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GEOGRAPHICAL AWARENESS:

SANITY MAKES A COMEBACK

Joshua Jordan, KSC

American Military University

27 May 2009

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Introduction.........................................................3

Literature Review....................................................5

Theoretical Framework...............................................19

Research Design.....................................................21

Findings............................................................24

Conclusions.........................................................34

Bibliography........................................................38

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Introduction

It seems reasonable to suspect that many eyes that fall on this

text have seen demonstrations of American geographical ignorance on

television. The scene is often the same; someone stands on the side

of a busy street with high pedestrian traffic. A person asks

questions of passersby, and the viewer has a reasonable expectation

that those who passed through the experience of public education will

answer these basic geographical questions correctly. Viewers

invariably see the worst of these responses—as this passes for

entertainment to a significant portion of the American population.

The author has seen cases where those surveyed thought that Australia

was North Korea. While this entertainment is not scientific study and

the examples shared do not form responsible statistical inference, the

existence of this phenomenon disturbs many—including the author. The

constant reminder of the existence of people who hold this lack of

awareness begs the questions how ignorant are American citizens on

matters of geography and in what percentages? From this question came

the project in these pages.

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Why is this topic important? This topic is important because

geography is the discipline that allows a person to craft a mental

model of the world in one’s mind. The idea that Earth is flat is an

idea that serves humanity well so long as journeys made are over short

distances e.g. from a cave to a water hole or hunting and gathering

area. When people start navigating from the European continent to

South America, the flat Earth theory does not serve humanity and a

wider view of the globe becomes necessary. A limited view of Earth

may save time, headache, and provide amusement—for those who like to

watch people embarrass themselves on television through displays of

ignorance—but it does not serve humanity, the United States, or the

citizen. Lack of exposure to geography creates a limited world view,

which fosters limited intelligence and limited power—not only for the

citizen but ultimately for the nation.1

As the complex relationships of cultures, languages, resources,

nations, corporations, etc. have more and more impact on American

lives, knowledge of geography is not only desirable, it is essential.

Those who are unaware of certain details of world geography cannot

reason or model as effectively—in matters where a proper world model

is needed—as those who are geographically aware. While the gulf

between the flat Earth mindset and the spherical Earth mindset 1 A nation is comprised of citizens, thus this logically follows.

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represents a pronounced example of the difference between ignorance

and knowledge, the same dynamic exists in all matters of geographical

knowledge vs. ignorance. While the limits imposed vary based on

ignorance, the limits remain. Americans today compete in a global

society. China has more honor students than America has students.2

How can American students compete with China if they cannot identify

the nations in the G-20 on a map? Such people will not have

credibility among the educated, as they display laziness and

ignorance. Also, such people will not be highly paid—as those who are

more educated are able to demand higher wages or go into business.

Whether Americans like it or not, the world they are living in becomes

more global by the day. As Levine points out, “The stakes for

American children and the nation could not be higher. In the 21st

century, like it or not, knowledge of the world is no longer a luxury;

It is a necessity”.3 This global society will require sensitivity to

other cultures, languages, and issues. These are impossible to grasp

without a solid foundation of geography.

2 The author learned this from a presentation on global shift, the name of thesource escapes the author at this time.3 Levine, Michael H., Putting the World Into Our Classrooms: A New Vision for 21st Century Education [policy paper online] (Washington, DC: Progressive Policy Institute, 2005, accessed 13 April 2009); available from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&url=http percent3A percent2F percent2Fwww.ppionline.org percent2Fppi_ci.cfm percent3FknlgAreaID percent3D110 percent26subsecID percent3D181 percent26contentID percent3D253280&ei=VRD-SYwdpri2A-KhnNMB&usg=AFQjCNG7bPDz4NTictWLt-6JjP3w0y9WFw

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Thus the issue becomes one of national readiness in matters of

diplomacy, defense, and economy. It is for these reasons that

geography is important. It is not possible to uphold a dominant

culture or preserve geostrategic dominance with an ignorant citizenry.

The government is made of the people, and if the people do not grasp

geography, they will not grasp the issues that require geographical

knowledge to negotiate successfully. Geography applies to every

citizen of these United States. The purposes of this piece are: to

determine if a relationship exists between the American education

establishment and American knowledge of geography, offer an

explanation of how this relationship occurs, and what important

factors may influence this relationship.

Literature Review

Finding literature for this topic was problematic as this topic

lacks readily accessible, raw data. References to studies—which are

inaccessible or require excessive fees—exist outside the reach of this

project’s budget. Despite this clear impediment, enough data exists

to make certain points. Literature reviewed includes articles from

periodicals, essays, books, and scholarly works which address the

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specific research question: “Does the American education

establishment contribute to significant numbers of American citizens—

in recent and current times—demonstrating a lack of knowledge vis-à-

vis geography?” Citations are not given—in this section—as there is a

bibliography. Total credit for all work—save for any mistakes or

misinterpretations—in the first paragraph of each review goes to the

author mentioned in that paragraph with the year of publication of

documents concerned in parentheses. The literature reviewed below

applies to the topic of American knowledge—or lack thereof—vis-à-vis

geography. The introduction of this piece discussed the basic

premises that this literature applies to and why this topic is

important.

Nuhfer (1988) argues that Geographers themselves—specifically in

academia—craft a convoluted understanding of what geography is as an

academic discipline. This is a chief cause of general American

ignorance vis-à-vis geography. Also, Nuhfer argues that many of the

domains which Geographers in academia try to teach are areas on the

outskirts of Geography and their attempts to explain certain processes

are rife with error. Nuhfer goes on to suggest that correcting this

problem would require geographers defining exactly what is unique

about their particular discipline. Geographers would then teach that—

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while allowing other departments to teach those peripheral matters

which Geography now tries to dominate through an academic power

struggle. Nuhfer also mentions that those outside the discipline

would do better to recognize the importance of geography and support

it wherever possible.

The piece is journalistic in nature. While the writer clearly

holds related experience, this piece uses intuitive analysis and

presents findings in a journalistic op-ed format. While this piece

lacks systematic analysis, it does offer possibilities for further

research or studies. Nuhfer offers a logically sound argument. The

biases here are many. In the first hand, the author is writing from

his personal sample of experience. In the second, this author is

involved in academia and may have ulterior motives in an academic

power struggle.

The piece offers a myriad of insight. Nuhfer offers the

possibility that bureaucratic infighting among academic departments,

and possibly between administration and faculty, are matters that

could contribute—or even act as a chief cause of—general American

ignorance in geography. While studies which examine the affects of

academic competition on American education are difficult to access,

this piece offers cause to undertake such studies and consider their

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findings. For the purposes of this research project, Nuhfer offers a

possibility other than Americans simply not caring to learn geography.

David Keeling (2007) offers the perspective of a geographer.

Keeling asserts that American ignorance of geography limits

significant progress in several areas. He goes on to assert the most

important challenges of today and the future are geographically based.

An understanding of how geography shapes these challenges is essential

to American success. Keeling continues to remind readers that polls

and surveys reveal Americans as most geographically ignorant—when

compared with other industrialized nations—and reminds readers that

most Americans have not had a geography course in high school or

university. Keeling tells of a certain student application for

acceptance into a prestigious university which listed AP Geography—

this line was met with laughter and confusion from those reviewing it.

Keeling also asserts that most teachers of geography in the K-12

schools have not taken relevant courses in a university. Keeling

covers much ground in confirming American ignorance and pointing out

where he feels blame lies.

This piece is an essay with a clear thesis. The work is mostly

intuitive analysis. The piece cites surveys, polls, and other

statistics, but offers no citations—as a professor this man should

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know better. These considerations also apply to data collection and

analysis. Any analysis given is mostly intuitive and no sources

appear in the essay making it difficult to confirm or challenge the

evidence given in the work—without further or prior research. Biases

are many. This professor clearly wishes to preserve his job and

advance the sensed usefulness of his position.

While this author shows heavy biases and even academic

irresponsibility, he does raise interesting points. Several questions

revealed while reading this article. Where are these studies that

show general geographic ignorance of Americans? Perhaps an inquiry at

some of the local universities in the Geography and Social Science

Departments is in order? Other questions are: Exactly how many

Americans have taken geography classes? What are the general

curriculums at schools K-12 like? Where can one find this

information? Where can one find out what types of classes K-12

teachers have taken? Do they all present transcripts to the school

when applying for work? Are these on record? Overall this author

raises interesting considerations and demands certain questions.

While the answers may not exist now, these questions and

considerations are important and would lead to answers to the specific

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research question outlined in the introductory paragraph of this

section.

New York Times through Shabad (1982)4 raises concerns vis-à-vis

American geographical knowledge. Shabad describes the state of

American geographical literacy in the United States as of 1982 as

severely lower than other industrialized nations. Shabad references a

24-page report which exists and seems impossible to obtain. Shabad

reveals that most answers, about geography, were wrong in a sample of

3,000 students at 185 colleges and universities in the United States.

Shabad reveals that, overall, 43 percent of the questions were

answered correctly. Shabad gets more specific through examples such

as, 42 percent of the students surveyed thought that Saudi Arabia was

not an Islamic nation. When it came to India and Hinduism, 13 percent

of the students knew of the relationship between the two. While these

may not appear as matters of geography, they are. The amount of land

in Islamic hands or the relationship between pieces of land in which

certain religions are favored does matter. While this is more social

geography than physical geography it is considered to exist within the

4 Turabian has some strange format for the footnotes and bibliography of this.Apparently the article title goes first and then the publication with no mention of the author. In this case the source is referenced in the bibliography with a line beginning as “Americans”.

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discipline.5 Concepts such as religion do affect geography. From the

Romans salting fields to Americans destroying the natural ecology to

build “cookie cutter”6 houses in California, human paradigms affect

physical geography and physical geography—mostly through topography

and climate—affect human paradigms. Quite simply, one cannot have an

organism without an environment. Ergo, a relationship between any

biological entity and geography exists.

This piece is a journalistic work that uses intuitive analysis.

For the most part it presents certain findings from the report it

references. It is clear the author knows something about statistics

as the terms used are those commonly used within the discipline.

Overall this piece is well-balanced. The author even mentions the

panel that wrote this report only had one geographer on it, and this

geographer thought that only 77 of the 101 questions related to

Geography. So, while every report does contain some bias—as all minds

use biases—the report is balanced and fair.

5 These considerations would vary from University to University and even person to person. However, these considerations are relevant to geography. 6 The official name for these escapes the author. These are the houses that look like every other house in the housing development. Those who lived in military quarters are familiar with the concept. Apparently these were created following WWII when young men were returning from war and needed places to live—thus the concept migrated from the military to the civilian world.

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This report offers interesting insights on how difficult it is to

get at data on geography and education in the United States. There

are journal articles that talk about the need for baseline studies and

such. However, even this article is not accessible through the AMU

library, or other libraries in the author’s immediate area. Any

access to the article requires excessive fees. The report offers

statistics, and these are hard to come by in this project. Even

though the numbers are old, American students do not seem to be

improving.7 This particular article is frustrating. It offers

glimmers of excellent data, only to reveal yet more mirages showing

that ignorance of geography is so marked that little accessible

information exists on the specific research question.

Morrish (2001) examines English students. While these are not

American students, the comparison data may prove useful. Morrish

discusses a shift in education in the 1970s which changed the

fundamental manner in which geography was taught. While interesting—

and parallel with events which occurred in the rest of the Anglo-

Sphere8—such discussion lies beyond the scope of this review. Morrish

7 This statement is based on personal research, there are many who agree and possibly many who do not agree. 8 The Anglo-Sphere refers to the Anglo-Saxon nations: The United States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia. One might go so far as to include Ireland, France, Germany, and Scandinavia in the Anglo-Sphere because of the interbreeding, yet this generally is not acceptable so the term applies to thefour aforementioned nations.

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suggests the use of case studies to provide “essential links to the

real world” making the discipline less sterile and boring to those

learning it. Morrish also suggests that such studies provide insight

to the theoretical base of geography as a discipline—making the

students more aware of how the process of Geography occurs and of

their own place in it.

This piece is an op-ed from The Times Education Supplement. The author

compares models of past and present and offers what he feels is a

better model. Biases reveal mostly because the author relies on his

personal sample of experience and research to offer his suggestions.

This piece provides interesting insights on how educational

policy changes of the 1970’s may not be for the better—at least in

England. However, the important aspects of this article are in the

solutions that he offers to overcome this ignorance.

Pajares (1989) introduces interesting improvements. The author

recalls his experiences with geographical ignorance in a lesson. In

this case, the ignorance displayed instantaneously. Immediately after

he taught the students geography, they forgot what they were taught.

Pajares decided to make geography fun by taking the children on trips

around the world inside the classroom. In addition, he imposed

measures which incorporated geographical terms, world leaders, and

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other associations with geography throughout the curriculum without

overhauling it. Pajares notes that this program addressed the needs

of the students with “minimal disruption”.

This is an article in a periodical told from the first person.

The article shares experience and offers methods that worked for the

teacher in his particular circumstances. Data was collected and

analyzed intuitively in the form of classroom activities. Also, data

was collected and analyzed through test scores and such. Biases here

are those associated with any human. The information comes through

the author’s lens of personal experience.

This article is interesting because it reveals the structure of

the curriculum to be a problem in this case. The article also offers

solutions which do not disrupt the bureaucracy—this is a matter of

extreme importance as bureaucracy must be served. Clearly the

educational system is a contributing factor here. Any bureaucratic

reform is painful and slow—as reform is an anathema to bureaucracy.

The methods offered through this article bypass that process through

tools and latitude already available to the educator—perhaps the

educators are not spending enough time using their creative faculties?

Perhaps the education establishment does not afford them that time?

Consider endless, pointless, tedious faculty meetings, teachers

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workshops, and of the other absurd administrative requirements

necessary to fulfill certain obligations to receive funds or to prove

accountability and so on.9

Lewis (2000) discusses the changes in the educational system. He

asserts that 100 years ago students had to memorize more facts. He

also says that an American attitude of isolationism and not needing to

know about the world seeped into schools and changed the curriculum.

Lewis continues to argue that globalization and integration will bring

the world into people’s lives in ways that it would not have

previously. Also raised are the points that American political

leaders, and even respected scholars, consistently display their lack

of geographical knowledge. The most important point mentioned is that

without fundamental knowledge of the planet, how can one understand

globalization? This problem is serious and the American education

establishment—from preschool to post-doctorate—is not dealing with

this problem effectively. He also asserts that foreigners are showing

contempt of American ignorance—they are not just laughing at, and

deriding, ignorant Americans now. Contempt for American ignorance is

prejudicial to the national security and the interests of the United

States. Also of note, Lewis says that eventually it will be

9 I speak from experience teaching ESL in Asia and conversations with professors and teachers.

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geographers who refine their craft to ensure that geography is

relevant.

This is a scholarly paper. It is lengthy; it had endnotes, and a

generous list of references. This was published in the Geographical

Review. The methods of analysis are several. He looks at individual

authors and breaks down their mistakes—rather viciously—through

exhaustive analysis of possibilities leading to the mistakes and the

mistakes themselves. Sometimes he goes too far, such as in his

indictment of Robert Kaplan—a writer for the Atlantic who wrote

several books including Warrior Politics: Why Leadership Demands a Pagan Ethos.

Kaplan fails to mention Greece in a metaphor—which is irresponsible in

this case. However, the manner in which the author deals with this is

abrupt. This illustrates that as well as expected biases, this author

seems mildly antagonistic at times, though not in such a way that he

is intellectually vulgar. It is an acceptable, healthy, and polite

antagonism. Still the reader would do better to note this. The

author is knowledgeable and wise. He seems frustrated with ignorance

and seems to have written this piece for several purposes.

This paper is profound. It references Ptolemy and his thoughts

on geography. Ptolemy saw geography as a representation of the known

world and all within it—2,000 years ago. People must know the world,

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lest it get smaller. This underscores the importance of geography.

Even the author was unaware of the deep importance of this discipline

until undertaking this research. Some data on the matter of American

knowledge of geography, and the effects of the education establishment

on this knowledge, exists but it is exceedingly difficult to find, why

is that? Why is so little attention paid to the subject of geography?

Is this more than just a process of the education establishment? Is

this cultural? Most importantly this paper reminds readers that what

happens in K-12 and university education environments does not

disappear simply because one goes out into the world and becomes a

scholar, intellectual, and so on. This lack of knowledge finds its

roots in the education establishment, extends out to society, and is

of dire importance. While this document assumes the educational

system—and perhaps the culture—are the impetus for this ignorance, it

also reveals the profound importance and broad influence of this

phenomenon.

The Economist (1988) discusses statistics describing American

ignorance on matters geographical. It gives some data on other

developed nations as well. The Economist also claims that American

ignorance is worsening and evidences a declining education

establishment.

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This is a journalistic work using intuitive analysis. It also

references several studies, but these are no longer accessible. The

analysis is systematic in that it brings in data from other developed

nations and uses them to place matters in context. The limitations

are that much of this article is general. The glittering generalities

do not give enough specific information for scholarly taste. The bias

here is that this information is for general consumption and offers no

notes for readers to follow up on the assertions of the article. What

if the author made mistakes? The data referenced here is important,

but this article does not offer access to this information.

With raw data as scarce as it is, the data in here would add some

flesh to the paper. It is becoming clear the education establishment

influences American geographical ignorance. It is also clear that

this is happening in many developed nations. This puts the paper in

global context. This data will outline important points. Again more

accessible data on this matter is lacking. This is a major finding of

this research project—that more research and data are necessary for

this profoundly important matter. An argument exists that if

geography were important, relevant data would exist. This is not

necessarily the case. There was a time in the United States where

Americans were not aware of the nutritional content of their food.

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One could have argued that if it was important, researchers would

focus more on this matter. Now American food displays nutritional

labels. Again, Ptolemy put it best when he said that knowledge of

geography is knowledge of your world and everything in it. Lack of

knowledge of geography makes that world smaller. A smaller world-view

does not support advanced paradigms. In this light, the argument that

geography is not important enough to warrant study holds water—if the

person making that argument is comfortable with a limited model of his

or her world and the lack of advanced paradigms that will follow. If

everyone in the United States feels like this, the nation would lose

its position of geostrategic dominance and this would lead to a lower

quality of life for American citizens.

Piscionere (2007) offers a veritable treasure trove of

information on these matters. Piscionere reminds readers that most

Americans cannot find Afghanistan on a map but know the details of a

popular reality show on television. Piscionere goes on to highlight

the dangers to national security of a nation that cannot find

countries on a map, cannot speak their languages, and has no interest

in anything outside its borders [yet routinely conducts wars outside

its borders]. Piscionere, through remarks by President Bush,

discusses American cultural apathy brought on by lack of education.

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Piscionere also mentions that American education focuses mostly on

developed nations—in matters of language and culture. Piscionere also

mentions that travel abroad programs also involve developed nations,

mostly. This, of course, does not help to familiarize students with

the geography of the rest of the world. In addition, Piscionere

mentions that linguistic education amounts to an unacceptable

patchwork, which does not foster human connections between American

students and foreign students. This, of course, aggravates a lack of

interest and knowledge in geography creating a cyclical negative

feedback loop.

This is a scholarly paper. It is lengthy, and has footnotes and

a good bibliography. The reasoning used is mostly intuitive. The

author points out that Americans are ignorant and undedicated because

their teachers are the same and the structure of the system supports

this ineptitude. The author points out reasons this is bad and

reasons the rest of the world will eventually become sick of the

“ignorant American” and how this impacts national security and

prosperity. Data comes from other sources and is analyzed intuitively

without system or detail. The biases here—in addition to the normal

biases—are the author’s emphasis on international affairs. The author

feels this focus is important to protect the national security.

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Normally this would be considered common sense, but in the mainstream

American culture it becomes a bias—as American culture is insular.

Insights offered here are great. For some reason Americans try

to preserve the isolationist culture. This would work well if only

the United States government did not get involved in foreign wars

consistently and repeatedly and if the nation did not engage in

international trade—both of which are workable possibilities. The

author offers interesting points on American education, certain

sicknesses and certain remedies. Much of this may stem from the

culture. The culture of isolationism may have influenced the

education establishment, creating a negative feedback-loop of

ignorance. The founding fathers may have been against involvement in

foreign affairs, but they did not themselves refrain from study and

travel. Unfortunately, the American culture and education

establishment seem often to support the idea that travel and study are

not necessary. Yet both also support the idea the United States

government should involve the republic in military adventures—even

though many Americans demonstrably cannot find these nations on maps,

cannot speak their languages, and know nothing of their cultures. It

seems Rome went through these problems. While the Prince of the

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Vatican10 and his cronies were able to survive the fall and maintain a

city-state, the circumstances are not similar with the current

American circumstances. This information is relevant because an

argument could be made that the Vatican came out of the fall in a good

position, why not the United States? Rome is relevant because

American citizens would do well to learn from Rome’s bad example and

undertake the inverse in matters of geographical knowledge.

Levine (2005) blames an education establishment that is not

evolving fast enough to meet the needs of American children. He

offers statistics and comments on the lack of education in matters of

Geography, foreign languages, and other foreign concerns. Shifts in

trade and organizational requirements, both in the government and

private sectors, demand better prepared students to deal with

international issues—if for no other reason so they act as responsible

and informed voters when deciding on matters that influence the world.

He goes over certain statistics that outline the new requirements of

life in the United States and how the American population cannot

properly assimilate these changes because of its ignorance.

10 Pope became the substitute name for Caesar. This occurred after the military and political arms of the Empire failed and the Roman Empire became the Holy Roman Empire. The Vatican remains a city state. The Pope is not only the infallible high priest of God; he is the Prince of the Vatican and the head of the Holy See.

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This is a policy paper. It is not as long as many scholarly

papers, but it is much longer than an article from most periodicals.

The theory behind this paper is that American students are ignorant of

international affairs—for the most part—and the education

establishment from preschool up needs changes to prepare American

children to compete globally or the United States will lose its

status. Biases—other than normal—include a heavy reliance on

statistics to make the argument work. As Korzybski would remind the

reader, the map is not the territory. The word is not what it

describes. The statistics are not necessarily the reality. Also, the

studies he cites target certain demographics. Many students do not

watch “Survivor”11, other popular reality shows, or even watch much

television at all. This survey is mostly targeted to those who have

time and inclination to watch such programming.

The statistics that appear in Levine’s work help readers

understand the education establishment is a problem. How the

education establishment got this way and how to change it will be

different for different regions of the United States, after all the

Union is made of the several States which are fifty countries. The

federal government may contribute to the problem as it gives funding—

with strings—to schools. At this point, it is possible to isolate 11 This was the show referenced in a study that Levine mentions in his paper.

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several contributing factors here: money, culture, federal

government, and local governments. All of these influence the

American education establishment.

Groennings and Wiley (1990) compiled a book on seven academic

disciplines and their relationship to international perspectives. The

editors site statistics about fossil fuel consumption projects and the

inability of a significant percentage in a survey being unable to

identify OPEC nations on a map. The editors go on to reveal why

geography is important. The work brings up certain studies and

statistics among college students. The work also mentions a lack of

emphasis on geography in education and the liberal arts.

This work is a book containing several scholarly essays with

endnotes. The reasoning used here is that one cannot understand one’s

own nation without knowing about others. The premise is that

geography provides context for other studies necessary to be

competitive in a global society. Data collection is secondary,

through reference studies. Analysis consists of the authors’

intuitive impressions of the data. Biases present themselves in the

usual fashions of personal experience and such. Also, this work is

written from a globalist perspective. The authors clearly wish to see

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integration of the world’s nations and want to manage resources and

populations. The premises are distinctively Malthusian.12

This work offers interesting statistics. Again, there are some

statistics with citations but most of the writing is what to do about

the problem with little discussion on how to fix it. Gathering data

remains problematic. Even as finding raw data from which to draw

conclusions remains elusive, no source found during research offered

an argument that something other than the education establishment of

the United States is responsible for geographic ignorance. There are

several factors that feed into how education occurs in the United

States, but all of these factors work through education i.e. culture,

money, governance, etc.

Gatto (2000) asserts that “mass dumbness” occurs by design.

Gatto discusses how children were given positions of increasing

responsibility at younger ages in older days. He uses the example of

Admiral Farragut who took his first command at the age of 12. Gatto

asserts that public education is the brainchild of the “four great

coal powers” and quotes Max Mason as saying that public education is

for controlling behavior, not education. Gatto goes on to say that in

1840 complex literacy rates were “between 93 and 100 percent”. Gatto

12 This refers to Malthus and his economic theories.

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goes on to say that coal and mass production compelled changes to the

education establishment in the United States.

This is a book. It is long and well-researched. Unfortunately

it does not contain citations as it is written for the masses and not

for scholars. However, occasionally it is possible to make out the

sources by looking for the nearest dates, using the book, periodical,

or speech mentioned and running Google searches. Secondary data is

used and analyzed intuitively. The biases here go beyond the norm.

The author clearly believes in either a conspiracy to dumb down the

youth of America or the author believes that good education was

sacrificed in the name of production. One is tempted to say the

author started out with the idea of finding data to support his

conclusions; however this is not the case. Yet, without researching

the author and his journey through the material he discusses, it is

not possible to come to this conclusion. The author clearly wants to

point the finger of blame at financiers, capitalists, and Fabian

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socialists.13 While the author does not offer other hypotheses, his

arguments are strong.

This work highlights concerns about American education.

Geography falls within the category of education. This will help

discern when and where the shift in education occurred and what it

entailed—though such considerations lay beyond the scope of this

paper. The book reminds us that an education establishment cannot

think, feel, or decide. There are people behind the faceless

bureaucracy. This point is something to focus on—the people, forces,

and other dynamics that are shaping the education establishment and

causing it to perform in an unsatisfactory manner. This book will

offer some insights about what could work through the education

establishment to cause geographical ignorance.

Theoretical Framework

13 For the purposes of this work, there are two types of socialist. There is the Stalinist socialist—the types that kick the door down and fire machine guns into the room. These are brutal dictatorships like those of China, NorthKorea, Soviet Union, etc. Another form of socialism is called Fabian socialism; the doctrine of such people is evolution by stealth or the inch-worm effect. The inch-worm moves along until it meets resistance, it changes direction laterally until it can continue forward again. When an American wakes up in the morning and reads “We’re All Socialists Now” on the cover of apopular news magazine, one is witnessing discussion of Fabian socialism.

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The primary gap in available literature is severe. Research

reveals that access to raw data remains outside the scope of both

timeframe and resources for this project. This study will compensate

for this gap through use of available data in the literature—placing

trust in those sources. Of course, a fundamental question of this

study’s validity is possible because of the gap and subsequent

compensation. This study calls for more research specifically

designed to produce raw data on the educational experiences of those

who teach geography at all levels of American education from K-12 to

post doctorate. With raw data this study would hold better means to

define the relationship between education in the United States and

American knowledge of geography. This study uses what is available

and draws conclusions from that data.

Through rationalism one may accept that without education, people

will not control as much knowledge as they would with education. How

can a person know about geography if that person is not educated in

geography? Ergo, education is necessary for knowledge in geography.

American citizens are educated—for the most part—in America.

Therefore, through rational thought the reader should note a

relationship between the American education establishment and American

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knowledge of geography. At this time, no compelling argument exists

to prove that such a relationship does not exist.

Several independent variables influence the education

establishment in the United States. These factors are identified

through rationalism: funding, culture, public policy, and law.

Nothing moves—at least not far—without money to fund the movement.

This includes educational materials, teachers, students, etc. Ergo,

funding is a major independent variable influencing the education

establishment. Culture includes the attitudes, choices, and

mannerisms which affect an interest in the education establishment and

in being educated. Public policy and law have a direct impact on how

resources are used, how education occurs, and how one ensures quality

control in matters of education. Thus the project offers the

following diagram of factors which influence the education

establishment:

Funding

Culture

American education establishment

Public Policy

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Law

Clearly, this model involves variables that lay far beyond the scope

of this project. Studies in American culture and its influence on

education would require a single study, as would each of the other

independent variables. This model appears in this study to reveal

the complexity of factors influencing the Education establishment—

which becomes the independent variable for this study. The

theoretical framework for this study involves one independent variable

—the education establishment—and one dependent variable—American

knowledge of geography. The diagram for this dynamic follows:

American Education establishment American

Knowledge of Geography

This more simplified theoretical model is small enough for use in this

piece. Again, the American education establishment is a gestalt made

up of several independent variables and their consideration is beyond

the scope of this piece. Note, this theoretical model flows mostly

from the author’s own analysis of all literature mentioned. Each

piece of literature reviewed in the previous section made a

contribution to the model through presentation of data, narrative,

etc. The author takes credit only for mistakes in this model—and

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gives equal credit for what remains to all authors aforementioned.

The American education establishment is a gestalt which directly

affects American knowledge of geography. From the specific research

question, the lines of consideration flow through a rational

theoretical framework to offer the following hypothesis: The American

education establishment directly affects American knowledge of

geography.

Research Design

This is a descriptive study and is qualitative. Again, the

specific research question is: Does the American Education

establishment contribute to significant numbers of American citizens—

in recent and current times—demonstrating a lack of knowledge vis-à-

vis geography? This question lacks a sturdy selection of referencing

literature and scholarly, scientific research. These points make the

project problematic at certain junctures. The strategy for this

project is to collect relevant literature and use the best portions of

that literature to decide whether to reject the hypothesis under

consideration.

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The hypothesis tested is: The American education establishment

contributes to significant numbers of American citizens’—recent and

current—demonstrating ignorance of geography. For this hypothesis,

recent and current describe, approximately, 1980-2009. As much

literature on this topic does not exist, this study will not model a

theory or add to an existing theory. This project will test a

hypothesis concerning education in the United States of America.

As this study deals with education, available data would focus on

American high school students, American university and college

students, and their educators. As law mandates all Americans attend

high school, and many attend university and college, this project will

infer the findings to all American citizens who, primarily, pass

through American education institutions. Supremely, as law mandates

all Americans attend at least two years of high school; this study

infers these findings to most of the American population. The term

“most of” is used as there always seem exceptions to any absolutist

statement. American citizens must exist who, through special

circumstances, were not subject to the same experiences as the

majority. Sampling methods depend on the studies used for this

project. As this is an 8-week course, it is problematic to collect

and analyze raw data. Also, no raw study data is accessible to the

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researcher now. Therefore, this project places trust in the sources,

their data, and interpretations. The data will be used to mark

whether the hypothesis is rejected. For example, if one study claims

that American high school students miss an average of 90% of questions

on geography a researcher cannot reject the hypothesis that American

education contributes to American ignorance of geography. So while

the data is not raw and verifiable, as necessary for certain other

research roles, enough data exist to decide whether to reject a

hypothesis.

This study will be single-method. While multi-method studies are

more valid, the purposes here are to confirm or refute the hypothesis.

The researcher has no role in raw data collection or analysis—such

data is not accessible and the limited time frame of the course makes

any data collection problematic. Other researchers conducting the

same collections, through the same sources, would note the same

results. The secondary sources are in order and properly vouched for

through the researcher’s familiarity with these sources through

reading and cross-referencing where possible. Data is collected from

the internet and libraries and copies are kept on the computer where

possible and notes are kept in a notebook where not possible.

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Analysis of collected data is minimal. As the sources are

secondary, the relevant data is presented as usable statistics. These

usable statistics measure certain information and, without access to

the raw data, it is not possible to use other analytical methods on

the data. The researcher will take the data, as it stands, and offer

certain conjectures based on that data. These conjectures reveal

through systematic methods. For example, the researcher finds that

60% of American university students in one survey did not answer

questions about geography correctly. Is information available on the

nature of the questions and their difficulty? Are there reasons other

than the hypothesis for this result? Does this survey refute the

hypothesis? Is information available on the students surveyed? If

these are university freshmen, a researcher can infer high school

education in geography, but cannot infer college courses in geography.

These are the questions the research needs to examine. If certain

information is not available, the study should mention this.

Overall reliability is ensured through transparency in the

methods used. The lack of raw data is frustrating and necessarily

costs in validity. However, this study could also become the impetus

for future research—even with data access lacking now. Therefore, it

is important that this study describe its faults with conjecture. In

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this way, if another researcher follows this design, this researcher

will remark the same results—though not necessarily the same

interpretations. As the students among the research samples are

expected to have passed through courses on geography, it is possible

to infer the findings to the population at large.

Problems faced in data collection are aforementioned. There is a

limited time to conduct any studies, and this limit lies beyond the

scope of the project. Access to raw data and studies conducted on

these questions is not available at this time. These two

considerations make data collection problematic. It is necessary to

rely on trusted sources of information that are not always as clear

and systematic in their writings as this study will be.

Limitations of this study are many. A chief limit is in the

culture of the United States—and the several states. The American

culture of isolationism must be a contributing cause to geographical

ignorance. However, adding this into the study would require more

time and research and is beyond the time and resources assigned for

this project. Also, the American education establishment is not a

large centrally planned apparatus. Federal requirements exist, but

the government does not micromanage all decisions made locally.

Therefore, states, counties, cities, and towns have certain amounts of

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autonomy in their education. This being the case, it is problematic

to consider all the details of the various education establishments,

their interactions with federal requirements, and so on. All of these

subsystems locally, and other federal entities, comprise the American

education establishment. It is simply not possible to examine every

aspect of the American education establishment in the course of this

project.

Thus, with the time and resources allotted, it is difficult to

consider other contributors to American ignorance in geography. It is

impossible to conduct a full analysis of the American education

establishment. The study time-line consists of the eight weeks in

this course. The project is due by the end of the course.14 The

researcher holds the time, skills, and resources needed to conduct the

design as presented at this time.

Findings

Before proceeding to the findings, it is necessary to offer a

brief preface. In the interests of conserving space, brief pattern

analysis occurs at the end of this section. This examination does not14 We just discussed this via email, thank you.

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stop at each example and point out how causality occurs or whether or

not the example supports the hypothesis. This preface is iterated at

the end of the assignment, yet appears here as a courtesy to readers

who may find themselves accustomed to a different format.

The history of education in the United States is long and varied.

A complete discussion of the history of education in the United States

is beyond the scope of this work. However, basic considerations are

necessary for the reader to recognize the state of affairs concerned.

Gatto (2001) offers much to consider: “At the age of twelve, Admiral

Farragut got his first command. I was in fifth grade when I learned of

this. Had Farragut gone to my school he would have been in seventh”.15

Today, most officers do not receive a commission without first passing

through a four-year education after K-12. An argument against this

position, based on increased reliance on technology, holds little

validity as officers make plans and give orders and noncommissioned

officers and soldiers use the technologies that support officers’

directives.16 Admiral Farragut was born in 1801. This would mean that

Farragut took his first command in 1813—during the war of 1812. Why

15 Gatto, John Taylor, The Underground History of American Education, (New York: Oxford Village Press, 2001), 2.16 The author spent time in the United States Army, Military Police Corps and began military training through JROTC. These statements reflect the author’s experiences.

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wasn’t Farragut in school? The institution of public schooling, as it

exists today, did not exist at that time.

It wasn’t just public schooling that did not exist in 1813. The

social construct of “adolescence” did not exist either. As Gatto

(2001) points out, “During the post—Civil War period, childhood was

extended about four years. Later, a special label was created to

describe very old children. It was called adolescence, a phenomenon

hitherto unknown to the human race”.17 While a discussion of how

changes in the culture affect the education establishment offers

further illumination, detailed discussion remains outside the scope of

this piece. Besides this new social construct, a small group of

dominant men would also influence the American education

establishment. Gatto (2001) argues,

Somehow out of the industrial confusion which followed the Civil War, powerful men and dreamersbecame certain what kind of social order America needed, one very like the British system we had escaped a hundred years earlier. This realizationdidn’t arise as a product of public debate as it should have in a democracy, but as a distillationof private discussion.18

This quotation brings us back to the subject of money and its

influence on education. However, further discussion exceeds the scope

17 Gatto, John Taylor, The Underground History of American Education, (New York: Oxford Village Press, 2001), 16.18 Ibid, 15.

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of the project. These pieces of information offer context. Gatto’s

offering allows readers to find the genesis of changes affecting the

education establishment and, by proxy, American knowledge vis-à-vis

geography.

Unfortunately raw data on student performance during the 1800’s

is also absent. An admissible argument is that a man who is ready to

take command of other men in time of war—or on a military vessel—

received superior education to one who cannot take said command. What

educational establishment would Admiral Farragut have experienced?

One possible answer is found in Gatto (2001) through his quotation of

Clifton Johnson on Abraham Lincoln’s education:

He acquired much of his early education at home. In the evening he would pile sticks of dry wood into the brick fireplace. These would blaze up brightly and shed a strong light over the room, and the boy would lie down flat on the floor before the hearth with his book in front of him. He used to write his arithmetic sums on a large wooden shovel with a piece of charcoal. After covering it all over with examples, he would takehis jack-knife and whittle and scrape the surfaceclean, ready for more ciphering. Paper was expensive and he could not afford a slate. Sometimes when the shovel was not at hand he did his figuring on the logs of the house walls and on the doorposts, and other woodwork that afforded a surface he could mark on with his charcoal.19

19 Ibid, 22.

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The style of education that Clifton Johnson ascribes to Abraham

Lincoln differs from the style of education offered to American

citizens today. A reasonable assumption follows. A man would not be

given command of a ship without some knowledge of navigation and

geography; such a man would have the lives of other men in his hands.

A man who lacked knowledge of geography would not function well as

President of the United States. How would a man lacking this

knowledge keep any pretense to competence in international affairs,

properly oversee the Civil War, or command a ship against the British

Navy in the War of 1812? Thus the piece comes again to the hypothesis

under scrutiny: The American education establishment directly affects

American knowledge of geography.

What is geography? According to Nuhfer (1998), geographers

themselves craft a convoluted understanding of what geography is as an

academic discipline.20 If the discipline itself lacks clear

definition, how can anyone expect proper teaching and learning of the

discipline? One of the first priorities of those who comprise the

American education establishment would be to describe exactly what the

discipline is, and make sure the boundaries between this discipline

and periphery disciplines are maintained. Nuhfer’s work suggests that20 Nuhfer, Edward B, “Academic Geographers Are Partly to Blame for

Americans’ Ignorance of Geography”, (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 20 April1988), B2.

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bureaucratic competition within academia may cause geographers to

overstep their boundaries and teach matters that others may hold

better qualifications to teach. Through rationalism a position

emerges. If competition among academic disciplines affects how

students receive education and from which teachers and professors,

then the education establishment must affect the knowledge shared with

students.

Matters of competition within academia are not the only causes at

work here. Keeling (2007) offers evidence of the problem: “Myriad

polls and surveys leave no doubt that Americans are among the most

geographically illiterate of all developed societies. The ranks of

Americans who have ever taken a geography class in high school or

university are small”.21 Could all of this flow from the competitions

within academia and the lack of definition for the discipline of

geography? Keeling (2007) offers more perspective:

Indeed, the attitude of many college admissions officers, deans, provosts, and presidents towardsgeography as critical in preparing students for success in a global society remains antediluvian.Witness the recent outburst from a Pomona College

21 Keeling, David, <i>Geographical Ignorance Limits America’s Opportunities</i> [essay online] (New York: American Geographical Society, 2007, accessed 13 April 2009); available from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&url=http percent3A percent2F percent2Fwww.amergeog.org percent2Fnewsrelease percent2FAGS-OpEd-geoignorance.pdf&ei=MAn-Sb_1FImYtAOx9cXxAQ&usg=AFQjCNF-uBTypnYRKXCiqEMDJiq-O8NM5w

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admissions official who questioned Advanced Placement Human Geography courses for high-schoolseniors and recounted how his colleagues had reacted with confusion and laughter upon seeing an AP geography course on a potential student’s transcript.22

Advanced Placement (AP) courses are the most difficult to take in High

School and usually count as college credit. Clearly, these emotional

outbursts are evidence that admissions officials at Pomona College do

not see the value of geography. That being the case, what education

could a potential student expect in the discipline from that

institution? While Pomona College is not all universities, and a

researcher cannot necessarily infer that such a reception would occur

at all institutions of higher learning, the Pomona College reception

occurred and rationalism demands that this affects student’s knowledge

of the discipline. However raw data of Pomona College is lacking—ergo

decisive demonstration of this remains elusive.

If this is the attitude of a college admissions board toward

geography, what would one find in the K-12 level? Again the

examination turns to Keeling (2007):

Part of the problem is that most of the people teaching geography at the K-12 level, when it is taught at all, have not studied geography at the university level. Very often, they are coaches orsocial studies majors who have no idea why they

22 Ibid.

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are teaching geography. These educators are the ones writing the social studies content standardsfor the K-12 schools at the state level.23

Keeling’s quotation speaks volumes. Unqualified people teach

geography and craft the geographical standards for K-12 schools at the

state level. However, Keeling does not reveal which states this

occurs in.

Keeling revealed how the education establishment in the United

States would affect the manner in which geography is taught and also

how educators and administrators in the education bureaucracy deal

with the discipline. The examination turns briefly to English

education. While this portion applies to students of geography in

England, the problem of ignorance is similar and the roots are found

in the shift of education policy. Moorish (2001) identifies the

specific problem thus, “Geography candidates have long been criticized

[sp UK]24 for the inadequacies of their case studies. Examiners point

to vague and generalised [sp UK] answers, lacking in specific facts,

short, or simply irrelevant. Why do students find it so difficult to

provide the required material?”25 Moorish’s criticism applies to 15-16

23 Ibid.24 Note [sp] is normally used for misspellings; [sp UK] is used to note that this is the proper spelling in the Queen’s English with UK standing for UnitedKingdom. 25 Morrish, Mike, “Case-study Competence” (The Times Educational Supplement, 23 March 2001), 2.

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year old students trying to complete the requirements for the General

Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). When the author was 15 and

16, South Hiram Middle School did not have its students undertake case

studies on geography. Perhaps this is a reason Americans consistently

score lowest among developed nations?26 Moorish goes on to describe

the roots of the problem:

The origins of the problem go back to the curriculum changes of the 1970s. Before the "quantitative revolution" geography was largely based on regional studies that drew together a wide variety of information about particular places. The examination boards decided which countries or continents were to be covered. Emphasis was placed on learning the features of these locations and candidates were expected to reproduce the facts in detail.27

Moorish points out that examination boards decided what geographical

information was important and what geographical information was not

important. This contributed to the problem of inadequate case studies

by the secondary school students of the United Kingdom. This proves a

relationship between an education establishment and its students’ body

of knowledge on geography—assuming trust of the source. As the United

States tests behind England—and England has its own problems with its

26 Sources supporting this claim appear later in the work. 27 Morrish, Mike, “Case-study Competence” (The Times Educational Supplement, 23 March 2001), 2

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students’ geographical knowledge—looking here offers more insight into

the problems of American education, especially when considering the

argument of Lewis (2000): “Ironically, however, in the presumably

bygone days of American isolationism a large amount of global

information was imparted in schools. One hundred years ago, even

junior high school students [secondary education students in the UK]

were expected to acquire detailed knowledge”.28 Lewis describes a

shift in American education which took emphasis away from geography.

In the paragraphs that follow, some data on American knowledge of

geography appears.

As stated, possibly ad nauseum, much raw data on the credentials

of American teachers is lacking as is raw data on student performance.

However, this next portion will cite trusted sources who enjoyed such

access. This portion presents numbers concerning American students

and matters of geography. Shabad (1982) discusses a 24-page report

issued by The American Association of Geographers: “The survey, which

covered 3,000 students at 185 colleges and universities in the United

States, disclosed that 60 percent of the student sample, composed

equally of two-year college students and of freshmen and seniors in

four-year institutions, had taken no courses in college geography”.29 28 Lewis, Martin W. “Global Ignorance.” Geographical Review, (October 2000).29 Shabad, Theodore, “Americans Get A Failing Grade In Geography” (New York Times, 27 May 1982), sec A, p. 7.

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While introducing four-year freshmen into the sample may skew it

slightly, the institutional requirements do not favor geography.

Institutional requirements are a device controlled by members of the

education establishment—in this case the universities themselves. Why

does it matter that many students are not taking geography courses and

many teachers are not qualified to teach them? The Economist (1988)

cites a National Geographic Society survey:

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One in five of those polled could not name a single country in Europe. Three in four could notfind the Persian Gulf on a map. One in four couldnot find the Pacific Ocean. One in two could not find South Africa. More astonishing, nearly one in two could not find New York state [sic] on a map. Indeed, 14% could not even find the United States.30

Researchers may infer that such results are caused by the education

establishment of America. However, the Economist (1988) offers still

more evidence of this:

In all eight other countries sampled, people over55 years old could identify fewer places than people aged 18-24. Americans over 55 could locatenine of the 16 places, but 18-24-years olds couldname only 7.5. In that age group, Americans are more ignorant than all the other countries -- well behind Mexico and Britain. The society used the same maps for a similar poll in 1947-48. Comparing the results reveals a steady loss of geographical knowledge.31

While this steady loss of geographical knowledge could find blame in a

steady loss of American interest, this does not absolve the education

establishment of responsibility, nor does it nullify same as a cause.

How many students are not interested in mathematics, sciences, or

English? It is the challenge of educators to make these disciplines

interesting, or else to provide the proper motivation for students to

become proficient in the same. If it is not, then it is their

30 The Economist, “Here Be Foreigners.” (The Economist, 30 July 1988), 26. (no author information exists) 31 Ibid.

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responsibility to ensure that students meet the standard and are able

to prove certain knowledge among the liberal arts and sciences. If

students are not meeting the standards, the education establishment

must have some influence in this. It is not as if Americans were

always ignorant of geography—as the survey shows, this is a relatively

recent development. Groennings (1990) discusses a 1980 survey

conducted by the Educational Testing Service. This survey reveals

that only 29 percent of Americans polled could recognize the OPEC

nations. Groennings (1990) goes on to cite a survey of 8th grade

American students with the following results: 35 percent could find

Egypt and 31 percent could find the United Kingdom on a map.32 Through

this information, research indexes symptoms of the lack of American

knowledge vis-à-vis geography as far back as this 1980 survey.

This relatively recent development is a fact reaching the

awareness of those in the highest echelons of power in the United

States. The reader may remember when Dan Quayle embarrassed the

United States by making remarks about Latin Americans speaking Latin

when they speak Spanish or Portuguese as their main languages.

Piscionere reveals: “President Bush indicates that the primary

problem in American society today is cultural apathy, brought on by a

32 Groennings, Sven, ed. and Wiley, David S., ed., Group Portrait: Internationalizing theDisciplines (New York: American Forum, 1990), 34.

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lack of education”.33 This lack of education contributes to a lack of

knowledge of geography. Supported by cultural apathy, this becomes a

vicious cycle. As previously shown, American knowledge of geography

is diminishing. Levine (2005) refers to a survey saying “that 25

percent of our college-bound high school students cannot name the

ocean between California and Asia”.34 This fact comes as little

surprise considering the percentages who could not find the United

States on a map in previously cited data. Levine (2005) also says

that “with some notable exceptions, our public schools are doing a

woeful job of teaching students about the world outside America’s

borders”.35 The paragraph that follows presents one of these notable

exceptions.

Until now, this examination juxtaposed theory and data relating

to the education establishment and the results of tools designed to

33 Piscionere, Alexandra, Immediate and Long-Term Dilemma: American Ignorance in International Affairs and Foreign Languages [scholarly discourse online] (Washington, DC: George Washington University, 2007, accessed 13 April 2009); available from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&url=http percent3A percent2F percent2Fwww.gwu.edu percent2F~uwp percent2Ffyw percent2Feuonymous percent2F2006-2007 percent2F06-07AlexandraPiscionerefinalczedit.pdf&ei=hA_-SZXvGIKytgOd1Z3OAQ&usg=AFQjCNF8QQSwPbQvzF6cKqojb9nb0AC1Ug34 Levine, Michael H. Putting the World Into Our Classrooms: A New Vision for 21st Century Education [policy paper online]. Washington, DC: Progressive Policy Institute, 2005, accessed 13 April 2009; available from http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=1&url=http percent3A percent2F percent2Fwww.ppionline.org percent2Fppi_ci.cfm percent3FknlgAreaID percent3D110 percent26subsecID percent3D181 percent26contentID percent3D253280&ei=VRD-SYwdpri2A-KhnNMB&usg=AFQjCNG7bPDz4NTictWLt-6JjP3w0y9WFw35 Ibid.

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test knowledge of geography. This final portion of the findings

narrative goes inside the classroom for an example of what is

happening in American schools. Pajares (1989) relates a story of his

teaching experience. In this story he tells us that after teaching

his students about the geography of the United Kingdom, one of the

students raised her hand and wanted to clarify whether England was the

capital of Great Britain. Another student said that it was Scotland,

and another student said that Scotland was in Ireland. Pajares was

taken aback and adjusted his curriculum accordingly. This action

remained well within his purview and made geography interesting for

his students. This resulted in better student performance in matters

of geography.36 The Pajares example proves that education

establishments affect the quality of knowledge their students are able

to show. Pajares offers an example of how the members of the

education establishment can make changes that improve student

performance.

This concludes the narrative portion of the findings section.

The project now addresses pattern analysis—as aforementioned in the

preface to this section. The findings presented prove causality.

This paragraph will focus mostly on the Pajares example and expects

36 Pajares, Frank. “Geography in a Fortnight.” Educational Leadership, (November 1989).

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the reader remembers enough of other examples to tie these in. Before

the Pajares paragraph, several sources united to offer evidence of

causality. However, the Pajares paragraph contains all necessary

elements to prove causality, save for the theory. Time ordering

occurs through the Pajares example. Pajares’ style of teaching

changed before his students’ ability to show their knowledge of

geography changed, other sources mentioned before Pajares concur with

this finding.37 The Pajares example demonstrates non-spuriousness. No

other variables affected events in the classroom other than

participants of the education establishment. Researchers may infer

the same dynamic among certain other evidence presented. Co-variation

is also evident in the Pajares example. As Pajares changed his style,

demonstration of student knowledge also changed. Other evidence

presented before Pajares’ example supports co-variation. Relevant

theory is found earlier in this work—in the theoretical framework

section. Simply put, the primary source of student knowledge is the

K-12 teacher and professors of any higher education the student

pursues. If this education establishment is performing poorly,

student performance will also be poor. These insights prove

causality. Analysis—and all examples offered—support the hypothesis: 37 In the interests of conserving document space and the reader’s time, these sources are not listed again. The Pajares example alone is enough to establish causality; the other sources offer supplementary evidence building to this example.

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The American education establishment directly affects American

knowledge of geography.

Conclusions

The findings of this study suggest much for the discipline of

geography. Geographers need to be clear about what their discipline

entails. Geographers’ efforts to perform this task would better occur

without passion or prejudice. Ideally, academic competition would

cease among departments as competition matters to bureaucratic power

and allocation of larger budgets. The competition would better center

on who is doing the better job of educating students. As Pajares

indicates—through his example—making changes in how teachers present

the material to students will also have measurable results. Children

who can answer questions aptly in class—as opposed to being unable to

do so—have greater potential to perform better on measured tests. The

education establishment must focus on educating students, not on other

goals which deprive American students of a proper education.

The theoretical model states the education establishment has a

direct effect on a student’s knowledge. Other remarks on the

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theoretical model suggested certain causes that would affect the

education establishment. One possible change to this theoretical

model is the introduction of a feedback loop. A simplified version

might look thus:

Public policy

Law

American knowledge of Geography

Funding

American education establishment

Culture

Education affects the variables that affect the education

establishment. President Bush argued that bad education led to

cultural apathy. Yet, cultural apathy leads to more bad education.

When teachers have no desire to be aware of what is beyond America’s

borders, how can parents be sure that their children are receiving

proper emphasis on these matters? Factors that determine exactly what

the education establishment is and does are affected by the citizens

of this nation. These citizens then educate future citizens. Thus, a

more complete theoretical framework would indicate this loop. The

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sources of this study reveal that this loop is a negative feedback

loop or vicious cycle. The implications for American society are

grave.

A citizenry which contains a significant portion of people who

cannot find their own nation on a map, cannot point to the nations

where their energy—fossil fuels—come from, and cannot identify oceans

surrounding their homeland cannot be taken seriously. As mentioned

earlier, the ignorant American is no longer met with laughter but with

contempt. It is simply not possible to sustain a dominant culture or

a position of geostrategic dominance with a citizenry that lacks a

proper grasp of the world in which that society exists. This state of

affairs should embarrass those who teach geography and certain members

of the education establishment. Members of academia had better ensure

that those who pass through its institutions are properly educated and

able to preserve the United States in its position of geostrategic

dominance.

If this project were to go to the next level, it would need teams

of analysts and researchers to gather raw data from various locations

among the several states. This data would include standardized

testing of students and American citizens of all levels and age

groups. The project would need data on the qualifications and

Jordan 56

academic experience of all educators who teach geography. The project

would also need standardized testing of the educators’ knowledge of

geography. Ideally, this project would continue to gather this data

over several years or even decades. This would settle, without any

doubts, the causality outlined in the theoretical model and findings

in this paper.

Such a project raises other possible implications for the

discipline of geography and education in general. It would be

preferred to have such studies occurring always in all disciplines.

Perhaps an education establishment where not only students, but

educators as well, are routinely tested on the accuracy of their

knowledge is in order? Educators could refresh themselves on lost

knowledge as needed. Perhaps a radical restructuring of how

universities work is in order? One might argue the most important

aspect of a university is the faculty. This follows from the

assertion that a university’s most important function is to educate

students. Yet, the largest buildings on campuses tend to be

administrative buildings and the goals of many institutions revolve

around how much money they can make. Certain universities are even

publicly traded companies. Perhaps this emphasis on finance forms a

problem? While the following point may seem off topic, it is

Jordan 57

relevant. The author asks for the reader’s indulgence. When the big

auto companies of the United States put financiers rather than

engineers in charge of their companies, taxpayers got the bill. What

happens when financiers run universities? Unlike the bailout policies

—which take money from taxpayers to pay for the shoddy practices of

the companies that failed—there is no solution to transfer knowledge

when shoddy American education practices lead to an intellectually

bankrupt citizenry.

This examination has shown that United States citizens are losing

knowledge of geography. The broader implications here are that action

must occur to fix this problem. More studies are needed. This

project should expand to include proper budgets and personnel to

discover the severity of the problem and offer solutions to this

problem. While this study proves causality, and moves toward

solutions, greater effort is necessary if the United States is going

to have a citizenry that is prepared to maintain its position in the

21st century.

Jordan 58

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