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Escuela Catekumenal Communities

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Translated from the Latin book of Di Napoli,

Joannes: Manuale Philosophiae ad usum

Seminarium, Liber I, “Introductio Generalis –

Logica – Cosmologia,” Marietti Editori Ltd.:

Rome, Italy, 1953

Rev. Dominador N. Marcaida, Jr. 8/1/1997

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

I. Theoretical Introduction

II. Historical Introduction

III. Notions of Philosophy IV. Relationship of Philosophy with other sciences

V. Divisions of Philosophy

I. THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION A. Question of Life

Anyone, who either possesses a whole or a perfect

reason, asks himself these questions:

What is the end, or purpose, of man’s life?

What for is man’s life on earth?

Anyone of us who is forced to propose this question to

himself is looking for the reason of life itself: why

plants and animals live, but are ignorant about the origin

or the end of life, and consequently do not lead their life

properly.

This question about the end of life do not consider

the end as this or that man proposes in fact to himself,

but the end or purpose which all men, in as much as he is

man, ought to propose to himself; and this is the ultimate

end; all men proposes to himself some proper end (in

sciences, in the military, in commerce, etc.), but he asked

so that he proposes to himself what is this end of all men

ought to be among other ends in this or that man.

The question about the purpose of life and other

questions implies: What must I do that I may obtain (gain)

this ultimate end of life? Is there a law that regulates my

actions? 1 This other question is a question about the rules

of human life that would lead to the ultimate end of life.

The two indicated questions, about the end and about

the rule of life, constitutes a single question: which is

the question of life or, another way of saying it, the

question about the value of life (problem of the value of

life).

This, which the question poses, requires an answer,

that is the solution to the question; and having the

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solution to the question will give the doctrine of life

(theory, opinion, teaching, instruction, and system of

behavior). All men, also the uncultured and ignorant, show

another manner of the value of life; but not all have and

know the doctrine of life; on this doctrine lies what we

call philosophy; consequently, philosophy is considering

certain doctrine of life.

To put this point into a diagram:

and the

B. Question of Reality

The question of life implies other questions, which we

call question of reality (the universal question). Because

the question about the ultimate end and the regulation of

human life cannot be resolved without first resolving the

following question:

What is man? What kind of world did man invent?

The means by which we resolve this question about

reality depends upon the mode which we have to resolve the

question of life; for example, if man is being called

material without having a spiritual soul, his ultimate end

will have to follow his material will (that is, to pacify

it).

The solution to this question of reality is the

doctrine (theory, opinion) of reality. Also, in the

question of reality, as in the question of life, all men

judges other mode of reality, that is, of men and the

world, but the doctrine reflect to have that which we call

philosophy.

THE QUESTION

(problem) OF LIFE

DOCTRINE (theory) OF

LIFE

PHILOSOPHY

Regulation (rule)

of man’s life on

earth

The Ultimate End

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C. Question of Knowledge

The question about reality implies another question,

which we call question of knowledge. Because the question

of reality and its solution can be attained through

knowledge; through knowledge man may ask, answer and teach.

Hence the question arises:

What is knowledge? Do we have certainty of our

knowledge of things? Is reality the same according to

our knowledge?

Without first resolving this question, we cannot have

the reflection on the doctrine of reality.

The solution to this question of knowledge is the

doctrine or theory of knowledge. The doctrine of knowledge

do not consider this or that individual man’s knowledge,

neither his or the other’s ideas, but universal knowledge

taken in itself, it is processes, in its means, in its

limitations. When they consider knowledge according to this

manner, we can philosophy; and consequently philosophy is

the doctrine of knowledge.

D. Synthesis of the question

This statement can be summarized in this way:

Philosophy is fundamentally about the question of life, of

reality, of knowledge. The philosopher is one who inquires

universally and knows what is life, what is reality, what

is knowledge; hence, philosophy considers the radical

questions (the fundamental questions). But because, before

the thing, life and knowledge are also certain reality,

absolute and right philosophy is called the radical

question of reality.

Note however is that no one has inquired for the sake

of inquiring, but one inquires so as to arrive at a answer

and to acquire a doctrine. While all live in fact, the

philosopher asks and teach what is life; while all know

some manner of men and the world, the philosopher so much

inquires and teach which is reality; all have knowledge,

but the philosopher so much inquires and teach which is

knowledge. Therefore, the philosopher is one who is called

to reflect upon the problem of life, reality and knowledge,

so as to inquire and teach the doctrine of life, of reality

and of knowledge.

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Between the three questions is given a certain hierarchy:

because

1) if we consider the dignity of the question, this is the order which we can place: a. the problem

of life, b. the problem of reality, c. the

problem of knowledge; the very doctrine of

knowledge and of reality ought to serve our life,

that we regulate it to its ultimate end;

2) if we consider the first tract (so that it must be treated first), in as much as one question is

supposed in the solution, the order is inverse:

a. question of knowledge, b. problem of reality,

c. the problem of life.

The complexity of these three questions constitutes

the philosophical problem, which solution is the special

doctrine which is called philosophy. Philosophy therefore

is certain wisdom, because wisdom is the consideration of

the highest problem; therefore among people, present or

past, the philosopher is called wise or learned. We will

see therefore, briefly, how the wise considered these

questions in the history of peoples, to understand better

the nature of philosophy.

II. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION2

A. From Thales to Socrates

Wisdom, as the radical question and the universal

doctrine, have started among the Greeks.

The question, which was asked in Greece, is very well

the question of reality: Which is the principle (art), out

of which reality, or the world, is constituted?

The Ionean philosophers (6th Cent., B.C.) answered as:

Thales, one of the seven wisemen of ancient Greece, placed

this to be in water, Anaximenes in the air, Anaximander

some indeterminate entity (apeiron); Pythagoras (582-500),

prince of Italian or pythagorian school, put in numbers as

the beginning which constitute all things. The name

“philosophy” is attributed solely to Pythagora; because,

asking to know some certain art, to answer was referred to

Cicero as “that art which know nothing by itself, but to be

a philosopher,” that is a lover of wisdom (filos + sofias).

This however was also handed down fro Socrates.

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In this century other question arose in Greece, which

pertain to the general question of reality; when in the

world appear- change and motion, have asked: Wherefore is

this motion in the world? What is motion?

Heraclitus (6th to 5th Century) responded that all to

have changed and to move; Parmenides distinguished the

true: if the thing is considered in as much as they appear

in our senses, everything changes; but if considered in as

much as the truth is known to reason, all are immobile

because they are beings: water is, air is, number is, heat

is; this verb “is” is common to all; hence the principle is

put: being is being and cannot be non-being. If therefore

all are being, this being is one and immobile: one because

if it has many beingness (a, b, c, d…), being will be non-

being (being a is not being b…); immobile, because that

which change cross from some non-being to be some, and

vice-versa; hence being, if to be mobile, ought to be non-

being.

Briefly, in the question of reality, Heraclitus

defended mobilism, Parmenides immobilism. The opposite

solution to their question contain diverse doctrine of

knowledge: Heraclitus said everything to move because it

appears to the senses: and here is the truth according to

itself; according to Parmenides truth (aletheia) is

knowable to reason, which exist as having one and immobile

being; the senses present a single mutation for which

reason uncertain opinion (dopa).

At this certain time, whoever loves to be called wise

(sofisthai), posit the doctrine of the mobility of all

things, saying nothing to be the truth or the good or the

just in itself, but all continue to move according to the

arbitrariness of men; this is expressed in the teaching of

the sophist Protagoras (485-411): “Man is the measure of

all things”.

From the saying of Protagoras two questions arise:

1. If man is the measure of all things, what is man?

2. Does human knowledge give the truth? While the Ionean philosopher inquired what is the

world, the sophists inquired about men and about knowledge,

that is they considered solely the anthropological question

(anthropos = man + logos + science) and gnoseology (gnosis

= knowledge); but their doctrine, while it says nothing

about the truth in itself, neither of the good, neither of

the just, it leads to the ruin of the individual and social

life.

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B. From Socrates to Aristotle

Against the sophists, Socrates (439-399, that he may

save the people in their individual and social life,

proclaims the necessity and universality of truth, of good

and of the just; according to Socrates, the measure of

things is not arbitrated in individual humans, but in

objective human reason, which knows the truth, the good and

the just through universal ideas. Socrates’ doctrine have

the testimony of his being a great philosopher, because due

to his doctrine Socrates was condemned capitally by thirty

tyrants.

Socrates only considered the question of knowledge and

the question of life, he relinquished the question of

reality o, better, the problem of the world; consequently

his philosophical doctrine is deficient, because, as we

said, the question of life cannot be resolved without first

resolving the question of reality.

Socrates’ greatest disciple, Plato (467-348), which in

his celebrated dialogues have the complete doctrine of his

teacher and considered the three questions: about

knowledge, about reality and about life. In his work, Plato

asked and taught but rather he asked; the same is present

rather the problem which philosophical (doctrine) system:

however much of what he taught is here briefly summarized:

1. About Knowledge

Question Doctrine (solution, answer)

1. Which is true knowledge or

science?

1. True knowledge or science

is the universal and

immutable knowledge, which we

do not know by the senses, bu

by the intellect through

ideas.

2. From where do our ideas

come?

2. Our ideas is not had

through the senses, neither

through sensible things, but

come in us by our own birth.

2. About Reality

1. Are we given other reality

before this sensible world?

1. We are not given other

reality before this sensible

world, but the same is true

immutable reality, from where

this sensible world is an

image and a copy.

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About reality continued…

Question Doctrine (solution, answer)

2. What is man? 2. Man is a spiritual reality

(soul), which uses a body as

a horserider uses a horse.

3. About Life

1. (About the end) What is

the end of human life?

1. The end of human life is

when man n the afterlife lie

in the supernatural world.

2. (About regulation) What is

the regulation of human life

that will lead to this end?

2. The regulation of human

life is virtue, that is

justice, prudence, fortitude

and temperance.

In the platonic dialogues other questions had been treated:

1. Question of beauty and the arts; 2. Question of

political life (whose forte is the greatest platonic

question); 3. Question about the education of men; but all

other problems could be reduced to these three great

questions. Plato is the first philosopher who treated all

these questions; he did not resolve all, nevertheless he

attained the greatest merit in the history of philosophy.

The defects of the platonic doctrine was intentionally

avoided by his disciples, Aristotle (384-322); he put many

questions, but before teaching what he researched, he

retained the doctrine of his teacher but he substantially

corrected. His doctrine is in this schema:

1. About Knowledge

Question Doctrine (solution, answer)

1. What is true knowledge and

science?

1. True knowledge and science

is the universal and

immutable knowledge which

could be have from intellect

and reason also, but with the

help of the senses.

2. From where do our ideas

come from?

2. Our ideas come from

sensible things through the

work of the senses and the

intellect.

2. About Reality

1. (Of the world) Are we

given other reality before

this sensible world?

1.We are not given other

realities (truth in itself,

good in itself, just in

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About reality continued…

Question Doctrine (solution, answer)

itself) before this sensible

world, the truth, the good

and the just come in things;

before this sensible world

existed the great God as the

mover of this immobile world.

2. (Of men) Who is man? 2. Man is not solely soul

that uses a body as mere

instrument, but is the

composite if soul and body.

3. About Life

1. (About the end) What is

the end of man?

1. The end often is to be

perfect before escape from

this world.

2.About the regulation)What

is the law regulating human

life that will lead to this

end?

2. The law of human life that

would lead to this end is

virtue or, better, the

moderate use of the things

which we have in this world

through knowledge and

friendship.

While Plato rather inquired what he taught, Aristotle

proceeded systematically (we say: “he asked, but rather he

taught while he inquired”) and in this manner he divided

his philosophical treatment:

1. if he considers the reason of things as they are, we have speculative or theoretical philosophy;

2. if he considers the reason of things as when they ought to be, we have practical philosophy.

Speculative philosophy is triply divided: a. if things

are considered as mobile and sensible (according as they

are in nature = physis), we have Physics (Philosophy of

Nature); b. if things are considered as amounts (as much),

we have Mathematics (Philosophy of Quantity); c. if things

are considered as beings, we have prime Philosophy

(Philosophy of beings and of God).3

Practical Philosophy is also triply divided: a. if

considered in the order placed in the working of the

intellect, we have Logic; b. if we consider the order

placed in the operation of the will, we have Ethics for the

individual and Politics for the political community; c. if

considered in the workings of art, we have Poetry.

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C. From Aristotle to Thomas Aquinas

After Plato and Aristotle more or less all

philosophers avoided being very platonistic or very

Aristotelian. In platonic philosophy, what is prevalent is

the supersensible and superterrestrial world where man must

align his desires to this supersensible world; what came in

succeeding Aristotelian philosophy was against this,

because this philosophy was more systematic or more ordered

and more rational; the other philosophy, ignorant of the

concept of creation, admitted that this material world is

eternal.

Christian doctrine, as revealed by Christ Son of God,

teach that this world is the product of God out of nothing

(creation). In the whole Christian doctrine of reality and

of life, according to as we have in the Old and New

Testament:

1. God created the world from nothing; in the world

he created men composed out of soul and

body, but having been robbed of liberty; the

world and man subsist by the providence of

God;

2. First parents sinned by violating the law of

God; their sins stained all humankind.

3. Son of God became man and suffered so as to

redeem man to make them adoptive sons of

God.

4. Man, with the help of the grace of God through the merit of Christ the Redeemer, can put

good actions, which gain eternal life.

The Christian doctrine resolves the question of

reality and of life, but through revelation, which man

believes; hence this is a revealed doctrine, which are

admitted by men through faith.

The Fathers of the Church (Ambrose, Augustine,

etc.) commenting on Christian doctrine and in their

commentaries many times used Greek philosophical doctrine;

giving rise therefore to a new philosophy which was born

through union of the Greek philosophy and Christian

doctrine. Among all, who has constructed this synthesis,

eminent is Augustine (354-430), who preferred Aristotelian

Platonism.

From the 5th up to the 12th Century, the study dwindled;

but afterwards, in the second period of the Middle Ages,

through the institution of the schools, it flourished

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again, hence the philosophy of the Middle Ages (12th to 15th

Century) was called scholastic.

Principal of such philosophies are Bonaventure

(Franciscan, 1221-1275) and Thomas Aquinas (Dominican,

1225-1274). Bonaventure followed rather the Augustinian

doctrine; Thomas Aquinas truly taught a new philosophy

through the synthesis of the doctrines of Aristotle and

Augustine; this philosophy is called “Thomism.” After the

death of Thomas the Pontiffs, the councils, religious

orders and universities made a great study of his doctrine,

the strength of which had not been defused by adversaries.

We have therefore two disciplines in the Middle Ages:

1. Theology, which was founded over revelation; 2.

Philosophy, which was founded over reason, but always aided

by revelation. Scholastic philosophy considered rather the

questions of reality and of life, but the question of

knowledge was sufficiently treated.

D. From Thomas Aquinas to Kant

From Thomas Aquinas, principally during the 16th

Century, philosophers in the question of reality separated

that which Aristotle called “prime philosophy” (philosophy

of being)and rested on the mathematical, astronomics,

physics, chemistry and historical questions. Consequently

philosophy, was now distinguished also from the

mathematical and experimental sciences (Physics, Chemistry,

Biology, etc.).

The new sciences impelled to a great degree the

consideration of the problem on knowledge. In England,

Locke (1632-1704), Berkeley (1685-1753) and Hume (1711-

1776); in France, Rene Descartes (Cartesius, 1596-1753); in

Germany, Leibnitz (1646-1716) considered the pressing

problem on knowledge. Their doctrine could be divided in

this manner: the English stood for sensitive knowledge

(empiricism); the French and German stood for rational

knowledge (rationalism).

In the problem of knowledge arose the German E. Kant

(172-1804). In summary his doctrines are:

1. Our knowledge is limited among both the senses as

experience, that is nothing we can be able to know

demonstratively of supersensible things.

2. Knowledge do not come to us as the thing are, but as

they are represented to us by ourselves.

3. We could never therefore demonstrate: a. the

spirituality and immortality of the human soul

neither b. the existence of God.

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Considering in synthesis the modern philosophers, this had

come to us:

1. Philosophy is treated independently absolute from

Christian Theology and many times they are opposed;

2. Mathematical, astronomical, physical, chemical and

biological sciences had been distinguished from

philosophy;

3. Philosophy was many times reduced to the problem of

knowledge; and

4. Modern philosophy was classified many times according

to nationality (Italian, French, German, English,

etc.).

E. From Kant up to ours After Kant, philosophy was many times anti-christian

in as much as it became a doctrine of numbers, as we will

see in our following treatment.

Against this anti-christian philosophy was restored

scholastic philosophy and principally Thomism. Many

collaborated (cfr. VI) in comparing scholastic philosophy

with modern, many accepted by modern scientists as they

constructed a new philosophy, whose substance nevertheless

always remained scholastic philosophy, but principally

Thomism; hence, their doctrine was called neo-scholastic or

(in them which followed Thomas Aquinas) neo-thomism.

We have the restoration of Thomism in great vigor in

the encyclical of Leo XIII Aeterni Patris (1879), in which

this Pontiff, benemeritting catholic philosophy and

culture, ordered to be resumed in catholic schools the

philosophy of Thomas Aquinas. Thomism therefore is a

philosophy, which we are championing in this present text,

not which is seen or observed to be given in the word of

the teacher, but because grave reason urges us to amplify

their philosophy which is appealed by the Common Doctor.

Here, the historical introduction can be concluded.

This which we call philosophy can be consigned in this

manner:

1. They treat of the universal problems, which are concerned with life, reality and knowledge.

2. The sole use of natural reason; 3. They proceed from some principles and demonstrate

by arguments their doctrines or positions (theses

to tithemi = pono or place).

III. NOTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

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From those which are said in the preceding philosophy can

be defined: science of the reason of things through supreme

causes.

Analysis of the definition:

1. Science – science is truly a system of knowing the universal which we obtain through the demonstration

from the beginning; hence we have these elements:

a. knowledge or universal conclusions (e.g. of men in general, not this man etc.) between it

coordinates and subordinates; out of this

coordination and subordination the knowledge we

have a system or complex (syn-istemi = con-sisto

= with + establish);

b. a beginning from which to proceed (e.g., axiom in mathematics);

c. demonstration which is made to cross from a principle to a conclusion.

Philosophy also has: a. knowledge or universal

conclusion, b. beginning or principle and c.

demonstration; hence, rightly is science.

2. Rational. Philosophy is not founded over revelation, God or man, but over reason.

3. Thing. We said that the great questions of philosophy are about life, about reality and about knowledge;

life and knowledge are the same as reality; hence the

word “thing” indicate all (God, man, world, knowledge,

morality, politics), which can be considered in

philosophy.

4. Through supreme causes. When we put the question about something, we inquire the causes of that thing. E.g.,

around some dog we ask in this manner:

Question Response

1. What is this? 1. It is a dog.

2. Of what is this made of? 2. It is made of a body

and a spirit, that

makes it a living soul.

3. From where is this? 3. From the creator.

4. For what is this? 4. To guard the house.

In the first question, we asked the form (nature) or

formal cause of some thing; in the second question we asked

the matter or the material cause; in the third question we

asked the agent or the efficient cause; in the 4th question

we asked the end or the final cause. In instances the order

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some may come, that is having a proximate, intermediate,

supreme cause. The example may be: who made the dog? The

creator (proximate efficient cause); who made the maker?

The parents (Intermediate cause); who made the men and the

world? God (supreme efficient cause); another example: who

wrote the Divine Comedy? Dante; who is Dante? A poet; what

is a poet? A man; what is a man? A rational animal (supreme

formal cause of Dante).

Philosophy does not care unless supreme causes, that

we say more firmly.

IV. RELATIONSHIP OF PHILOSOPHY WITH OTHER SCIENCES

A. Object of Philosophy To better understand the nature of philosophy, the

work is to consider the object of its relation to other

science. The object is triple: a. material, b. formal

“quod”, c. formal “quo”.

Formal object “quod” (being considered) is the aspect

under which we consider the material object.

Formal object “quo” (become consideration) is the

medium which is being considered the material object.

It may be, e.g., Man. Man is being considered by many

scientists: geography, medicine, biology, chemistry,

philosophy, etc.; hence, man is the common material object

to these sciences. But 1. geography considers men in their

distribution over the face of the earth; 2. medicine

considers men in their sanity; 3. biology in their organs

and functions; 4. chemistry in their material elements etc.

Philosophy considers men in their immortality; hence formal

object “quod” of philosophy can be distinguished from the

formal object “quod” of philosophy can be distinguished

from the formal object “quod” of other sciences.

Also Theology considers men in their composition, in

their origin and in their immortality; but the medium in

consideration in philosophy is human reason; in Theology it

is revelation; hence formal object “quo” of philosophy may

be distinguished by formal object “quo” of Theology.

B. Relation of Philosophy to other sciences 1. Philosophy is distinguished from mathematical and

experimental sciences because of material object

and formal object “quod”.

a. By material object. Certainly mathematical and

experimental sciences consider part of reality:

Physics considers physical phenomena; chemistry

chemical phenomena; astronomy heavenly

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phenomena, etc. Philosophy considers the whole

reality: the world, men, God. Hence material

object of philosophy is larger than that of

mathematical and experimental sciences.

b. By formal object “quod”. Certainly, while other

sciences consider proximate cause or proximate

aspects, philosophy considers supreme causes,

e.g., mathematics considers problems concerning

quantity, but philosophy what may be quantity;

physics and chemistry consider bodily

phenomena, but philosophy teach what a body may

be, how is the body constituted; astronomy

considers nature and movement of heavenly

bodies, but philosophy teach the origin and end

of the world; biology considers living organs

and functions, but philosophy teach what life

may be, the origin and end of life. No one of

these sciences consider God, who is the

greatest among the supreme causes; philosophy

on the contrary teaches what is not and what

may be God.

Rightly therefore Philosophy is superior to these

sciences.

2. Philosophy can be distinguished from Theology because of material object and formal object “quo”.

a. by material object. Philosophy considers things known through human reason; Theology considers

them, and above all things which are superior to

the capacity of reason (mystery).

b. by formal object “quo”. Philosophy builds over human reason, theology builds over divine

revelation, which is superior to reason.

Over therefore Philosophy is inferior to Theology.

Truly philosophy is between the sciences (mathematics

and experimental) and Theology; it is the “queen of

sciences,” because it considers supreme causes as supreme

reason of the whole reality: what may be is the world (by

what, to what), what body (by what, to which), what life

(by what, to which), what man (by what, to which), what

God, what knowledge, what morality, what liberty, what

State, etc.; none however of the sciences and none of human

life can reasonably to consist unless it can be resolved by

proclaiming the most grave questions.

The middle solution to these philosophical questions,

which may be the truth, leads to Theology; hence it is said

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rightly as the “handmaid of Theology” (in as much as it

serves and leads to Theology, not in as much as it draws

proper conclusion from revelation or from Theology,

“prelude to Christianism”, “pedagogy to the Gospels” etc.

Out of the saying it can be deduced the greatest

momentum in Philosophy.

V. DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Philosophy, which is the “science of things,” can

consider things in a double manner: as they are, as they

ought to be.

1. If things are considered as they are, Philosophy is simply contemplating or speculating; and we have

speculative or theoretical Philosophy.

2. If things are considered as they ought to be, Philosophy is contemplating that it may direct the

operations to subsequent end; and we have practical

or (better) Philosophy of praxis.

A. Theoretical Philosophy is triply divided according to the mode the thing is considered as they are:

1. if we abstract from the singularity or from individuality, that which the thing is considered as

mobile and sensible (1. grade of abstraction), we have

Philosophy of nature or natural Philosophy;

2. if we abstract from mobility, that as the thing to be considered as amount (2

nd grade of abstraction), we

have Philosophy of quantity or Mathematical philosophy

(not simply Mathematics);

3. if we also abstract from quantity, that as the thing to be considered as being (3rd grade of abstraction),

we have Metaphysical Philosophy.

B. Similarly, Practical Philosophy is triply divided

according to the operations which ought to be the

ordinary:

1. If we consider the operation of the intellect as it is directed to truth, we have Philosophy of Logic, or

Logic.

2. if we consider the operation of the will, as it is directed to good, we have Moral Philosophy as Ethics.

3. if we consider the operations of liberal arts as it is ordered towards beauty, we have Aesthetic philosophy,

or Aesthetics.

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Philosophy of nature considers the world below that of

humanity and of men, in as much as hey are sensible and

mobile things; from this it can be subdivided in Cosmology

(of the world) and Psychology (of man); but many times, and

commonly now, the name “Philosophy of nature” is understood

solely as Cosmology; Philosophy of quantity to be

considered solely also in Cosmology, because quantity is

the property of mobile and sensible things (bodies).

Metaphysics considers being in common and the Supreme

Being; from this it can be subdivided in Ontology and

Rational Theology (we say: rational, to distinguish it from

Sacred Theology, which is founded over revelation) or

Theodicy.

Nevertheless, before we discuss being and the Being

(God), our work is to certainly lay down the existence of

being, which is the aim of our knowledge; and this is done

in Gnoseoology, which considers the relation between

reality and knowledge. Moreover, we have two philosophical

problems for our times of fast progress, scil., the

question of education and the question of history; the

former problem is treated in Pedagogy, which pertains to

Practical Philosophy; the latter is treated in Historiology

or in Philosophy of history, which is prt of theoretical

and part practical (as far as historical method is

concerned). In perspective therefore4

Natural

Psychology (about men)

Cosmology (about the world)

Gnoseology

Historiology

Metaphysics

Ontology (about being)

Rational Theology (about God)

Theodicy

Ethics

Aesthetics

Pedagogy

Philosophy

Theoretical

(speculative)

Practical

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Scholastic philosophers disputed much about the order which

part of Philosophy ought to be taught. Certainly our

judgment, two should attended:

1. The History of Philosophy teaches the evolution

of the problem to be these: the world, man,

being, God, etc.

2. Similar evolution of individual knowledge have

the same process.

3. Theoretical philosophy is treated first before

the practical; nevertheless the exception ought

to be made on behalf of Logic, which, when it

becomes the instrument of the sciences, ought to

be treated before all other parts. Hence, here

are the sequence of the order of treatment:

Logic

Cosmology

Gnoseology

Ontology

Rational Theology

Ethics

Aesthetics

Paedagogy

Historiology

Rightly therefore the Apostolic Constitution Deus

scientiarum (A.A.S., July 1931) has prescribed this order

(excepting Pedagogy and Historiology, which is not to be

considered here).

Three great questions, which we initially took up when

we considered the philosophical problem, from the diversity

of the formal object “quod” coming in the diverse

treatment; e.g., the question of knowledge is being given

in Logic, Psychology, and Gnoseology, according to which

knowledge is to be considered and regulated (logic), and

explained (Psychology), and examined (Gnoseology). All

these however will be clearly considered in progressive

treatments.

S U M M A R Y

1. The most principal questions, which must be looked to philosophy, are the questions

(problems) o life, of reality and of knowledge;

and with life and knowledge may be reality, the

synthesis of all the questions constitute one

fundamental and most universal problem of

reality; so that philosophy is considering those

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radical problem and universal doctrine of

reality.

2. This can be discovered also out of the history of philosophy.

3. Philosophy therefore is defined as: the science of reason of things through the supreme causes.

The material object object are all things; the

formal object “quod” is constituted by supreme

causes; formal object “quo” is the light of human

reason.

4. The reason of material and formal object which distinguish philosophy from mathematical and

experimental sciences; the reason of material and

formal object is what distinguishes it from

Sacred Theology.

5. Philosophy is divided into theoretical and pratical. Theoretical philosophy is divided into

a. Natural Philosophy (Cosmology and Psychology),

b. Gnoseology and c. Metaphysics (Ontology and

Rational Theology). Practical philosophy is

divided into a. Logic, b. Ethics, c. Aesthetics,

and d. Paedagogy; we add here Historiology.

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Synopsis of all that will be treated:

Philosophy

Logic

Formal Logic

Material Logic

Concept

Judgment

Reasoning

Material concept

Material judgment

Material reasoning

Cosmology

Somatology

Biology

Quantity of bodies

Activity of bodies

Measure of activity

Constitution of bodies

Phenomenon of life

Substance of living things

Gnoseology

Gnoseology (gen.)

Objectivity of knowledge

Certainty of knowledge

Transcendence of knowledge

Epistomology

Nature of science

Scientific method

Psychology

Dynamilogy

Human senses

Human intelect

Human appetite

Anthropology

Human constitution

Origin of men

Immortality of the soul

Metaphysics

Ontology

Rational Theology

Being

States of beings

Categories of being

Causality of being

Existence of god

Nature of god

Causality of god towards the world

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Pedagogy

Historiology Value of history

Historical methods

Aesthetics Nature of beauty.

Nature of Art

Ethics

Ethics gen.

Ethics sp.

Happiness of men

Morality of human

acts Law and office

Social ethics

Political ethics Philosophy

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E N D N O T E S

1 We can put well the beginning of this question, when Jesus was asked in the gospels:

“Good master, what must I do to possess eternal life?” (Lk. 18:18); “Eternal Life” is the

ultimate end, “that which we do in order to possess it” is the moral law. 2 This “historical introduction” is not a simple and brief recapitulation of the history of

philosophy, but a delineation of the philosophical problems; hence, we say both of

medieval and modern philosophy, because the fundamental questions of philosophy as

already delineated had come from the Greek philosophy. 3 In the 1st Century B.C., Andronicus Rhodius arranged the Aristotelian books, and he

placed it, which they do of prime philosophy of Aristotle is surnamed Metaphysics even

up to ours. 4 The division, which we propose, is this division of the Aristotelean sciences

accommodated for progressive and modern use. Ch. Wolff (1679-1754) proposed this

division:

About knowledge: Logic

Reality: Metaphysics Philosophy

About life: Ethics and Natural Law

General: Ontology

Special Psychology

Cosmology

Theodicy

This division we have seen is also acceptable to many scholastics, as can be seen

in textbooks, which are edited from the beginning of the century that has elapsed up to

ours; about the relation of philosophy with science better had been saved; we retained the

Aristotelian division.