the group with Kögler, Pereyra, Ming'antu and later also young Hallerstein

fabricated the new Lixiang kaocheng houbian (暦象考成後編, the new edition of the final laws

for the calendar and astronomical instruments, published on the order of the emperor).669

It was

published in 1742 with Kögler as the editor.670

They published the first two Kepler’s laws with

ellipses, theory of parallax, and the refraction of light in atmosphere.671

Kepler’s improvements

of Copernicus’ system were used in Tycho Brahe’s system; that was just the job Tycho had

expected in vain from his assistant Kepler one and a half century before in 1600. But Kepler did

not trust his master and used Copernicus’ model instead. In Europe, the system of that kind was

rarely used, for example in the work of Richelieu’s cosmographer Noël Duret (Natalis Durret, *

662

Jami, 1994, 236--238. 663

Crossley, 1994, 352. 664

Jami, 1994, 231. 665

Jami, 1994, 238. 666

Yusheng, 2000, 219, 221. 667

Kobayashi Tatsuhiko, 2002, 10-11. According to other sources the work was printed in 1713 in 42 volumes. 668

Zurndorfer, 1988, 74. 669

Shi, 2000, 147. 670

Yusheng, 2000, 219, 221; Kobayashi Tatsuhiko, 2002, 11. Some sources put the publication in 1744 with the

slightly changed title Yuding lixiang kaocheng (Lixiang Kao Cheng Hou Bian, Li-hsiang K'ao-ch'eng in ne Yixiang

Kaocheng). 671

Zurndorfer, 1988, 74-75; Yusheng, 2000, 219, 221.

116

1590; † 1650 Paris).672

In that extraordinary way, Tycho Brahe’s system had to wait 150 let for a

better occasion – in Beijing. Kögler and his collaborators used the elliptic trajectories just for the

movement of the Sun and Moon,673

and not for the planets.

In 1761, the Chinese merchants brought the new Lixiang kaocheng houbian to Japan. The 8

th

Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune (1684-1751) planed the reform of Japanese calendar which

wrongly predicted the eclipses. In 1769, Arima Yoruyuki (1714-1783) published Daen in Shuki

Sanro (The basis of mathematics) in Japan.674

The educational plan for the lectures in Beijing followed the Lu li yuan yuan (Lü-li yüan-yüan)

encyclopedia. The first part of the encyclopedia discussed the calendar, the second mathematics,

and the third music. The first part (1742) was already discussed Lixiang kaocheng houbian with

He Guozong (Ho Kouo-Tsung), Kögler, Pereyra, Ming'antu, and Hallerstein.

The second mathematical part of the encyclopedia was Shu-li jingyun (Ching-yun) containing

interconnected mathematical methods. For instance, they left out the Gregory’s equitation named

by Jartoux, which was already known in China in 1701 and 1720. The lessons were published in

the form of definitions, proved statements, and geometrical constructions. Part of the

mathematical work was taken from the lectures Jesuits prepared for the emperor under the title

Jihe yaunben (Chi-he Yuan-pen). That was the translation of Pardies’675

Elements of geometry

that were often used at the Jesuit colleges, for instance during Hallerstein’s studies in Ljubljana.

The mathematical section of the encyclopedia was divided into two parts. The first part consisted

of the introduction, method, and results. The second part was divided into the elementary

arithmetic, lines, surface, bodies, and finally the paragraph about the equitation with one

unknown variable. The work was organized by the increased difficulty of the matter and not

according to the logic of content.

Third, acoustic part of the encyclopedia called Lu Lu zheng yi (Lü-lü chengyi, cheng-i, the pipes

for the intonation) was composed of five sections (quan (Chüan)). The first two considered

acoustics and harmony, next two Chinese music instruments, and the last dealt with the opinions

of the westerners. Between 1741 and 1746, Yun Lu (Lou) prince of Zhuang (Chuang) prepared

the third part for the publication.676

Ricci built the very first Jesuit college in Beijing in 1582. In Hallerstein’s time they taught sixty

adults and a thousand children in each of the three Beijing colleges.677

Hallerstein taught Chinese

Stephan Jang (Etienne Yang) and Alois Kuo (Pierre Ko) the Christian doctrine and Benoist

taught them the other subjects. After 1751, both Chinese went to France and studied the higher

classes of Gymnasium, philosophy, and theology, and also went through the Jesuit novitiate.

Minister Bertin hired the academician M.-J. Brisson to teach the Jesuits physics and natural

672

Ben-Zaken, 2004, 1, 2, 71, 21. 673

Martzloff, 1993, 224; Sivin, 1965, 201. 674

Kobayashi Tatsuhiko, 2002, 3, 10. 675

Ignaz Gaston Pardies (* 1636; SJ November 17, 1652; † 1673). 676

Jami, 1994, 231, 232, 237--238. 677

Dimitz, 1861, 83.

117

history, and Cadet678

for the theoretical and experimental chemistry. Because of the suppression

of the Jesuit in France, the Chinese took shelter with the Paris bishop. The bishop took care for

their provision, and they were able to make their last vows. Paris Academy gave them their

support, several books and instruments for physics and optics. They also corresponded with the

French queen and her mother in law. In 1765, they returned to China, where they entered the

Jesuit order.679

Alois Kuo published the history of Chinese science in a Paris magazine.680

On

September 24, 1766, Hallerstein reported to his brother about the return of both missionaries to

China.681

Hallerstein witnessed the changing Chinese of views towards science. Soon after his arrival, they

published the famous mathematical book of Chinese Tai Chen682

in 1744. A short time before

Hallerstein’s death, the emperor ordered the collecting of the old manuscripts in all the lands for

the collection called “All books of the four treasures” in 1772.683

The Jesuits and the Chinese army

The Jesuits were excellent teachers of military science and especially the military architecture at

the Catholic colleges. Their knowledge was particularly useful in China, where the military

technique was not well developed. In 1633, Schall fabricated five hundred smaller canons for

Mings so that they could defended themselves against the Manchu. When the Manchu won, they

didn’t take offence, but rather used Schall’s military abilities themselves. Some of Schall’s

canons with Verbiest’s improvements were still in use during the opium wars in 1839.

In 1774, emperor sent de la Rocha, controller Jesuit Fonong'ana (1743--1784), and Manchu

Debaoja (1719--1789) to the front in Jinchuan to improve canons there. At the end of October

1774, Rocha bettered the angles for firing the mortars, just like Vega did two decades later on

European battlefields.684

Amiot cooperated in military problems directly with French minister Bertin and sent him some

samples for chemical analysts. He was excited about the invention of the balloons. He

commented on the first experiments of Joseph Michel (1740--1810) and Jacques Etienne de

Montgolfier (1745--1799) on June 5, 1783 over Paris in a letter sent only a year later on October

20, 1784. But Chinese considered balloon experiments too expensive and did not take their

military use seriously.

678

Louis-Claude Cadet de Gassicourt (1713--1799) from the well known Paris pharmacist family worked for the

marshal of France, cardinal Armando de La Porte, duke de Richelieu (1696--1788). 679

Rochmontex, 1915, 103, 104, 107. 680

Hallerstein, 1781, 49--50. 681

Dimitz, 1861, 84. 682

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 72. 683

Guy, 1987, 137; Saje, 1994, 21. 684

Waley-Cohen, 1993, 1531, 1536, 1537, 1539; Porter, 1980, 68.

118

DEATH AND FAME

Death

Hallerstein made his astronomical observations until the spring of 1773. He sent them to Hell in

Vienna. On November 13, 1773, he asked to be retired from the court service. He asked not only

because of the illness, but also because of the bad news about the position of Jesuits in Europe.

Emperor refused his request. On July 29, 1774, Hallerstein had a stroke and after the next stroke

three months later he died. He was buried at the Portuguese Jesuit cemetery in Beijing, where we

can find sixty-three graves today. On November 12, 1774, two weeks after Hallerstein’s death,

French Jesuits from Beijing officially accepted the news about the Papal suppression of the Jesuit

order from their superior in Canton.685

After Hallerstein’s death, Rocha took his position of the president of the astronomical bureau in

Beijing. After the suppression of the Jesuits in China, Lazarists took over their Beijing mission.

Former Jesuits still managed the observatory until 1803. The last of the group of the former Jesuit

missionaries died in Beijing in 1805. The Jesuits returned to China only in 1842. In 1872, they

founded a new observatory in Shanghai called Zikawei (Zikkawei, Zo-Se) and directed the

observations until 1949. In spite of the long delay, the new Jesuit observatory Zikawei was the

continuation of the work that began in 1644 at the emperor’s observatory of Beijing.686

Fame

Hallerstein’s work was highly praised in Europe because of his high position in Beijing.

Carniolians, most of all Hallerstein’s relatives Erbergs, remembered Hallerstein in their

manuscripts written at the time of his death. Hallerstein’s contributions were researched after the

March revolution, most of all by German oriented Carniolans: the secretary of the Historic

society August Dimitz (1827--1886) and the custodian of the State museum in Ljubljana

Dežman. Dimitz was an economist and a historian, while Dežman was an important naturalist

and meteorologist. Dežman first transcribed the more important Hallerstein’s letters from

Keller’s book, and then used them for Hallerstein’s biography. He began with the description of

the 2500 years of Chinese history and 1500 years of contacts with the Europeans. He carefully

described the beginning of the Jesuit and other missions in China.687

In Hallerstein’s biography

he mentioned his scientific collaboration with Hell. He researched Hallerstein’s collaboration

with the commander Franc baron Gallenfels and Francis Alemao during Hallerstein’s journey to

685

Montucla, 1799, 2: 471. 686

Udías, 2000, 152, 167, 177; Šmitek, 1993, 129. 687

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 925--926. According to Šmitek (1995, 129), Dimitz published the work.

119

China. He discussed Hallerstein’s colleagues in Beijing and Hallerstein’s letters to French

astronomers and the Portuguese queen.688

Carniolan again took some interest in Hallerstein during their search for their national identity in

the new state after the First World War, with Viktor Steska. After the development of the

independent Slovene state in 1990s, the new wave of the research of Hallerstein’s work spread all

over the country owing to the 300th

anniversary of his birth.

APPENDIX:

Positions of the Beijing observatories

(PICTURE 35: The tittle page of Gaubil's description and map of Beijing (Gaubil, Phil.Trans.

1758 50/2: 704))

(PICTURE 36: The map of Beijing area with the southern city. The Jesuit scientist used buildings

approximately on the central of the picture (Antoine Gaubil, “A Description of the Plane of

Peking, the Capital of China; sent to the Royal Society by Father Gaubil, e Societate Jesu.

Translated from French”, Phil.Trans. 1758 L/2 (1759) 704/705, Table XXV))

(PICTURE 37: Northern part of the Picture 36. The numbers and Gaubil’s transcription of the

Chinese names with modern spelling in parenthesis show the following buildings important for

science: the Tower of the Drum (Kou leou, 31), the Tower of the Bell (Tehong lieu, 32), the

smaller observatory (70), the house and the church of the French Jesuits with the observatory

(81), the enclosure for the examinations of the learned men (Kong yuen, 107), the imperial

observatory, according to Gaubil built during the Ming dynasty just above the southeast corner

on the bottom of the right side with a flag showing the direction of the wind ((gu guanxiang tai),

108), all the learned men, colleges and schools depend on the tribunal of the chosen doctors of

the empire (Han lin yuen, 128), the house and the church of the Russians (131), the bureau for

astronomy (tribunal of mathematics) in a palace built in 1442, restored in 1766 an no more extant

at the present southeastern part of Tian An Men Square (Kin tien kien (Qintian jian), 136), the

tribunal of mandarins (137), the tribunal of rites and ceremonies with the bureau for astronomy in

the back (Ly pou (Li Bu),689

139), the tribunal for Russians, Tibetans, and other foreign nations

(144), the small house and chapel for the Russians who settled at Beijing around 1680 (176), two

houses and two churches of the Jesuits of the Portuguese mission. One was situated one block

east from the “forbidden city”, and the other near the south wall near the gate 235. Each house

had the observatory of its own (170, 248), the imperial college (Koue he kien, 180) (Gaubil, op.

cit. (picture 2) 704/705, Table XXIV)).

Hallerstein in the organization of the astronomical bureau

688

AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 931, 939--941. 689

Corradini, 1994, 344.

120

Soon after he arrived to Beijing, Hallerstein began to work as the court mathematician. He helped

Pereyra and Kögler, although he did not have any official position at the bureau for the

astronomy yet. The viceprovincial, rector of the south Portuguese college, Mandarin of the fifth

rank, and the assistant director of the bureau Pereyra was buried on December 2, 1743 at a great

funeral with the members of the emperor’s family present, among them the 16th

emperor’s sun

Chum-hi.690

In the same month, Hallerstein became Pereyra’s, which was quite unexpected. He

became one of the two European vice presidents of the bureau (assistant director) and the

Mandarin of the 6th

of the nine possible ranks. In his letter of gratitude he tried to refuse the

salary for his job, but emperor declined that offer.691

Soon after Hallerstein took over the duties, on February 30, 1744, emperor left his palace to visit

the observatory. In his delegation there were many soldiers and ceremoniously dressed minister

and emperor was carried in his sedan chair behind them. The Tartar president of the astronomical

bureau and Hallerstein were positioned near the emperor. Hallerstein replaced Kögler, whose legs

were not strong enough to attend the ceremony. All of the other 190 Mandarins from the

astronomical bureau were ordered into two rows and emperor was carried between them to the

great hall. Emperor solemnly put a gold-plated shield in the hall. His deceased grandfather,

emperor Kangxi, had written the hymns for the mathematical sciences on the shield. Emperor

stepped down from the sedan chair and made his contribution to the memory of his grandfather

with the traditional Chinese nine bows of his head. Next, they carried emperor to the platform

with the six brass astronomical instruments. The podium had been prepared already for two

months under the leadership of the astronomer prince Tchoang-cin-vang.692

In Hallerstein's time, 170 to 190 people693

worked in the astronomical bureau on the positions

that were subject to some occasionally changes:694

Duty Level (all) Manchu Mongol Soldiers Han

President (director) Jianzheng 5a (2) 1 1

Assistant director Jian fu 6a (2) 1 1

Director of the division

of seasons695

Guanzheng 6b (6) 2 2 1 1

Director of the division

for autumn

Quinguanzheng

(Ch'iu Guan

Zheng)

(2) 1

Archivists Zhubu 8a (3) 1 1 1

Head astronomers Lingtailang (Ling

Tai Lang)

7b (8) 3 1 4

690

Koláček, 1999, 130. 691

Šmitek, 1995, 106; Koláček, 1999, 132--133. 692

Walter, letter to his relatives in Bohemia on December 27, 1745 (Koláček, 1999, 144--147). 693

Šmitek, 1993, 108; Montucla, 1799, 2: 474; Corradini, 1990, 304; Koláček, 1999, 145, 146. 694

Corradini, 1994, 342--344; Porter, 1980, 64, 65. 695

Chinese used five annual seasons: spring (Ch’un), summer (Hsia), middle (Chung), autumn (Ch’iu), and winter

(Tung) (Porter, 1980, 64).

121

Keepers of the clepsydra Qie Hu Zheng 8b (20) 10 10

Doctors Bo Shi 9b (32) 6 2 24

Students of astronomy Tianwensheng

(Tian Wen

Sheng)

(48) 16 8 24

Official scribes Biteshi (Bi Tie

Shi)

(17) 11 4 2

Yinyang scholars Yinyangsheng

(Yin Yang

Sheng)

(18)

On February 30, 1744, about 190 officials of the astronomical bureau were divided in three

sections: section for the observation of the stars Zixing (Ci-čing), section for movement and

observation of planets, and section for astrology. Each of the three sections had their own

teachers, assistant teachers, students, a Manchu president and European president, two Manchu,

two Chinese and one European assessor.696

The Manchu prince directed the whole astronomical

bureau. Next to him were two presidents of Manchu and European origin, vice presidents and

assessors.697

Ricci worked on the reform of the calendar first, and Terrentius and Rho after him,

mostly after 1629. But Schall was the first to get some official position at the bureau for the

astronomy. Although Schall reached the highest possible rank 1a, he just worked as director of

the bureau (Jianzheng, Jian Zheng), but did not get the official title. In 1669, Verbiest got the title

of reviser of the calendar (Zhengxiu, Zheng Xiu), which was similar to the position of the

assistant director (Jianfu, Jian Fu). In 1725, the position of director was officially given to Kögler

and after him Hallerstein with the title Xiyangren (Xi Yang Ren).698

In 1745, emperor divided the work between the assistant presidents (directors) of Manchu,

Chinese and European origin. In 1753, the posts of Manchu and Chinese assistant president were

abolished. Later they had just two European assistant presidents699

(Jinafu, Jian Fu), the right

(youli, you li) and left one (zouli, zou li).700

Director of the bureau did not have a particularly high status, as it was lowered by two ranks

when they gave the leadership of the bureau to the Europeans.701

The bureau was connected with

the Ministry (tribunal) for the rites, but it was also autonomous and independent of the six

ministries. After 1753, emperor had to choose for the head of the bureau the prince with the title

Da Chen, who adjusted the work (guanli Qingtianjian (Qintuanjian, Qin Tian Jian) shiwu).

696

Walter, letter to his relatives in Bohemia on December 27, 1745 (Koláček, 1999, 144--147). 697

Šmitek, 1995, 108. 698

Porter, 1980, 68; Corradini, 1994, 343, 349. Older sources gave Schall the position of director (Chien Chëng) of

the bureau for the astronomy (Chhin Thien Chien, Ch'in-T'ien-Chien) in Beijing. The Jesuits never got the leading

position that was reserved for the princes from the ruling dynasty. There are some problems with the titles of the

position that Needham and Ling (1959, 3: 444--445, 449) called president. Our table of presidents deals with the

position immediately under the prince. 699

Porter, 1980, 68--69. 700

Corradini, 1994, 343, 349; Corradini, 1990, 304. 701

Porter, 1980, 69.

122

Yun Lu (Lou) prince Zhuang (Chuang) was the first Da Chen also in 1754. Princes reported to

emperor, among them the member of emperor’s family Jingzheng (1785--1851) in 1826.

Jingzheng was in charge of the astronomical bureau (Qing (Qin) tianjian) and for the emperor’s

academy (Guozijian, Guo Zi Jian) at the same time. The observatory (Guan Xiang Tai, before the

dynasty Ming called Tikantai (Tian Tai, sky tower)) and the section for the calendar (Shihianju

(Shi Xian Ju,702

Shixianshuju, Liju,703

wuguanzheng,704

lisuan)705

), which used the rooms inside

the door Xuanwu Men, just west of the Jesuit church in Nan Tang, were directly connected to the

astronomical bureau. The minister for the rites Xu Guangqi himself founded the bureau for the

calendar to enable the Jesuits in the neighboring building to use the library for their reform of the

calendar. Section for the calendar was later joined to astronomical bureau as its most important

division. In the beginning of the dynasty Qing, the officials of the section of the calendar had to

calculate the position of Sun, Moon, five planets, eclipses of Sun and Moon, visibility of five

planets, apparent covering of five planets with Moon and seasonal phenomena on the sky. They

edited and corrected the ephemerides.

The other two sections of the bureau for the astronomy took care of the time keeping (louke) and

the sky phenomena (tianwen).706

The section for the time keeping had the clepsydra keepers

(Qiehuzheng, Qie Hu Zheng) and the time keeping proper (Ssu-chien).707

They were in charge of

the construction of the residences outside and inside the palace, geomanticaly choosing the best

position for the emperor’s graves, computed the dates for the more important marriages, selecting

the best dates for the celebrations, corrected clepsydras, examining the work of astronomical

observatories, predicting the dates for the sacrifices, and findong the best directions for the

military campaigns.

The department for the sky phenomena (Tianwenke, Tian Wen k'o) contained the observatory

keepers or the mean astronomers (Lingtailang, Ling Tai Lang), observers (jianghou (Chien hou)),

and researchers (Boshih (Po-shih)).708

They measured the events in the sky. Day and night, they

stood on the terrace and observed the sky in all directions and one of them also upwards. Every

morning, they reported about the particularities they had seen.

Besides astronomy, the astronomical bureau had also many astrological and social functions. For

example in 1652, Schall gave the fatal predictions for the visit of Dalaj Lama in Beijing, because

the Jesuit regarded the Buddhism as their most serious competitor.709

Hallerstein's astronomical books

Hallerstein’s collaboration on astronomical books (Kaocheng) printed in Beijing:

702

Corradini, 1994, 344--345. 703

Corradini, 1990, 306. 704

Peyrefitte, 1991, 498. 705

Yilong, 1993, 87. 706

Other sources mentioned four sections of the bureau for the astronomy. 707

Porter, 1980, 64. 708

Porter, 1980, 64. 709

Yilong, 1993, 87, 101.

123

Title English translation Beginning Printing Comment

(Yuding) Lixiang

kaocheng houbian

Continuation of the laws for

the calendar, mathematical

and observational astronomy

1738 1742

(1744)

Improves the first

part of Lü-li

yüan-yüan (1723)

after the wrong

predicted eclipse

1730

Qinding yixiang

kaocheng

Astronomical instruments and

the catalogue of 3083 stars

1744 January

1757 (partly

reprinted

1911)

Hallerstein noted

as collaborator

Hallerstein’s collaboration on astronomical books published in Europe:

Title English translation Years of

measures

Print Authors

Scientiae

Elipsium

Science about the eclipses (I-

III)

1744

1745

1747

Kögler

Simonelli

della Briga

Observationes

Astronomicae

Eclipses, comets, instruments

(I-II)

1717-1752 1768 Hallerstein listed

collaborator, editor

124

Hallerstein’s church functions

In 1745, Hallerstein became the viceprovincial and visitor of the Japan Jesuit province after

Roman Hinderer, Alsatian from the upper German province.710

He was supposed to work

alternatively with Kögler, Philip Sabin, and Laimbeckhoven. But Kögler son died as the

mandarin of the second rank. After his death, Hallerstein became the mandarin of the fifth rank

and one of two presidents of the astronomical bureau on May 6, 1746. At the time of

Hallerstein’s leadership, a friendly contract between the Portuguese and the French Jesuits and

between viceprovincials for the Chinese and for the French mission was made.711

In 1749 or

1753, Hallerstein was promoted to the Mandarin of the third rank.712

On July 30, 1754, Attiret

refused the mandarin honor, as he did not find it compatible with his monk duties after the Pope

Benedict XIV. ultimately forbade the participation of monks in Chinese rites in 1742.713

When

emperor asked him, why Castiglione and Hallerstein accepted the mandarin title, Attiret

answered, that Castiglione did that only after he refused several times and after emperor’s orders.

On the other hand, Hallerstein had to accept the mandarin rank as the leader of the astronomical

bureau.714

In that way even a decade after the rites controversy the Popes order could be

interpreted in several different ways. The rites controversy was provoked after the unfavorable

description of China visit of the Propaganda Fide official Mattheo Ripa in 1724; after his return

Ripa was in audience with the English king George I in London, and his famous drawing of the

Chinese Emperor’s gardens were published in 1832 (Rinaldi, 2006, 232, 235). William Chambers

visited China in 1742 and 1748 as an official of the Swedish East India Company and described

the Chinese Emperor’s garden after the Attiret’s report not seeing much of his own. Katherine the

great used Chambers’ reports to design her own Chinese Gardens in 1780s in Carskoe Selo with

her officials dressed in Chinese costumes (Rinaldi, 2006, 254, 255).

The leading functions in China

710

Šmitek, 1995, 50, 61; Hallerstein, 1738; AS 730, Manor Dol, fasc. 194: 821, 823. 711

In Fondo Jesuitico in Rome they keep Kögler’s notes for his promotion on the position of the president of the

astronomical bureau in 1725, about the persecution of Jesuits in China in 1746, the emperor’s orders for the Jesuit

fathers on December 20, 1746 and 1747, the description of the situation in the mission of China in 1746, 1747,

March--April 1748, June--July 1748 and the report about the Chinese province for the year 1754 (Cunha, 1998, 1:

22, 2: 134--136; Bibliotheca Nazionale di Roma, Litterae annuae Provincia Sinesis 1754 (Ges. 1256/14); Battaglini,

1996, 77 (No. 230); ARSI, Jap. Sin. Vol. 184, fol. 261--262). 712

Šmitek, 1993, 123, 139; Montucla, 1799, 2: 474. 713

Udías, 1994, 473. 714

Amiot, 1943, 463.

125

China dynasties Time

Early Ming 1368—1582

Late Ming 1582—1644

Early Qing (Quing, Manzu, Manchu, Ch’ing) 1644—1744

Middle Qing 1744—1850

Late Qing 1850--1911/12715

Emperors in the time of the Jesuit mission in Beijing

Name Older form of the name Born Emperor after Died

Wan Li Chin-tsong, Shen zhong 1573 1619 Tai Chang Guang Zong 1620 1620

Tianhu Xi Zong, Tian Qi 1621 1627

Chongzhen Chun-tsci, Chun-tchi, Ch'ung-

cheng, Chun-ti

1628 1644

Shunzhi Shun chih, Cha-hi, Cam-Hi716

1638 1644 1661

Kangxi K'ang-hsi, Kang Hi, Cham-hi717

1654 1662 1722

Yongzheng Yung-cheng, Yum-ching, Yung-

Chëng, Yong-Tsching, Yin-chenh,

Yum-tchin718

13/12/1678 The end of

1722

8/1/1735

Qianlong Chhien-Lung, Kiang-long, Kien

lung, Kien-long, Ch'ien-lung

25/9/1711 18/10/1736719

7/2/1799

Beijing

Jiaqing720

Yong-Yenna 13/11/1760 15/10/1795721

1820

715

Du Shi-ran, 1990, 349. 716

Koláček, 1999, 96--97, 255. 717

Koláček, 1999, 96. 718

According to Hallerstein (1781, XIV) the fourth emperor of the dynasty Cam-hy. 719

Hallerstein, 1781, XV; Dežman, 1881, 20. 720

Saje, 1994, 59. 721

Father abdicated in his advantage (Marat, 1928, 231).

126

Chinese directors (presidents) of the bureau for astronomy and their substitutes

Name Time

Kim Yuk (1580—

1658)

--1645 KOREA???

Schall 1645--1666 temporary director722

Yang Guangxian

(Kuang-hsien, 1597—

1669)

1666—1669

Verbiest 1669--1688 temporary director and reviser,723

1675 assistant minister for the

public works

Grimaldi 23/9/1694--23/12/1711 temporary director724

Pereira725

16/4/1688--23/9/1694 assistant director

Belgian Thomas726

16/4/1688--23/9/1694 substitutes Grimaldi

Caspar Kastner 1707—1709 director according to European but not Chinese sources727

Stumpf 23/12/1712—22/2/1720 temporary director, or the president 1711—1719

Kögler 25/2/1720-- 5/6/1746 director, the president 1732—1746

Andreas Pereyra 17/1/1728 – 2/12/1743 director’s substitute

Hallerstein 3/6/1746-- 7/1/1774 director, 2/4/1744--3/6/1746 director’s substitute; according to

European sources one of the European assessors after 1743

Rocha 22/12/1774--21.6.1781 director, 21/6/1753-- 22/12/1774 director’s substitute, the president after

1774

Espinha728

21/6/1781--22/12/1783 director, 22/12/1771--21/6/1781 vice director

Rodrigues729

22/11/1787--21/6/1795 director, 22/11/1774--22/12/1787 vice director730

J B. d'Almeida731

21/6/1795--22/12/1805 director, 7/8/1787--21/6/1795 vice director

722

Porter, 1980, 68. 723

Porter, 1980, 68. 724

Wang Yusheng, 2000, 220. According to the European sources on September 23, 1688--1706, 1720--1712 (1686-

-August 1694 on the journey through Europe and Asia). 725

Thomas Pereira (Pereyra, Sin Je-Cehn Yin-Kong, * November 1, 1645 S. Martinho do Valle in Portugal; SJ

September 25, 1661 Coimbra; † December 24, 1708 Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 20)). 726

Antoine Thomas (Nhan To Ping-ehe, * January 25, 1644 Namur; SJ September 8, 1680 Namur in Belgium; † July

28, 1709 Beijing (Dehergne, 1973, 270--271)). At the first place he was in Japan mission. Between 1682 and 1685 he

left Macao for Canton. In 1686, he was in Nanking, and in the end of the year in Beijing as Verbiest’s substitute.

During Grimaldi’s travels in Europe he substituted him as the president of the astronomical bureau. He accompanied

emperor in Manchuria in 1686, cooperated with T. Pereira and occasionally worked as Verbiestov secretary. On

November 12, 1695 he wrote from Beijing to Europe. 727

Wang Yusheng, 2000, 220. 728

José d'Espinha (Joseph de, Kao Chen-Sseu Jo-cho, * December 22, 1722 Vilar Torpin, Portugal; SJ June 4, 1739;

† July 10, 1788 Beijing) arrived to China on August 2, 1751 (Koláček, 1999, 28). 729

Andreas Rodrigues (André Rodriguez, An Gouning, Ngan Kouo-Ning, Yong-K’ang, * February 2, 1729

Mortagna or Coimbra; SJ April 23, 1745 Arrojas (Arrois); † December 2, 1792 Beijing (Koláček, 1999, 28)). 730

Director 1793, 1796 (Dehergne, 1973, 308). 731

Director 1783--1803 (Šmitek, 1993, 129). José Bernardo de Almeida (Suo Dezhao, Yué-Tch'ang, * 1729 Portugal

(Antonio Graca de Abreu, 200, 232; according to Pfister (1934, 886) born on January 15, 1728); SJ February 23,

1746 Arrojas; † November 12, 1805 Beijing).

127

Gaetan Pires-

Pereira732

Lazarist, worked in the bureau, 11/8/1823--11/11/1826 vice director

Rectors (leaders) of the both Portuguese colleges in Beijing

Name Time

Suares 1692—1697

Grimaldi 1700--

Stumpf 1710—1720

Fridelli 1733—1739733

Domingos Pinheyro 1736--1739734

south college

Pereyra 1736735

west, 1740—1743 south college

Bahr --1771736

Superiors (leaders) of the residence (college) of French Jesuits

Name Time

Gerbillon 1701—1717 superior general of French province737

Parrenin --1736738

--1741 in Beijing

Chalier --1739—1742 in Beijing

Gaubil 1741—1759 in Beijing

Benoist 1759—1774 in Beijing

Le Fevre739

--1747— in Canton

The Jesuits mandarins740

732

Gaetan Pires-Pereira (Caetano Pereira, * 1763; † 1838 (Yusheng, 2000, 220)). 733

Hallerstein, 1781, VI--VII. 734

Viegas, 1921, 262. 735

Viegas, 1921, 262. 736

Koláček, 1999, 221. 737

Witek, 1982, 109. 738

Viegas, 1921, 262. 739

Joseph-Louis le Fevre (Lefebvre, Févre, * August 30, 1706 Nantes; SJ November 18, 1737 province of Aquitania;

† before 1780 France). Arrived in Beijing on March 19, 1741. 740

Šmitek, 1995, 108.

128

Name Mandarin rank Year of appointment

Schall 1 1658741

Verbiest 2 1679

Grimaldi 1688

A. Thomas Before 1686

Pereyra 5

Kögler 2 1725

Hallerstein 6; 5; 3 1743; 1746; 1749 or 1753

Gogeisl 1746

Castiglione 1748742

and 1750

Rocha 2 1755

Espinha 1756

Sichelbarth 1777

Visitors, Japan provincials, Chinese viceprovincials

Name Time

Grimaldi 1695—1698 viceprovincial China

1703—May 1706 visitor of Far East

Stumpf 1714—1718 visitor of Far East, viceprovincial

Dominique de Britto (* 1674 Portugal; †

after 1737)

Japanese provincial elected in 1737

Simonelli 1739—1743 visitor743

Pereyra --1739—1743 viceprovincial

Roman Hinderer744

1744 viceprovincial and visitor of Japanese province

Hallerstein, Kögler, Sabin,

Laimbeckhoven

1745—viceprovincials and visitors of Japan province

Rocha 1755 viceprovincial of China745

Bahr 1762—1771 visitor of Chinese and Japan province746

The branches of the Jesuit power in China 747

741

Or 1645 (Koláček, 1999, 255). 742

Koláček, 1999, 35. 743

Šmitek, 1993, 120--121. 744

Roman Hinderer (* 1668 Alsace; SJ 1686 upper German province; † 1744) arrived to the missions in 1701

(Koláček, 1999, 115). In 1738, he was the visitor in province King-guan in town Nanking. Guang P. Duarte and P.

Sequel were visitors in province Hou (Laimbeckhoven, 1740, 427). 745

Rodriguez, 1990, 51. 746

Koláček, 1999, 300. 747

Witek, 1982, 109.

129

General → Father assistant -- Portuguese

↓ -- French

-------------------------------------------------------------- -- other lands

provicial viceprovicial superior general

Japan China of the French mission

in China

The equipment of Beijing observatories

Telescopes

The Jesuits brought the telescope to China in 1618, soon after its invention in Europe. In 1685,

French Jesuits brought Roemer’s telescope with the micrometer to Beijing,748

to be used in the

emperor’s observatory. Roemer completed the instrument called »Machina Planetrum« with the

help of the famous Paris clockmaker Isaac Thuret. The Beijing Jesuits made several copies and

gave them to the high officials all over the empire.749

The eight foot telescope with two glass

lenses in the objective was accomplished with Roemer’s method. It could be prolonged or

shortened, so that the picture of Moon completely covered the net divided into 12 equal parts

called »thumbs« at the focus. Roemer’s micrometer from the year 1672 was the first using the

established principles of mechanics with a screw for the regulation.750

On November 28, 1749, Hallerstein reported to his brother about his instruments and on

September 18, 1750, he sent similar report to the London Royal Society. Beijing instruments

were mostly from the end of 17th century. They were massive, made of pure brass. Only English

micrometer, the pendulum clock, and the quadrant with a two foot (65 cm) diameter were more

recent. Sanchez arranged the purchase of Hallerstein’s sextant. They urgently needed a more

modern quadrant and asked Lisbon for it. They used one and a half meter long telescopes.751

Hallerstein probably wanted his equipment list to look very poor to give the Royal Society of

London some hard feelings. In doing so, he was successful, because the members of the Royal

Society made several new instruments for him in the next years. In the middle of the 18th

century,

Hallerstein got the instrument for the observation of eclipses. In 1750, Sanchez intervened for

Hallerstein’s fourteen foot telescope. For some observations, Hallerstein used an eight foot

telescope with Graham’s752

micrometer. In the beginning of 1756, he started to use Bevis’ three

foot telescope, measured and fabricated in London. Sanchez gave it to Hallerstein together with

748

Landru, 2001, 434. 749

Beekman, 1984, 72. 750

Bud, Warner, 1998, 381. 751

Hallerstein, 1781, 23; Steska, 1918, 148. 752

George Graham (* 1675 Horsgills; † November 20, 1751 London) was the student of London clockmaker

Thomas Thompion (1638--1713).

130

Bevis’ instructions.753

On January 12, 1773, French Jesuits brought the excellent mirror telescope

to Beijing.

Sphaera Armirallis

On September 17, 1755, the cousin of Hallerstein’s mother Erberg754

listed the Sphaera

Armillaris (iron globe with movable rings) among the instruments in Ljubljana. It was bought in

1706. In 1755, Erberg bought the globes of the cosmos according to the systems of Copernicus

and Tycho Brahe, the globe of Earth, and the Doppelmayer’s755

globe of the stars.

Tycho Brahe probably used the Arabic influence to get rid of the ecliptic coordinates connected

with the rotation of the Earth around the Sun from the European astronomy. He used the

equatorial coordinates that had been the favorites of Chinese astronomers for a long time, before

the Jesuits persuaded them to go back to the old ecliptic.756

Tycho Brahe developed the sphaera

armillaris in four different vversions, including the portable ones. Three general versions were

used: equinox, revolvable around the horizontal system, zodiac, movable around the ecliptic, and

the equatorial with the movable equatorial system. In Beijing they had all three versions with

diameters around 180 cm, and two vertical rings. In 1673, Verbiest finished the first two

following Tycho Brahe’s example.757

After 1744, Kögler, Hallerstein, Gogeisl, and probably also

Frenchmen Gaubil and la Charme made the equatorial (hengli chengi (hëng fu chhen i)) sphaera

armillaris. It was much more Chinese than European, most of all because it dropped out-of-date

Antique ecliptic coordinates in astronomy.758

They put the instrument on four lion like carriers,

like Verbiest did in 1673/74.759

753

Hallerstein, 1770, 186; Hallerstein, review 1774, 158. 754

Bernard Ferdinand Erberg (* May 20, 1718 Ljubljana; SJ October 27, 1734 Graz; † 1773 Krems). 755

In Ljubljanese lyceum library they also had the astronomic textbook of Johann Gabriel Doppelmayer

(Doppelmaier, * 1677; † 1750), professor mathematics on Ägidiengymnasium in Nürnberg after 1704, where he

edited and translated Bion’s book about the mathematical instruments. He was the student of Johann Christoph

Sturm (1635--1703) on the university of Altdorf between 1696 and 1699 and he graduated with the theses about the

camera obscura. His father Johann Siegmund Doppelmayer (* 1641; †1686) was the very first in Nürnberg to

fabricate the vertical vacuum pump. 756

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 438. 757

Chapman, 1994, 19. 758

Needham, Ling, 1959, 3: 172, 352. 759

Chapman, 1994, 34.

131

They measured the coordinates of the stars with bronze Sphaera Armirallis with the diameter of

1.8 m and with the iron world globe. They also used it for the prediction of eclipses and for the

student lessons in 1773. After the collapse of the boxing uprising in 1901, the Germans brought

the sphaera armillaris to Potsdam. Two decades later, at the end of the First World War, it was

brought back to Beijing according to the Versailles contract.

In 1766, two smaller Beijing sphaera armillaris in heliocentric system were described. One of

them with the diameter and height of 0.4 m, had Earth with the model of Moon and Sun with the

model of Mercury and Venus on plates. Besides the Sun, they had the models of Mars, Jupiter,

and Saturn. The models of the five planets could be turned around the Sun. On one side the

compass was added. With that instrument they predicted the declination of the Sun, time, and

place of Sunrise and Sunset. The other bigger Sphaera Armillaris had a diameter of 0.5 m and

height of 0.8 m.760

Quadrants

Octants with 45o were mostly used in navigation. In 1731, Englishman John Hadley fabricated it

for the London Royal Society, and two years later he added the water balance to it.761

They

mostly used quadrants to measure the apparent height of the Sun. The quarter of a circle was

divided into 90o and fixed to the vertical plane. Azimuth circle was horizontal with the

perpendicular axis in the middle and divided into degrees. Tycho Brahe invented the sextant with

the sixth of the circle for the measurement of the angles between the sky objects. In 18th

century

they put the mirrors in it and used the instrument for sailing. In 1673, the Beijing Jesuits bought

the metal sextant.

Tobias Mayer762

made the modern form of the quadrant for the prize of the British Bureau for

longitude in 1714. In late 1750s, the captain John Campbell tested Mayer’s instrument for the

Bureau with the measurement of John Bird.763

In 18th

century, the sextant had the mirrors and it

was arranged for the navigation.

Beijing Jesuits used the sextant no earlier than 1673. Delisle and Gaubil gave Hallerstein the

instrument for the measurement of the geographical longitude, and Hallerstein used it to measure

the geographical latitude of Beijing as 39o 54‘ 0’’ and 39

o 54’ 2’’. The instrument was much

better than Chapotot’s,764

which Kögler used before that.

In 1754, Hallerstein calculated the geographical latitude of Beijing with the quadrant of Paris

mechanic Langlois.765

Hallerstein also used a quadrant made in England.766

The French quadrant

760

Sivin, 1973, 106--107. 761

Bud, Warner, 1998, 31, 419; Helbron, 1993, 48. 762

Tobias Johann Mayer (* February 17, 1723 Würtenberg; February 20, 1762 Göttingen). 763

Bud, Warner, 1998, 531--532; Helbron, 1993, 42, 47. 764

French mechanic Louis or Jean Chapotot (Chapotol) worked between 1670 and 1721. 765

Claude Langlois († 1756 Paris). 766


132

had telescopes fixed on the rotating framework and vertically suspended pointer. The English

rotated the telescope on the top of the unmovable framework balanced with a plumb line.

Englishman Bird made portable quadrants for the observation of transition of Venus in 1760s.

Gogeisl improved the quadrant greatly and facilitated the measurements.

After Hallerstein’s death, Espinha of the »Chinese emperor’s cabinet of mathematics« was given

two quadrants, two astronomical pendulums, the stand with three magnetic needles, two

achromatic telescopes for the observation of eclipses, a circle with a mirror for the measurement

of the distances between the sky bodies, Flamsteed’s atlas, two maps of the stars in zodiac,

astronomical almanac, and ephemerides by the Portuguese with the help of Beijing bishop on

September 5, 1782.767

Clocks

Kögler used pendulum clock in Beijing already in 1718.768

It was put on a cycloid and than

movably fixed with the use of Huygens’ methods, first with the triangle of the iron threads, later

at the with the two foot quadrant.

Hallerstein measured the time with pendulum clock, which Paris mechanic Perache made around

1740. The instrument was comparable to the inventions of Paris academician Parcieux.769

Perache’s instrument arrived from Paris to Beijing in July 1748, protected against the heat and

cold. Hallerstein used it until 1752,770

when he replaced it with the famous Leroy’s clock. Leroy

made the special clock for Delisle who gave it as a present to Hallerstein.771

Although Hallerstein used mostly English measuring instruments, he preferred French clocks and

not, for example, Harrison’s772

timekeepers. After Graham’s recommendations, Harrison moved

from Yorkshir to London in 1735.

767

Carvalho, 1996, 152, 153, 164. 768

Hallerstein, 1769, 1: 3; Shi, 2000, 136. 769

Antoine de Parcieux (* October 28, 1703, Cessoux by Uzés in Langedoc; † September 2, 1768 Paris). 770

Hallerstein, review 1774, 156. 771

Hallerstein, 1770, 184, 186. Julien Leroy (le Roi, * 1686 Tours; † 1759 Paris) was the father of the clockmaker

Pierre Leroy (1717--1785) and Jean Baptiste Leroy (1720--1800), who at the end of 1747 made instruments for the

electrical charge measurements together with Patrick D'Arsis (1725--1779). 772

John Harrison (* 1693 Foulby; † 1776 London).

133

Micrometers

Lucas Brunn described the first micrometer. Around 1609, Christof Treschler the older finished it

in Dresden. Before 1640 English amateur astronomer William Gascoigne (1619--1644) made the

first division of the viewing angle of the telescope,773

after a spider braided the net in his

telescope overnight. Gascoigne knew the work of his friend Horrox, who measured the diameter

of the Sun with the two wires at the end of the 11 foot stick. He was therefore experienced

enough to understand the meaning of his own discovery.774

With Gascoigne’s micrometer, the

telescope became the measuring instrument that can be put in the traditional astronomical

instruments for the measurement of angles. Frenchmen Picard in Auzuot,775

the initiator of the

Paris observatory, questioned Gascoigne’s priorities.776

In 1665, Auzuot told the Paris academy

about the use of micrometers. A decade after the discovery, Christopher Wren used Gascoigne’s

technique for his observations of the Moon.

The Beijing Jesuit Frenchmen first used Roemer’s micrometer, but after 1717 Portuguese Jesuits

used Hire’s micrometer.777

In addition to micrometers, Hallerstein used high quality pendulum,

the two foot quadrant with the semidiameter of two feet, equipped with the telescope, and the

huge micrometer put in framework. The margins of the observed planets were divided into points

according to Louvillian’s method. In 1749, they completed their collection of astronomical

instruments with French pendulum clock, and with English micrometer. They did not have

enough money for the bigger 1 m long quadrant.778

Hallerstein reported about English micrometer used in Beijing in the last two paragraphs of his

letter sent from Beijing on September 18, 1750. Those paragraphs were never published.

Hallrestein mentioned the micrometer already on November 28, 1749. A manometer was finished

in Beijing after Canton’s model, because Canton sold one or two micrometer across the border.

Canton put Archimedes’ eternal screw parallel to declination and measured the distances between

the objects in the sky and their diameters. The plate of the micrometer was arranged for

comfortable observation. Before December 1749, Jesuits of Beijing learned to make similar

instruments during measures with Canton’s micrometer. They used the optics of the London

astronomer Robert Smith (1689--1769), who accurately described the micrometer.779

Smith was Plumenian professor of astronomy and the superior of the college of Holy Trinity in

Cambridge. His Optics of 1738 was the classical work of his era. In 1749, he published the book

about harmonics. William Herschel (1738--1822) from Hannover, later the most

important English astronomer, used both books.780

773

Bud, Warner, 1998, 380--381. 774

Chapman, 1990, 31. 775

Adried Auzuot (Adrien Azuot * 1630 Rouen; † 1691). 776

Bevis’ letter to Scott James Short (1710--1768), Phil.Trans. 1753, 48/1: 190; Rousseau, 1955, 304; Mladženović,

1985, 34; Chapman, 1990, 40--44. 777

Hallerstein, review 1774, 156; Shi, 2000, 136. 778

Hallerstein, 1781, 22--23; Steska, 1918, 148; Dežman, 1881, 16. 779


Eremeeva, 1966, 6.

134

Smith was the very first in geometrical optics to use the rational construction of the picture with

the use of two special rays. The first ray goes through the center of the curvature of the lens, and

the second parallel with the axes.781

Smith was a profound follower of Newton’s philosophy,782

like count Georges Louis Leclerc de

Buffon (1707--1788), who in the translation of Newton’s fluxional method (1740) described the

discussions about the Newton’s method. In 1735, George Berkeley (1685--1753) claimed that

Newton’s "Calculus" was wrong. Jurin,783

the physician and secretary of London Royal Society,

answered the criticism. The mathematician Robins784

explained the "imperfect" Newton’s

philosophy. He called Jurin and Smith "ignoramus" and criticized Euler and Bernoulli.785

In 1760, the Jesuit Bošković visited R. Smith in London. Perhaps Smith helped him buy the

achromatic lenses for a price of one guinea (21 shillings) for the square foot. He sent the lens to

his home in Dubrovnik despite their purposed supposed status of military secret.786

Pézenas, professor of hydrography and director of the observatory in Marseilles, published the

French translation of Smith’s optics in five volumes on about thousand pages in Avignon. He

added the new discoveries in optics of achromatic lenses of Caleb Smith and the examination of

the Bošković’s instruments. Pézenas included the translation of the paper by Samuel

Klingenstierna (1698--1765) about the theory of achromatic lenses. Already in 1760, the paper

was published in Phil.Trans. Klingenstierna was professor of mathematics in Stockholm.

In the same year, another French translation of R. Smith’s optics was published in Brest, which

Bošković evaluated as »much better than Pézenas’«.787

Pézenas also translated several other

English books. Among them was the textbook of John Théophile Désaguliers (1683--1744) in

1751, whose two parts the Jesuits of Ljubljana bought in 1754 and 1755. In 1750, Hallerstein

used English issue of Smith’s optics in Beijing because they didn’t have the French translation.

The Jesuit from Bretagne Pierre Bouguer (1698--1758) proved that we can get in the focus the

imaginary picture of the couple of far objects. From the ratio of the length of pictures we can

calculate the relative distances between stars. In 1748, he described his elegant invention and

called it heliometer, but later researchers preferred the name micrometer.

In October 1747, Bouguer published the first observation of satellites with his new heliometer at

the Paris academy and proved that the Sun has a relatively regular shape. His telescope had the

ocular in front and fixed focus of the objective lens.788

781

Mladženović, 1985, 95; Rosenberger, 1890, 141; Wilde, 1838, 1: 287. 782

Smith, 1767, 225. 783

James Jurin (Jacques, † 1750). 784

Benjamin Robins (* 1707 Bath in Somersetshire; † July 29, 1751 Madras in India (Steele, 1994, 358)). 785

Buffon, 1740, 453. 786

Marković, 1969, 540, 574, 659. 787

Marković, 1969, 659, 676; Wilde, 1838, 1: 287; Rosmorduc, 1977, 81; Bošković, 1980, 226, 267. 788

Asclepi, 1768, 3, 9.

135

Today Bouguer is known for his founding of the astronomical photometry. In 1726, he measured

the density of the light flow from the Sun to be three thousand times that of the fool Moon.789

Three years later, he published it along with several other measurement of the light flow in a

book.790

Short developed the first micrometer in England and was among the first to master the manual

technology for telescope mirror making, pouring the alloys of the copper and tin.791

In 1753 he

described in Phil.Trans. the historical development of micrometer. He mentioned the invention of

the dioptrics principle of the double picture. Double picture develops after the reflection in the

couple of identical objectives. Carbon’s improved English micrometer was also used in Beijing.

On the left side of the micrometer he put another similar instrument. In that way he made a more

accurate double micrometer. The precision measurements were improved after the comparison of

pictures on both micrometers with the maps and catalogues.792

Short correctly listed and numbered the merits of French Bouguer for the invention of the

micrometer. Certainly he was not able to confess any great success to the French. Thomas Savery

(1650--1715) already described a similar invention for the Royal Society in 1743 and they

published his manuscript in 1753.793

John Dollond (1706--1762), the sun of the Hugenot

emigrants in London improved the micrometer. He was the author of the most important

observations of the diameter of the Sun and Moon. He used the Bouguer’s heliometer and

Savery’s manuscript about his new method for the ascertainment of the difference among the

apparent diameter of the Sun, measured between perihelion and aphelion of the Earth. The Jesuit

Pézenas in Marseilles also developed Dollond’s micrometer made in 1753. He sent his

micrometer with the short description of its operation to Bošković in Rome.

Short was famous for his technique of the mirror manufacturing for Newton’s telescopes and for

his cooperation with Dollond in achromatic telescopes research. Bouguer, Scherffer, and

Liesganig in Vienna improved Short’s telescope with the objective micrometer. The instrument

was quickly used so that Bošković in 1764 recommended it. In 1755, the Ljubljanese Jesuits did

not buy the objective micrometer. Perhaps they bought it in 1768, when they bound the theses for

the examination with Asclepi’s discussion. Bošković criticized Asclepi in the letters to his

student Francesco Puccinelli on December 23, 1769 and April 25, 1770.794

Bošković was just in

the middle of the journey and examined the Asclepi’s manuscript only after he arrived to

Vienna.795

In 1757, he published his claims in Scherffer’s translation of Lacaille’s astronomy.

The author of the work was not mentioned in the Ljubljanese edition, but the introduction has

Asclepi’s words: »In passed year the duke Julius Cezar Barberini with all his kindness he is

showing to me, gave me the telescope with the objective micrometer for several months. Short

made it for the progress of astronomy and with the huge expenses carried it from England to

789

Ševarlić, 1986, 103. 790

Ševarlić, 1986, 24, 103, 90; Rousseau, 1955, 325. 791

Ševarlić, 1986, 19, 22; Bud, Warner, 1998, 601. 792


Asclepi, 1768, 4. 794

Heilbron, 1993, 225; Marković, 1969, 661, 485; Muljević, 1991, 153--154. 795

Asclepi, 1768, 5.

136

Rome. I thought that I should not miss the opportunity to judge some more accurate data

connected with the diameters of the planets that, as far I know, can’t be measured with any other

kind of the instrument. So the good will of the patron of astronomical science given to me will

not be without the fruit. To get the due profit from the observation, I will publish all I had

observed and add the conclusions I made from the observations«. Asclepi thanked the astronomer

Dollond for his description of the more accurate measurement and for his description of

Gregory’s telescope.796

Asclepi estimated that with the micrometer objective we don’t always get

the same results because of different disturbances.797

Dežman later gave Asclepi’s book to

Rudolfinum, today National museum of Ljubljana.

Hallerstein’s heritage

Инна Павловнa Карезина, китаист. Институт философии, теологии и истории (ИФТИ) св. Фомы в Москве, 20. 2. 2008:

TREATISES OF PEKING JESUITS, RECEIVED BY ST. PETERSBURG ACADEMY BUT

NON-PUBLISHED798

1. Parrenin. A letter about lues venerea in China and methods of treatment (21.03.1731).

2. Gaubil. Observationes astronomicae 1735 et 1736 (received by Academy in 1737).

3. Circa ritus sinicos (received by Bayer from Parrenin in 1738).

4. Benoist. Chinese book Chou King translated in Latin. Received by Academy in 1756, the

Kazan University library has a copy.

5. Gaubil. Notes about the book “La Chronologie Chinoise du livre Tsou Chou”.

6. Observationes astronomicae Pekini Sinarum factae in Collegio Societatis Jesu ab anno

1717 ad annum 1752 (369 enumerated pages + 20 non-enumerated). Published in Vienna

in 1768.

7. Observationes astronomicae du R.P. Hallerstein faites à Pekin depuis l’année 1754. (In

continuation of the previous). 102 pages. Observations 1754-1761 (Received by Academy

14.08.1775). *****

8. Cibot. Essai sur la longue vie des homes dans l’antiquité (1772).

9. Cibot. Essai sur les jardins de plaesanse (1774).

10. Cibot. Notice sur la culture des champignons (1775).

11. Cibot. Des agaries (1777). Illustrated text.

12. A note about Chinese coins (Was not uncovered in the Archive).

13. A part of observations and geographic maps, received from Gaubil, Kögler, Pereira,

Slavichek, Hallerstein and others.*****

14. Gaubil. The plan and description of Peking.

796

Asclepi, 1768, Introduction, 4. Because the polemic discussion between Dollond and Asclepi from the Gregorian

university is preserved in the National library in Paris, Dr. Lojze Kovačič SJ claimed that Asclepi’s work first

published in Rome in 1765 was reprinted in Ljubljana. 797

Asclepi, 1768, 6--7. 798

Pan, Šatalov, Taranovič, 2004, 88. Po Taranovičevem tipkopisu decembra 1939

137

LITERATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS799

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atque magneticae. Petersburg: Typis Academiae.

Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich Theodosius. 1761. Descriptio ac explicatio novorum quorundam

experimentorum electricorum. Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis

Petropolitanae. 1758--1759. 7: 277--302. Summary 22--24.

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Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich Theodosius. 1979. Aepinus’s Essay on the Theory of Electricity and

Magnetism. Princeton: University Press.

Aimé-Martin, M. L. 1838, 1843. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses concernant l’Asie, l’Afrique et

l’Amérique. I. Paris: Auguste Desrez.

Aimé-Martin, M. L. 1838, 1843. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses concernant l’Asie, l’Afrique et

l’Amérique. II--IV. Paris: Société du Panthéon Littéraire. Partly reprinted: ed. Vissière, Isabelle &

Vissière, Jean-Louis. 2001. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses des jésuites de Chine 1702-1776. Paris:

Desjonquères.

Akasofu, Syun-Ichi. 2002. Secrets of the Aurora Borealis. Alaska Geographic. 29/1: 1--111.

Ambschell, Anton. 1807. A. A. Ambschell in Universitate Vindobonensi AA.LL. ac Philosophiae

Doctoris, Facultatis ejusdem Senioris, Physicae et Mechanicae Professoris Caes.Regii Publici et

Ordinarii Elementa Physicae e Phaenomenis et Experimentis Deducta, aut Auditorum

Conscripta, ac in Dissertationes Sex Divisa. Vienna: Sumptibus Aloysii Doll Bibliopolae.

Amiot, Jean-Joseph Maria. 1773. Extrait d'une Lettre du P. Amiot dans laquelle il trace le plan

que les Chinois suivent dans leurs études, & de quelques autres Ecrits du même Missionaire, du 6

Octobre 1770. Journal des Savants. Februar. 2: 97--130. (Also contains discussion: Aurore

Boréale. 2: 111--112, Cotte (1788, 344) wrongly cited as: Journal des Savants, January 1773, pp.

41).

Amiot, Jean-Joseph Maria. 1774. Observations météorologiques faites a Pékin, par le P. Amiot,

Décembre 1762. Mis en ordre par M. (Charles) Messier. Mémoires de mathématiques et de

physique, présentés à l'Academie Royale des Sciences. 6: 519--601.

Amiot, Jean-Joseph-Maria and others. 1776--1791. Mémoires, concernant l'histoire, les sciences,

les arts, les moeurs, les usages etc. des Chinois, par les missionnaires de Pe-kin. Paris: Nyon.

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Published letters arranged on dates of manuscript and not on dates of publication.

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Amiot, Jean-Joseph Maria. 1943. Le frere Attiret au service de K'ien-Long (1739--1768). Sa

premiere Biographie écrite par le P. Amiot, rééditée avec notices explicatives et commentaires

historiques par Henri Bernard. S. J. Bulletin de l'Université l'Aurore. série. III, tome 4, no 1; n

o 2:

435--474.

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The three preserved issues had the same format 16. The first was bound in the brown skin and was primary

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Sciences. Tome 2: 333-362, 692-717.

D'Incarville je bil rojen v plemiški družini Normandije, leta 1730 pa je šel v Kanado (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 6). Leta

1738 je v Parizu spoznal Jussieuja, ne pa Linnéja; obiskoval je vrtnarja ob njem Jussieuja pred odhodom na Kitajsko

julija 1739. Ob prihodu v Kanton 15. 1. 1741 je pisal Jussieuju (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 7), ki mu je 2. 11. 1746

poročal, kako mu je nemški pater, gotovo Hallerstein, ki ga je imel zelo rad, dal herbarij z rastlinami iz narave, kot

jih je nabral v Pekingu umrli pater Johann Schreck (Terence, Terrentius * 1576 Constance; † 1630), Galilejev

sodelavec pri akademiji dei Lincei, ki je še pod Mingi ne pa pod Kang Xijem smel potovati po deželi in nabirati

rastline. Schreck Terrentius je sodeloval tudi pri Cesi-Galilejevi objavi Francisco Hernandezovih zapiskov o

rastlinah iz Mehike, ki so jo objavili v Rimu leta 1651 in jo je imel tudi Turjaški v Ljubljani. Kepler je leta 1604

natisnil Schreck Terrentiusovo pismo v svoji optiku Ad Vitellionem. Nemški pater Hallerstein je bil posebno dober

d'Incarvillov prijatelj in mu je dovolil kopirati knjigo, čeravno so obstajali le trije izvodi in knjiga ni bila tiskana.

Kopijo je poslal Jussieuju. Matematik Kögler je knjigo Terenca Plinius Indicus na skrivaj dal Hallersteinu pred svojo

smrtjo. V tem času je superior pater Hervieu umrl v Kantonu dne 26. 8. 1746. Knjiga je bila morda celo kopija

kitajskih (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 25-27), ni pa bila tiskana (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 28). Februarja 1746 je tajnik RS

Cromwel Mortimer prosil kitajske jezuite za metulje in njihove bube, Hallerstein pa je za delo zadolžil d'Incarvilla

kot najbolj podkovanega med menihi, kot je poročal v pismu 18. 9. 1750 (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 29; Pray, 1781). 13.

In 14. 111. 1749 je Mortimer prosil Gaubila naj mu predlaga jezuite za korspondente RS, in sicer Hallersteina in

d'Incarvilla, vendar je slednji odklonil, čeravno je pozneje sprejel podoben položaj pri francoski akademiji (Bernard-

Maitre, 1949, 31). Šlo je bolj za dejansko dopisovanje in ne za resnično uradno članstvo. Schreck je v pismu

Akademiji Lincei 26. 8. 1621 opisal porvo avtopsijo na Kitajskem nad japonskim duhovnikom,ki je umrl od kajenja,

let 1622 pa je začel prevajati anatomski tekst. Rho je po Schreckovi smrti objavil podoben tekst na temeljih evropske

anatomije (Fu, 2011, 75). Verbiest je pozneje nabavljsl medicinske knjige, še posebej po cesarjevima vročicama in

malarijo leta 1692 in 1693, ki sta ju ozdravili francoski jeziti (Fu, 2011, 76). Bernardus Rhodes je bil kirurg in

farmacevt, podobno kot Jean Joseph da Costa, Steophanusd Riusset (1689; † 1758) pa je bil zadnji cesarjev zdravnik.

Ludovicus Bazin (1712; † 1774) je bil glavni zdravnik perzijskega kralja preden je prišel na Kitajsko, podobno tudi

Emmanuel de Mattos (* 1725; † 1764). Parenin je 1. 5. 1723 poslal tatarski – mandžujski prevod francoske

anatomije pariškim akademikom (Fu, 2011, 78)

.

Karavana iz Moskve leta 1749 in D'Incarvillovo pismo Jussieuju 2. 11. 1750 o navdušenju in volji za posnemanjem

Réamurjevega dela o žuželkah, saj ga je Réaumurjeva knjiga navdušila (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 34-35). Zanimali so

ga tudi Réaumurjevi termometri, ki jih je Guérin plačal s srebrom. Cesar je hotel imeti rože in sočivje iz Evrope

(Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 47), čeravno se sajenje krompirja ni obneslo, saj so Kitajci imeli raje riž (Davis, 1837, 2:

276). Minister Henri Bertin kot državni tajnik med letoma 1763-1780 (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 45). Jussier je kitajske

herbarije dal v pregled Lamarcku (Bernard-Maitre, 1949, 56). Ćććć Naroči korespondenco Jussieu – d'Incarville in

original članek Bernard-Maitreja iz leta 1949.

HISTSCIOU Archives internationales d'Histoire des Sciences, vol. 2, 1949, p. 333-362, 692-717./

Bernard-Maitre, Henri. 1943. Le frere Attiret au Service de K'ien Long (1739-1768) sa première Biographie écrite

par le P. Amiot, rééditée avec notes explicaties et commentaires historiques par Henri Bernard, S.J. Bulletin de

l'Université Aurore. Série III, Tome 4: 30-82, 435-464.

Goux, P. januar 1935. Au service de l'Emperur. J.D. Attiret. Louain: Xaveriana (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 30). Amiot

arrived to Beijing on 22. 88. 1751 and Attiret († 17. 12. 1768) in 1838/39 (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 34). Voltaire’s

162

professor P. Porée on 21. 1. 1725 commented of Chinese imitation of Western science (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 37).

Andreas Pozzo (* 30. 11. 1642 Trente) as a leading Jesuit painter (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 44). Hallerstein already on

November 10, 1761 (Welt Bott 5/675: 42) wanted the replacement for elderly Attiret who already worked for 26

years in Beijing (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 58). The emperor wanted Attiret to paint, but he replied that he is not

botanist to paint plants (Bernard-Maitre, 1943, 65).

Ććć Cointag, Victoria. Das Mallehrbuch für Personen-Malerei des Chieh Tzú Yüan.

Bernard, Henri. 1948. Catalogue des objects envoyés de Chine par les missionaires de 1765 a 1786 Henri Bernard

S.J. Département de Recherches de l'Université l'Aurore. Bulletin de l'Uniersité Aurore. Série III, Tome 9: 119-206.

V Franciji ohranjeni kitajski predmeti (Bernard, 1948, 119). Flower of the minister Bertin (Bernard, 1948, 123).

Extract from Amiot's letter to Bertin mailed on September 23, 1766 containing Chinese military paintings and books

and music instruments (Bernard, 1948, 124-125). Packet of rhubarb for Baudouin ĆĆĆććć (Bernard, 1948, 127,

178). Castiglione's horse paintings (Bernard, 1948, 129). Japanese paintings (Bernard, 1948, 130, 134). Lefebvre sent

to Bertin; in 1769: 2 vases of flowers of ivory (Bernard, 1948, 132). Michel Benoist wrote to Bertin on November

25. 1770 with a vase for water volume measurements (Bernard, 1948, 133). The Press for paper and Cibot’s paper on

Chinese Antiquity (Bernard, 1948, 135). The golden flowers from Japan of 1770 (Bernard, 1948, 137). The volume

with natural history of China, several Chinese books (Bernard, 1948, 138). Jerhol & Versailles paintings (Bernard,

1948, 139). A piece of stone crystal (Bernard, 1948, 140). Lefebvre on December 29, 1772 about Korea and Amiot’s

October 4, 1772 notice for Bertin on Emperor’s conquests (Bernard, 1948, 144). Amiot’s September 15. 1775 letter

on Chinese military manuscript (Bernard, 1948, 145). The answers for philosophical research of Amiot (Bernard,

1948, 147). Cibot’s packet, Chinese astronomical instrument, Benoist’s heritage (Bernard, 1948, 149). Amiot-Bertin

1776 correspondence (Bernard, 1948, 150). Refutations of philosophical research of Egyptians and Chinese by

Amiot, music, and Amiot’s 1776 letter (Bernard, 1948, 151). Amiot to Bertin on September 15, 1776 (Bernard,

1948, 152). De la Rocha; Chinese birds (Bernard, 1948, 153). Cibot’s answers in 1777 (Bernard, 1948, 154).

Burgeois present with Jean-Baptiste-Joseph de Grammont ((梁棟材, * 19. 3. 1736 Gascogne v gradu markiza

Grammonta; SJ 19. 3. 1750 provinca Toulouse, obnovil prisege 1806; + 1812? Peking, matematik in glasbenik, krstil

korejskega princa (Ricci’s roundtable;M http://www.riccimac.org/doc/forumpdf/s3/Liu%20Jingjing.pdf) ) letter

about de la Rocha (Bernard, 1948, 155). The astronomic ephemerides (Bernard, 1948, 156). The instrument of old

Chinese music for Bertin’s cabinet (Bernard, 1948, 160). Poirot and Panzi’s paintings (Bernard, 1948, 161). The

aquarel, memoir on acoustic stones (Bernard, 1948, 162). The stone Chan-cham where water raises seera feet above

its niveau, about the manner for fruit conserving, funny vases and stones, about wine, aqua vita and vinegar of China

(Bernard, 1948, 164). The Cibot’s secrets, artificial perls, for vapor which raises to needed high, lamp, mercury

handling, magnet with compass = “moyen de vérifier l’aiguille d’une boussole sans aoir recours a l’amant”,

philosophical stone, alchemy of 1777 (Bernard, 1948, 165). The numbering =?? Dénobrement: deux croquis of

Attiret, Castiglione’s pictures, gen-seng (Bernard, 1948, 167). Vernis de Japan (Bernard, 1948, 168). Amiot mailed

portrets and Bertin described them to abbé Giuseppe Panzi on November 16, 1781 (Bernard, 1948, 170). Powder

which the Chinese knew for more than a century (Bernard, 1948, 171). For Bertin in 1778 acoustic, harmonic

phrases, tobacco (Bernard, 1948, 173). In 1778: The champignons, 2 of the letters for the Petersburg Academy from

1774 and 1775 for it’s member(SIC!) Cibot: the academy sent to Jesuits their work on physics, mathematics, history

and geography; in return they sent to academy their research of electricity = L’Academie ante ensuite leurs

recherches sur l’électricité (Bernard, 1948, 175; Pfister, Notices page 891, Pray, Imposturae 218 Buda 1781 page 270

ćććć). 1779 Amiot for Bertin’s cabinet of strange objects (Bernard, 1948, 176). The Chinese painted vases of Cibot

(Bernard, 1948, 177). Melons (Bernard, 1948, 181). Funny amusement (Bernard, 1948, 182). Nagasaki Japanese

paper, Cibot’s notes on flowers (Bernard, 1948, 183). 1784 acoustic phenomena invented by Roussier, laws of music

(Bernard, 1948, 184, 186). System of music, Flute instrument (Bernard, 1948, 185). Amiot published Traité sur la

Musique (Bernard, 1948, 186). The elastic gum (Bernard, 1948, 189). Aiguille fulminante (magnet) to heal pain of

the rheumatism, baton de vieillesse =?? Oldness? (Bernard, 1948, 193). List of eunuch who inspected Emperor’s

gardens (Bernard, 1948, 195). 5 pieces in paper from Korea, Chinese and imagined animals (Bernard, 1948, 196).

163

Poirot was French but soon left for Italy therefore in letters he excused himself for bad French language (Bernard,

1948, 199). M. Yang mailed presents form Canton 1765-1768 (Bernard, 1948, 200).

Henderson, B. John. 1980. The Assimilation of the Exact Sciences into the Ch''ing Confucian Tradition. Journal of

Asian Affairs. 5/1: 15-31.

Mei-Wen-tinh in 17th

century remarked some astronomy as necessary for classic scholar (Henderson, 1980, 18). Tai-

Chen, the greatest Chinese 18th

century philosopher studied Leibniz with materialistic mathematical flavor

(Henderson, 1980, 19, 25). Astronomy as the basis of Chinese state (Henderson, 1980, 21) wad regarded as social

and political science, at leas as important as classical studies (Henderson, 1980, 22, 27). The Chinese and

Regiomontanus were aware of the discrepancy between perpetual philosophical disputes and the certainty of

mathematics (Henderson, 1980, 28)

Zürcher, Erik. 1992. From ‘Jesuit Studies’ to ‘Western Learning’. In: Europe Studies China; papers from an

International Conference on the History of European Sinology. Taipei Taiwan.

The Jesuits imported certain carefully selected parts of the Western science and technology. The Franciscans and

Dominicans generally worked at the lower social level (Zürcher, 1992, 264). The Jesuits acted as the principal

channel of information about China towards the West (Zürcher, 1992, 265). The best documented fact in pre-modern

World history, incommensurable paradigms (Zürcher, 1992, 266). Gaubil corresponding member in Paris, London,

Petersburg (Zürcher, 1992, 267). Chinese taboo: Han-Manchu relations and tensions. Ricci figured that China lacked

its great rhetoric tradition (Zürcher, 1992, 268). Formal prohibition of the Christianity in China in 1724, also because

the Chinese saw the close relations between religion, morals, and science (Zürcher, 1992, 270). All enemies of

Christianity were on the West describe in almost diabolical terms (Zürcher, 1992, 273). The Jesuits’ books in

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1992, 278).

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went to Persia (Wessels, 1940, 282). In July they reached Macao after passing Goa. There are 5 documents about

Gruber’s return journey (Wessels, 1940, 284). Dutch captured Makassar with two merchantman of Macao in whose

cargo the Jesuits pout large interest and suffered a great loss. Adam Schall was able to ensure the necessary financial

to Gruber and d’Orville for Lhasa anyway (Wessels, 1940, 285). They reached Rome on February 20, 1664; Gruber

planned the mission station in Katmandu Nepal (Wessels, 1940, 287), but they met the opposition in Rome (Wessels,

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164

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169

INDEX:

INTRODUCTION

FAMILY

STUDIES

JOURNEY TO THE EAST

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES IN BEIJING

Before Hallerstein

Contemporaries

Portuguese mission

French Jesuits

Domestic scientists

Hallerstein advises Korean scientists

HALLERSTEIN WRITES TO EUROPE

Letters to brother Vajkard in Brussels

Letters to sister Marija Ana Elizabeta of Ljubljana

Letters to Vienna

Collaboration with the European academies and observatories

Berlin and Leipzig

Petersburg

Collaboration with Sanchez

Collaboration with Jelačič

Correspondence with the Petersburg academicians

London

Comets above China

Musk-Deer

Paris

The Numbering of Chinese

Bologna

Vienna: book in 1768

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN BEIJING

Astronomic measurements

Apparent shadows among the cosmic objects

Venus on the disc of Sun

Observations on June 6, 1761

Measurements on June 3, 1769

Sun and Moon

The eclipses of the Sun

The eclipses of the moon

Jupiter under the Moon

Other observations of Moon

Minimal distance between the astronomical objects

170

Jupiter’s moons

Stars above China

Copernicus in Beijing

Electricity, vacuum, maps

Experiments with electricity

Aurora Borealis

Vacuum for emperor of China

Maps of China

Pedagogical work

Chinese army

DEATH AND GLORY

Death

Glory

APPENDIX

Positions of the Beijing observatories

Hallerstein in the organization of the astronomical bureau

Hallerstein’s astronomical books

Published in Beijing

Published in Europe

Hallerstein’s offices in Church

Leading offices in China

Instruments in Beijing observatories

Telescopes

Sphera armillaris

Quadrants

Clocks

Micrometers

LITERATURE

SYNOPSIS

Ferdinand Avguštin Hallerstein’s father was baron Johann Ferdinand, the owner of Raubar’s

castle in Mannsburg. Avguštin’s mother was baroness Marija Suzana Elisabeta Erberg of the

Gottschee family settled in Lustthal.

On October 10, 1721, Avguštin entered the Jesuit order. On September 1, 1739, he landed in

China and stayed there forever. Four years later, he was appointed vice president at the emperor’s

astronomical bureau in Beijing and the mandarin of the 6th

rank. On May, 6, 1746, he became the

president of the bureau and the mandarin of the 5th

, later 3rd

rank. His only supervisor was the

prince.

Because of Hallerstein's high rank in Beijing, his letters were published and commented in

London, Petersburg, Paris, Berlin, Leipzig and Vienna. He published the maps of the provinces

of China, and the first useful numbering of the inhabitants of the empire. He took part at the first

electrostatic and vacuum experiments in China. He described to Europe the habits, land,

171

vegetables, and animals of China and the neighbor countries. Among his president duties was

also the mapping of some Chinese lands. As a member of the Portuguese Jesuit mission in China

he translated during the visits of Portuguese diplomats and traveled through different parts of

China. He observed Aurora Borealis, comets, eclipses, planets, and moons. He developed the

method for the calculation of the minimal distance between two astronomical objects, measured

with the accurate micrometer. One of his main achievements was very useful measurements of

the distance between the meridians of Petersburg and Beijing. He organized astronomical

expeditions to different parts of the huge empire.

He left Carniola in his youth, but he kept in touch with his relatives until his last days. He was

one of the most important Carniolan scientists.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We must thank the History of science Collections of the university of Oklahoma for the

permission to print the pictures.

NAME INDEX

A

Aepinus, Franz Maria Ulrich Theodor, 61, 62, 63, 120

Agricola, Georg, 16

D'Alembert, Jean le Rond, 28

Aleni, Gulio, 22

Alfvén, Hannes Olof Gösta, 72

Van Allen, James Alfred, 72, 122

de Almeida, José Bernardo, 86, 125

Ambschell, Anton, 64, 68, 69, 121

Amiot, Jean-Joseph-Maria, 20, 39, 43, 62, 65, 66, 79, 112

Angerburg, Adam Dinzl, 9, 108

Angerburg, Suzana Margareta Dinzl, 7, 8

172

d’Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon, 75

Apfaltrer, Marija Ana, 7, 108

Arago, Dominique François Jean, 72, 122

Aristotel, 11, 61

Asclepi, Giuseppe Maria, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 92, 117

Attimis, Tristan, 23, 113

Attiret, Jean-Denis, 19, 85, 112

D'Auteroche, Papillon, 46, 59

Auzuot, Adried, 90, 126

B

Babbage, Charles, 34

Bahr, Florian Josef , 13, 16, 18, 51, 53, 86, 110

Banks, Joseph, 62, 121

Bayer, Siegfried, 28

Beccaria, Giacomo Battista, 63, 64, 120

Benoist, Michel, 19, 20, 23, 43, 61, 73, 74, 77, 86, 112

Bergmann, Tobern Olof, 65, 121

Bernoulli, Daniel, 27, 55, 56, 114

Bernoulli, Johann, 41, 116

Bertin Count de Bourdeilles, Henri-Léonard-Jean-Baptiste, 73, 122

Bevis, John, 29, 35, 46, 88, 115

Bianchini, Francesco, 32

Bianchini, Giovani Fortunato, 14, 110

Bion, Nikolas, 15

173

Birkeland, Olag Kristian Bernhard, 72

Biwald, Leopold Gottlieb, 49

Bode, Johann Elert, 55, 119

Boerhaave, Herman, 27, 114

Bonbardi, Ulderik, 13

Bonjour, Guillaume, 75, 123

Bošković, Rudjer, 11, 26, 30, 44, 49, 65, 91, 92

Bouvet, Francios Joachim, 19, 24, 75, 112

Boym, Michael Petr, 60, 120

Brahe, Tycho, 11, 46, 61, 88, 89

Breckerfeld, Franc, 12, 41, 109

De la Briga, Melchior, 29

Burgeois, Francis, 72, 122

C

Canton, John, 41, 43, 65, 66, 69, 116, 118

Carbone, Giovanni Battista, 14, 32, 91

Casati, Paolo, 75, 122

Cassini, 43, 47, 51, 53

Castiglione, Giuseppe, 19, 76, 85, 112

de Castro-Sacramento, Jacob, 28, 29, 114

Cavendish, Henry, 64

Celsius, Anders, 65, 121

Chalier, Valentin, 18, 112

174

Chapotot, 89, 126

de la Charme, Alexander, 19, 54, 88, 112, 118

Chong Tuwon, 22

Chongzhen, 17, 85

Cigna, Gian Francesco, 63, 120

Cipolla, Luigi, 35, 36, 51, 52, 53, 58, 115

Clavius, Christopherus, 17

Cobenzl, Janez Karel Filip, 44, 116

Collinson, Peter, 29, 62, 120

Le Comte, Louis-Daniel, 30

Cook, James, 49, 67

de Costa, Giuseppe, 19, 112

Cotte, Louis, 67, 121

D

Dechales, Claude François Millet, 15, 110

Delisle, Joseph Nicolas, 19, 26, 31, 44, 47, 52, 58, 89, 90, 113

Descartes, René, 61, 70

Dežman, Karel, 23, 80

Diaz, Emmanuel, 60, 120

Dollond, John, 91, 92

Dolničar, Aleš Žiga, 10

Doppelmayer, Johann Gabriel, 34, 88, 125

Dunthorn, Richard, 47, 117

E

175

Encke, Franz, 50

Erberg, Bernard Ferdinand, 26, 41, 78, 88, 125

Erberg, Franc Jakob, 9, 108

Erberg, Franc Ksaver Anton, 8, 10, 108

Erberg, Inocenc Volbenk Anton Franc, 8, 12, 108

Erberg, Janez Adam, 108

Erberg, Janez Benjamin, 7

Erberg, Janez Danijel, 7, 8, 108

Erberg, Janez Ernest, 7, 8

Erberg, Jožef Kalasanc, 9 108

Erberg, Marija Suzana Elizabeta, 7, 8, 108

Erberg, Marija Ana Elizabeta, 23

Erberg, Wolf Danijel, 8, 9, 26, 108

d'Espinha, José, 43, 49, 51, 52, 77, 86, 87, 125

Euler, Leonhard, 28, 65, 91

Evklid, 17

F

Fabri, Honoratius, 51

Faraday, Michael, 69

du Fay, Jean Thadée Felicité, 30, 114

le Fevre, Joseph-Louis, 73, 86, 125

Firmian, Karl Joseph, 44

Flamsteed, John, 14, 46, 89

176

de Fontaney, Jean, 43, 342

Fortin, Jean Nicolas, 74, 122

Foucquet, Jean-François, 51, 61, 118

Foureau, Pierre, 19, 26, 112

Fournier, Georg, 15

Franklin, Benjamin, 32, 63

Franz, Joseph, 26, 41, 116

Franz I. Stefan of Lorraine, 8

Fridelli, Erenbert Xavier, 24, 114

Frölich, Erasmus, 41, 116

G

Galilei, Galileo, 57, 60, 61

Gallenfels, Franc, 80

Gallenfels, Georg Andreas, 15, 110

Gallenfels, Karel, 14, 15, 110

Gassendi, Pierre, 46, 117

de Gassicourt, Louis-Claude Cadet, 79, 123

Gaubil, Antoine, 19, 31, 34, 35, 41, 43, 44, 45, 52, 58, 62, 64, 86, 88, 89, 112

Le Gentile, Josef Hiacint Jean, 46, 47

Gerbillon, Jean François, 24, 114

Gilbert, William, 72, 122

de Giorgio, Jožef, 10, 109

Gogeisl, Anton, 16, 18, 43, 49, 52, 60, 88, 111

Graham, George, 45, 88

177

Grammatici, Nichloas, 34, 53, 61

Gregory, James, 43

Gren, Friedrich Albrecht Carl, 74, 122

Green, Charles, 49

Grienberger, Christoph, 17

Grimaldi, Claudio Filippo, 13, 24, 86

Gruber, Gabrijel, 36, 49

Gruber, Janez, 16, 75, 122

H

Hacquet, Balthasar, 30

Haffenecker, Johannes Ferdinand, 71, 123

Du Halde, Jean Baptiste, 75

Hallerstein, Anton, 12, 109

Hallerstein, Ferdinand Ignac, 7, 9, 108

Hallerstein, Franc Adam, 9, 108

Hallerstein, Franc Karel, 9

Hallerstein, Janez Ferdinand, 7

Hallerstein, Janez Jožef, 108

Hallerstein, Janez Vajkard, 8, 9, 10, 23, 25, 26, 32, 41, 48, 108

Hallerstein, Marija Ana Elizabeta, 9, 23, 108

Halley, Edmond, 26, 35, 46, 53, 61, 63, 64

Han Hungil, 21

Harriot, Thomas, 48

178

Harrison, John, 53, 90, 126

Hartsoeker, Nicholas, 15

Hauksbee, Francis, 74

He Guozong, 21, 61, 78, 120

Hell, Maximilian, 26, 31, 41, 47, 51, 55, 58, 61, 67, 68, 80, 115

Hevelius, Jan, 46, 47

Hinderer, Roman, 87, 125

Hiorter, Olav Peter, 65

de la Hire, Philippe, 13, 51

Hodgson, Brian Houghton, 38

Hodgson, John, 57

Hong Taeyong, 22

Horrox, Jeremiah, 46, 47, 90, 117

Horsley, Samuel, 49, 118

Humbolt, Alexander, 71, 77, 123

I

D'Incarville, Pierre Nicholas, 38

J

Jacquier, François, 65

Jai Singh II., 14

Jankovich, Anton, 10, 11, 109

Jartoux, Pierre, 30, 75, 115, 123

Jelačič, Franc Luka, 29, 30, 62, 114

Jelovšek, Franc, 10, 108

179

Joao V., 14

K

Kangxi, 19, 20, 34, 85

Karel Aleksander Lotarinški, 9, 108

Karel VI., 24

Katarina II., 44

Kaugg, Janez, 10, 11, 109

Kircher, Athanasius, 16, 17, 68, 75, 109

Keill, John, 32, 115

Kepler, Johannes, 46, 47, 60, 64, 78

Kim Yuk, 21

Kögler, Ignatius, 14, 15, 19, 21, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 44, 51, 59, 60, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 110

Copernicus, Nikolaj, 11, 61, 78, 88

Korff, Baron Johann Albrecht, 29, 114

Krašeninnikov, Stepan Petrovič, 62, 120

Kratzenstein, Christian Gottlieb, 30, 62, 115

Kraus, Jožef, 10, 109

Križan, Josip, 69, 70, 71, 122

Kučera, Oton, 69, 122

Kurwitzer, Wenceslaus, 60, 120

L

Lacaille, Abbé Nicolas Louis de, 16, 19, 33, 46, 47, 111

Laimbeckhoven, Gottfried-Xavier, 13, 14, 15, 16, 26, 34, 85, 87, 110

180

de Lalande, Joseph Jérôme Le François, 31, 56

Lambert, John, 59, 119

Langlois, Claude, 89, 126

Laplace, Pierre Simon, 70

Lavrenčič, Primož, 127

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 22, 24, 113

Leopold I., 14

Leroy, Julien, 90, 126

Liesganig, Joseph Xaver, 47, 119, 126

Linné, Karl, 47

Littrow, Karl, 42

Lomonosov, Mihael Vasiljevič, 46, 65

M

de Magalhaens, Gabriel, 15, 111

Magni, Valeriano, 12

de Mailla, Joseph Marie Anne de Moyriac, 19, 112

de Mairan, Jean Jacques Dorotheus, 19, 64, 65, 68, 112

Mako von Kerek Gede, Paul, 14, 68, 110

Manfredi, Eustachius, 41

Maraldi, Giacomo Filippo, 19, 34, 65, 112

Marija Ana of Austria, 14, 110

Marija Terezija, 8

Marinoni, Johann Jakob, 26, 114

Martin, Benjamin, 46

181

Martini, Martin, 14, 15, 110

Maskelyne, Sir Nevil, 35, 51, 53, 115

Maunder, Eduard Walter, 64, 121

Maxwel, James Clerk, 33

Mayer, Christian, 49, 65, 118

Mayer, Tobias Johann, 89, 126

Mayr, Janez Krstnik, professors, 11, 12, 109

Mayr, Janez Krstnik, knjigarnar, 13

de Méricourt, Hubert, 73, 74, 122

Mesmer, Franz Anton, 41

Mei Juecheng, 18

Messier, Charles, 48, 117

Michell, John, 41

Ming'antu, 21, 78

Le Monnier, Pierre Charles, 19, 48, 51, 53, 61, 117

Mortimer, Cromwell, 32, 33, 115

Münster, Sebastian, 13, 110

van Musschenbroek, Pieter, 30, 62, 68, 115

N

Neugbauer, Chrysostom Joseph,16, 25

Newcomb, Simon, 42

Newton, Isaac, 34, 68

Noceti, Carlo, 65, 121

182

Noël, François, 27, 64, 114

O

Olmsted, Denison, 70, 122

P

Panzi, Joseph, 73, 74, 122

de Parcieux, Antoine, 90, 126

Pardies, Ignaz Gaston, 78, 123

Parrenin, Dominique, 19, 24, 64, 86, 112

Pereira, Thomas, 33, 86, 125

Pereyra, Andrés, 19, 24, 26, 28, 29, 81, 86, 87

Perkinson, Sidnay, 67

Pez, Lorenz, 12

Pézenas, Espirit, 62, 120

Picard, Jean, 18, 111

Pilgram, Anton, 48, 56

Pires-Pereira, Gaetan, 86

Pitton, Danijel, 10, 109

Poda von Neuhaus, Nikolaus, 58

Pogrietsnig, Janez Krstnik, 48

de Poirot, Louis, 36, 115

de Pombal, Sebastiaõ Jozé de Carvalho, 41

Popovič, Žiga, 30

Pouillet, Claude Servais Mathias, 69, 121

Powalky, Karl, 50

183

Pray, Georg, 23, 24

Presheren, Mathias, 15

Priestley, Joseph, 64, 121

Ptolemy, 11, 60

Q

Qian Daxin, 61

Qianlong, 38, 41, 59, 85

R

Raigersfeld, Franc Henrik, 23, 25

Razumovski, Count Kiril Grigorjevič, 29, 30, 34, 62, 114

Régis, Jean Baptiste, 75

Rho, Giacomo, 17, 84, 111

Ricci, Mattheo, 17, 22, 111, 73, 75

Riccioli, Giovanni Battista, 11, 12

Richman, Georg Wilhelm, 62, 120

Rieger, Kristjan, 47, 117

Ritter, Joseph, 77, 97, 126

De la Rive, Avgust Arthur, 70, 71, 122

de Rocha, Felix, 19, 21, 23, 38, 49, 58, 62, 76, 77, 79, 86, 112

Rodrigues, Andreas, 31, 86, 125

Rodrigues, Joao, 22, 113

Roemer, Olaus, 35, 115

S

184

Sanchez, Antonio-Nunes Ribeyra, 27, 30, 45, 61, 62, 88, 114

Schall, Johann Adam von Bell, 17, 79, 84, 86, 87, 111

Schreck Terrentius, Johann, 17, 60, 111

Short, James, 43, 47, 48, 91, 92, 126

Schott, , 15, 110

Schöttl, Gregor, 49

Schöttl, Janez Krstnik, 47, 48

Sickelbarth, Ignac, 38, 116

Siebert, Jan, 16, 25

Simonelli, Giacomo Filippo, 20, 112

Slamenski, Carolus, 16, 25

Slavicek, Karol, 53, 119

Smogulecki, Nicholas, 60, 120

Soucet, Etienne, 29, 59

de Souza, Polycarpo, 19, 29, 61, 120

Spindler, Jožef, 14, 110

Stadlin, Franciscus, 18, 112

Stainer, Sebastijan, 7, 12, 108

Stancker, Anton, 11, 12, 109

Stepling, Joseph, 48

Störmer, Carl Frederik Mülertz, 72

Stumpf, Kilian, 15, 61, 86, 87, 120

Suárez, Francisco, 24

Suares, Joseph, 22, 113

185

Symmer, Robert, 63, 120

Swedenborg, Emanuel, 74, 122

van Swieten, Gerhard, 27, 30, 114

T

Tachard, Guy, 16, 112

Taufferer, Aleksander, 12

Taufferer, Inocenc, 7, 108

Taufferer, Maksimilian Anton, 7

Thomas, Antoine, 86, 87, 125

Thullner, Janez Krstnik, 7, 10, 14, 109

Tirnberger, Karl, 58, 69, 119

Torricelli, Evangelista, 61

Trigault, Niklaas, 17, 111

U

Ulugh Beg, 14

Ureman, Ivan, 18, 111

V

Valvasor, Janez Vajkard, 13

Valvasor, Volfgang, 12, 109

Verbiest, Ferdinand, 16, 17, 18, 45, 60, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88, 111

Verjus, Antoine, 24, 114

Volta, Alessandro, 62, 64

Y

186

Yi Imyong, 22

Yin-Lu second prince Zhoang, 20, 113

Yongzheng, 16, 19, 20, 85

Yun Lu prince Zhuang, 20, 78, 64

W

Walter, Jan Xaver, 19, 112

Wan Li, 17, 85

Wargentin, Pehr Wilhelm, 56

Weiss, Franz, 47, 48

Whiston, William, 32, 115

Wilcke, Johann Karl, 62, 120

Wimmerl, Gabrijel, 11, 109

Wolff, Christian, 24, 48, 111

X

Ximenes, Leonard, 30, 41

Xu Guangqi, Paul, 17, 84, 111

Xue Fengzuo, 60

Z

Zanchi, Josip, 109

Zanotti, Eustachius, 32, 41, 47, 48

Zeiher, Johan Ernst, 62, 120

Hallerstein, the Chinese Astronomer from Europe

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