Faith horizons of Taiwanese Lay Catholics

《新世紀宗教研究》第十三卷第三期（2015年3月），頁89-118

台灣天主教平信徒的信仰視域

鮑霖輔仁大學宗教學系助理教授

24205新北市新莊區中正路510號[email protected]

摘要藉著積極信德年的精神，教宗本篤十六世邀請在世界各地的天主教教徒對

其教理與信仰進行研究與深化。為了要達到既有效又有意義的成果，在實踐這

樣的研究和深化時，必須要考慮到不同的生活脈絡的特殊性。不同的生活脈絡

會激起不同的自我理解問題，也塑造不同的信仰生活方式。在理論上天主教是

一個普世信仰，不過事實上，該信仰乃是透過具體、局部、可見和在地的信仰

群體中所實踐出來的。

在台灣，天主教徒是屬於極少數的分子，他們面臨著來自於周圍不同的宗教

傳統與文化根深蒂固的多重挑戰。在台灣想要成為一位研究並深化自己信仰的天

主教信徒，必須──在理論與實踐上──面對許多（無言的）質問，即：在台灣

宗教界有那麼豐富的在地信仰，他必須為自己的宗教選擇與信念做出辯解。

從傳統以來，天主教信仰就是初期教會將信徒們的信念與教義綜合之後，

制定而傳承下來的。《信經》以簡潔的類型方式集結而成，一直被視為是基督

信仰與教理的「官方總結」。就像在早期教會，《信經》在普世教會還被用來

講道、教化信徒、護教、定義教理，而作為信仰的簡明表達方式。由於意識到

台灣文化與宗教多元對於教徒所形成的挑戰，本文試圖對《信經》──特別對

《宗徒信經》的最後四條──進行一種脈絡化的詮釋。

關鍵詞：聖而公教會、諸聖的相通、罪過的赦免、肉身的復活、永恆的生命、台灣天主教徒

投稿日期：103.3.28；接受刊登日期：103.9.6；最後修訂日期：103.9.26責任校對：林鈞桓、何維綺

90　新世紀宗教研究　第十三卷第三期

Faith Horizon of Taiwanese Lay Catholics Batairwa K. Paulin

Assistant Professor, Department of Religious Studies, Fu Jen Catholic [email protected]

AbstractDuring the Year of Faith, a concreted invitation has been launched to Catholics,

calling them to study and deepen aspects of the Catholic doctrine and faith. In order to be effective and meaningful, this call needs to take into account the peculiarities of the context in which the study and deepening are carried out. Context fuels questions pertaining to self-understanding; it shapes ways of living faith. Though universal, the Catholic faith is made visible in concrete, localized and contextualized faith communities.

In Taiwan, Catholics are a tiny minority faced with multifaceted challenges emanating from surrounding and deeply rooted religious traditions. To be a Catholic studying and deepening one’s faith in Taiwan, it is necessary to face－in theoretical and practical ways－(unspoken) requests for justification of one’s religious choices and convictions in the concert of many other existing lived faith expressions.

From tradition, the Catholic faith was formulated and handed down through articles synthesizing both the doctrine and faith convictions of believers. Patterned in a concise way, creeds have been held as “official summaries” of Christian convictions and doctrines. In fact, as in early church, creeds are used throughout the universal church for preaching, teaching, defending and defining Christian doctrine, as concise ways of confessing the faith. The present reflection aims at a contextualized interpretation of the creed with an emphasis on the last four articles of the Apostles’ Creed. This is done in the light and awareness of challenges emanating from the context of cultural and religious plurality of Taiwan－challenges which define the cadre in which Taiwanese lay Catholics live and proclaim their faith.

Keywords: Holy Catholic Church, communion of saints, forgiveness of sins, resurrection of the body, life everlasting, Taiwanese Catholics

Faith Horizon of Taiwanese Lay Catholics 91

A. Introduction

On October 11, 2011, Pope Benedict XVI, issued “Porta Fidei,” an Apostolic

letter that declared the period running from October 11, 2012 to November 24,

2013. The date commemorates two important events in the life of the Catholic

Church in the 20th Century: it coincides with the fiftieth anniversary of the

opening of the Second Vatican Council and the twentieth anniversary of the

launching of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Porta Fidei invites all

Catholics to revisit the spirit and innovations of the Council through a study of

its documents and ponder on the fundamental teaching of the Church so that they

might acquire a vivid faith, capable of impacting their respective milieus. Though

the invitation is universal, for more efficiency, its reception must take into account

the specificities of local churches. With this view and in search of a contextualized

theology, I turn to the Creed of the Catholic Church, intending an interpretation

that enriches and takes into account the concrete situations of Taiwanese Catholics.1

B. The Tenets of Christian Doctrine

One practical way to concretize the invitation offered to Catholics around

the world during the Year of Faith is to reflect in a concrete way on the tenets of

Christian doctrine. From first sight, this seems to be a simple enterprise. A close

look at the methodological steps implied unveils the intricacies of the task. A

consideration of the invitation brings along a series of delicate questions which

if not handled properly might lead the respondent to a slippery slope. Concretely

speaking what is meant by Catholic doctrine? Is it defined by ratified Catholic

1　 The observations and subsequent theological reflections in this paper are primarily and directly about Taiwanese Catholics. However, they are an eye-opener to non-Catholics interested in the self-appraisal of local Catholics in their struggle and endeavor to make sense of the universal faith they profess locally.


sources? If this is the case, a problem arises given the variety and wide range

of sources of inspiration for Catholic thinking and teaching. Bible, Tradition,

Councils, pronouncements of Church leaders, universal and local, etc., are all

authoritative sources of doctrine. The picture is even complex when considering

the abundance of the themes discussed, the diversification and ranking of

sources, the nuances in the formulation and explanation of faith. Despite this

variety, the perennial quest for a practical synthesis and/or a concise formulation

of the faith at the heart of a monotheistic religion2 can also be delineated in the Catholic tradition. The quest led to the formulation of kerygmas－short and

concise affirmations of the foundational beliefs of the first community. It also

evolved in creedal symbols or sets of faith statements professed that would serve

as a term of recognition and identification with other members of the believing

community. Moreover, the process produced creeds which originally worked

as synthetic outlines of the doctrine into which catechumens were initiated.

Despite the variations, the common denominator underscoring the process is a

quest for synthesis. Synthesizing entails the capacity of discerning the essential

from the superfluous, ability to highlight the necessary from the accessories,

as well as wisdom to get rid of the dust. This tentative attempt to answer the

invitation of the year of faith takes into account other important considerations.

First is the self-depiction of Catholic faith not only as a revealed faith, but one

that continuously seeks understanding (fides quaerens intellectum); a faith which

by nature needs to be reasoned out, that strives for rational or argumentative

accounts and explanations of the concise formulas through which faith is

2　 The awareness of the extension of the law, the difficulty to memorize and observe its detailed explanations justified a continuous quest for practical synthesis. In a nutshell, what did God expect from a believer? Rabbinic exchanges in Jesus’time seem to favor the exercise of mutual challenge on the capacity to provide concise formulation of the Torah and the Prophets. See Mat 22：34-40.


articulated, transmitted and explained.3 The second is regarding the modality in which the process takes place: it must be contextual. This being the case, how

valid are the above considerations for Catholics in Taiwan? How do they enhance

a deepening of their faith? As an attempt to answer these questions, this paper

intents a contextual reading of the Apostle’s Creed using the three steps of the

see-judge-act method. The first step offers a general depiction of the particular

conditions in which Taiwanese Catholics live and proclaim their faith. The task

assigned to the second step is to single out critical aspects, namely faith statements

that are challenged by local practices and hence need further contextualization.

The last step builds on the two previous steps and reaps the fruit of the analysis

in a progressive way. Concretely, it highlights existing samples of contextualized

faith proclamations that need to be looked at as stepping stones for expanding and

deepening the faith horizon of Taiwanese Catholics.

C. What We See: the Creed and Believers’ Life Setting

In line with the universal Church, the parameters to teach, speak, define and

defend Catholic doctrine in Taiwan are still those set by the Creed. Every Sunday

and on Feast Days, Catholics in Taiwan, just as in other places, recite or chant

the Creed. This is done mostly in the vernacular. Depending on customs, the

choice is between the Symbol of the Apostles or the Roman Creed (325) and

the Nicene-Constantinople Creed (381). For the very few who from infancy

were raised in the Catholic faith－as it is the case in many aborigine families－

3　 The necessity and possibility of a rational articulation of faith have a long tradition in the Catholic Church. It is expressed through different mottos referring to the rapport between faith and reason and vice versa. St Augustine (354-430) had the “Crede ut intelligas,” reiterated seven centuries later by St Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) as “credo ut intelligam.” Moreover, Anselm’s “fides quaerens intellectum” has mapped the cadre still promoted by contemporary Magisterium. John Paul II and Benedict XVI spoke of the rationality of the catholic faith and its openness to reasonable dialogue.


the Creed is one of the routine prayers memorized since an early age. As for the

adults, they are not required to memorize the Creed word by word. Nonetheless,

the process of memorization takes place in a natural way as they participate in

the liturgy. This is for various reasons. The catechetical manuals are implicitly

patterned along the articles of the Creed. Moreover, the implementation of the

steps of the RCIA is highlighting the importance of the Creed in a ritual way: it

is one of the signs offered to the catechumens during the intense period of their

election and probation. All these signs attest to the central role given to the Creed

as the official and referential summary of the doctrine and faith of Catholics in

Taiwan. But who are these Catholics?

Because of their specific situation, Taiwanese Catholics can be referred to

as a diversified, culturally well inserted and yet－diversely challenged minority.

Moreover, the complexity of Taiwanese Catholics can be featured from different

angles. Historically speaking, the introduction and expansion of Catholicism to

Taiwan went through several stages, each with implications for the transmission,

reception and deepening of the faith.4 A salient point of this expansion indicates that Catholicism is not a homogenous phenomenon in Taiwan. In terms of ratio,

4　 Dominican Friar, San Romano schematically presents the history of Church of Taiwan in four parts. The first refers to the short lived period of Spanish presence (1626-1642). This period is often not mentioned on the motif that it did not leave much sign of impact. The second coincides with the arrival of Dominican friars, the restoration of the Church and the Japanese occupation (1859-1895). The third period runs instead from the Japanese conquest to the arrival of the KMT (1895-1949). And the fourth period goes from 1949 to the present. While during the second and third periods, Spanish Dominican Friars constituted the great amount of missionary presence, the retrieval of the KMT enabled the influx of many religious congregations into the island. With their presence, missionary expansion, diversification and diffusion became possible. This diversity and sensitivities can still be perceived and retraced back to the choices, attitudes of the missionary with regards to certain thoughts and practices. Inculturation of cultures－specifically ancestor veneration, which back to the 17th century was a point of discord between some Jesuits and MEP, Franciscan and Dominican Friars－can illustrate this. For Concise history of the Catholic Church in Taiwan see: http://www.catholic.org.tw/dominicanfamily/taiwan_history_english.htm (Accessed on March 15, 2013).


the majority of Catholics are found among the aborigines.5 In terms of language, it can be asserted that Taiwanese Catholics speak more than the total number

of the languages spoken on the Island. For socio-political reasons, Mandarin is

considered the official medium in many churches. Hence, many attempts and

efforts of inculturation adopt and assume Mandarin as the linguistic tool. But this

does not exclude the usage of Taiwanese as a medium of liturgical communication

among the aborigines. To this should be added a great number of foreign

languages, spoken by the various missionaries in Taiwan as well as by Taiwanese

Catholics instructed in a second or third international language.6 Catholics are a minority challenged in diverse ways. They are heirs

of different infrastructures known for the quality and excellence of service

and witness which they offer in spite of the fast speed of its economic and

technological development. Allen Swanson refers to Taiwan as “a county in a

hurry,”7 where “religion continues to play a decisive role.”8 An aspect of the challenge is how Taiwanese Catholics are to keep up the structures and the

spirit they are supposed to incarnate and bear witness to while at the same time

experiencing that the numbers of the members are declining and the strength

eroding. Catholic structures are a proclamation of faith, they are called to be a

concrete and efficacious articulation of the love of God. They were also born to

serve as tools for evangelization for the church where Jesus is being proclaimed as

Risen Lord, where witness is being born to Gospel values.

5　 However, it is a scattered majority whose identity is primarily determined by the sense of belonging to this or the other tribal group. The term “aborigine” works as an umbrella for conglomerate people with some analogical sets of claims and traits. “Being Analogical” means that though similar, those claims cannot be reduced to a one single format imposed to all without causing prejudices.

6　 It has been a practice to pray in different languages on the Feast of the Epiphany in St. Francis Xavier Parish, Taipei. The range of languages spoken among and by the 80 members reaches up 17.

7　 Allen J. Swanson (1986). Mending the Nets: Taiwan Church Growth and Loss in the 1980’s. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, p.24.

8　 Allen J. Swanson (1986). Mending the Nets: Taiwan Church Growth and Loss in the 1980’s, p.29.


The understanding of what makes up the “catholicity” of the Taiwanese

Church is another area of concern for Catholics. The problem has two

hermeneutical facets: one political, the other ecumenical.

Following the withdrawal of the Republic of China from the United Nations

in 1971, many States shifted their diplomatic allegiance to the Popular Republic

of China. Up to the present, the Holy See has remained the only diplomatic

European ally of Taiwan. However, the consternation is that one day, it will also

follow the steps of other nations. Hence, any idea of restoration or normalization

of ties between PRC and Holy See stirs confusion especially among Taiwanese

and Catholics who have witnessed the implications of such a decision, such as

when passports holders of an ex ally are called to leave swiftly once diplomatic

ties are terminated. The same Taiwanese audience is very much aware and

knowledgeable of the repeated precondition PRC poses for any harmonization

and/or establishment of diplomatic ties: break from Taiwan and then we can

talk. Other unverified assumptions complicate the situation. One of these is that

missionaries in Taiwan are Holy See passports’ holders who will be directly

affected by a change of policy. When stirred up, the politico-diplomatic emphasis

affects the serenity of Christians. Similarly, its mixing of religious feelings and

nationalism affects the sense of being an inserted local Catholic Church and the

notion of collegiality that is supposed to characterize and direct the exchanges

between different local churches. A doubt remains on the possibility of speaking

of a Taiwanese Catholic identity without referring to the third dimension

overshadowing the supposedly bi-lateral relationships between the Holy See and

Taiwan. The Chinese presence and a lack of information on collegiality, on the

sense of being Church, jeopardizes the sense of belonging to a Church which is


both Taiwanese and Catholic.9 Beside the political and diplomatic facet, considerations and perceptions

from other Christian denominations can emerge as a strain for the Taiwanese

Catholic identity. Back to the 16th Century, Matteo Ricci, after a pondered

reflection, used the characters “天主 (tianzhu)” to translate the term “God”.

The rendering of Catholicism as “天主教 (tianzhujiao)” is rooted on that

translation. Unfortunately the translation later gave rise to a heated controversy,

the consequences of which were not unknown to Protestant missionaries who

arrived in China in the 19th Century and who, to distinguish themselves from

this problematic appellation, chose to be named “基督徒－基督教徒” (jidutu-

jidujiaotu)－followers of Jesus Christ. It is hard to imagine the prejudices

linked to translations of Christian terms. A Catholic will find it hard to explain

to a common Taiwanese that Catholicism “天主教 (tianzhujiao)” is a Christian

religion, that is, that Catholics are followers of Jesus Christ. A certain twist of

Protestant missionary zeal intentionally thwarted the situation insinuating that

“天主教徒 (tianzhujiaotu)” were worshipers of Mary and their ancestors. They

point out to the statues displayed in Churches and Catholic institutions dedicated

to the Virgin as proof. They also alluded to the rosary, and the devout importance

given to Mary and other ancestors. As in the previous cases, the common Catholic

perceives within those statements erroneous and irritating provocations. However,

only a few Catholics might find the appropriate argument to point out the right

doctrine. And yet, the premise for such an articulation is found in the creed shared

9　杜筑生著（Chou-seng TOU）（2012），《教廷的國際地位：兼論教廷與中國的關係》（Jiaoting de guojidiwei: qianlun jiaoting yu zhongguo de guanxi）（新北：輔仁大學研究中心出版），頁180-193; Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran (2005). Is the Holy See a Political Power. Lecture at Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei; Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran (2005). The Diplomacy of the Holy See. Lecture at Tai Chung Providence University; Fr Landry Védrenne (2012). The Diplomatic Relations between the Holy See and the Republic of China from 1942 to 2012 : History, Challenges and Perspectives. (Unpublished M.A. Thesis). International Master’s Program in Asia-Pacific Studies, National Chengchi University.


among most ecumenical churches: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became

incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man.”

Finally, we come to an area of real concern for Taiwanese Catholic identity:

the articulation for what awaits us after our pilgrimage on this earth. The

seriousness of the challenge can be illustrated in different inter-related accounts.

First, Luke is the only Catholic in a family of fervent Buddhists. He encountered

the faith and embraced it while studying in a Catholic university. He counted

himself among the luckier given that his family did not object to his conversion.

Astonishingly, he got more support from the grandmother, the one she feared

might object the most. They have lived in harmony, each respecting the faith of

the other. The problem only came seven years later after Luke’s grandmother

passed away. He was concerned with her whereabouts. “Father, where is nanay

(grandmother) now? She believed in reincarnation, not in a Merciful God who

would welcome her after her journey on earth. Can God forgive those who are not

Christians? Will it not be forceful and disrespectful to her convictions?”

Luke’s concern is not particular case. There are variations of similar cases

among Catholics. For example, Therese was baptized as child, raised in a Catholic

family. Her initial exposure to the popular beliefs and practices only occurred

after her marriage. The spouse belonged to a traditional Taiwanese family.

Several years after her marriage, the father in law passed away. Living under

the same roof, she could see the devoted way her mother in law prepared the

offerings to the soul of her late husband. Eventually, the mother in law passed

away as well. It was then that Therese naturally felt she needed to do something.

She was convinced that both father and mother in law expected something from

her. Moreover, she was persuaded that “that something” needed to be a gesture

understandable to the in-laws. Hence she was willing to prepare food offerings on

the first and fifteenth day of the Lunar Month, just as she saw the mother in law


doing. She was even tempted to get a seer who could confirm whether the parents

were happy, whether they needed something, etc.

The title for a last related example is “My husband’s favorite noodles.”

Joseph and Mary were fervent Catholics who married in the Church and raised

their children in the Catholic faith as well. Everything was smooth during the

forty years of conjugal life. The problem only started after Joseph’s death. Few

months later, Mary said to have seen him (in dream). He seemed to be asking for

something. That night she woke up, prepared a bowl of noodles. It was Joseph’s

favorite. She placed it next to his temporary tablet and return to sleep. The

following morning she went to mass but did not approach the Table. She felt a

need to clarify with her pastor, the mixed feelings emanating from the act she did

the previous night. When the time for clarification came, the judgment was fast:

she was told about her wrongness. The manner however did not convince her. She

saw the doors of the Church getting farther and farther from her. She has been since

then consulting a medium who helps her to keep in touch with her beloved Joseph.

The constant reference to the Creed as a potential font to asserting a

Taiwanese Catholic identity calls for a close observation on the place, role and

familiarity with which Taiwanese Catholic believers handle the Creed.

D. How we See: Deepening

(A) The Creed as An Answer for a Quest for a Synthetic Formulation

The need for a reflection on the tenets of the Christian faith is deeply rooted

in the nature of Christian Creed. Creeds are timely attempts to codify faith

experiences and an effort to concisely express what the community believes in.

At its roots, Christianity refers to the faith experience of the salvation unveiled in

Jesus, the Christ, shared and witnessed by the community gathered around him.


The first codifications produced concise formulas which brought to light the basic

beliefs shared among the members. Since the formulas also served as symbols of

mutual identification, their patterns were crucial in the initiation offered to future

members. In a nutshell, creeds reflect the felt need to articulate in a concise way

the faith of the community. They are the fruit of a long process of systematization

and synthesis. And as Cyril of Jerusalem mentioned, creed is not merely a

development of the kerygmas, that is, the first statements of the Christian faith,10 but also an intelligent and synthetic way of comprehending the Bible. He wrote:

For the present, just listen and memorize the Creed as I recite

it, and you will receive in due course the proof from Scriptures of

each of its propositions. For not according to men’s pleasure have

the articles of faith been composed, but the most important points

collected from the Scriptures make up one complete teaching of the

faith. And just as the mustard seed in a small grain contains in embryo

many future branches, so also the Creed embraces in a few words all

the religious knowledge in both the Old and the New Testament. Take

heed, therefore, brethren, and hold fast to the teachings which are now

delivered to you, and “write them on the tablet of your heart.”11

(B) An Answer in Needs of Contextual Explanation

While on the one hand, the Creed has answered the need for synthesis, on

10　The Jesus’event, especially his resurrection from the dead was the central element of the kerygma of the Early Church. As it appears in the following passages, the repeated messages affirmed that Jesus is Lord, He is the Christ, risen among the dead; He is the First born among the dead, He is the Prince of life, and all who die (believed and are baptised in his name) will have life eternal in Him. See 1Th 4：13-14；1Cor 15：20，Col 1：18, Acts 26：23, Jn 3：15, 1 Cor. 15：22.

11　Leo P. McCauley & Anthony A. Stephenson (Trans.) (1968).The Fathers of the Church: The Works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, vol.1. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press, pp.146-147.


the other hand, one realizes that the Catholic doctrine has been handed down

in a codified message that carries along marks of the context from which it

emerged. A real process of contextual de-codification is needed. This is the case

for several reasons. As Mgr. Matagrin says, “formulas through which faith is

expressed are linked to the culture of a certain epoch.”12 The faith synthesized was initially received through Semitic categories and images; it circulated through

languages beyond the reach of present audience. It was further transmitted by

the apostles using Semitic categories and imageries. Moreover, it has come

down to us in a formulation embedded in the Greco-Latin tradition, familiar

then to Church fathers but still very distant from our epistemic understanding.13 Moreover, through history, due to a continuous and expanded interpretation,

the roles attached to the Creed were diversified. From being a “symbol” or “a

sign of recognition” among Christians, it became an outline used for “initiation”

or catechesis. But in the context of growing heresies, it also set the parameters

for orthodox teaching and true faith. It is in this sense that Pierre-Thomas

Camelot quotes Augustine’s declaration that the Creed was “the summary of the

true faith.”14 Similarly, C. H. Turner explains the diversification of emphases, intentions and roles of the Creed by distinguishing between “ancient creeds” and

“new creeds”; “credos for catechumens” and “credos for bishops”; “creed” as

12　Mgr. Matagrin, quoted by Th. Rey-Met: “la foi s’exprime dans des formules liées à la culture d’une époque.” Th. Rey-Met, 8. [my translation].

13　“C’est à nous,” Hebreux, “c’est à nous” semites, “que Dieu l’a révélé.” Et voilà une seconde difficulté: les Apôtres nous ont transmis les affirmations essentielles de la Révélation à travers les mots, les représentations sémites, à travers les moyens d’expressions de la culture hébraique, qui étaient les leurs. Nos Pères de l’Eglise, greco-latins, les ont mises dans le moule des représentations grecques, qui étaient les leurs. Nous les redisons à travers des représentations modernes, qui sont les nôtres. Toutes ces représentations sont infirmes, relatives, discutables, transitoires.” Th. Rey-Mermet (1981). Croire, pour une redecouverte de la foi. Paris: Droguet-Ardent, p.426.

14　Pierre-Thomas Camelot (1968). Creeds. In Karl Rahner, Cornelius Ernst, & Kevin Smyth (Eds.), Sacramentum Mundi, An Encyclopedia of Theology, vol.2. New York: Hermann-Herder, p.38. [pp.37-40]


“rule of faith” and “creed intended for the profession of baptismal faith.”15 The Roman Symbol or the Apostle Creed, he says, “was not first of all a rule of faith,

but a profession of baptismal faith.”16 It had the tendency of ancient credos, that is, a sketch of catechesis for catechumens, which echoed apostolic preaching.

What is worthy to retain from the above excursus is that the study and

deepening of faith and doctrine need to be aware of the context. Though the

core doctrine studied is about Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, today and

forever,17 still different contexts expose different angles of that sameness, raise different questions and call different things to attention. The considerations of

the peculiarities inherent to each context remind us that uniformity might not

be the outcome of the task of deepening and interpreting Christian faith. The

nature of the faith preached, as Karl Rahner reiterated “is the old orthodox faith”

preached or explained in a way understandable to the contemporary listeners.18 A contextualized study and a deepening of the Catholic doctrine enhance a dynamic

interaction between “the old” and the “new,” the “stable” and “the evolving.”

The aim of the process is to generate an integrative “meaning” that helps the

believer to account for what he or she believes in. Contextual study implies

that the categories used in that account are meaningful and do not alienate the

15　Pierre-Thomas Camelot (1968). Creeds. In Karl Rahner, Cornelius Ernst, & Kevin Smyth (Eds.), Sacramentum Mundi, An Encyclopedia of Theology, vol.2., pp.38-39.

16　C.H. Turner, quoted by Pierre-Thomas Camelot (1968). Creeds. In Karl Rahner, Cornelius Ernst, & Kevin Smyth (Eds.), Sacramentum Mundi, An Encyclopedia of Theology, vol.2, p.38.

17　Heb 13：8.18　K. Rahner, quoted by Th. Rey-Met: “les predicateurs de l’Evangile, s’efforcent de proclamer la vielle foi

orthodoxe de telle sorte qu’elle soit vraiment comprise par l’homme d’aujourd’hui.” See Th. Rey-Mermet (1981). Croire, pour une redecouverte de la foi, p.8.


subject. It also enables us to counter the failure that Russell believes characterized

theologians. He refers to the inability to make the doctrine intelligible to common

people, to believers and non-believers alike. It is a failure rooted in a commitment

to obsolete formulations in which the doctrine is presented without taking into

account generational and regional gaps between doctrine and audience.19 In the case of Taiwan, it is important to take Russell’s observation seriously.

In fact, despite the predilection and apparent loft position mentioned earlier, the

Creed cannot be said to constitute the main reference for an understanding and

explanation of catholicity. Doubts persist on the impact and reference to those

faith statements, especially when it comes to explaining faith related matters and

handling and daily affairs. The situation is complex and ambiguous. The question

is whether there is a practical connection between Christian life and the professed

creed, or whether the Creed facilitates a faith formulation of the individual or

collective Christian experience. Given the familiarity with the Creed, it could be

expected that Catholics refer to their Creed in accounting for important choices

in their lives; that continuity and discontinuity within tradition finds a parallel

or a justification in the faith proclaimed. One might expect that the encounter

with an aspect of the Triune God is to be the trigger of conversion and embrace

of Catholicism. In this case, the choice would be echoing an aspect of creedal

theology. But this is not always the case. Perhaps the concise and abstract manner

in which the faith has been formulated does not facilitate the link. The Creed is

a text used in liturgy and prayer and not necessarily considered as a nutshell to

which one can refer for explanations of the faith. Moreover the language it uses does

19　Robert is a theologian with great contribution to the dialogue between science and religion, reason and faith. On this ground, an allusion to his work might sound an extrapolation. However, his insights and insistence on the necessity of a contextualized interpretation hold for fields beyond his own. He reminds theologians of the implications of the interconnectivity of truth, understanding and context. See Robert John Russell (2008). Cosmology: From Alpha to Omega. Theology and Sciences Series. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, p.273.

104　新世紀宗教研究　第十三卷第一期

not offer clear indications on “dos and don’ts” as is the case with the commandments.20 Another reason for the non-recurring of the Creed is the difficulty to

retransmit and explain the concepts of the Creed. The Creed contains many

formulas which have been internalized and accepted as dogmatic mysteries.

Dogmas and mysteries in simple words allude to truth whose depth is hard to

transmit. The doctrine of Trinity－which is the foundation of the Creed－is one

of those mysteries. Perhaps it would be illusory to expect each baptized to explain

in depth the meaning of a faith in a Triune God, the notion of the three “personae”

constitutive on God. The positive contribution of Greek philosophy at this point

becomes a serious handicap for cultures whose reasoning uses different approaches.

The inability however does not mean they have no feeling for the Mystery

itself. Silence is another form of approval of the Mystery whose truth, existence

and validity find partial correspondence in local tradition. People have a feeling

for the truth being proclaimed in the Creed, especially when it reminds them of a

deep rooted epistemic world with which they can relate. It is the case for instance

with the notion of a Creator among Taiwanese aborigines, the notion of life after

death accessed through a judgment on how one conducted his/her life on earth, the

notion of salvation, and the notion of “utuk” as the communion of the living and

the dead, etc.21

(C) Specific Areas in Need of Contextual Explanations

The centrality of the Mystery of the Trinity in Christian doctrine and liturgy

20　Unlike the creed, numerous Catholics refer to the Ten Commandments for self-scrutiny. The choice and preference might be due to the direct and indicative mode in use.

21　These worldviews call for a revision of the sociological allegations and depictions of aboriginal Christians as “rice Christians” implying that they were lured in Christianity only because of materialistic interests. Further studies should be done and explanations given regarding other ethnic groups who like the aborigines receive similar treatments. Likewise, a reflection should be made regarding the conversion of aborigines to emerging Chinese religious movements, institutions and/or associations with promising economic and material prospects.


is well reflected in the Creed. In fact, the whole text can be viewed as developing

three interconnected affirmations, corresponding to the three questions of the

baptismal profession. After the catechumen has loudly asserted that he/she

believes in God the Father, in Jesus Christ his begotten Son and in the Holy Spirit,

he or she will be baptized in the “Name of the Father, and of the Son and of the

Holy Spirit.” The Trinitarian formulation is accepted as such as a mystery against

which it is difficult to formulate objections. Christians instinctively perceive it

and can stand for it without feeling compelled to justify it. It is a matter of “take

it or leave it.” The surrounding environment has no sophisticated questionings

regarding the doctrine. It is too far from them. Folk religions have an apparatus

of divinities－one more or one less does not make a difference for them. Contrast

and objections against Trinitarian formulations normally come from other

(stricter) monotheistic interpretations.22 But beside the Trinitarian formulation, the Apostle Creed had additional

entries－of an ecclesiological and eschatological nature which for reasons evoked

earlier necessitate more attention. In concrete terms, the challenge is about

finding proper and concrete ways of addressing the ecumenical, interreligious

and eschatological gaps mentioned earlier. In other words, it is about grasping

contextually the implications of the proclamation of the “I believe in the

Holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the

resurrection of the body, and life everlasting.”

E. The Ecclesiological Dimension: the Catholicity of the Church

“I believe in the Holy Catholic Church.” The position of the Taiwanese

Catholics, as a minority in the maze of a plurality and well rooted local

22　See J. Dunn (2010). Did the First Christians worship Jesus? Westminster John Knox Press.

religions as well as the claims and provocations emanating from other Christian

denominations, compels us to rethink the sense of being Church. A contextual

reassessment implies a consultation of the Tradition of the Universal Church, in

a manner that inspires spatio-temporal continuity in an acceptable way. Using

biblical metaphors, Vatican II depicted several inspirational backgrounds for the

understanding of the Church.23 It spoke of the Church as people of God, body of Christ, temple, house, spouse, flock, vineyard, kingdom, field, and net. In a

spirit of openness, accommodation and inclusiveness,24 it strove to make space

for the others－members of Christian denominations25 and followers of other

religions.26 However, what contribution this broad background of openness and inclusion can offer to the quest of contextual self-identity lies in specific claims

made in the name of Church Tradition. Vatican II reiterated the traditional claim of

apostolicity rooted in the apostolic succession already formulated by the Church

Fathers Irenaeus and Cyprian. It also confirms the Church missionary mandate. In

other words, Catholics are not only passively receiving and adopting and adapting

to local situations, they are also carriers of a particular gift－the gift of faith in

the Risen Lord, a gift not only for them but for their neighbors. To interpret

Rey-Mermet, it is in the process of “gifting the gift” that catholicity is

realized. He wrote:

Being Catholic Church, being Universal Church is not a matter

of numbers or geography. “You are Catholic, you are universal! In

virtue of your baptism, you carry within you a Life destined to all,

a Good News addressed to all, a love which embraces all, a Grace

capable of uniting all in Jesus’ Love and that you are commissioned to

23　Lumen Gentium & Avery Dulles (1991). Models of the Church. Image.24　LG 9.25　LG15, UR. 26　LG 1, NA 1-5.

106　新世紀宗教研究　第十三卷第一期


communicate to them.”27

The identity of a local Church becomes clear in the extent to which it

becomes the indwelling of the constitutive stuff of the Church. As Marie-Joseph le

Guillou states: “The Church is participation in the mystery of the Trinity, bringing

about in us the image of God through the Incarnation and the Resurrection, in

the spirit.”28 The concretization of these views can foster a contextual Catholic identity. When applied to the Taiwanese context, it can enhance self-consciousness

of individuals and community that are 100% Taiwanese and at the same time

100% Catholics.29

F. The Eschatological Dimension

With regard to eschatology－convictions on what we might ultimately hope

27　Eglise “Catholique”, “universelle” “la catholicité n’est pas d’abord affaire des chiffres et de géographie,…tu es catholique, tu es universel. [...] Par ton baptême, tu portes en toi une Vie destinée à tous les hommes, une Bonne Nouvelle qui s’adresse à tous, un amour qui les envelope tous, une Grâce qui peut les unir tous dans la Charité du Christ et que tu as mission de leur communiquer.” Th. Rey-Mermet (1981). Croire, pour une redecouverte de la foi. Paris: Droguet-Ardent, p.368

28　Marie-Joseph le Guillou (1968). Church. In Karl Rahner, Cornelius Ernst, & Kevin Smyth (Eds.), Sacramentum Mundi, An Encyclopedia of Theology, vol.2, p.314.

29　No quarrels on purism should be added to this ideal. To state that one can be a 100% Taiwanese and a 100% Catholic reiterates that where the Christian faith is really personalized, there should not be intrinsic contradiction between being a Taiwanese and being a Catholic. The enemy for a lived and contextualized faith is not the race, the origin but the danger of compartmentalization, the lack of harmony between the different sources of information that constitute one’s living. The best expression of a lived faith for a Taiwanese Catholic is one that takes into account his/her sitz-im leiben, a faith that takes into account the factuality of being Taiwanese. Being simultaneously a 100% Catholic and 100% Taiwanese means that Taiwanese Christians are being saved within the context of Taiwan, not that of Rome, or Greece. It requires Taiwanese Catholics to learn the process of early Christians rather than to attempt xeroxing their answers. A pure Taiwanese Catholic faith is one that acknowledges, respects and integrates both the recesses of the Taiwanese context as well as the Christian tradition. It is an articulation of the saving grace that Taiwanese Catholics experience within their context and which is purged of formulations of faith which, because unrelated to the Taiwanese situation, can be burdensome. This ideal is different from hybridism. The limited connotation inherent to hybridism is that some essential elements might disappear in the process. Jesus Christ, whose incarnation should be proposed as model for the reception and interaction of faith was not a hybrid. Throughout the whole process, he was and remained true God and true man.


for－the previous observation has alerted us in a contrasting way. Eschatological

preoccupation is inscribed in the philosophical, existential, religious

consciousness of the human person. As Simon Tugwell argues, “the question

of what happens after death has, and always will have, a very considerable

significance as a way of focusing our fears and our hopes to interpret life and

death in this world.”30 It is a debt contracted by our inquiring minds that helps us get a sense of orientation (space and time), and shape the routine of the daily

conduct (morality). Eschatological curiosity manifests our quest for responsibility,

our aspirations for an explanation that transcends the present moment and extends

the value of our existence into eternity. By raising eschatological questions, the

human mind ponders other meanings and dimensions hidden in and beyond

history, resists the thought of surrendering the last word to death, and refuses

to live as if death would bring the encounter of what has been collected in the

human individual and collective consciousness to an absolute end. Moreover, the

eschatological quest and its related developments vary and contribute to cultural

and religious worldviews.31 The silence, ignorance, indifference, and doubts on the Church’s doctrine in

matters pertaining to eschatology cannot block convictions engraved in culture

and local religions. The faith in the “communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins,

the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting,” proclaimed in each Sunday

liturgy struggles to stand vis-à-vis rooted views of karmic reincarnation. Yet,

eschatology is crucial to the Christian faith. How are we to make that importance

30　Simon Tugwell (1990). Human Immortality and the Redemption of Death. London: Darton, Longman and Todd. 31　An allusion can be made here to the cultural and religious depictions of the after-life existence, stories and

conceptions of retribution in the after death existence, etc. It is in this sense that we might speak of a Hindu, a Buddhist, an Islamic, a Christian (Catholic and/or Protestant), an African or Chinese eschatology. The quest for meaning and explanation for “what next” after this-life forms a set of homeomorphisms developed in their contextual eschatological views. For an overview of eschatological religious views, see Arnold Toynbee & Arthur Koestler (1976). Life after Death. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.


emerge, how are we to enable it to sustain the hope of believers and even become

one of the best gifts Christians can share with their neighbors?

I would refer to the conclusion of the field of Michel Chambon, a French

researcher interested in assessing the eschatological views held among Taiwanese

Christians in general and Catholics in particular. After a year of investigation,

he came to the conclusion that the majority of Taiwanese Catholics did not

understand the meaning of resurrection, nor did they believe in the resurrection

of the body.32 Regarding the latter, a foreign parish priest had previously made a similar observation.

When resurrection is not understood and bodily resurrection is hardly

believed in, how do Catholics portray their eschatology? How do they position

their views vis-à-vis the eschatological views of surrounding religions? It has

to be noted that the surrounding religious systems are very explicit in this field.

Folk religions have found different ways to handle the implications of the

conviction that after death, the human person’s spirit lives on (ren si bian guishen

zhishuofa，「人死變鬼神」之說法). This outlook on the after death experience

bears a strong impact and influence of Chinese religions, including Daoism and

Confucianism and mostly Buddhism. It is embedded in the stories of reincarnation

as the outcome of karmic retribution. On a practical ground, the beliefs systems

have generated practices of sacrifices and offerings to deities, to the deceased,

known as well as unknown spirits, as well as family ancestors.33 These answers are in line with the felt need to interact and keep in touch with the universe of the

32　Michel Chambon（陳立邦）（2012），〈The Chinese gui 鬼 within the Catholic Faith－A Case Study on the Catholics in Taipei.（天主教信仰中對於中國「鬼」的看法：以台北天主教徒為例）〉，《新世紀宗教研

究》，第十一卷第一期，頁185-195. 33　The Confucian support to these practices have their root in the exaltation made of filial piety and the concrete

indications related to ancestor rites as an expression of filial piety. See Patricia Buckley Ebrey (1991). Chu Hsi’s Family Rituals: a Twelfth-Century Chinese Manual for the Performance of Cappings, Weddings, Funerals, and Ancestral Rites. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp.153-177.


deceased. These responses further indicate the conviction: the dead are in another

mode of existence which requires a channel of communication sui generis and for

which popular religions and local customs cater in a more colorful way. Moreover,

as a minority religious system unable to pass on its own view, Catholics find

themselves assimilated in the complex meanderings of local religions. This is

an area where it is hard to stand alone or to swim against the current. It involves

not only the living but the convictions and projections regarding the state, the

longings, the influence of the dead on the living. A final observation is that a

Catholic consideration of the concerns evoked in this facet can have its premise

in the creedal formula asserting that we “believe the communion of saints, the

forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting.”34 Faith in resurrection is fundamental to Christianity. Resurrection was rather

an innovation in faith. It was a latter development in the Jewish faith as it can be

attested by the account of the death of the seven Maccabee brothers (2Mac. 7：

1-29). They accept death on the ground of a hope of being vindicated by God,

who holds authority on both life and death. According to Alessio Geretti, this is

stated in Wisdom 16：13-14. It constitutes the Old Testament’s foundation for the

faith in resurrection that motivates and sustains OT’s martyrdom.35 When Jesus rises from the death, what could only be thought of in terms of

faith becomes a fact. The novelty constitutes the core of the kerygma shared and

proclaimed by the early Church. Their message stated the death and resurrection

of Jesus, a fact that crowned his lordship. Appending to the proclamation was the

benefits his death and resurrection offered to the believers and the entire human

race. The hope for the resurrection of the body is based on the bodily resurrection

34　Apostle’s Creed.35　Alessio Geretti (2011). la vita che ci attende oltre la morte. Al dilà: l’Ultimmo Mistero. Turin: Allemandi & C.,

pp.11-30.


of Jesus. As Tertullian said “Resurrection of the body is the hope of Christians.”36 Resurrection is a novelty. What is affirmed and promised through

resurrection is beyond other modes envisaged to affirm a continuity of existence

beyond this earthly existence, be it the idea of immortality of death as well

as reincarnation. Resurrection is not reducible to these. The doctrine of the

immortality of the soul holds that only an aspect/a dimension of the human being

survives or continues to exist after death. As for resurrection, what continues

after death is not only the spirit or the soul, but also a certain element of the body.

Christianity holds that resurrection will only be full at the ends of the time. For the

time being, the dead do not dispose of this immortal element. As for reincarnation,

it is a belief according to which certain elements of pre-existent existence have the

possibility of reintegrating the concrete world and to exist therein under different

forms of life (or existence).37 How does resurrection and reincarnation relate? Can the two be held

concomitantly? Paul Thomas－a pen name for a group of French lay Catholics

who pondered seriously on the question－is negative. They acknowledge that

from a scientific perspective both resurrection and reincarnation belong to the

domain of beliefs within a religious or philosophical system. They are expressions

of what one hopes to occur after life on earth based on a set of convictions. They

reflect expectations from two disparate worldviews which are hardly reconcilable.

Reincarnation is in line and a byproduct of karma, namely the conviction that

nothing remains unaccounted for. “Sooner or later, one must pay for his/her

deeds.” In a karmic framework there needs to be no external agency. The system

operates automatically. There is no need for a hypothesis of a God, personal,

benevolent and merciful. The resurrection is a divine gift. In the resurrection of

36　Q.S. Tertulliano s.d.. De resurrectione mortuorum, I.I: CCL 2, p.921.37　Regarding reincarnation as a Buddhist belief, see Paschal Thomas (1994). La Réincarnation. Paris: Centurion, p.56.


the body, God rewards the individual with a perfect and incorruptible life. It is

being created anew. The restoration is a gratuitous act of God. For a Christian to

believe in reincarnation implies forfeiting or not trusting the gratuity of God.38 It also exposes the believer to the danger of thinking that his or her salvation

is achieved by his or her mere efforts. Adopting reincarnation also changes the

consideration of the human body. It ceases to be the divine gift received at birth,

carried through this early existence and to wait for final judgment. It becomes a

kind of habit to get rid of as one gets ready for a second, a third reincarnation. In

the end, the basic difference is whether the God Jesus revealed as Trinitarian is

part of the final picture where humanity is made anew.39

G. What to Do?

More detailed comments and analysis could be made regarding the articles

of the Creed. What has been done above is to raise awareness on hang-ups in

way the fundamentals of Christian doctrine can contribute to assert an integrated

Taiwanese Catholic identity. However, in the light of the observation and analysis

above, how can the Creed be looked at as a contributing font for an identity that is

100 percent Taiwanese and at same time 100 percent Catholic?

A general strategy consists in finding ways of making the Creed a part

of the ordinary life. This demands that the sharings of experiences, stories and

motivations leading to conversion be given priority. Every conversion is a fruit of

an encounter with the Divine. The narration and sharing of those stories can unveil

38　Paul Thomas, 56.39　“De même si l’on croit à la réincarnation, on n’attend pas de Dieu qui’il intervienne dans l’au-delà et on n’espère

pas, en tout cas, en un pardon de sa part. La loi du karma suffit en effet à regler le retour à la vie historique et corporelle, sans qu’il faille la compléter par un acte particulier de Dieu. Evidemment, la croyance à la resurrection de Jésus envisage l’au-delà tout autrement, puisque c’est Dieu qui intervient dans la mort de son fils, non d’ailleurs pour lui pardoner, mais pour l’établir dans une vie tout autre.” Paul Thomas, 79.


the epiphanies of the Triune God in the ordinary lives of the Taiwanese believers.

It also enables a contextualized experience of the experiences of the members of

early church, experiences that led to the synthesis held now as Creed.

Moreover, in terms of particular stratagems, more attention should be

given to those areas where the Catholic identity is most challenged and/or less

felt. In both the ecumenical and interreligious fields, Catholic identity has to be

affirmed on the ground of a new theology. The recognition and affirmation of

the new theological ground will progressively rub out the wounds from our past

interactions. “For four centuries,” Rey-Mermet says, “the Catholic theology

of the Church was quasi exclusively defined against Protestantism.”40 The two main religious groups (and organizations) present in many aboriginal villages of

Taiwan are made of Catholics (and Presbyterians). As a symbol of Christianity,

the proclamation of the Creed needs to intensify and uplift existing biological ties

between the family and village members. Its interpretation should not become a

cause of division and drift.41 A concretization of the sense of being a contextual church needs to reflect

deeply on the road ahead. Despite the spirit of ecumenism fostered by Vatican II, a

lot still needs to be done regarding communicatio in sacris, mutual recognition of

the sacraments. Lay people need to assess how they live ecumenism; efforts and

initiatives of institutions forming people in the spirit of a right of understanding

of Ecumenism need to be sustained and encouraged. By accepting and training

future personnel of other denominations, the Theological Faculty of Fu Jen have

been setting a ground for ecumenism, reducing potential fonts of harsh criticisms

and unfounded attacks against the Catholic identity. For example, the thirty

40　“Pendant quare siècles, la théologie Catholique de l’Eglise s’est définie presque exclusivement contre le protestantisme. ” Rey-Mermet (1981). Croire: pour une redécouverte de la foi, p.354.

41　The Christians of Qubin, a Bunon Village in Nantou, have set an example by setting a tradition of an ecumenical celebration of Christmas.


years of friendship, exchange and acting together of the Faculty of Theology

and the Taiwan Presbyterian Theology have asserted the kind of unity which

acknowledges difference.

Beside ecumenism, eschatology was singled out as another area where

the affirmation of Catholic identity is needed. The goal is to reach a practical

inclusive eschatology. This means an eschatology that takes seriously the concern

of inviting others to share in the joy emanating from the hope of the eschatological

promises of Jesus, the Risen One. To reach that point, Christians must assert their

conviction in the faith in resurrection, and celebrate death in a Christian way－

as a passage to another form of existence where the deceased rests while awaiting

the judgment of a loving Father, the restorer of life and not an obliged passage

for reincarnation. Christians need to break with the taboo of talking about death,

showing that faith offers a hope beyond the dread of death. Christians should

speak more about the other world, about the hope and expectations held

regarding a post-mortem existence when eternity is reached by connecting

with the Eternal One.

An inclusive eschatology requires Christians to be more articulate regarding

the contextualized solutions offered in handling realities pertaining to the other

world. For instance, Catholics should be able to explain the theology behind

the “祭天敬祖 (jitianjingzu)” and the liturgical adaptations regarding funerals,

remembrance of the deceased, 掃墓 (saomu) , and 清明節 (qingmingjie), etc.

H. Conclusion

Our efforts to understand the place of the Creed and its contribution to

a contextual Catholic identity has led us through a long excursus. The Creed

is a symbol of recognition and a didactic tool as well as a framework for the

understanding and interpretation of faith. Its creation responded to the quest


for synthesizing the faith experience on which a community is founded. In

its dynamics, it sustains the community by providing food for its hunger for

self-understanding. Having said so, the mood to consider the few proposals for a

concrete and inserted reading of the Creed in Taiwan can only be one bringing us

back to the font, i.e. the exhortation of Cyril of Jerusalem offered regarding the

Apostle’s Creed. He wrote:

In learning and professing the faith, embrace and guard that only

which is now delivered to you by the Church, and confirmed by all

the Scriptures. For since not everyone has both the education and the

leisure required to read and know the Scriptures, to prevent the soul

perishing from ignorance, we sum up the whole doctrine of the faith

in a few lines. This summary I wish you to commit to memory, word

for word, and to repeat among yourselves with all zeal, not writing it

on paper, but engraving it by memory on the heart. Only take care, in

rehearsing it, that no catechumen chance to overhear what has been

delivered to you. Keep it as a provision for the way throughout the

whole course of your life, and beyond this, never receive any other,

even though we ourselves should change and contradict what we now

teach; nay, even though an enemy angel, transformed into an angel of

light, should try to lead you astray. For “even if we or an angel from

heaven should preach a gospel to you other than that which you have

now received, let him be anathema.”42

As a minority in the midst of numerous and well rooted Taiwanese

religions, Catholics need to assert their identity and the ground for the particular

42　Leo P. McCauley, Anthony A. Stephenson, & Saint Cyril (1969). The Works of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, pp.146-147.


contribution and gift to their neighbors. Hope emanating from the resurrection

of Jesus constitutes the founding element of the eschatological message that

Christians have been conveying. The emphasis and formulation might differ but it

should not obfuscate the centrality of the revolutionary impact of the Jesus’ Event.

This constitutes the novelty that can brighten those let down by other doctrines of

post-mortem existence. If Christianity has a useful insight for the eschatological

quest, and there is one indeed, it is the Jesus Event.


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Faith horizons of Taiwanese Lay Catholics

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