T H E E U R O P E A N J O U R N A L OF A P P L I E D L I N G U I S T I C S A N D T E F L

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EXPLORING TENSIONS IN THE MEDIATED ACTIVITY OF TEACHING L2 ADULT EMERGENT READERS

Raichle Farrelly, American University of Armenia ABSTRACT There has been a marked growth in the number of L2 adult emergent readers in English language classrooms worldwide. As this learner population increases, researchers, language teacher educators and language teachers are exploring effective teaching and learning strategies to best serve these learners. Integral to learning what works is identifying what needs to be addressed. Guided by an activity theory framework (Engeström, 1991, 1999), this case study explores the relationships and inherent tensions that emerge between teachers and the mediational tools they use to navigate their teaching practice. 1 INTRODUCTION In the past decade, adult English language classrooms in the US have experienced a surge in second language (L2) learners who have yet to acquire print literacy skills in any language. There are several reasons for increased numbers of these L2 adult emergent readers in language classrooms internationally. The most prominent reason is the rise in the resettlement and migration of refugee populations from war ravaged countries with statistically low literacy rates nationwide (e.g., Somalia, Burundi). Prior to arrival in new host countries around the world, many refugee populations spent years in the refugee camps of neighbouring countries with limited or interrupted access to education. In addition to refugee populations, large numbers of immigrant populations with minimal formal education experience cross borders to seek job opportunities or accompany spouses.

When these newcomers arrive, they bring with them rich cultural diversity which enhances the local communities; however, in addition to revitalizing our communities, they may also contribute to a growing strain on local resources and various service providers, such as resettlement case workers, public schools, health care providers, English language programs and offices of workforce services. One of the greatly impacted populations on the receiving end has been the English language teachers in the adult community based programs.

Many impacts on the teachers have been positive, such as the valued relationships that form and the increased cultural knowledge that is gained from interactions in the classroom with these newcomers. However, there are certain challenges embedded in these relationships and classroom encounters. As noted by Bigelow and Vinogradov (2011), many teachers do not have much experience teaching L2 adult emergent readers who have had limited access to formal schooling. They also note the “profound gap in the assumptions about how languages are taught and learned” between teachers and learners who come from vastly different educational backgrounds (p. 120).

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This article aims to explore the various physical and cognitive tools L2 teachers of adult emergent readers use to mediate their teaching activity. Using activity theory (Engeström, 1991, 1999) as the analytical framework, I attempt to address two guiding research questions: 1) what context-dependent relationships and tensions exist between teachers and the mediational tools they employ for teaching adult emergent readers? 2) In what ways can a better understanding of these context-dependent relationships and tensions inform professional development specific to teachers in this context? 2 TEACHING ADULT EMERGENT READERS Most graduates from programs that prepare teachers to teach English as an additional language (EAL) did not plan from the beginning to be L2 adult literacy teachers. In fact, until recently, there were few programs in place at the university level in the US to prepare teachers for work in this context. In the UK, enrolment in such teacher preparation programs is currently declining (Cara, Casey & Mallows, 2010). In addition, limited funding for most community based programs and the fact that most EAL classes are taught by volunteers fail to entice teachers to pursue a career in the L2 adult literacy context.

Most professional EAL teachers are prepared in university or other TESOL/TEFL programs with a curriculum based on L2 teaching methods that are grounded in research on literate learner populations (Tarone & Bigelow, 2005). When these teachers encounter L2 adult emergent readers in the classroom, they are often faced with a sense of helplessness around how to engage and support the learners. The print rich handouts, textbooks, and activities no longer work as well, if at all. The oral language proficiency of their students often makes giving simple directions a challenge, let alone explaining more complicated instructions about class schedules and classroom policies. Yet they employ their creativity and flexibility to adapt that which they do know to discover what works with this learner population. (See Bigelow and Vinogradov (2011), Baynham, et al. (2007), and Condelli, et al. (2003) for extensive reviews of the international research base for teaching L2 adult emergent readers). 2.1 TEACHER PREPARATION IN COMMUNITY BASED PROGRAMS In the US context, teachers in community based programs sometimes come to the job with a professional certificate for teaching EAL, but often times, they are simply well intentioned volunteers who have little to no teaching experience at all. Many community-based programs that serve adult language learners provide trainings for their instructors. Most of these trainings are short, often one-shot orientations ranging in duration from 6-18 hours (Sandlin & Clair, 2005). Some programs that benefit from increased funding are able to provide some ongoing professional development in the form of occasional workshops and online teacher education. For the most part, however, these professional development opportunities often fail to target the specific needs of teachers of adult emergent readers. As a result of the variance in teacher experience and knowledge for work within the L2 adult literacy context, there is much on the job learning and professional development that takes place. In their extensive report of effective teaching and learning in the context of adult ESOL in England, Baynham, et al. (2007) suggest that “the major resource that can make or hinder the most promising methodology or initiative is the expertise and professionalism of ESOL teachers” (p. 11).

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2.2 L2 ADULT LITERACY TEACHER KNOWLEDGE BASE When considering what the knowledge base of L2 adult literacy teachers should comprise, the list of ideas goes beyond the basics of second language acquisition (SLA) literature and content from an L2 methods course. There is so much to be considered in this complex and rich teaching environment. Vinogradov and Liden (2009) have conceptualized a knowledge base that L2 adult literacy teachers must cultivate (see Table 1). In addition to the myriad challenges the learners face due to the refugee or migration experience, there is a wealth of knowledge to be gleaned from existing studies on second language and literacy acquisition, the role of the first language, and successful practices by our colleagues teaching at the primary (elementary) levels with children who are developing literacy skills for the first time (Vinogradov, 2013). Bigelow and Vinogradov (2011) provide a thorough review of the research on language acquisition by L2 adult emergent readers, principles for teaching L2 adult emergent readers, as well as relevant research on literacy development in children and monolingual speakers. These studies provide insights into the professional knowledge base teachers should develop for work within the context of teaching L2 adult literacy.

1. The refugee experience 6. Key research 2. Types of literacy-level learners 7. Components of reading 3. Literacy in childhood vs. adulthood 8. Balanced literacy 4. Emergent readers 9. Approaches to teaching literacy 5. Second language acquisition 10. Connections L1/L2 literacies

Table 1: Knowledge Base for L2 Adult Literacy Teachers (Vinogradov & Liden, 2009) 3 ACTIVITY THEORY Activity theory (Leontiev, 1978; Engeström, 1991, 1999) was employed as the analytical tool in this study. As a theoretical framework, activity theory allows for an exploration of human practice within an activity system with all of its inherent contradictions and tensions. The aim of utilizing activity theory to explore human practice is to identify the contradictions that underlie the various relationships between components of an activity system. When they are identified, they create a space for reflection and give those involved in the activity a chance to consider approaches for resolving the tensions. As this study aims to better understand the teachers’ experiences in order to find ways to enhance them, activity theory provides the ideal perspective from which to investigate the human activity of teaching L2 adult emergent readers. 3.1 FOUNDATIONS OF ACTIVITY THEORY Activity theory is a theoretical framework that can be applied to make sense of human practices within a given culture and context. Human practices or actions are revealed through their interactions with their environment and explored through the basic unit of ‘activity’ or ‘what people do’ (Engeström, 1991, 1999). Activity theory is grounded in the mediational model proposed by Lev Vygotsky (1978). This model suggests that humans interact with their environment through the use of tools and cultural artefacts that mediate efforts to achieve certain goals or objectives.

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Leontiev (1978) elaborated the mediational model to incorporate human activity and the interactions within practical activity, which arguably influence the choice of meditational tools. Leontiev viewed all activity as being comprised of actions carried out by a subject through the use of tools, which result in particular operations aimed at a certain goal or motive, represented as the object (Engeström & Miettinen, 1999). In the context of teaching English as an additional language, the teacher (subject) might use a matching activity with vocabulary words and visuals (tool) in order to help her students increase their recall of previously learned words (object).

Engeström (1999) viewed early versions of activity theory as lacking the potential to represent actions as elements of a collective activity system. Engeström expanded the theory to include five key principles, of which the following two will be instrumental in this article: 1) the prime unit of analysis is an object-oriented activity system mediated through the use of tools, and 2) inherent contradictions are central to transformation and development. Each is described below. 3.2.1 ACTIVITY SYSTEM AS PRIME UNIT OF ANALYSIS The minimum elements for an activity system (see Figure 1) include subject, object, outcomes, tools, rules, community and division of labour (Cole & Engeström, 1993; Engeström, 1987). The subject of the activity system is the actor motivated toward a particular purpose or objective, the object. The outcome encompasses the ultimate goal of the activity. The tools comprise the physical and cognitive resources employed to reach end goals. The rules shape the participation of the subject with relation to others involved in the activity, who make up the community. Finally, the division of labour outlines the responsibilities of those involved in the activity.

Figure 1. Engeström’s Triangles (Engeström 1987: 78).

Division of Labour Community

Subject

Rules

Object Outcome

Tools

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3.2.2 CONTRADICTIONS Contradictions mark the inherent imbalances and tensions in human activity and are a critical aspect of activity theory. Identifying contradictions in an activity system allows for consideration of potential opportunities for growth and transformation within an activity system. Engeström presents four potential levels of contradiction within an activity system. This article focuses only on secondary level contradictions, which result in tensions between two interacting components of an activity system, such as between the subject and mediational tools.

To illustrate, let us consider a study by Kim (2011), which employed activity theory to explore the impact of curricular reform on an EFL teacher in South Korea. The national reform embraced Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) as the core teaching approach and enforced a Teach English through English policy, mandating English classes be taught solely in English. Secondary contradictions emerged at multiple layers of this teacher’s activity system reflecting tensions resulting from curricular reform, including: 1) conflicts between teacher and student attitudes toward CLT; 2) teacher’s inability to use the text communicatively; and, 3) inability to draw correlations between communicative activities and discrete, textbook-based exam items. Bringing this study and these tensions to light can be informative (e.g., shared in a publication) and transformative (e.g., the government takes notice and makes efforts to better prepare teachers to employ new approaches), the latter being the end goal of activity theory research. 4 METHODOLOGY This qualitative research entails a descriptive multiple-case study guided by the interpretivist philosophy and conducted within a constructivist paradigm (Hatch; 2002; Yin, 2003). According to the interpretivist philosophy, knowledge is created and negotiated through our social interactions and our lived experiences. The constructivist research paradigm naturally compliments the interpretivist philosophy. Hatch (2002) describes the constructivist paradigm as one that assumes “a world in which universal, absolute realities are unknowable” and that “multiple realities exist that are inherently unique because they are constructed by individuals who experience the world from their own vantage points” (p. 15).

I chose the case study design because it allows for an exploration of a given phenomenon in its natural context without needing to manipulate the behaviour of the participants. According to Merriam (2005), a case study is a justified approach when the variables are so embedded in the situation that observing the actual context is the most robust approach for a better understanding of the phenomenon in question. 4.1 PARTICIPANTS, DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS The two teachers in this study are identified by pseudonyms, Sofia and Nancy Ann. Sofia is a career teacher with over three decades experience with teaching EAL in adult language programs. She earned an MA in Education with a TESOL certificate and has extensive experience with classroom teaching, curriculum development and assessment. However, she has only been working with L2 adult emergent readers in her teaching context for the past five years. Nancy Ann has only been teaching for five years. She was a career nurse and decided to become an EAL

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teacher for a community-based program after she retired. She earned her TESOL certificate through a university program and the majority of her training was received alongside a mentor teacher who specialized in working with L2 literacy learner populations. The majority of Nancy Ann’s teaching experience has been based in the L2 adult literacy context.

At the outset of this study, my aim was to conduct a long-term investigation into the highly context specific and complex teaching lives of teachers working with L2 adult emergent readers. For this reason, I chose to focus on only two teachers. They were selected using purposeful criterion-based sampling strategies. The primary purpose behind the selection of participants was to identify L2 teachers who would represent information-rich cases for an in-depth study of the phenomenon in question, namely how teachers of L2 adult emergent readers mediate the activity of teaching and what tensions they face in their activity system. In addition, I wanted to choose teachers who represented distinct categories of teachers - experienced and novice. Other distinctions between these two teachers include the above mentioned teacher preparation for work in this particular context. As the pool of L2 adult literacy teachers in the area was small and my work connected me to most of them, I knew the teachers prior to conducting this study. Their participation was voluntary.

This study relied on data collected from multiple sources over the course of one year. The multiple sources of data for this study include in-class observations, semi-structured interviews and relevant documents, including teaching materials and teachers’ reflective writing. I conducted 20 observations of each teacher’s 80-minute class sessions. In the classroom, I was a nonparticipant observer and my primary objective was to compile notes and memos about the classroom activity (e.g., teacher-student interactions, teacher decision making, material selection, etc.).

I conducted two semi-structured interviews with each teacher and conducted one interview with the two teachers together so they could share views and build upon each other’s experiences1. The interviews allowed me to check their perceptions of their classroom practice against my interpretations. The classroom observations shaped the guiding questions for the interviews. I chose to conduct semi-structured interviews to give the teachers the flexibility to go in new directions, ask questions of their own and offer insights.

The documents supplemented the interview data with additional information about the teachers’ decision-making and material selection for the classes. The documents included materials used by the teachers in class, as well as their written responses to prompts I provided via email about teaching L2 adult emergent readers in general or about a specific observed lesson.

Data analysis occurred in tandem with data collection throughout the course of the study. Data collection ended when new themes ceased to emerge (Merriam, 2009). The data analysis was guided by activity theory, which served as an effective tool for capturing the complexities of the teaching context. The themes uncovered through this activity system analysis are represented by the internal contradictions between components in the activity system. Activity system analysis requires modelling the activity system (see Figure 2) to identify the elements within each primary component of the activity system (e.g., subject, tool, etc.). Next, the activity system is decomposed into manageable smaller units comprising 1) an agent (e.g., subject or community),

1 Due to the small sample size, I am not referring to this joint interview as a focus group.

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2) a mediator (e.g., tool, rule, division of labour), and 3) the object on which the activity is focused (Mwanza, 2001). In this article, I focus on the triangle that includes subject-tool-object. The observational data (field notes) and interviews were initially coded to assign elements to components of the activity system and further coded to identify central themes, represented through contradictions and tensions. Documents were considered or referred to when reflecting upon the teachers’ classroom practices. 5 FINDINGS 5.1 THE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY SYSTEM

Figure 2. Modelling the activity system of the observed EAL classes. The components of an activity system include subject(s), community, object, rules, division of labour and tools. The activity system under investigation in this study is the EAL class. Sofia and Nancy Ann are the subjects of their respective activity systems, the actors who use mediating tools toward the object. The community of each activity system, in terms of who shares interest in the object (student learning) and outcomes (goals) of the activity system, includes the teachers (Sofia and Nancy Ann respectively), the learners, other teachers in the program, the school administration, case workers (and related entities), families of the learners and the greater community that comes into contact with these learners in society.

The object (objective) for each activity system can be labelled as English language and print literacy development. The outcomes vary slightly from one activity system to the next as they are shaped by the teachers’ beliefs about what their learners’ goals are, what their aim should be according to their respective programs, and, ultimately, what they think will best serve their learners in the real world. Underlying both activity systems is a desire to empower learners

Division of Labour

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through increased access to a print literate society and increased confidence during interactions with the English-speaking world. The outcome for Sofia’s activity system includes a list of skills that she wished to target in her class.

My major goal for my literacy level students is to make them feel more confident and less overwhelmed with written materials of all kinds. I want to give them the chance to be able to read or at least understand a little when they read with their children or grandchildren. I want them to be able to fill out basic written forms that ask for their name, address, phone number, etc. using print that most people would be able to decipher. I want them to be able to find a page number in a book and know where the top of the page is.

In the case of Nancy Ann, she says that her “overarching goal for the students is to have them

be able to decode English in order to make more sense of their new lives and be able to participate, with their families, in the broader community.” She also adds:

My “weekly goal revision” includes helping them understand how to ask and answer basic questions and be able to demonstrate progress on tests that are given to them regularly. I have been trying to emphasize directions and instructions as well as reading and writing on worksheets and forms. I try to give examples about how they might encounter ‘circle’, ‘check’, ‘fill in the blank’, etc. in real life.

Her goals are based in her understanding of what these newcomers need, rather than what the program administrator has set forth for her. However, being a novice teacher, much of what she focuses on is likely guided by the knowledge base she developed through her recent TESOL certificate program and her student teaching hours with an experienced L2 adult literacy mentor teacher.

Each activity system has its own set of rules. Explicit rules include the assessment selection and administration procedures that are in place in each activity system, such as choice of standardized test and procedures for administration. Implicit rules address scheduling, attendance and classroom conventions. The division of labour in each activity system has both horizontal and vertical dimensions. These dimensions address the distribution of power within the activity system.

The component of tools within each activity system presents the greatest complexity for this study. There are both cognitive and physical tools within each activity system. The cognitive tools include the teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and attitudes that shape their decision making in the classroom. Physical tools include the handouts, texts, and materials that the teachers use to mediate their instruction, as well as classroom based and institutional assessments. 5.2 SECONDARY CONTRADICTIONS WITHIN THE ACTIVITY SYSTEMS In decomposing the activity systems and focusing on the interaction between the subject and tool components, I uncovered several secondary contradictions (i.e., between two components of the activity system). This discussion will focus on contradictions identified between the subject and available tools, including teaching materials, assessment, teachers’ beliefs, and teachers’ professional knowledge (see Table 2). In the following sections, I will elaborate on the tensions within each activity system resulting from these contradictions.

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Table 2. Secondary Level Contradictions: Between Subject and Tool Tool Contradictions within Activity Systems Teaching Materials Teaching materials for work with adult

emergent readers are scarce. Teachers often lack time and resources to create their own materials. Teachers often adapt materials designed for higher level students.

Assessment Assessment tools for literacy level students fail to show actual student gains that teachers observe in class. Teachers are not involved in intake or assessment of new students.

Teachers’ Beliefs Teachers’ beliefs about students’ goals for coming to school are based in anecdotal evidence and teachers’ personal interactions with students.

Teachers’ Professional Knowledge Teachers’ professional knowledge acquired through both teacher education programs and previous teaching experiences often conflicts with what they do in the classroom.

5.2.1 TENSION 1: TEACHING MATERIALS - MAKING DO WITH WHAT WE HAVE For both Nancy Ann and Sofia there is a tension related to the materials available for teaching this level. They navigate these tensions differently because of the relationships they have with the materials. On the one hand, Sofia uses a more eclectic approach to material selection in her class, at times moving from one curriculum to another within one class period and regularly within one week. Nancy Ann on the other hand tends to adhere more closely to one curriculum consistently for extended periods of time. I attribute the difference between their relationships with materials to their varying levels of experience and confidence with language teaching. Sofia has been teaching for many years and has learned to adapt and move more fluidly between materials while Nancy Ann appears to stay close to what she knows as informed by her mentor teacher and recent TESOL education, which revealed a reliance on a small set of texts. In particular she relies heavily on Sam and Pat, a literacy level text series for L2 adults that relies on decodable text and controlled vocabulary to gradually and systematically build learners phonological awareness and phonics knowledge.

For Nancy Ann, the impact of limited materials for this level and her inexperience with adaptation means that she spends an extensive amount of time in one text, however this tension is positive for the students. The prolonged engagement with the primary text (Sam and Pat) resulted in apparent student gains within the key areas for literacy development. For example, she reported that the speed with which they could recall the letter sounds during a vocabulary flashcard check

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increased because the vocabulary was constantly being recycled and new words were added in manageable sets (e.g., 3-5 new words per day).

In the case of Sofia, her experience provides her with a sense of confidence and comfort when moving between curricula. She seems to make decisions quickly in response to the students’ engagement with the materials as well as her beliefs about what they should be learning, which in her literacy class is often the bottom-up reading skills. She also has a more critical eye when it comes to choice of materials for her students and this often reflects her attention to student needs. She has expressed ideas for how she would approach designing a text differently to better serve her learners. She pays close attention to font size, length of directions and spacing on the page. She draws from experiences with students who reported being unable to read certain texts because of the font size and/or because of poor eyesight. 5.2.2 TENSION 2: ASSESSMENT - WHO ARE WE TEACHING ANYWAY?

Assessment is entangled in another contradiction reflected in top-down decision-making, which often adds to the tension between the teachers (subject) and administration (community). Initial intake and assessment data (e.g., students’ results on the standardized placement tests) provide rich insights about the students, beyond simply their language proficiency. In their respective programs, Nancy Ann and Sofia are not involved in the intake or assessment procedures.

Upon arrival to a program that receives funding from the state, students are required to complete a Student Education and Occupation Plan (SEOP). It is mandated that there be at least one goal listed on this intake form and it must come from the students, not the individual who completes the form. The goals collected on the SEOP target both educational and occupational goal setting, and therefore the intake provides a good opportunity for critical information gathering that could guide the teachers in determining appropriate learning objectives, choosing a curriculum and lesson planning. The tension arises, however, when the individual completing the intakes with the students either fails to address educational and occupational goals with the students or does not relay that information to the teachers.

Sofia explained how the assessment and placement process works in her program: When students enrol, they are interviewed by the secretarial and testing staff. They are tested using the CASAS2 test and placed into their classes. Two years ago and before, all of the teaching staff was involved in doing the [intakes] and testing, which gave us a much better idea of our student population. However, we’ve moved away from the teachers having as much involvement in testing or the registration process, where students are asked about their goals or what classes they want.

She goes on to say:

At the moment, we are sometimes informed of when our students make a level gain; however, we get no feedback from the test. CASAS was designed to guide instruction for adults by indicating what areas students were weakest in. The teachers get none of that information.

2 CASAS is a nonprofit organization that provides various assessment tools for youth and adult basic skills programs. www.casas.org

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In some cases, awareness of the test structures can help teachers support students through test preparation. For example, if teachers are familiar with the format of the tests, they can be sure that they address certain elements from the tests, such as critical directions for exercises (e.g., Circle. Underline. Fill in the blank.), and particular skills, such as locating a name or number in a phone book, which is an actual item on select literacy tests.

Nancy Ann said she was “not as familiar with the testing and scores as most of the teachers,” but she still made a point of investigating the test by discussing its components with a colleague. “I have used some aspects of the test for lessons - personal information forms, calendar dates, addressing an envelope. I can gauge how students do on these exercises and get a sense of how they meet testing targets.” Arguably, she should not have to give sample portions of the test in her class to know how they are doing on the test, but in doing so, she is indirectly giving them additional practice with tasks that they will see on every literacy test and in the ‘real world’. 5.2.3 TENSION 3: TEACHERS’ BELIEFS - BUT WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE IN THE FIRST PLACE? The tensions present by the contradiction between the teachers (subject) and their beliefs (tool) are reflected in a potential mismatch between what the students’ goals are for their learning and what the teachers’ goals are for their students. In the model of the activity systems, the overarching goals that the teachers articulated are represented by the outcomes component of the activity system because this is what the teachers are striving for in their classes. What if their goals are misguided by their beliefs and assumptions about what the students need rather than what the students actually need? All actions from all components of the activity system are directed at the object of student learning, however, some rather striking contradictions arose during conversations with the teachers about the students’ goals.

The tension became most apparent when neither teacher could articulate exactly what she believed her students’ goals were. When asked to list the goals of her students, Sofia responded, “Goals. Well, I’m really not sure. Many of the students in my literacy class are grandparents and get supplemental income from their children from what I understand. The others are parents, and I believe their main goal is to find paying employment.” She goes on to explain the difficulty in determining the goals of her students because of the language barrier.

How does one talk about goals at this level? Many of my students come into class just repeating everything that I say to them. I feel like I’m in an echo chamber. When I first started with the literacy class, I tried to find out more about my students in class. It was very difficult. I remember trying to determine if one student was married. After taking quite a bit of class time on this question, I thought I had figured it out, but later heard something different from another of his teachers.

Nancy Ann’s understanding of the students’ goals is guided mainly by her own perceptions of why they attended class. “Many students seem to attend class only to assure benefits, with little effort to learn English.” She also notes that her “understanding of students’ goals is mostly based on conversation … talking with them and hearing them talk with each other.” In our conversation about students’ goals, Sofia said that she spends a good deal of time targeting goals with her advanced classes. She has them write down what they want to learn in the class and what they

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hope to accomplish with improved English language proficiency, but at this level, she lamented that she really is not as certain about their reason for being in class.

Related to instruction, Sofia commented on the challenge in teaching complicated phonetic skills for decoding without being able to help the students understand the reason behind her instructional choices. “One of my biggest challenges is not having the means to communicate the importance of understanding that letters have both a name and a sound, and why this knowledge will help them be able to read.” In addition to not being able to convey to the students the rationale behind her instructional choices, she is left to speculate about their feelings toward the learning process and the potential factors that impact their learning.

In a conversation with both Sofia and Nancy Ann, Sofia shared, “I think many of my students feel frustrated. They’ve been in school for months and they still can’t read. They have busy, overwhelming lives that leave them little time to think about reading and writing in English outside of school.” Unfortunately, due to her students’ limited oral English proficiency and time constraints of her own, Sofia has no way of knowing if the students share that sentiment. 5.2.4 TENSION 4: TEACHER KNOWLEDGE - WHAT WORKS ISN’T WHAT I’M SUPPOSED TO DO! Teacher knowledge serves as a cognitive tool that teachers rely on quite extensively for all decision-making in the classroom. They are informed at every turn by the knowledge, beliefs, assumptions and attitudes that comprise their knowledge base. Among these elements of their knowledge base, pedagogical knowledge gleaned from their TESOL education is very influential. Arguably one of the most instrumental approaches to language teaching in recent decades has been Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The majority of most L2 teacher education courses place a very strong emphasis on collaborative, active learning and learner-centred instruction. Teachers are taught to avoid being the transmitter of knowledge viewing students as empty vessels waiting to be filled.

The tension, therefore, comes to light in the activity systems of both Nancy Ann and Sofia when their pedagogical knowledge compels them to engage the students in collaborative learning but the approaches they utilize seem unsuccessful. In exploring the potential for collaborative learning in these classes, both teachers expressed that it is not typically effective. Nancy Ann and Sofia related their experiences with implementing pair work on several occasions. Two key breakdowns occur: 1) students are not always sure of what they should be doing and 2) students stray off task. Nancy Ann said she has the students work in pairs “a bit.” She recounts, “Working in pairs is hard. If one of them is doing it and then, you’re giving some attention to that one pair, the others just stop.” Sofia’s experiences mirror this sentiment. “Working in pairs and groups with this level is very difficult because even with the simplest activity, it is very hard to communicate what you want the students to do.” Sofia’s attempts to employ pair work in the class have also resulted in some frustration.

I have tried to have students work on flash cards with pictures and words in small groups. What usually happens is that they spread the pictures out on the table and start trying to figure out what the pictures might signify. They usually do this in their own languages. It is unusual for them to turn the card over and use the English word to try to figure out the

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picture. What usually happens is that I rotate to the different tables and work with the groups individually. As soon as I leave, they start doing other things.

These comments show that the teachers have attempted to have their students work together and after reflecting on these experiences, they have both concluded that it is “difficult” to carry out. Consequently, Sofia and Nancy Ann find themselves trying to strike a balance between what they believe they should be doing and what seems to be working in their classes. In an effort to maintain some ‘control’ over student learning, they rely primarily on teacher-centred approaches to instruction and do so based on the feedback from their experiences. 6 CONCLUSION Engaging in this research through the lens of activity theory allowed me to explore the prominent contradictions inherent in the activity systems of two teachers of L2 adult emergent readers. By exploring the interplay between the teachers and the mediational tools they utilize in their activity systems, I was able to highlight some inherent contradictions within the activity of teaching adult emergent readers for these two teachers in particular. The findings cannot necessarily be generalized to other contexts; however, they have been echoed in online forums and professional meetings for teachers of L2 adult emergent readers. For example, it is widely accepted that effective, relevant and age-appropriate materials are needed for teaching L2 adult emergent readers. Further applications of activity system analysis in EAL literacy classes would increase our understanding of the challenges facing teachers of adult emergent readers. Only by uncovering the predominant tensions can we begin to address them in language teacher education programs and with context specific professional development opportunities.

Resolutions to several of the above-noted tensions may have emerged simply through dialogue with other teachers working in the same context. Unfortunately, professional collaborations are not readily available to these two teachers. Again, while this is specific to two teachers in a US context, the sense of isolation they experienced is common among many L2 adult literacy teachers. Ideally, teachers can access opportunities to explore tensions in their teaching practice within a professional learning community.

The knowledge base for teaching in this context is growing within the field, but there is still so much we have yet to learn. In the meantime, the ongoing practice of developing and reconceptualising professional knowledge is necessary for L2 adult literacy teachers. All teachers need the opportunity to make connections between what they are doing (practice) and what they already know about language teaching and learning (theory) (Zanting, et al. 2003). L2 adult literacy teachers, in particular, need to be skilled at making theory-practice connections so that they can take the vast knowledge base available for teaching literate learners and synthesize it into a powerful tool to empower their students. These skills will help them to analyze their own teaching activity, identify inherent tensions and generate approaches that serve to ease those tensions.

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Cara, O., Casey, H., & Mallows, D. 2010. Recent trends in the initial training of teachers of literacy, numeracy and ESOL for the further education sector in English. London: NRDC. Retrieved on July 2nd, 2013 from http://www.nrdc.org.uk/publications

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About the Author Raichle Farrelly earned her PhD in Linguistics from the University of Utah in 2012. During the course of her graduate studies, she had the opportunity to teach English as an additional language to newcomers with refugee status in Utah. This experience led to her interest in the knowledge base for teaching adult emergent readers and the challenges faced by teachers resulting from insufficient preparation for this teaching context. In 2013, she joined the faculty of the American University of Armenia as an Assistant Professor in the MA TEFL program.

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