Exploration of Conceptions and Attitudes of Chemical Engineers from Bogotá and Manizales about Chemical Engineering

Degree Work to Apply for the Master's Degree in Education

Cristián Eduardo Vargas Ordóñez

Thesis Director Mariana Tafur Arciniegas

University of Los Andes Education Faculty Bogotá, Colombia

2018

Exploration of Conceptions and Attitudes of Chemical Engineers

from Bogotá and Manizales about Chemical Engineering

Abstract Background and Purpose: As a thesis research, we expect to identify and compare the

structure and genesis of Bogotá and Manizales undergraduate and graduate chemical

engineers’ conceptions and attitudes about chemical engineering, based on their sociocultural

differences. In Colombia, chemical engineers’ perception of themselves and chemical

engineering seemed to be related to the utility that this profession has for the economic

development of the country and for solving industrial challenges and problems. It suggested

that this perception is highly regarded for this community and for the universities which teach

this discipline because these are abilities for securing a job. Nevertheless, this perception of

chemical engineering seemed to be different according to the territory.

Methodology: A questionnaire of closed and open questions was applied, by snowball, to

students and graduates of chemical engineering from universities in Bogotá and Manizales,

in order to investigate the structure of the concepts and attitudes mentioned. For more in-

depth information, and to investigate the genesis of these structures, semi-structured

interviews were conducted with a smaller population, based on the results of the quantitative

moment. The answers were analyzed using a genetic-structural convergence approach on

attitudes and conceptions.

Findings and conclusions: There are similar conceptions and attitudes among the

participants of both cities. In general, chemical engineering is considered as the specialized

discipline which studies industrial processes, in order to generate an innovative impact in the

market, mainly, and in society. Likewise, the chemical engineer is seen as the professional

who, through the analysis of problems, looks for problems to them, using design as a means

to achieve it. In terms of attitudes, these are positive around the learning that can be obtained

with this discipline and negative in relation to ignorance and distance to the impact on society

of this work, ethical dilemmas and ignorance of non-engineering society chemistry in about

this profession. Among the mediating factors of the above, were personal factors such as

expectations, interests, etc., as well as factors related to the curriculum (teachers, school

environment, etc.). The differences between cities are minimal, which suggests a

sociocultural framework, on chemical engineering, superior to geographic. Emerging

dimensions such as the gender approach in chemical engineering and the importance of the

life stage of chemical engineers, student or graduate, are possible future research topics.

Implications: Mainly, the developed research problematizes how chemical engineers

observe themselves and their discipline, giving them a voice through a methodology that

allows to establish these types of explorations. In addition to the impulse towards the

reflection of their work, the results allow the identification of the chemical engineer as a

professional who wants to understand their environment of social impact, as well as society

know their discipline and form an idea closer to what happens in it. Also, it uses the rigorous

scientific language that chemical engineering presupposes, so it becomes possible to access

a greater audience of chemical engineers in Colombia, in order to generate more reflection

exercises in them. Finally, this research constitutes a gateway for future studies around

unusual topics in the country such as diversity and the gender approach in the learning and

exercise of chemical engineering, and in the development of undergraduate curriculums that

were more aligned with the needs of this population and the projections of the profession in

the construction of society, beyond the needs of the labor market.

Exploración de las concepciones y actitudes de los ingenieros

químicos de Bogotá y Manizales sobre ingeniería química

Resumen Antecedentes y propósito: Como tesis de investigación, se espera identificar y comparar la

estructura y génesis de las concepciones y actitudes de estudiantes de ingeniería química e

ingenieros químicos graduados de Bogotá y Manizales, sobre ingeniería química, basado en

sus diferencias socioculturales. En Colombia, la percepción de los ingenieros químicos sobre

sí mismos y sobre ingeniería química parece estar relacionado con la utilidad que esta

profesión tiene para el desarrollo económico del país y para resolver retos y problemas

industriales. Esto sugiere que esta percepción es muy apreciada por esta comunidad y para

las universidades que imparten esta disciplina debido a que estas son habilidades para

conseguir un trabajo. Sin embargo, esta percepción de ingeniería química parece ser diferente

según el territorio.

Metodología: Un cuestionario de preguntas cerradas y abiertas fue aplicado, por bola de

nieve, a estudiantes y graduados de ingeniería química de universidades de Bogotá y

Manizales, con el fin de indagar en torno a la estructura de las concepciones y actitudes

mencionadas. Para información más profunda, y para indagar sobre la génesis de estas

estructuras, se realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas a una población más pequeña,

basado en los resultados cuantitativos. Las respuestas fueron analizadas utilizando un

enfoque de convergencia genético-estructural sobre las actitudes y las concepciones.

Hallazgos y conclusiones: Existen concepciones y actitudes similares entre los participantes

de ambas ciudades. En general, se encuentra a la ingeniería química como la disciplina

especializada el estudio de los procesos industriales, con el fin de generar un impacto

innovador en el mercado, principalmente, y en la sociedad. Asimismo, se observa al ingeniero

químico como el profesional que a través del análisis de los problemas, busca problemas a

ellos, utilizando el diseño como medio para lograrlo. En cuanto a las actitudes, estas son

positivas en torno a los aprendizajes que se pueden obtener con esta disciplina y negativas

con relación al desconocimiento y lejanía hacia el impacto en la sociedad de esta labor,

dilemas éticos y el desconocimiento de la sociedad no-ingeniera química en sobre este

profesión. Entre los factores mediadores de lo anterior, se encontraron factores personales

como las expectativas, intereses, etc., al igual que factores relacionados con el currículo

(docentes, entorno escolar, etc.). Las diferencias entre ciudades son mínimas, lo cual sugiere

un marco sociocultural, sobre la ingeniería química, superior al geográfico. Dimensiones

emergentes como el enfoque de género en la ingeniería química y la importancia de la etapa

de vida de los ingenieros químicos, estudiante o graduado, son posibles temas de

investigación futuros.

Implicaciones: Principalmente, la investigación desarrollada problematiza cómo los

ingenieros químicos se observas a sí mismos y a su disciplina, dándoles voz a través de una

metodología que permite establecer este tipo exploraciones. Además del impulso hacia la

reflexión de su quehacer, los resultados permiten identificar al ingeniero químico como un

profesional que desea comprender su entorno de impacto social, así como que la sociedad

conozca su disciplina y se forme una idea más cercana a lo que sucede en ella. También,

utiliza el lenguaje científico riguroso que la ingeniería química presupone, por lo que se

convierte en una posibilidad de acceder a un público mayor de ingenieros químicos en

Colombia, con el fin de generar más ejercicios de reflexión en ellos. Finalmente, esta

investigación constituye una puerta de entrada para futuros estudios en torno a temas poco

comunes en el país tales como la diversidad y el enfoque de género en el aprendizaje y

ejercicio de la ingeniería química, y en el desarrollo de currículos de pregrado que se

encuentren más alineados con las necesidades de esta población y de las proyecciones de la

profesión en la construcción de sociedad, más allá de las necesidades del mercado laboral.

Background and Purpose As an independent discipline, Chemical Engineering was founded in 1888 as a course

for Industrial Chemists at the MIT (Antwerpen, 1980). From its beginnings, this profession

answers the chemical industry’s needs about specific, effective and efficient constructions

for their operations. For that, the original idea lied in incorporate industrial chemistry’s

concepts and laboratory practices to Industrial Chemistry and Mechanical Engineering

curricula. After the first mechanical engineer entitled himself in 1891 as chemical engineer,

more graduated chemical engineers founded in 1908 the American Institute of Chemical

Engineering (AIChE), consolidating the autonomy of this profession. Since 1915, some other

courses were aggregated for giving support to the new and highly demanded discipline due

to the First World War, Second World War and postwar period: unit operations, applied

thermodynamics, process control, applied chemical kinetics, process design, momentum,

mass, energy transfer, biotechnology, materials and process simulation (Riveros Rojas,

Mayor Mora, Madiedo Becerra, & Umaña Peña, 1999).

Due the influence of the United States of America in the political and economic

panorama, this consolidated discipline was promoted in Europe, where the concept of

Chemical Engineering was first created. Germany, Great Britain and France opted to teach

this area as a deepening of the chemical profession. Many European citizens studied at their

universities and the Spanish chemist Antonio García Banús was one of them. After some

years of exerting the occupation, this engineer migrated in 1938 to Bogotá due the fascism

during the Second World War (Duarte Torres & Riveros Rojas, 1998). In his new location,

he co-founded the National University’s Chemistry School, soon restructured as the School

Faculty of Chemistry with a Doctorate Program in Chemistry and a Doctorate Program in

Chemical Engineering. Like in the American and European scholar tradition, the Colombian

is characterized by a Practical Tradition mediated by external factors, like the industry,

which promote contents and methodologies taught in the universities (Riveros Rojas et al.,

1999).

Soon, it was obvious that the Practical Tradition had gaps in terms of pure scientific

development and the country's little technological development. In that moment, the

Academic Tradition arrived to fill those gaps, establishing departments and formal schools

of Chemical Engineering (Riveros Rojas et al., 1999). On the other hand, the Behavioral

Pedagogical Model was the one established for the development of the cognitive and

practical competences that said professional required (Gómez Hurtado & Polania González,

2008). In that order of ideas, and in spite of attempts to change the model to one based on

active student learning, cooperation and project-based, Colombian Chemical Engineering

education is still characterized by instructional and traditional curricula, where an expert in

Chemical Engineering suggests the content that students should learn (Universidad Nacional

de Colombia, 2015).

Nowadays, the biggest challenge that several educational institutions have in Colombia

is to build curricula which include the experience, knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of

different actors. Higher education institutions should not be foreign to these characteristics

because they allow more meaningful learning (Goodson, 2000), the construction of critical

thinking in students inside practice communities (Wenger, 2011), and the transcendence of

content and competencies to the real world outside the classroom. However, this idea of what

a professional must be is hidden by three structural problems which constitute the

predominant traditional curricula:

1. Homogenization of the population: The school as a modern sociopolitical project has

been related to the unification of values and contents that would allow a greater cohesion

in different societies (López, 2010). In principle, this process was related to the

construction of national identities and the social segmentation of education. The

secondary effect of this procedure has been the denial of cultural diversity and at the

same time, the ignorance of the learning rhythms differentiated by different situations.

2. Partialization of knowledge: In a complex society, the way in which teachers and

students relate to knowledge cannot occur under an exclusively theoretical disciplinary

logic. This type of educational approach moves apprentices away from everyday

problems and the pedagogical relationship. From this perspective, concepts based on

interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity emerge, advocating to generate complex

educational spaces that address the complexity (multiple dimensions and levels) of the

world (Motta, 2002).

3. Privilege learning by content and not skill development: Crowell and Reid-Marr (2013)

recognize that one of the great problems of learning today is the predominance of the

accumulation of information without context, together with a system of evaluation based

in the demonstration of isolated knowledge, which have nothing to do with real problems

and therefore lack meaning for students.

In this order of ideas, this master thesis sought to explore how the conception of

Chemical Engineering is elaborated in chemical engineers from Bogotá and Manizales and

how the attitudes about this profession are constituted during the university time. As

hypothesis, the conceptions and attitudes of chemical engineers from Bogota and Manizales

about what it means to be part of this discipline seems to be related to the abilities this

profession brings to solving daily challenges and problems proposed by the industry, as well

as to boosting the economic development of the country (Ministerio de Educación Nacional,

1976). In this way, this thesis explored the impact of curricula on the perception that chemical

engineers have about themselves as part of this discipline and their relation to their

environment. For that, it pursued to answer the research question: What and how are the

conceptions and attitudes of undergraduate and graduate chemical engineers from Bogota

and Manizales related to chemical engineering? Thus, analyzing the conceptions and

attitudes about Chemical Engineering in a specific sociocultural frame constitutes an

opportunity to identify how to establish Chemical Engineering curricula and educative

policies around this topic that are contextualized to the environment, providing a first step to

the self-reflection through the chemical engineer’s role as citizen, breaking discipline

barriers, recognizing the possibilities to solve social problems from this profession and giving

a voice to this social group. For it, it was taken a pragmatic epistemological framework

(Mertens, 2012) trying to converge genetic and structural social representations’ approaches

(Parales-Quenza & Viscaíno-Gutiérrez, 2007) as a mediating element of the relationships

between the attitudes and as a mechanism for analyzing the information collected.

Theoretical Framework

It is interesting to identify and compare how these professionals conceive and act on

chemical engineering, from their different sociocultural and historical frameworks they have

naturally appropriated in their countries. To accomplish this, the study used the tension

between Social Representations (SR) and Attitudes (Farr, 2009) and their viable solution, as

a framework for the development of the objectives. This tension is related to how were

conceived SR and Attitudes in its origins, and how they are conceived for group studies. In

this way, Social Representations were focused from a sociological perspective and refer to

the way a group of people perceives a particular phenomenon from their sociocultural

knowledge learned throughout life. Meanwhile, Attitudes respond to a cognitive, individual,

approach which correlates with the SR from its historical origins. As result, the tension lies

in the mediation between both of them as a unique theory, a situation that was addressed by

Parales-Quenza and Viscaíno-Gutierrez (2007) through a genetic-structural perspective.

Attitudes and Social Representations

The tension between Attitudes and Social Representations have a historical relation

which has changed through time. When a historical path is taken, it is possible to identify

when and how was the origin of this tension. In its beginnings, called as social attitudes, this

concept was considered as a sociohistorical and cultural element which mediated individual’s

behaviors within the society and culture However, after the arrival of this concept to the

psychological schools of the United States, this one gradually changed until the actual

definition. In this order of ideas, during the methodological and instrumental era (1920s-

1930s), behavior change era (1945-1965) and structuration era (1965-) this conception

changed from the sociological approach to an individually centered one (Parales-Quenza &

Viscaíno-Gutiérrez, 2007), where Attitudes are the result of emotion and value mediated

cognitive processes around an object which remain inside the individual and does not change

continuously. Thus, individual Attitudes were defined as an evaluation of an object of

thought (Bohner & Dickel, 2011), a definition that is still associated with this concept.

For their part, Social Representations (SR), as symbols of (re)construction of the

common sense, correlate attitudes as part of them in a sociological approach. In that sense,

for Moscovici (1979) Social Representations are constituted by the information, the

representational champ and the attitudes. Information is “given from the degree of knowledge

that a group has in relation to a social object (literacy)”, the representational champ is “related

to the socially constructed model on a precise aspect of the social object” and the attitudes

“attitude identify the global orientation in relation to the object of social representation; that

is, it is related to the interest and actions that a specific group weaves around a common

theme” (Vargas-Ordoñez, 2016). Nevertheless, this theory did not answer the exactly role of

the attitudes in the social interaction. In a structural perspective, according to Abric (2001),

attitudes are part of a relational system, which is constituted by a core and a periphery. The

core, where Attitudes are placed, is consolidated and compact and understanding it allows to

understand how the phenomenon is addressed by a group through the values and emotions.

On the other hand, periphery is considered as the interaction space between the SR studied

and other SR related to the same object and as an interaction slot between context and core.

In this sense, the tension of both approaches lie, not only on how Attitudes are

conceived, but for how they act in group contexts. Meanwhile SR consider the relation

between people as the Attitudes generation and interaction mechanism within a group, for

mentalist approach it is considered that an Attitude is the sum of each individual attitude. To

mediate this conflict between an individualist approach and a sociological approach, Parales-

Quenza and Viscaíno-Gutierrez (2007) propose to consider them from a genetic-structural

perspective which should conciliates both paradigms. This perspective supposes that

attitudes change through the time, which suggest that there is a genetic stage and a

transformation/consolidation stage. In the first moment, during the genetic stage, Attitudes

constitute the core when the representational champ is being created. In the second moment,

when the representational champ is stabilized, the attitudes are part of the periphery being

the first part of the relation between a SR and its context (Salesses, 2005). In this sense, the

genetic-structural perspective allows to have a historical approach of the Attitudes and how

they are structured in a specific group, considering people interactions with their context and

their own cognitive processes. Figure 1 summarizes the theory considered above.

Fig 1. Attitudes as part of Social Representations, an Analytical Rationality and Genetic-

Structural Perspective. Own elaboration

How are the

attitudes concieved? 

Methodology We used a mixed research design based on pragmatism, which allows the search for

meaning of the phenomena investigated through the combination of quantitative and

qualitative approaches, the intersubjectivity in the capacity to the researcher, without falling

into the extremes of complete objectivity or complete subjectivity, and the consideration that

there is both a particular real world and diverse individual interpretations of that world

(Morgan, 2007). On the other hand, this paradigm does not presuppose contradictions about

ontological or epistemological assumptions since it is more important to respond to the

situation from an empirical perspective (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). In this way, the use

of a mixed investigation entails a design that integrates quantitative and qualitative methods

in some or all of the parts of the process. Specifically, for this research project, we made a

sequential explanatory design of quantitative predominance and importance, which responses

to the research question designed (Creswell, 2011).

On the other hand, we conduct this study through a predominantly deductive

theoretical way, since this type of design incorporates a quantitative nuclear component,

followed by a qualitative sequential component. With this, we considered the possibility of

moving from the world of the general (hypothesis/theories) to the particular world (Morse,

Niehaus, Wolfe, & Wilkins, 2006), also trying to refute the hypothesis: The conceptions and

attitudes of chemical engineers from Bogota and Manizales about what it means to be part of

this discipline are similar and seem to be related to the abilities this profession brings to

solving daily challenges and problems proposed by the industry, as well as to boosting the

economic development of the country. In this sense, our role as researchers varied in each of

the moments of the project due to the changes that occur between the quantitative and

qualitative designs (Donnor, Foley, Guba, Kineheloe, Ladson-Billings, Lincoln, McLaren,

Olensen, Plummer, Saukko, y Valenzuela, 2012). So, in the quantitative phase, this research

approached the question from an expert position that controls subjectivity and knows the

theory and context in which the surveys will be applied. In this way, to mitigate context

errors, we validated the evaluation instruments through a pilot test with three chemical

engineers. By its par, in the qualitative phase investigators’ role changed to that of researchers

who value subjectivity and relate it to previously found information in order to have a broad

picture of what chemical engineering means in two different sociohistorical and cultural

contexts.

Population

The present research was carried out with chemical engineering students and

chemical engineers graduates from Bogotá and Manizales’s universities. The sample was

taken using social media and targeted online snowball sampling, due this was a hard-to-reach

population, and the limited amount of available economic resources for collecting

information (Dusek, Yurova, & Ruppel, 2015). For this reason, in a first moment, the initial

participants were taken from virtual social networks of Colombian chemical engineers;

however, after two months of waiting for the minimum amount of answers, it was necessary

to contact the departments chiefs from the different universities which teach chemical

engineering. As a result, the National University of Colombia – Manizales and University of

Los Andes answered the call and the goal was reached. On the other hand, in the qualitative

phase there were interviewed three chemical engineers per city, students or professionals,

according the results obtained at the quantitative phase.

Collection and analysis

The development of each research moment was influenced by the methodological

decisions (sequential explanatory design) and theoretical decisions previously described

(Creswell, 2011). For the present research, the methodological explanation is related to

quantitative, qualitative, and mixing phases.

Quantitative phase

a. Selection of the participants: Sample of convenience (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) by snowball

beginning with some chemical engineers from undergraduate and graduate chemical

engineers’ virtual social networks who wanted to answer and reference the survey online

(quantitative).

b. Collection of information: Through a validated survey by a pilot test of the instrument

(Onwuegbuzie, Bustamante, & Nelson, 2010) containing closed multiple choice

questions (quantitative) and open list free questions (qualitative). The online survey was

structured using and adapting some questions from Academic Pathways of People

Learning Engineering Survey (APPLES), Pittsburgh Freshman Engineering Attitudes

Survey (PFEAS) and Senior Undergraduate Survey (EC2000). Also, there were created

some questions for expanding the information (Annex A). This part of the process was

done between April and May 2018.

c. Analysis of the information: We used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the

closed questions (quantitative) using Microsoft Excel and SPSS v. 24. Regarding the

open questions, we analyzed frequencies and association nodes, quantifying the results

obtained (Borrego, Douglas, & Amelink, 2009) through Gephi v. 0.9.2. and data mining

software Weka v. 3.8.1.

Qualitative phase.

a. Selection of the participants: Of the people surveyed, those 3 people per city that

voluntarily wanted to be part of this moment, were interviewed once the analysis of the

quantitative information had been carried out. We sought contact with people who had

answers close (1), medium (1) and far (1) from the core of chemical engineering

conception graphic (intentional sampling) (Dusek et al., 2015).

b. Collection of information: Interviews with open questions (qualitative) in order to

deepen, particularize and provide meaning to what was found in the information

collected at the quantitative moment (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003).

c. Analysis of the information: The information collected was done through NVivo v.

Software. 11.4.0 in order to organize, analyze and find relationships and categories in

the qualitative data as well as to quantify the information (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). In

this way, the validity of the analysis and the transferability of the information was

guaranteed once the moment of integration of the information was reached.

Mixing phase (Data integration)

This phase was at the moment of interpretation of the data after the collection and the

individual analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data. In some cases, the information

was combined according to how they responded to the resolution of the research question

(Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). However, because this has been a population that has not been

studied hard before, the discussion focused on developing a coherent account that would

account for their attitudes, based on quantitative and qualitative results, as well as on

appropriate references.

Ethical considerations

In order to ensure the confidentiality of the participants throughout the investigative

process, the following actions were carried out:

1. Because the collection of the information was done through a snowball sampling,

through social networks, such as Facebook and contacting department chiefs from

different universities, this was characterized as being voluntary, private and confidential.

Databases were be managed by the researcher as first confidentiality filter.

2. An informed consent was left at the beginning of the survey which showed that the

information collected was used only for research purposes.

3. Regarding the analysis of the information, the personal information that came from the

surveys was obviated (emails, mainly) and the participants of the interviews were

identified with an alphanumeric code.

4. The principle of non-maleficence: The present research did not imply risks for the

mental, physical, honor and dignity of the participants.

Quantitative and Qualitative Results Quantitative Results

Who were the participants?

When performing a frequency analysis of the results, it was found that, in total, 84

participants were surveyed (52 in Bogota and 32 in Manizales) who were contacted through

social networks and engineering career coordinators from different universities. In Table 1,

the distribution of the population by sex and schooling is shown according to the city to

which they belong.

Table 1. Population by sex and schooling according to the city

Variable Category Bogota Manizales Total Sex Man 53% (16) 47% (15) 36% (31)

Woman 68% (36) 32% (17) 63% (53) Schooling Student 59% (17) 41% (12) 35% (29)

Graduated 64% (35) 36% (20) 65% (55) Note: Own elaboration

In turn, the information collected came mostly from students and graduates of

chemical engineering from the University of Los Andes (Bogotá, 29%), the National

University of Colombia - Bogota Headquarters (Bogotá, 23%) and the National University

of Colombia - Manizales Headquarters (Manizales, 37%) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Percentage of participants according to the university to which the participants belong.

Own elaboration

Regarding their perception of religious practice, it is possible to identify that

according to a Chi-square analysis there is correlation between belonging to a city and

participants self-perception about their religiosity. Figure 3 shows the frequencies in both

cities.

Fig. 3. Religiosity according to the city the participants belong. Own elaboration

Likewise, it can be seen that the majority of respondents (72.8%) had average and

high average income (Fig. 4).

AMERICA'S UNIVERSITY

6%

JORGE TADEO

LOZANO UNIVERSITY

5%

UNIVERSITY OF LOS ANDES

29%

COLOMBIAN NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY -BOGOTA

23%

COLOMBIAN NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY -MANIZALES

37%

20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20

Very religiousPretty religious

Moderately religiousLittle religious

Nothing religiousAntireligious

Bogota Manizales

Fig. 4. Family income according to the city the participants belong. Own elaboration

Finally, this population does not count, in its majority (83.0%), with a family member

that is a chemical engineer.

Students

According to the results of this population, it is found that half of the students (50.0%)

is the first generation to have access to tertiary education, which indicates the low insertion

of parents and other family members in this educational level. For their part, they consider

that they have had limited knowledge of chemical engineering before starting their degree

(Fig. 5). However, this statement is different when speaking of basic and mathematical

sciences. In this case, students consider that they have been moderately prepared in these

areas at the time of entering university (Fig. 6).

25 15 5 5 15 25

Low family income

Low average family income

Average family income

High average family income

High family income

Bogota Manizales

Fig. 5. Knowledge of chemical engineering before starting the career. Own elaboration

Fig. 6. Being prepared in basic sciences (mathematics, physics, etc.) before starting the

career. Own elaboration

Regarding their future expectations, it is possible to observe that students expect to

practice their profession upon finishing their studies (Very Probably and Definitely).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Great knowledge Moderated knowledge Limited knowledge No knowledge

Bogotá Manizalez Total

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Very well prepared Moderate prepared Very little prepared Little bit prepared

Bogotá Manizales Total

However, they do not discredit having a job not related to chemical engineering (Possibly,

Probably and Very Probably) (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Students’ agreement or disagreement about to have or not a job related to chemical

engineering. Own elaboration

Figure 8 corroborates the aforementioned, given that students intend to put chemical

engineering into practice in the next three years after graduation (Probably: 15; Definitely:

12, which represent the 51.7% of the students’ population).

Fig. 8. Intention to put chemical engineering into practice in the next three years after

graduation. Own elaboration

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25% Definitelynot

Probablynot

Possibly

Probably

Veryprobably

Definitely

Definitelynot

Probablynot

Possibly

Probably

Veryprobably

Definitely

a.Haveajobrelatedtochemicalengineering b.Haveajobthatisnotrelatedtochemicalengineering

Bogotá Manizales

0

5

10

15

20

Definitely not Probably not Probably Definitely

Bogotá Manizales Total

Finally, the students state that they are active members (10 students) or totally

inactive (10 students) in the student chapters of their universities (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. Students’ activity in student chapter. Own elaboration

Graduated

In characterizing this population, it is possible to observe that, depending on the city

in which they are located, the chemical engineers graduate, they specialize in different areas.

In that order of ideas, in Bogotá it is possible to observe more chemical engineers in areas of

quality, materials, food, energy or pharmaceutical, compared to Manizales. However, in the

latter city there are more chemical engineers related to the environment, biotechnology or

process control (Fig. 10). This phenomenon could be associated with the level of

industrialization of each city, as well as the role of work within the academy. Thus, while in

Bogota there is an industrial level of greater tradition and consolidation, in Manizales the

research processes are more associated to this population given the link with the National

University of Colombia, based in this city.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

A lot Moderately Something Little bit Nothing

Bogotá Manizales Total

Fig. 10. Area of specialization. Own elaboration

As for continuing to work in chemical engineering in relation to work not related to

this profession, it is possible to observe that graduate chemical engineers consider, greater

than students, continuing with it (Fig. 11). Apparently, the feeling of pleasure towards the

career increases once the studies finish, which could be associated to the applicability of the

acquired knowledge and its usefulness in the real and personal world.

Fig. 11. Graduated chemical engineers’ agreement or disagreement about having or not a

job related to chemical engineering. Own elaboration

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8

Analytic ChemistryBiotechnology

CommercialEducation

EnergyEnvironment

FoodManufacturing

MaterialsMinery

PharmaceuticalProcess control

ProductionQuality

Security and health at work

Bogotá Manizales

0% 5%

10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Definitelynot

Probablynot

Posibly

Probably

Veryprobably

Definitely

Definitelynot

Probablynot

Posibly

Probably

Veryprobably

Definitely

a.Haveajobrelatedtochemicalengineering b.Haveajobthatisnotrelatedtochemicalengineering

Bogotá Manizales

Finally, graduated professionals say that they are less actively linked to companies or

engineering organizations than students. Which suggests that once they graduate from

college, chemical engineers are no longer interested in union activities.

Fig 12. Graduated chemical engineers’ activity in a chemical engineering association or

organization. Own elaboration.

Conception of Chemical Engineering

The free lists, as a cognitive anthropology technique (Alba-García, Salcedo-Rocha,

Vargas-Valderrama, & García de Alba-Verduzco, 2012), allows to identify how a particular

population thinks or acts in front of a particular situation or topic. There are several ways to

analyze the results and more when access to the population has been done virtually. For the

present Thesis Project, the analysis of the information provided by the participants to the

survey was based on the assumption that the order of the words, written by the respondents,

is associated to the level of importance of each of these to define chemical engineering or

chemical engineering technology. In this sense, the Gephi software was used for the

construction of networks by association nodes, which is based on four variables to analyze

the information: Betweenness (Measures the frequency with which a node appears in the

shortest path between nodes in the network), Closeness (The average distance from the initial

node to all other nodes in the network), Eccentricity (The distance from a node to the node

further away from the res) and Modularity (Algorithm of detection of communities).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Very often Frequently Occasionally Sometimes Rarely Nothing

Bogotá Manizales Total général

Fig. 13. Conception of Chemical Engineering for chemical engineers (students a graduated)

from Bogota. Own elaboration

Fig. 14. Conception of Chemical Engineering for chemical engineers (students a graduated)

from Manizales. Own elaboration

As a result of this analysis, it is possible to observe in Figures 13 and 14 the

association graphs for the chemical engineering conception, differentiated for Bogotá and

Manizales and in Figures 15 and 16 the association graphs for the chemical engineering

technology conception for these two cities. In this way, in the case of chemical engineering,

it is observed that the graphs for both cities put Processes as the main nucleus that defines

chemical engineering. However, when identifying secondary nodes, it is found that the

differences are notorious. For example, while for the chemical engineers of Bogotá it is found

that other important nodes could be Industry and Development, in Manizales the other

important nodes would be Innovation, Industry and Research. Regarding nodes in the

periphery, it is found that in Bogotá it is mediated by words such as Reactor, Mathematics,

Heat Transference and Challenge, while in Manizales there is no very established periphery.

Regarding atypical data, two external nodes associated with words such as Problem solution

and Methodic are evident in Bogotá (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14).

As a contrast to establish a limit of what chemical engineering means, the question

about how chemical engineering technology is conceived, is shown to the latter facing the

Laboratory and work outside the processes and production plants. In this way, both in Bogotá

and in Manizales there is a main node (Laboratory); but according to the city it is associated

with Development, Analysis, Research and Reactors, in Bogotá, or with Analysis and

Research, in Manizales. Similar to what happened with chemical engineering, in Bogotá

there is a periphery, which is mediated around Biotechnology and Operators, and outliers

related to Challenge (Fig. 15 and Fig. 16). Therefore, we begin to observe that the limits of

chemical engineering are as far as the laboratory stage begins: Two separate occupations that

are related by similar theoretical principles (chemistry, physics and mathematics) but that in

practice are in separate areas.

In general, it is evident that the concept of chemical engineering is more dispersed in

Bogotá than in Manizales, which suggests a certain degree of consolidation of the concept in

Manizales and a process of construction, and with a greater diversity of words, in Bogotá. In

the discussion section, this information will be returned to make its respective crossing with

the results of the interviews. Also in Annex B are the results of the variables (Betweenness,

Closeness, Eccentricity and Modularity) for each of the aforementioned graphs.

Fig. 15. Conception of Chemical Engineering Technology for chemical engineers (students

and graduated) from Bogota. Own elaboration

Fig. 16. Conception of Chemical Engineering Technology for chemical engineers (students

and graduated) from Manizales. Own elaboration

Other conceptions, attitudes and factors that mediated attitudes about chemical engineering

Since the questions to be analyzed in this section correspond to ordinal and

categorical variables, these were treated as non-parametric, as established by Brace, Kemp

and Snelgar (2012). However, as an initial approach to the analysis of the information, the

results are related below according to the frequency for each of the options, and then analyzed

according to their parametric characteristics. In this order of ideas, for analyzing the obtained

information it was used the results for the same questions at the study of Lattuca, Terenzini,

and Volkwein (2006) for American engineers. In this case, 79% approximately agreed with

positive statements about engineering and to be engineer. Thus, for analyzing the present

study, it was used 80% of agreement, or disagreement, as a basis. For example, question 28,

related to how is conceived the chemical engineering, was organized according to the level

of agreement with the proposed statements: 80% or more agreement (Little Agree, Agree and

Entirely Agree), between 80% of agreement and 80% of disagreement, and 80% or more of

disagreement (Little Disagree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree) (Annex C, Fig. C.1. and

Table C.1.). Of 126 response possibilities, 8 results from Bogotá and 11 from Manizales are

more than 80% agree with statements related with chemical engineering as a rewarding career

and chemical engineers as active part in social problems solving.

In question 29 "Of the 20 following activities, please choose the THREE MOST

IMPORTANT for a chemical engineer", it can be identified that according to the city this

classification varies in the order or the activities chosen. Thus, in Bogotá it is found that

engineers generate alternatives, design, analyze, make decisions and understand the

problems, while in Manizales analyze, generate alternatives, make decisions, design and

understand the problems. On the other hand, among the skills that do not define a chemical

engineer are grant, iterate, build and imagine, in the case of Bogotá, and grant, iterate,

abstract, prove and visualize, in Manizales (Fig. 17). For its part, question 30, related to the

skills a chemical engineer must have (Annex C, Fig. C.2. and Table C.2.), was organized

according to the level of agreement with the statements: More or equal than 80% of

agreement and less than 80% of agreement. Of 104 response possibilities, 14 results from

Bogotá and 21 from Manizales are more than 80% agree with statements related with

technical and critical thinking abilities that a chemical should have as professional.

Regarding the educational environment of chemical engineers (question 31), and the

actions developed in the universities around diversity (question 32), the results were

organized according to the frequency that the statement is evidenced at universities (q.30)

(Annex C, Fig. C.3. and Table C.3.), and the agreement or disagreement, both more than the

80%, with the statements proposed. For question 31, of 30 response possibilities, 3 of the

results from Bogotá and 2 from Manizales are more than 80% agree with high frequencies of

positive actions related with a friendly school environment. By its part, for question 32, of

16 response possibilities, 2 of the results from Bogotá and 3 from Manizales are more than

80% agree with statements related with positive actions that universities do/did around the

diversity.

Fig. 17. Competences that a chemical engineer must have, by city of the participants. Own

elaboration

Finally, for the questions with ordinal answers, the statistical analyses were carried

out according to the crossing variables. In this order of ideas, for those variables of two

25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 25

GrantIterate

AbstractBuild

ImagineProve

Set goalsMake prototypes

VisualizeHave constant new ideas (brainstorming)

Identify restrictionsSynthesize

Search informationTo plan

CommunicateUse creativity

To modelEvaluate

Understand the problemsTake decisions

DesignAnalyze

Generate alternatives

Bogotá Manizales

responses (male-female, for example) Mann-Whitney analysis was carried out, while for

those variables with more than two response options (Strongly agree-Strongly agree),

analysis of Kruskal-Wallis (Brace et al., 2012). As results, 3 questions have significant

differences (p <0.05) with the variable Sex, 25 questions with variable Student–Graduated,

7 questions with variable City, 16 questions with variable Age, 9 questions with variable

Family Income, and 4 questions with variable Religiosity (Annex D). In general, it was found

that women, students, people from Manizales, young people, high economic income family

participants, and less religious people, have more positive conceptions and attitudes about

chemical engineering and to be a chemical engineer. These results were retaken in the section

Results Integration, for comparing and complementing them with the qualitative results.

Qualitative Results

There were 6 interviews in total, 3 participants from Bogotá and 3 from Manizales,

which were chosen according to both cities chemical engineering conception figures (Fig. 13

and Fig. 14) and the data related. For their selection, the degree of closeness to the main core

of each figure (core, periphery and outliers) was taken into account, as well as the amount of

words that each person used to define chemical engineering. In this way, 3 people were

contacted by email by degree of proximity for a total of 9 people by city. However, only 6

people, 3 from Bogotá and 3 from Manizales, answered the call. In this sense, the results of

this phase are related with a convenience sample. For the analysis of the information it was

performed a thematic analysis of the information (Braun & Clarke, 2006), through the

qualitative analysis software NVivo v. 12.0.

Population interviewed

In total, 6 people were interviewed, of which 3 correspond to students or chemical

engineers who study or studied in Bogotá and 3 in Manizales. Table 2 shows the

characteristics of the respondents, as well as the interview dates.

Table 2. Characteristics of the population interviewed

Code City Gender Age (y/o) Occupation University

BTA1 Bogotá Female 22 Graduated University of Los Andes

BTA2 Bogotá Female 20 Student University of Los Andes

BTA3 Bogotá Female 29 Graduated University of Los Andes

MZL1 Manizales Male 22 Student National University of Colombia

MZL2 Manizales Female 19 Student National University of Colombia

MZL3 Manizales Female 23 Graduated National University of Colombia

Note: Own elaboration

According to the availability of time and the location of the interviewees, the inquiries

were made live or by virtual means (Hangouts). All interviews were recorded with the

permission of the participants and transcribed to be analyzed in the aforementioned software.

After categorize

For the analysis of the information, an in-depth reading of the transcriptions was

carried out in order to identify responses that answered the proposed research question (What

are the attitudes of undergraduate and chemical engineers from Bogota and Manizales related

to chemical engineering?). For this purpose, in order to carry out a thematic analysis, a

preliminary coding was elaborated that related the attitudes of the interviewees regarding

chemical engineering. As a result, there were 47 unclustered nodes which, as the content of

the identified citations was analyzed, were concentrated in 4 axes of analysis: Conceptions,

positive attitudes, negative attitudes and attitudes mediating factors. After a thorough review,

there were 24 nodes grouped in the aforementioned axes. Table 3 shows the grouping by

nodes, their respective description, as well as the number of citations per generated code.

Table 3. Categories resulting from the thematic analysis

Name Description References

Bogotá Manizales Conceptions The work of the CEr CE actions The CEr in everyday life 5 6 Being a woman and CEr

Gender perceptions 2 0

What the rest says about CEg People say... Perception of the interviewees about what the

non-CEr people think about the discipline 4 5

Companies say ... Perception of the interviewees about what companies think about the discipline 1 2

Perception of discipline

Beliefs of the interviewees about what CEg is 4 3

Positive attitudes Learn to know the world

Competencies of the profession 0 4

Learn to innovate Make new products, new processes, changes that meet the needs, etc. 2 1

Goal orientation Additional skills acquired by the interviewees when passing through the university 1 1

Negative attitudes Ethical conflicts with the CEg

The activity of the CEr generates social or environmental problems that mobilize the ethical positions of the interviewee

2 0

Dehumanized CEg

It is related to the perception that this profession is not close to the impacts or needs of society 1 1

CEg my second option

Chemical engineering as a second career option to study 3 1

CEg is not my passion

After knowing the CEg through the study or work, the interviewee does not consider himself close to her

2 0

What was needed Aspects that, according to the interviewees, were needed during their university education 5 3

Mediating factors of attitudes Personal characteristics Capacities Skills and their influence on attitudes 2 1 Decisions How decisions are made and their influence on

attitudes 1 1

Emotions What emotions are there and their influence on attitudes 5 2

Expectations What expectations are there and their influence on attitudes 0 2

Interests What are the interests and their influence on attitudes 2 2

Curriculum Institutional characteristics

Approaches, subjects, resources, etc. 3 1

Teachers Ways to teach CEg

Teaching style of teachers and applied resources 3 0

Student-teacher relationship

Description of relationships within CEg departments 2 2

Means Recognition of aspects that could be relevant for the interviewees, which were useful for the development of their school activities

2 0

Note : CEg = Chemical Engineering, CEr = Chemical Engineer. Own elaboration

Results Integration In order to understand how a population group thinks about a particular phenomenon,

it is necessary to identify itself in the conception. In this way, in this section we integrate

quantitative and qualitative results about the concept of chemical engineering, the part of its

historical construction and how these mobilize the attitudes that the participants currently

have towards Chemical Engineering. Additionally, this section focuses on the identification

of similarities and differences between what was found in Bogotá and Manizales.

What is Chemical Engineering?

Returning to the quantitative results related to the concept of chemical engineering, it

is possible to observe that there are similarities between what the participants of Bogotá and

Manizales currently consider. In this way, it is possible to define chemical engineering as a

discipline that through the study and implementation of physicochemical processes has its

actions in the industry. However, in Bogotá there is a perception that is somewhat different

from that evidenced by Manizales. While in the case of the first one, a periphery is observed

associated to the study of the discipline (Heat Transfer, Mathematics and Reactor) and certain

characteristics of the discipline in the form of outliers (Problem Solving and Methodic) (Fig.

13), in the second there is a tendency to consider chemical engineering as a discipline that

drives Innovation (Fig. 14).

Following the report of the interviewees, this concept is consolidated in the university,

staged in both cities according to the definition set by the law that regulates the exercise of

chemical engineering in the Colombian territory (Congreso de la República de Colombia,

1976), since their perception was different before studying the career. For example, it was

evident that during the interviews a constant appreciation was associated to not knowing what

chemical engineering was before the university and, even, recognize it as a discipline based

predominantly on chemistry: "[I study chemical engineering] because I liked chemistry a lot;

but now that I'm in sixth semester I realize that it does not have so much chemistry; It has a

lot of mathematics, physics and chemistry, but this is more like processes, equipment and

designs "(MZL2). This is consistent with the results on the knowledge of the participants in

the survey, while 39.3% of them consider that they have moderate knowledge of basic

sciences (chemistry, physics, etc.), the 55.9% had a limited knowledge of what chemical

engineering is. At the same time, there is a generalized consensus in the surveys, greater than

80% of disagreement, around the nature of the discipline - application of science but not as

an exact science.

When requesting a reflection on how the rest of the population, non-chemical

engineer, sees this discipline, it is possible to identify that the participants consider that these

conceptions are wrong in relation to their own conception of this discipline, even though

there is a perception of being a profession respected by other people (more in students than

in graduated). For example, the interviewees reported that there are two opinions on chemical

engineering: Study chemical engineering generates money ("People think that [to study

chemical engineering] will earn a lot of money" (MZL2)), and studying chemical engineering

is very difficult:

There are people with whom I have spoken and they ask me "What do you study?" And "what

will you be working with later?" Then, engineering is thought to have a lot of mathematics,

but it is not very clear what it could be applied to. I think that the people who have knowledge

[about chemical engineering] are because they have already studied, maybe, other careers and

they are familiar with the subject, or they are graduates; but in general people who have not

had the opportunity to approach engineering, they will not understand much of the panorama

of this (MZL1).

Additionally, companies have a skewed conception of chemical engineering, similar

to what a chemical technologist would do:

It is important that even the human resources area understand what a chemical engineer is. I

say this because of my practice. Well I perceive that I was more focused on a microbiologist,

since most of the time I was in the laboratory and I could not apply what I was projecting, in

that sense you tend to think that the place of a chemical engineer is the laboratory, that's what

I have seen (BTA1).

In that sense, regarding the limits of chemical engineering, when comparing with the

figures of chemical engineering technology conception (Fig. 15 and Fig. 16) this suggest that

the first can be considered as close to industrial work, in process plants, while technologists

are people who are in the laboratory area, carrying out chemical analyses, the operation of

machinery (reactors) or as support for research processes. In this way, while for the

respondents chemical engineering is in charge of the plant processes, chemical technology is

in charge of the laboratory, as a support area for decision-making: "[Chemical engineering

deals with] theoretical knowledge about the operations. [While] technologies are more

practical, engineers know how and why [and, thus,] we can make decisions based on in-depth

knowledge of operations "(BTA3).

In this way, it is possible to identify three moments in the creation of the concept of

chemical engineering, for the participants of the research: One before entering the university

until the completion of the basic core, another from the beginning of the specialization cycle

until the completion of the profession and another that begins with obtaining the title of

chemical engineer, which continues with the insertion and permanence in the labor market.

In the first, chemical engineering is considered a profession very close to chemistry and basic

sciences; in the second, there is a transition towards the concepts of the discipline (heat

transfer, reactors and application of basic sciences in industry) and in the third, the concepts

inherited by the companies are appropriated, which relate more to the work of a chemical

technologist (laboratory work). Finally, there is a transversal conception defined by the

perceptions of non-chemical engineers, which is identified by the participants as wrong.

Who is the chemical engineer?

With the previous conception of chemical engineering, you can begin to glimpse what

is the role and self-concept of chemical engineer in some aspects. Being the main actor of

the present investigation, it is crucial to know how the participants idealize the role of this,

as well as its most relevant characteristics. To begin with, in the results of the survey and its

respective statistical analysis (Fig. C.2., Table C.2. and Annex D) a chemical engineer is

observed who does not contribute to making the world a better place, more than other

professions (according> 80%), innovative (especially in younger students 18-24 years, from

Bogotá), with a high sense of professionalism (mostly for students between 18 and 24 years

old, as well as for anti-religious or very religious), creative (especially for respondents with

families of lower economic income) and that has contributed enormously to solve problems

in the world (according to respondents from Manizales and young people between 18 and 24

years old).

However, in relation to the latter and to cross with what was referred by the

interviewees, it is possible to problematize the role of the chemical engineer. In this way,

when asking, what do you think is the role of the chemical engineer in society?, it was

possible to find that the interviewees identify that being a chemical engineer involves

affecting society in a certain way (Schön, 1992). For most of the interviewees, this impact is

associated to situations, foreseen or not, that the resulting products of the chemical industry

generate. In the story of the participant MZL1 this sentiment is consolidated:

I think it is to seek the benefit for all people, knowing that this implies social and

environmental responsibility, and not to pass over people. I think that the commitment of

[chemical] engineers is in the realization or improvement of more efficient processes in which

the optimization of resources is emphasized, so that it is not so polluting, always thinking

about the environment and society and not only about the own benefit.

It is curious how the chemical engineer considers himself as an agent that impacts the

way of life of society from the affectation produced, mainly, in the environment. Likewise,

this conception of the impact of the work of the chemical engineer is associated to the market:

I do not know a chemical engineer who, within his profession, is having an impact on society,

that I would be discouraged, but, of course, chemical engineers contribute with their

knowledge, developing processes, optimizing processes, putting products on the market

(BTA3).

Although this story does not show the impact on society, or the environment, if it

shows that the impact of the chemical engineer is broad spectrum and not only limited to

specific areas. However, it seems that the impact of the chemical engineer has a limit. For

example, in the research conducted by Vargas-Ordóñez (2016) it was found that the self-

perception of the contribution of the Colombian chemical engineer in society is related to the

solution of environmental or feeding problems of the population, but not regarding the

solution of the Colombian armed conflict. In this way, it is easy to understand that this

limitation could be associated with the amount of disciplinary knowledge and the field of

action of the same, continuing in the line of mono-disciplinarity.

In this sense, the skills that a chemical engineer has, according to the respondents, are

associated with the understanding of problems to analyze and, thus, generate alternative

solutions, make decisions and design. However, it seems that the chemical engineer is not

characterized by iterating or granting (total), imagining or building (Bogotá) or visualizing,

abstracting or testing (Manizales). In terms of the skills a chemical engineer must have, it is

possible to consider that there is a great consensus on those raised in the survey, with some

exceptions, as noted in the section on quantitative results. However, it is possible to identify

that there are particular trends in relation to specific subgroups (Annex C). For example,

when talking about differences between cities it is common to find that the participants of

Manizales, the students and those between 18 and 24 years old, agree more with certain

statements such as Designing solutions to meet the needs or Apply techniques, skills and

chemical engineering tools in practice. Apparently, these positive conceptions of life could

be characteristic of each population group, similar to what happened in the results of the First

Ibero-American Youth Survey (Organización Iberoamericana de Juventud, 2013) and the

Comparative Citizen Perception Survey (Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos, 2017).

Among other specificities, it is relevant to speak about the role of participants’

religion and sex related to the consideration of one or another skill that the chemical engineer

must have. In that order of ideas, for the first case it is observed that those more religious

consider it less relevant that the chemical engineer knows to understand contemporary issues

at the local, national and world level or understand the decision in chemical engineering and

the contemporary issues that impact them, being a difference of attitude consistent with

studies comparing science and religion (Williams, Arns, Weil, Roughen, & Miller, 2013). In

the second case, the difference found is related to the sex of the participants. In that sense, it

is possible to identify that while for women it is more important to identify critical variables,

information and / or relationships involved in the problems, in men it is not so important.

Apparently there is a difference between what it means to be a woman in chemical

engineering compared with her male counterpart.

This difference may be more noticeable with the stories of the interviewees,

especially when relating the vision that external agents have to the role of women chemical

engineers. In this way, two interviewees highlighted that there is a perception of others that

chemical engineering is not a profession for women. For example, BTA3 commented that

during her work stage she repeatedly felt discrimination for being a woman and a chemical

engineer:

I do not know if a woman working in a production plant is a stigma. Suddenly research is not

so rare, or something like that, but in a plant [it's different]. I say this because at the time of

the practice, I worked in the laboratory that was close to the plant and when I had to go there

to do tests, and so on, I heard him say "I do not know why they hire women for these positions,

if It's up to you to help them raise things. "That affects (BTA3).

This report shows that women are considered chemical engineers as physically weak

people and without the sufficient capacities for the development of ideal activities of a

chemical engineer in an industrial plant. In fact, there is a tendency to consider women within

spaces that do not imply power or physical strength, as could be the quality laboratory.

In turn, this concept is repeated in other areas that are not even related to the

profession. This is the case of BTA2, who considers that, on many occasions, when someone

new from their region of origin (Casanare) learns that they are studying chemical

engineering, they describe it because that is not a job for women (Gutiérrez Portillo & Duarte

Godoy, 2010):

I come from a very macho culture. The plain is a very macho region. For example, when I

entered the University of the Andes, to study chemical engineering, everyone believed that I

was not going to be able or they told me "Why did you study that? It must be that in your

family you consent a lot" (BTA2).

In fact, the interviewee believes that having left her region to study in Bogotá allowed

her to feel more welcomed by her career decision:

[In my region] it is also presented that the girls study and a semester before graduating they

are pregnant; they get married or they already have children. I have partners who are already

mothers. In that sense I think that the diversity of a city like this allows to see other things,

and different thoughts (BTA2)

In this sense, the actual concept of chemical engineer for the participants of the study

is associated with a professional who mainly impacts the environment, who is aloof or

indifferent to social problems and with skills to analyze problems and generate and design

alternative solutions to the same. However, there seems to be no consensus around

considering him as a creative professional, according to family economic income, or the

understanding of external factors that mediate the development of chemical engineering,

according to the religion of the participants. At the same time, there is a tendency from the

outside of engineering to not know what the chemical engineer does, the scope of what this

professional can do at work, returning to the chemical engineering concept of the previous

section. Finally, it is observed that the level of reflection of society (especially in small towns

and workplaces) around the role of women in chemical engineering is reduced to the physical

capabilities that they have, but not in its competences as a person specialized in this

discipline. It should be noted that there does not seem to be a notable difference between the

self-perception of what a female chemical engineer can do in front of a man, compared to

what is mentioned in American female engineers (Besterfield-Sacre, Moreno, Shuman, &

Atman, 2001).

Attitudes

In general, three categories of analysis were found for the analysis of the information

obtained: Factors that mediate attitudes and type of attitudes. In relation to the latter, positive

attitudes and negative attitudes of the participants were found in relation to chemical

engineering.

Factors that mediate attitudes

Before understanding the resulting attitudes within the framework of the previous

conceptions of chemical engineering and chemical engineer, it is necessary to understand

which relevant factors influenced its creation. In this way, two large mediating groups

emerged from the attitudes of the study participants: Personal characteristics and curriculum

of higher education institutions.

Personal characteristics

Regarding the first ones, there are the capacities, decisions, expectations and interests

(motivation), and emotions (Palmero Cantero, Guerrero Rodríguez, Gómez Iñiguez, Carpi

Ballester, & Gorayeb, 2011) that chemical engineers have in relation to their profession. In

this sense, during the interviews it was possible to observe that the personal capacities of the

chemical engineer mediate their interaction with their environment. For example, it was

possible to observe that both for people from Manizales and Bogotá, make decisions at the

moment of certain situations seems to have diverted the ideal of chemical engineering that

they considered. Moreover, at the time of the interview, the tone of the voice changed to

lower and slower and the look, in the case of Bogotá, crouched towards the table, which

suggests a certain breath of nostalgia or of having made a mistake:

I think that for reasons of decisions, one can follow a line of deepening, I followed the line

of use of waste, but I would have liked to follow the food. I did not think it was so interesting

because you have some free investment credits which serve to see subjects of several lines

and the way you have and I had already used them all. I think that I lack that, but more in

terms of my decisions, not that it lacks the race, without a doubt at present the food industry

is moving a lot, for that reason I think that if it had been important to see that part (MZL3).

However, the present study fails to deepen into what are the other factors that mobilize

this type of decision. In this case, only question 28R of the survey allows us to glimpse the

role of the family and of the close relationships in the decision making process. For example,

for this question it is possible to identify that, in Manizales, the families of women wanted

more than the families of the men to study chemical engineering. Probably, this must be

associated with cultural factors that cannot be captured with the proposed methodology. On

the other hand, during the interviews it was possible to know that all the participants always

had a point of reference that would allow them to make the decision of this profession. In

most cases, the interviewees said that this decision was free, despite their ignorance about

the career; only in one case (BTA3), it was mentioned that the close influence of the brother,

chemical engineer, was the reason for changing his initial decision (chemistry).

On the other hand, emotions towards the profession are other mediators of attitudes.

In fact, they are important stages that allow you to assess objects and act in front of them. In

this sense, three types of emotions are found as a result of the interviews: Positive emotions

such as happiness (MZL1 and MZL2), negative emotions such as aversion (BTA3) and

neutral emotions or that are conditioned according to the situation (BTA1). However, it

seems that the consolidation of an emotion around this discipline is given as it advances in

the university:

Then I got a little frustrated because I did not see very well what my career was. I did not

understand what chemical engineering was until a later point in the race. I reached a point

where I said: Could it be that? Will it not? With time we went deeper into what is my career

and there I felt more motivated. [...] I am more passionate about what can be done with the

career. Yes of course, not so much what has been learned, chemical engineering is not only

the purpose but the means to achieve things (BTA1).

As for expectations, these are related to the possibilities that are open to learn more

about a particular topic. This could be observed more frequently in those people who are

recent graduates, who have high expectations of professional projection now that they are

inserted in the labor market.

In the same way, I want to expand what I have learned and think about the possibility of doing

a master's degree. To open borders in another country and understand how I can help, what

can I do with this ... how to help people (MZL1).

Quality. Because I think that from there I can apply a lot, on the side of research, to improve

products, conditions and ways to improve processes, implementing new or better alternatives.

The field of teaching [also] draws my attention because one can demonstrate what he knows.

I think it would be a way to know myself and strengthen my knowledge (MZL3).

Meanwhile, the interests of the interviewees are mediated by their expectations,

values and emotions. In this way, when combining the previously reported, it is possible to

visualize the environmental and food areas, as areas of positive impact, based on the

application of the natural sciences:

For example, I have suffered from gastritis all my life and I must be constantly eating. One

goes to the store and everything they sell is processed and they end up doing the same thing.

For the same reason, I feel that we should create or investigate foods that do not hurt people

so much and that are easier to access, since the most nutritious, regularly, is the most

expensive. That's why, sometimes getting out of step is one eating the chips of the store, but

it is affecting all the metabolism (BTA1).

Curriculum

The second type of factors that mediate attitudes, as found in the results, are related

to the characteristics of institutions (content, pedagogical models, approaches, academic

environment, etc.), teachers (forms of teaching-learning) and the resources (physical and

pedagogical) that the universities have. That is, the set of elements that make up, mediate and

problematize the curriculum (Gimeno Sacristán, 2010) around the chemical engineer as a

student in his or her university stage. With regard to institutional characteristics, this relates

in particular to the graduate profile, the school environment and the relationships among the

students. In the case of the graduate's profile, it was possible to identify that this is related to

the lessons taught in the classroom. For example, BTA1 considered that during the classes

the type of chemical engineer that should be mentioned was often commented:

They also told us: "Remember that many will go out to the industry, others will continue in

the research" That is, they told us in which fields we could practice, but certainly in the

university we focused a lot on research and development. However, these are just some of

the fields where you can exercise. Missed talk, for example, quality or production. But one

realizes that only in practice [...]. In the same way they spoke contemptuously when one

wanted to work from the sales. I have several friends who are working from the sales and

they liked it, they are happy. Therefore, I think it would be good to be trained in those other

fields that are also important [...] because that is missing in the race to deepen. In the sector

of the food industry, in oil, because people like that topic and in others like in the [University

of] America - I have colleagues who have studied there - they have those subjects and

electives to choose and deepen, which you can learn specific topics (BTA1).

However, it is something that not only happened in Bogotá, for example MZL1

recognized that, although the University was looking for a more humane approach, the

environment was always reached as the main point of interest:

There is a subject that is called humanities for engineering, there I have seen something of

what I am mentioning, and in another subject that is of free choice. They have taught us to be

aware that we can change processes to avoid negative impacts. [For example,] do not apply

any chemical to the water so that it provides me with some substance, so that this does not

imply a disaster in the ecosystem and in many people (MZL1).

In this sense, when the learning objectives for each of the universities are observed,

it is possible to identify that each of them is aligned with the aforementioned. While in the

case of the University of Los Andes (Universidad de los Andes, s/f), the approach is

associated with the link with research in industry (innovation), at the National University of

Colombia - Manizales (Universidad Nacional de Colombia, s/f), the development of

processes and products of low impact on the environment, generating agreement between the

official curriculum and the operational curriculum (Posner, 2005).

Regarding the school environment, it is possible to find that the respondents consider

that during their university stage, the development of skills around the reflection as human

in a more open environment than the school is not encouraged. In this way, despite the fact

that certain accounts of the interviews show that entry to the university is synonymous with

freedom of expression, it is considered that there is no explicit approach of respect, reflection

or discussion regarding diversity (hidden curriculum) (Posner, 2005). However, there is no

perception of bullying towards themselves or towards someone else, either by a partner or

the same university, during this period of time. Similar to the conceptions, students and

people of Manizales, as well as anti-religious and of lower income, have a more positive

perception than their counterparts.

For its part, the role of the teacher seems to be relevant when assessing chemical

engineering, especially in students and recent graduates. In this sense, it is identified that the

teaching-learning style and the relationship between the teacher and the student mediate the

attitudes towards this discipline. Thus, it is well known that chemical engineering teachers

are based on the transmission of knowledge from the most expert (teacher) to the least expert

(student) without taking into account from the beginning the contextualization of

information, history or philosophy of scientific concepts (Rivarosa & Astudillo, 2013), which

suggests a lack of orientation in the learning of the students of this profession (Tyler, 1986):

Another thing that I did not like was a situation with a subject of which I had high

expectations. I think it was because of the professor who did not organize well the

development of the subject. We complained and the teacher finally did not continue teaching

that subject. I think the measure was hard, but the teacher dictated the class in English,

because he was from the United States, for three hours and did not leave space for questions,

did not give space for feedback. Then the classes were not very useful to learn, we had to

read separately. Even something curious happened to us and it was that when he made us

partial he showed it; so I was just preparing the topics and that's it. Clearly he did not show

us the answers, but I feel that the teacher did not take great pains so that we learned, but it

was necessary to get out of the way with the material (BTA1).

On the other hand, the relationship between teacher and student is an important factor

since they mobilize emotions and particular conceptions towards chemical engineering. In

that sense, it is interesting how there is a marked difference between the interviewees in

Bogotá and their counterparts in Manizales. In Bogotá, there is a belief that the teacher-

student relationship, as well as the relationship with other members of the chemical

engineering department, is closer, friendly and horizontal in terms of communication, which

seems to be opposite to what was reported by the interviewees of Manizales, apparently

related to competitiveness among the students themselves and for marked hierarchical

relationships (Papahiu, Robledo, & Magdalena, 2004):

BTA1: What did I like? That as a group we are very united. We are the most united

engineering department in the world. [...] Imagine if someone does not understand the partial

equilibrium, they tell you: "Chemical engineers spend it on that side". They can solve the

doubt without having to charge anyone, by simple solidarity. The fact of helping us is very

cool and makes you feel love for the faculty. This also comes from the professors because to

speak to Felipe, a magister engineer and doctor in the subject, is to put yourself face to face

with someone who knows more than you. That horizontal communication is very cool, to be

able to talk in the playground with the teacher until the soccer match, it's very cool. MZL2: I say this because at the University of America everyone was more united, everyone

knew everyone. The teachers were cooler, they let you adjust the notes. On the contrary, here

[at the National University] the level of demand is much higher, but each one on its own. MZL3: We have tutors the first semester, who can be asked about the choice of

subjects and some other things about the career, but I did not use that tool because the

teacher did not give me much confidence, I never had class with him and we never

interacted

Finally, the physical and pedagogical resources of the institution are factors that

differentiate the interaction with chemical engineering and with the chosen university to be

trained in this discipline. Such is the case of tutorials for the resolution of doubts (BTA1) or

the equipment with which the university count (BTA2).

Positive attitudes

In general, there are favorable attitudes towards chemical engineering among the

respondents. In that sense, according to the quantitative results, it is considered a rewarding,

valuable, interesting and beneficial career for those who study it, and that allows an

understanding of how things work. Meanwhile, according to the qualitative results, positive

attitudes are related to the possibility of learning throughout university life, which is

potentialized in later stages. Although these positive attitudes are more marked in Manizales,

in students and in those with lower income, this statement could be generalized for the

majority of the participating population.

In this way, in relation to the acquired learning, these are divided into three categories:

Know the world, innovate and learn for life (goal orientation). With respect to the first one,

it was already differentiated from the results of the quantitative results (more than 80% of

the respondents consider it); however, this attitude was corroborated during the interviews.

In this case, using concepts seen in class and transferring them to the everyday environment

were the clearest example of this statement:

MZL1: What I liked the most is that one with chemical engineering can do everything. For

example, when you're at school, you do not know how many things work, like cooling a

refrigerator.

MZL2: For example, you go down the street and see a hot dog, you analyze and imagine the

whole process and all the components that that product has. When I talk with my colleagues

or when I'm at home with my mom and we talk about the fridge, the gas heater, it's nice to

recognize those phenomena. I have managed to share that knowledge with my family. Thus, it is observed that there is an appropriation of the contents and symbols of the

discipline that allows to create identity and relate to their environment in different ways how,

quite possibly, a person not close to chemical engineering would (Castro Carvajal, 1996).

Meanwhile, it is observed that another important learning is to be able to innovate

with a view to positively impact society, or the environment, or satisfy the market. This is

reflected in what was reported by BTA2 and MZL1:

BTA2: Innovate responsibly, because you can be creating things or you can hurt people. One

may be producing an energizing drink and know that the packaging of the drink hurts sea

turtles, so to speak. The fact that creating a product generates garbage, to mention the

environmental case. However, that energy drink gives a student enough energy to stay up

late, but if he consumes it frequently, he will become addicted. MZL1: Now, studying this, you can learn, for example, how to do quality control of food,

since everything is related to chemistry: facial products, shampoos, creams, soaps. When you

know that this is related to chemistry, you already know what you buy and even what can be

more profitable, because you understand where you come from and what your process has

been. Finally, there is a perception that this discipline is quite complicated because of the

contents it includes about basic sciences and problem solving. Therefore, it was recurrently

found that studying chemical engineering promotes the development of achievement

orientation skills, such as persistence (Hernández, García-Leal, Rubio, & Santacreu, 2004).

This was evident especially in people that consider chemical engineering as a personal

challenge or those with the need to learn about a particular topic:

BTA3: I learned to persevere because it was something I did not like and had the support of

my parents who said "Jump, if you do not like it", but I was already determined to do what I

had chosen and I knew I should continue. I learned to persevere and be consistent.

MZL2: For example, with my classmates we challenge ourselves with the math exercises.

You have to take out the exercise however, we become persistent.

Negative attitudes

In the same way that positive attitudes allow the approach to engineering, negative

attitudes forge the limits and mobilization of certain behaviors. In this way, before the

university stage, it is observed that in the half of the interviewees there was no immediate

interest in chemical engineering as a life option:

BTA1: When I graduated from school, something very curious happened to me: I wanted to

study law, because the whole high school had thought about law or something related to that

career, but at the time of graduating and enrolling, most universities were by law, only one

of chemical engineering. BTA3: When I was in school, I liked Science a lot and in recent years they allowed me to go

deeper, so I went for chemistry and biology. I was very happy, my teachers too, I thought I

would study pure chemistry. MZL3: In principle I wanted genetic engineering, but in Colombia it is not available, so

chemical engineering was the most viable. This attitude is not entirely negative. That is, their relationship is given by the offer

or by the decisions that each of the interviewees took at the time. However, it shows little

penetration in the citizenship of what chemical engineering means.

On the other hand, during the university stage there seems to be a feeling that

chemical engineering should not only focus on the theory or the transmission of knowledge,

but on how it could be applied in working life. This suggests that, apparently, there is a

disconnect between what actually happens with the chemical engineer's environment after

having finished college with what is taught in the classroom. As in previous sections, it is not

found that there is a contextualization or problematization of the curriculum (Goodson, 2000)

of chemical engineering, beyond the teaching of certain minimum contents, validated by

experts, to consider someone as a member of this community:

BTA1: I think what I do not like is that many things that I have seen are left in the book.

Although the application was seen in images, it was necessary to go to a plant and understand

more in depth, for example, to understand how a heat exchanger works, but we do not really

see this until we go to an industry or the laboratory. Then everything remains in the mind.

The same can be understood, but it would be good to see its applicability, to have more visits

to industries. MZL2: I think it's more for the university, this is more theoretical than practical. You cannot

go to a factory and see what is happening, I think it has to do with the semester. I know that

later we carry out a practice process since the following subjects are plants. It would be very

interesting to see the whole theory in practice. In this way, from the university stage, new attitudes towards chemical engineering

are created and then consolidated in the work environment. For example, the feeling that

chemical engineering is not their passion is consolidated, if from the beginning it was not

considered as the first option (BTA1 and BTA3), the perception of having few economic or

labor advantages compared to other professions (more than 70% of the respondents), the

perception of little or no contribution to social issues beyond environmental (BTA and

MZL1) and the emergence of ethical, environmental conflicts especially during the work

stage (BTA3). The following story shows in summary the above described:

This implies a lot of responsibility in terms of prevention, for example, in the part of

pollutants or landfills when it releases certain substances, one thinks that nothing bad is going

to happen, and if it happens. In this sense, I see many flaws in the humanistic part and in the

responsibility that this profession brings. In the last one, you can apply everything in this

career, but without a doubt there is a lack of training and guidance in becoming aware of the

responsibility to work on this (BTA4).

Finally, with this reference, it is clear that there is a curriculum focused on the

development of technical concepts and skills, but that the implications of chemical

engineering in society have been forgotten, or left behind as less important, beyond the

environment, given that it is the social problems that the chemical engineer will actually face

in his daily life (Valiente Barderas, 2004).

Discussion The genetic-structural perspective is proposed in the framework (Parales-Quenza &

Viscaíno-Gutiérrez, 2007), in order to make an exploration in a place and how are the ideas

and attitudes of the engineers of Bogotá and Manizales around La chemical engineering.

However, it would not have been possible to explore this habitual knowledge of the

respondents if one does not take into account what is understood by chemical engineering

and how the chemical engineer and he himself are conceived within it. In this way, similarly

to research methods, the results found in the theme of genesis and the structure of conceptions

and attitudes, as well as their subsequent integration into a single theory, were later

integrated. In general, there are no specific studies that relate to how the chemical engineer

conceives his profession or himself during the school or work stage. Nevertheless, there are

some studies such as Academic Pathways of Learning People Engineering Survey

(APPLES), Pittsburgh Engineering First Aid Survey (PFEAS) and Senior Undergraduate

Survey (EC2000) that answer some of the questions asked about engineering as an area of

knowledge.

Genesis of the chemical engineering concept and attitudes related

As a result of the research, the university stage takes relevance as one of the important

moments in the development of the concept and the attitudes (Lucci, 2006) toward the

chemical engineering of the respondents, which agrees with the study by Quintero, Barqueño,

Martínez and Aréchiga (2010) around the change in the conceptions and attitudes of the

students during the stage of higher education. In this sense, two additional moments are

identified around this generative core: Before the university stage and after the university

stage.

Regarding the before, it is observed that the initial conditions are associated to how

the chemical engineering was conceived prior to the entrance of the university, as well as the

decision making process for admission to higher education. In this sense, factors such as the

influence of people close to them as parents or teachers. This is consistent with studies such

as Rodríguez, Peña and Inda (2016), which speaks of the influence of actors such as parents,

teachers and peers in making decisions about choosing a certain vocation. Also, the decision

making in front of the university where it was studied was found mediated by the perception

of the quality of the university, the academic level, the reputation of the institution, and the

infrastructure with which account. However, when comparing studies related to decision-

making to enter the university in Mexico (Alcaraz et al., 2012), it is observed that the costs,

location or type of university are not identified in the present investigation. (public or private)

as important factors to be taken into account by the respondents.

For its part, another factor to consider is related to the expectations surrounding the

profession. In this way, the future chemical engineers were motivated towards this discipline

given the content of chemistry that it was thought to have. Additionally, it was observed that

helping society was an additional motivation that the participants reported. Although there

are no studies on the expectations of college students who wish to study this profession, it is

possible to identify that the expectations of the future student of chemical engineering are an

important factor for the development of educational strategies that seek to satisfy them

(Agència per a la Qualitat del Sistema Universitari de Catalunya, 2006).

During the university stage, this conception becomes more complex given that,

initially, chemical engineering does not have as much chemistry as was thought, transforming

into industrial processes, and that the initial knowledge does not go beyond being merely

theoretical, as taught by the university. This statement is consistent with the current

predominant paradigm of chemical engineering, which is based on the study of chemical

processes in order to link the molecular scales of physicochemical phenomena with their

large-scale production (Álvarez-Borroto, Stahl, Cabrera-Maldonado, & Rosero-Espín,

2017). In addition, during this stage there is a marked influence of the pedagogical approach

of the teachers, the student-teacher relationship and resources with what counts the

educational establishment, as well as the emotions and interests of each participant. In this

way, the influence of external actors, which passes to the teacher's domain and diminishes in

the parents, and the capacities with which the institution counts, can be relevant in the change

of the concept and attitude.

Finally, during the post-university stage it was found that the concept of chemical

engineering and the chemical engineer continues to be associated with processes, but that it

begins to be problematized around ethical and gender questions more related to cultural and

work situations. Apparently, these ethical dilemmas begin to be part of the task of the

chemical engineer, once he learns of the impact of the engineer in society, which would agree

with the study of Sandoval (2017) around the ethical dilemmas of engineers. However, there

are no studies that relate how engineers perceive their profession from an approach of

professional ethics. In turn, emerging questions about the role of women in chemical

engineering, show that these do not arise in the university stage, since it is considered a safe

space to be, which could be associated with the similar number of men and women who are

part of this profession in the country (52% women and 48% men) according to data from the

Professional Council of Chemical Engineering of Colombia (Álvarez Vargas, 2016).

Structure of the chemical engineering concept and attitudes related

In general, the concept of chemical engineering is associated, on the part of the

respondents, with the current paradigm and with the perception of the abilities of a chemical

engineer. In terms of skills, an engineer is identified who knows how to solve problems

through the analysis and design of solutions, which is consistent with the definition of

chemical engineer that the Congress of the Republic of Colombia has about this type of

engineer (Congreso de la República de Colombia, 1976). On the other hand, there are two

types of attitudes towards this profession: Positive attitudes and negative attitudes towards

chemical engineering.

Regarding the first, it is observed that there is a constant that relates to chemical

engineering as a discipline that helps people, solve industry problems and the appropriation

of useful skills for it. In this sense, thinking that the chemical engineer can help solve social

problems is in accordance with the current trend promoted by the AIChE of a more

responsible and reflective chemical engineering While talking about a chemical engineer

close to the solution of industrial problems and the development of skills associated with this,

the responses were similar in tendency to the established in studies such as Olson, Ngo and

Lord (2013) which identified attitudes of engineering students in relation to areas of technical

skills and problem solving.

The second ones, on the other hand, are related to the lack of real commitment of this

discipline to social issues, with the lack of closeness of chemical engineering to society in

terms of the latter's lack of knowledge about the work of the chemical engineer and the ethical

problems that arise at the time of putting it into practice. Apparently, respondents consider

that there is an inconsistency between their expectations towards university training and what

is actually being done, which does not mean that it should be the duty to be (Sibrián Escobar,

2017). It seems that there is a call to change towards a more social engineering, but this

statement is not clear within the framework of this investigation. Finally, when comparing

with studies such as Lattuca et al. (2006) show the need for students to have study

environments where they feel close to teachers, have collaborative learning methodologies

and where they feel safe, which is consistent with the quantitative results of questions 31 and

32.

Genesis and structure of the chemical engineering concept and attitudes related

After describing and recognizing the complete framework in which the attitudes

toward chemical engineering are mobilized by the study participants, it is necessary to

discuss how this information is linked from the genetic-structural perspective, in general,

according to the similarities and differences from each of the regions surveyed and

interviewed. Figure 18 shows how attitudes and conceptions about chemical engineering

were generated and consolidated in the total of participants.

Figure 18. Genesis and structure of the chemical engineering concept for the total of

participants. Own elaboration

Note: Pink= Attitudes, Light green= Opinions, Blue= Representational champ.

Also, Table 4 summarizes the principal differences, by city, in the genesis and

structuration of these attitudes. At the same time, Table 5 summarizes the relevant factors by

city that influence the genesis and structure of attitudes about chemical engineering in the

participants.

Table 4. Difference, by city, in the genesis and structure of the chemical engineering attitudes

for the research participants

Stage Dimension Category Bogotá Manizales Before Attitudes Positive - -

Negative - - Opinions Chemical

Engineering - -

Chemical Engineer

- -

During Attitudes Positive - - Negative - -

Opinions Chemical Engineering

● Heat transference

● Industry ● Reactors

● Thermodynamics ● Environment

Chemical Engineer

- -

After Attitudes Positive Not difference with total perception

Chemical Engineering and chemical engineer are able to change the reality of their environment

Negative Not earn money Earn money Representational champ

Chemical Engineering

● Industrial problem solving

● Methodic

● Innovation ● Social problem

solving Chemical Engineer

Not difference with total perception

● Design solutions ● Apply techniques,

skills and chemical engineering tools in practice

Note: Own elaboration

Table 5. Factors that influence the genesis and structure of attitudes about chemical engineering

City Curriculum Personal

Before During After Before During After Bogotá University

recognition ● Nonhierarchical relations

between student and other faculty members

● Pedagogical and physical resources

- - - Positive and negative emotions

Manizales - ● Competence between students ● Hierarchical relations between

students and teachers

- - - ● Families of women wanted more than the families of the men to study chemical engineering

● More positive emotions

Bogotá and Manizales

- Teachers ● Teaching and not learning

approach ● Not contextualization of

information, history or philosophy of scientific concepts

Educational approach ● UniAndes: R+D ● UN-Manizales: New and

sustainable products and process College environment ● Not clear a diversity approach ● There is not perception of bulling

● Expert vision of the education

● Chemical engineering's social impacts are not visualized

Influence: Teachers, friends, family

Expectation changes about chemical engineering

● Influence: Companies ● Positive expectations

about the future ● Interest in

environment and food areas

Note: Own elaboration

The difference between these cities was only related to the confidence in the chemical

engineer's abilities towards a positive impact of society (higher in Manizales), the possibility

of getting a job (higher in Manizales) or the type of relationship between the members of the

faculty of chemical engineering (vertical in Manizales and horizontal in Bogotá). Regarding

the factors that mediate these attitudes, personal factors and related to the curriculum were

found. In the first group, the positive emotions, in their great majority, showed that there is a

taste, interest and expectation in front of the possibilities of application of this discipline in

the fields outside academia. However, the initial liking for the profession is a possible

predictor of the type of emotions, expectations and resulting interests. Regarding the

curriculum, the focus of the university, the school environment, the teaching-learning style

and the relationship between the teacher and the student constituted the main structure from

which the attitudes found are based. Likewise, the results suggest that the most significant

differences could be associated with the age of the participants, student-graduate, and not

with the gender of the participants, the latter contrary to what was found in similar studies

(Besterfield-Sacre et al., 2001). Finally, the results between both cities suggests that there is

a socio-cultural framework superior to geography and sociocultural frames around chemical

engineering.

Limitation of the study

This mixed methods study made an exploration of attitudes in chemical engineers

from Bogotá and Manizales based on information collected in accordance with the

participants will. In this way, randomness cannot be guaranteed in the sample selection that

results in the representativeness of the findings and their generalization. However, this was

compensated by a larger sample size. Likewise, access to the population was determined by

the limited availability of time to fill out the survey, as well as by the procedures that should

be carried out with the people required. Additionally, the present study does not intend to

understand the context that guides the attitudes of the study participants. Finally, since it is

an exploratory investigation, with non-random samples in both the quantitative and

qualitative stages, its scope is limited to the participants of the survey. Therefore, it does not

achieve the generalization of the findings to the entire community of Colombian chemical

engineers or the rest of the world.

Conclusions

From the perspective of the genetic-structural approach of attitudes, it was possible

to explore what these components of human behavior are, and how they are made up. As part

of the structure, the personal and curricular factors of the university were found, as well as

the conceptions of chemical engineering and chemical engineer, as mediating agents of the

creation, development and consolidation of positive and negative attitudes towards this

discipline. From genetics, the creation of current attitudes begins in the transformation of

opinions on chemical engineering (Chemistry) towards the conception of industrial processes

and innovation. Additionally, the transition of an attitude or opinion towards the core or the

periphery was associated to the university period. In this way, the previous stages, during and

after the university were constituted in the points of analysis of the change and consolidation

of the social representations.

In this sense, it was found that the initial hypothesis, related to the conception of

chemical engineering and the task of the chemical engineer, is corroborated when identifying

that the participants consider it to be a discipline close to industrial processes, the solution of

problems and the use of design as a tool to do it. Likewise, there is a certain level of reflection

about the social impact and the chemical engineering market, which coincides tangentially

with the hypothesis of leveraging the country's economy. In this way, with these basic

conceptions it was possible to explore the attitudes of the participants of the research, finding

that, according to the hypothesis for the quantitative phase, there is no significant difference

between what was perceived by the participants from Manizales and those from Bogotá, and

even with some studies from the United States. Even, these results suggest that there is a

sociocultural framework around chemical engineering, which overcomes geographical

boundaries. Nevertheless, there remains some particular perceptions around each city. For

example, the participants of Manizales are more optimistic about the future and the capacities

of the chemical engineers towards social innovation than the participants of Bogotá. But, the

real difference becomes noticeable when comparing students with graduates about the future

and capacities of a chemical engineer (chemical engineering can save the world vision).

On the other hand, among the emerging findings, a clear call was made from chemical

engineers to understand the social implications of their profession, beyond technical or

market issues such as pollution or cost effectiveness. It is as if they seek to understand how

society can really be helped and not just companies, where, in the end, only profitability

matters. It was also important to make visible the influence of the teacher on the emotions

and interests of the participants during their time at the university, the physical and

pedagogical resources with what the schools have, the forms of intra-institutional

relationships that can lead to positive attitudes and expectations, the professional approach

that universities want about their chemical engineers in labor life and the educational

environment. Also, an approach towards the problematization of the role of women in

chemical engineering was achieved, which evidenced the lack of knowledge of the non-

chemical engineering population about the capabilities and tools available to this

professional, beyond physical force and vertical power relations.

However, despite achieving these results, the proposed methodology was limited by

the approach to the community and the impossibility of collecting more information in

relation to what was found in this research. Likewise, the present study did not delve into the

genesis of the concepts and attitudes beyond what was found in the participants' memory,

knowing that this varies as time passes. In this order of ideas, as an exploratory exercise in

this community of practice, it is possible to conclude that specialized studies are required in

specific age groups (bachelors, students and graduates, separately), since their attitudes and

conceptions show a tendency to modify and consolidate itself by reason of the different stages

of his life. At the same time, the possibility of approaching these two components of social

representations through mixed methods of research allowed finding the previously mentioned

emergent findings.

Finally, the structural genetic approach of social representations and, more

specifically, of conceptions and attitudes, allows us to understand the factors that constitute

them, as well as delves into each one of them. It is also a valuable tool to link different

positions from pragmatism as an articulating axis, as well as adapting to other possible

investigations. In that sense, the present investigation could be an opportunity for future

investigations related to: How religion modifies attitudes toward chemical engineering, how

chemical engineers and companies conceive the role of chemical engineers, how the gender

approach can be linked to the teaching-learning processes of chemical engineering, how

chemical engineering is perceived before the university stage and how communicative

strategies could be developed towards the community in general and the companies around

the task and the scope of chemical engineering.

References

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Annex A

##0##

¿Qué es ingeniería química?

1. Consentimiento Informado

1.Consentimiento para participar en la encuesta online

Fase cuantitativaLa investigación: Exploration of Conceptions and Attitudes of Colombian and American Chemical

, busca comprenderEngineers about Chemical Engineering and Chemical Engineering Techonologyla percepción que los estudiantes de ingeniería química e ingenieros químicos graduados colombianosy estadounidenses tienen con relación a la ingeniería química. De tal forma, se le invita a participar enla primera fase de este estudio llevado a cabo por investigadores de la Universidad de los Andes. Paraello son requeridos una serie de datos personales que se le solicitarán para poder contactarse con usteden momentos posteriores con el fin de profundizar en la información recogida.Antes de que usted decida entregar sus datos es importante que lea y acepte el presenteconsentimiento acerca de los detalles del manejo que recibirán sus datos personales.

Finalidad del estudioEl propósito que se persigue con la solicitud de sus datos, es obtener información de sus concepcionesy actitudes en torno a la ingeniería química, con el fin de conocer cómo se dan los procesosformativos alrededor de esta disciplina. Los investigadores utilizarán los datos que usted entreguepara darle el siguiente tratamiento: almacenamiento en una base de datos que permita posteriormentesu asociación o confrontación con los criterios de análisis propuestos para este estudio, así como parasu posterior contacto en caso que se requiera profundizar en la información colectada.

Posibles riesgos y disconformidadesAlgunas de las preguntas podrían incomodarle. Usted tiene la posibilidad de no contestar a cualquierpregunta que le incomode.

Posibles beneficios en temas y/o para la sociedadUsted no se beneficiará directamente de su participación en este investigación. Los resultados delestudio darán a los investigadores un mayor conocimiento del impacto de los procesos educativos eningeniería química, lo cual podría ayudar a crear currículos más cercanos a la realidades de losestudiantes y profesionales de esta disciplina.

Remuneración por su participaciónUsted no recibirá ninguna compensación por realizar la encuesta. Si usted participa en ella, la llenacompletamente y nos brinda su información, tendrá la posibilidad de ganar una tarjeta regalo

. Se rifará en total 2 bonos, cada uno con las mismas características.de 25,00 USD de AMAZON.comSe espera que un mínimo de 97 personas respondan la encuesta de forma completa, por lo queagradeceríamos que pudiera referenciarla a la mayor cantidad de personas posible.

¿Quiénes conocerán mis datos?El responsable del registro de datos personales es el Sr. Cristián Vargas quien será la única personaque conozca los datos que usted entregue, ya que a otras personas integrantes del centro que requieransus datos, la recibirán en forma disociada de su identidad, es decir codificada. Bajo ningunacircunstancia se traspasarán sus datos personales a personas ajenas a la investigación. Con lo anteriorqueda establecido que no habrá sesión de datos personales a personas ajenas ni a otros integrantes dela institución educativa aún cuando sus funciones en el cargo o dentro de la organización hayancesado.

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1. 2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

¿A quién le pertenecerán los datos que entregue?Sus datos personales siempre le pertenecerán. Como dueño o titular de los mismos tiene derecho asolicitarle al responsable del registro que:

Sean modificadosSean eliminados del registroLe entregue personalmente una copia del registro que evidencie las modificaciones oeliminación de sus datos personales de la base de datos.

Si tiene alguna pregunta con respecto a sus derechos como participante en la investigación, contacteal responsable del registro de los datos personales de los voluntarios: Sr. Cristián Vargas Tel: + 573188371934, e- mail: ce.vargaso@uniandes.edu.co.

Identificación de los investigadoresSi tiene alguna pregunta o duda sobre la investigación, por favor no dude en ponerse en contacto conCristián Vargas (ce.vargaso@uniandes.edu.co) estudiante de Maestría en Educación de laUniversidad de los Andes.

Procedimiento?La encuesta tiene una duración aproximada de . En ese orden de ideas, si usted se ofrece30 minutosvoluntariamente a participar en este estudio, le queremos pedir que complete la siguiente encuestaonline, luego de aceptar las siguientes premisas:

Confirmo tener 18 años o más al momento de diligenciar esta encuesta. Confirmo haber leído y entendido la información acerca del objeto de la investigación, susriesgos y beneficios, así como el manejo de mis datos personales.Entiendo que los datos que entregue serán utilizados exclusivamente para evaluar mi condiciónde participante en el presente estudio y como titular y dueño de ellos, puedo pedir que semodifiquen o eliminen de los registros en cualquier momento, sin tener que dar explicaciones alrespecto y sin ser juzgado por tal acción.

(*)

Si en la Página 1, Pregunta 1 '

Consenti...' respondió "No acepto", vaya directamente a la .página 17

Si en la Página 1, Pregunta 1 '

Consenti...' respondió "Acepto", vaya directamente a la .página 2

2. Información General

No Acepto

Acepto

No acepto

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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8.

2. Nombre(*)

3. ¿Cuántos años tiene?(*)

4. Correo electrónico(*)

5. ¿Cuál es su sexo de nacimiento?(*)

6. ¿Cuál es su orientación sexual?(*)

Edad

Hombre

Mujer

Otro

Prefiero no responder

Lesbiana

Intersexual

Heterosexual

Queer

Transexual

Bisexual

Gay

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4.

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3.

4.

5.

6.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

2.

7. ¿Cuál es su identificación racial o étnica?(*)

8. Usted se considera:(*)

9. Podría describir a su familia como:

10. ¿Alguno de los miembros de su familia inmediata (padres, hermanos) tiene un título eningeniería química?(*)

Indígena

Afrodescendiente, afrocolombiano, negro, mulato o palanquero de San Basilio

Raizal del Archipiélago de San Andrés y Providencia

Ninguna de las anteriores

Muy religioso/a

Bastante religioso/a

Medianamente religioso/a

Poco religioso/a

Nada religioso/a

Antirreligioso/a

Altos ingresos económicos

Ingresos económicos medio-altos

Ingresos económicos medios

Ingresos económicos medio-bajos

Bajos ingresos económicos

Sí

No

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8.

9.

11. Previo al pregrado, ¿cuánto conocimiento tenía usted sobre la profesión de ingenieríaquímica?(*)

12. Sabiendo lo que sabe en estos momentos, ¿cuán preparado estaba en ciencias básicas ymatemáticas cuando entró a la universidad?(*)

3. Escolaridad

13. ¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? (*)

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante posgradual", vaya directamente a la .página 7

Ningún conocimiento

Conocimiento limitado

Conocimiento moderado

Gran conocimiento

Muy poco

Poco

Moderado

Muy bien preparado/a

Estudiante de primer año (semestres 1 y 2)

Estudiante de segundo año (semestres 3 y 4)

Estudiante de tercer año (semestres 5 y 6)

Estudiante de cuarto año (semestres 7 y 8)

Estudiante de quinto año (semestres 9 y 10)

Ingeniero(a) químico(a) graduado(a)

Estudiante posgradual

Máster

Doctor

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Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Ingeniero(a) químico(a) graduado(a)", vaya directamente a la .página 7

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Doctor", vaya directamente a la .página 7

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Máster", vaya directamente a la .página 7

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante de primer año (semestres 1 y 2)", vaya directamente a la .página 6

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante de tercer año (semestres 5 y 6)", vaya directamente a la .página 6

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante de segundo año (semestres 3 y 4)", vaya directamente a la .página 6

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante de quinto año (semestres 9 y 10)", vaya directamente a la .página 6

Si en la respondióPágina 5, Pregunta 1 '¿Cuál es su grado de escolaridad? '"Estudiante de cuarto año (semestres 7 y 8)", vaya directamente a la .página 6

14. ¿A qué universidad asiste? (Por favor use solamente MAYÚSCULAS) (*)

15. ¿Es usted un estudiante de primera generación en la universidad (primero en su familiainmediata en ir a la universidad)?(*)

16. Como estudiante, ¿cuán activo ha sido en un capítulo estudiantil o en una sociedad uorganización de ingeniería química?(*)

Sí

No

Nada

Poco

Algo

Moderadamente

Mucho

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17. ¿Su intención es poner en práctica, realizar una investigación en o enseñar ingenieríaquímica por al menos 3 años después de su grado como ingeniero(a) químico(a)?(*)

18. ¿Qué tanto le gustaría hacer alguna de las siguientes afirmaciones después de sugraduación como ingeniero químico?

Definitivamenteno

Probablementeno PosiblementeProbablemente

si

Muyprobablemente

si

Definitivamentesi

a. Tener untrabajo

relacionadocon la

ingenieríaquímica

b. Tener untrabajo que

no estérelacionado

con laingenieríaquímica

19. ¿De qué universidad se graduó como ingeniero(a) químico(a)? (Por favor usesolamente MAYÚSCULAS) (*)

Definitivamente no

Probablemente no

Probablemente si

Definitivamente si

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5.

6.

7.

20. ¿Cuál es su área de experticia?(*)

21. Como profesional, ¿cuán activo ha sido en una sociedad u organización de ingenieríaquímica?(*)

Alimentos

Biotecnología

Calidad

Energía

Farmacéutica

Fabricación

Materiales

Medio ambiente

Minería

Producción

Medio ambiente

Química analítica

No relacionada con la profesión

Otra

Nada

Raramente

Algunas veces

Algunas veces

Ocasionalmente

Frecuentemente

Muy frecuentemente

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22. ¿Qué tanto le gustó hacer las siguientes afirmaciones después de su graduación comoingeniero químico?

Definitivamenteno

Probablementeno PosiblementeProbablemente

si

Muyprobablemente

si

Definitivamentesi

a. Tener untrabajo

relacionadocon la

ingenieríaquímica

b. Tener untrabajo que

no estérelacionado

con laingenieríaquímica

6. Concepción de Ingeniería Química

23. Por favor escriba 5 palabras que relacione con INGENIERÍA QUÍMICA (Por favor usesolo letras MAYÚSCULAS)(*)

24. Por favor escriba 5 palabras que relacione con TECNOLOGÍA QUÍMICA, comoocupación (Por favor use solo letras MAYÚSCULAS)(*)

25. Por favor escriba cuáles son las entre la INGENIERÍA QUÍMICA y lasimilitudesTECNOLOGÍA QUÍMICA(*)

26. Por favor escriba cuáles son las entre INGENIERÍA QUÍMICA ydiferenciasTECNOLOGÍA QUÍMICA(*)

27. Para cada enunciado sobre ingeniería química, por favor escoja el número quecorresponde a cuán de acuerdo o descuardo se encuentra con este(*)

9/18

TotalmentedesacuerdoDesacuerdo Poco

desacuerdoPoco deacuerdoAcuerdoTotalmente

acuerdoa. La ingeniería

química es una carreragratificante

b. Estudiar ingenieríaquímica es gratificante

c. Las ventajas deestudiar ingeniería

química sobrepasansus desventajas

d. No me interesa estacarrera

e. Los beneficios deestudiar ingeniería

química valen la penapor el esfuerzo que esto

significaf. La recompensa deobtener un título de

ingeniería química novale la pena por elesfuerzo que esto

significag. La ingeniería

química es bien pagah. Los/as ingenieros/as

químicos/ascontribuyen a hacerdel mundo un lugarmejor, más que la

gente de otrasocupaciones

i. Los/as ingenieros/asquímicos/as son

innovadoresj. No hay problemasencontrando trabajo

una vez hay obtenido eltítulo de ingeniero

químicok. La ingeniería

química es una cienciaexacta

l. La ingenieríaquímica es una

ocupación respetadapor otras personas

m. Me gusta elprofesionalismo queestá inmerso en seringeniero químico

10/18

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n. La ingenieríaquímica está más

preocupada que otrasprofesiones por

mejorar el bienestar dela sociedad

o. Estudiar ingenieríaquímica provee más

dinero que no esposible con otras

profesionesp. Los/as ingenieros/as

químicos/as hancontribuído

enormemente asolucionar los

problemas en el mundoq. Un título de

ingeniero/a químico/agarantiza un trabajo

r. Mis padresquieren/querían que yo

sea/fuera ingenieroquímico

s. Los/as ingenieros/asquímicos/as son

creativost. La ingeniería

química involucraencontrar respuestas

precisas a losproblemas

u. Estudiar ingenieríaquímica permitedescubrir cómo

funcionan las cosas

7. Quehacer del Ingeniero Químico

11/18

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

28. De las 20 actividades siguientes, por favor escoja las TRES MÁS IMPORTANTESpara un ingeniero químico:(*)

29. Para usted, ¿son estás las habilidades MÁS IMPORTANTES que debe tener uningeniero químico?

Definitivamenteno

Probablementeno PosiblementeProbablementesi

Muyprobablemente

si

Definitivamente

Generar alternativas

Comprender los problemas

Diseñar

Comunicarse

Identificar restricciones

Tomar decisiones

Sintetizar

Buscar información

Conceder

Analizar

Construir

Utilizar la creatividad

Probar

Iterar

Tener ideas constantes novedosas (lluvia de ideas)

Establecer metas

Hacer prototipos

Planear

Visualizar

Modelar

Abstraer

Imaginar

Evaluar

12/18

a. Aplicar elconocimiento delas matemáticas

y las cienciasfísicas

b. Aplicar elconocimiento

específico de laingenieraquímica

c. Diseñar,implementar,

analizar laevidencia o los

datos einterpretar los

resultados de unexperimento

d. Comprenderlos aspectos

esenciales deldiseño de

procesos eningenieríaquímica

e. Aplicarprocedimientos

diseñadossistemáticamente

a problemasabiertos y/o

cerradosf. Diseñar

soluciones parasatisfacer lasnecesidadesg. Definir

problemas clavesde la ingeniería

químicah. Formular un

rango desoluciones a un

problema deingenieríai. Aplicartécnicas,

habilidades yherramientas de

ingenieríaquímica en la

práctica

13/18

j. Integrartécnicas,

habiidades yherramientas de

ingenieríaquímica para

resolversoluciones delmundo real

k. Transmitirideas de forma

escrita y verbal,en

presentaciones,gráficos, figuras,

etc.l. Comprender elimpacto global

de las solucionesen ingeniería

químicam. Comprenderel impacto socialde la soluciones

en ingenieríaquímica

n. Comprendercuestiones

contemporáneas(económicas,ambientales,

poíticas, sociales,etc.) en un nivellocal, nacional y

mundialo. Comprender

que lasdecisiones en

ingenieríaquímica y las

cuestionescontemporáneas

se impactanentre ellasp. Usar el

conocimientocontemporáneode las cuestionescontemporáneas

para tomardecisiones de

ingenieríaquímica

14/18

q. Desagregarproblemas

complejos enmás sencillosr. Aplicar losfundamentos

teóricos aproblemas queno se han visto

antess. Identificar

variablescríticas,

información y/orelaciones

involucradas enlos problemas

t. Conocercuándo utiizaruna fórmula,algoritmo uotras reglas

u. Reconocer ycomprender los

principiosorganizadores

(leyes, métodos,reglas, etc.) quesubyacen a los

problemasv. Sacar

conclusiones depruebas opremisas

w. Desarrollarun curso de

acción basado enla comprensióndel sistema por

completox. Asegurar quelos procesos o

productos tienenuna diversidad

de criteriostécnicos yprácticos

y. Comparar yjuzgar

solucionesalternativas

15/18

#11#

z. Desarrollarestrategias de

aprendizaje quepueden aplicarse

en la vidaprofesional

8. Entorno educativo

30. ¿Cada cuánto alguna de las siguientes afirmaciones ocurre/ocurrió en su universidad?(*)

Nunca CasinuncaOcasionalmenteFrecuentementeUsualmenteSiempre

En mis clases durantela carrera se

enfatiza/enfatizaba enla tolerancia y el

respeto por ladiferencia

En mis clases durantela carrera se

alienta/alentó aexaminar mis

creencias y valoresMis amigos ingenieros

químicos y yodiscutimos/discutíamos

diversas cuestionesDurante mi carrera

observo/observé el usode palabras,

comportamientos ogestos ofensivos a los

estudiantes debido a suidentidad

Durante mi carrera fuiacosado por otros

debido a mi identidad

16/18

#16#

31. Por favor indique qué tan de acuerdo o desacuerdo se encuentra con los siguientesenunciados

Totalmenteen

desacuerdo

Muy endesacuerdo

Endesacuerdo

Deacuerdo

Muy deacuerdo

Totalmentede acuerdo

La facultad está/estabacomprometida por

tratar a los estudiantesde manera justa

Mi departamentoenfatiza/enfatizó laimportancia de la

diversidad en espacio detrabajo

Conozco a algunosestudiantes quienes

sienten/sentían que nose ajustaban al

departamento debido asu identidad

El campus es/fuegeneralmente de

apertura y tolerancia

9. Gracias por su participación

17/18

Annex B

Figure A.1. Betweenness, Closeness, Eccentricity and Modularity for the Conception of Chemical Engineering – Bogotá. Own elaboration

Figure A.2. Betweenness, Closeness, Eccentricity and Modularity for the Conception of Chemical Engineering – Manizales. Own elaboration

Figure A.3. Betweenness, Closeness, Eccentricity and Modularity for the Conception of Chemical Engineering Technology – Bogotá. Own elaboration

Figure A.4. Betweenness, Closeness, Eccentricity and Modularity for the Conception of Chemical Engineering Technology – Manizales. Own elaboration

Annex C

Fig. C.1. Agreement or disagreement about statements of Chemical Engineering for the participants of Bogotá and Manizales. Own Elaboration

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

u. Studying chemical engineering allows you to discover how things work (MZL)u. Studying chemical engineering allows you to discover how things work (BTA)

t. Chemical engineering involves finding precise answers to problems (MZL)t. Chemical engineering involves finding precise answers to problems (BTA)

s. Chemical engineers are creative (MZL)s. Chemical engineers are creative (BTA)

r. My parents want / wanted me to be / were a chemical engineer (MZL)r. My parents want / wanted me to be / were a chemical engineer (BTA)

q. A chemical engineer title guarantees a job (MZL)q. A chemical engineer title guarantees a job (BTA)

p. The chemical engineers have contributed enormously to solve the problems in the world (MZL)p. The chemical engineers have contributed enormously to solve the problems in the world(BTA)

o. Studying chemical engineering provides more money than is not possible with other professions (MZL)o. Studying chemical engineering provides more money than is not possible with other professions (BTA)

n. Chemical engineering is more concerned than other professions for improving the welfare of society (MZL)n. Chemical engineering is more concerned than other professions for improving the welfare of society (BTA)

m. I like the professionalism that is immersed in being a chemical engineer (MZL)m. I like the professionalism that is immersed in being a chemical engineer (BTA)

l. Chemical engineering is an occupation respected by other people (MZL)l. Chemical engineering is an occupation respected by other people (BTA)

k. Chemical engineering is an exact science (MZL)k. Chemical engineering is an exact science (BTA)

j. There are no problems finding work once you have obtained the title of chemical engineer (MZL)j. There are no problems finding work once you have obtained the title of chemical engineer (BTA)

i. Chemical engineers are innovators (MZL)i. Chemical engineers are innovators (BTA)

h. Chemical engineers contribute to making the world a better place, more than people from other occupations (MZL)h. Chemical engineers contribute to making the world a better place, more than people from other occupations (BTA)

g. Chemical engineering is well paid (MZL)g. Chemical engineering is well paid (BTA)

f. The reward of obtaining a chemical engineering degree is not worth it for the effort that this means (MZL)f. The reward of obtaining a chemical engineering degree is not worth it for the effort that this means (BTA)

e. The benefits of studying chemical engineering are worth the effort that this means (MZL)e. The benefits of studying chemical engineering are worth the effort that this means (BTA)

d. I'm not interested in this career (MZL)d. I'm not interested in this career (BTA)

c. The advantages of studying chemical engineering overcome their disadvantages (MZL)c. The advantages of studying chemical engineering overcome their disadvantages (BTA)

b. Studying chemical engineering is rewarding (MZL)b. Studying chemical engineering is rewarding (BTA)a. Chemical engineering is a rewarding career (MZL)a. Chemical engineering is a rewarding career (BTA)

Strongly disagree Disagree Little disagree Little agree Agree Entirely agree

Table C.1. Agreement or disagreement about statements of Chemical Engineering for the participants of Bogotá and Manizales analysis

Statement Agree ≥ 80% 80% Disagree > x < 80% Agree Disagree ≥ 80% BTA MZL BTA MZL BTA MZL

a. Chemical engineering is a rewarding career X X b. Studying chemical engineering is rewarding X X c. The advantages of studying chemical engineering overcome their disadvantages

X X

d. I'm not interested in this career X X e. The benefits of studying chemical engineering are worth the effort that this means

X X

f. The reward of obtaining a chemical engineering degree is not worth it for the effort that this means

X X

g. Chemical engineering is well paid X X h. Chemical engineers contribute to making the world a better place, more than people from other occupations

X X

i. Chemical engineers are innovators X X j. There are no problems finding work once you have obtained the title of chemical engineer

X X

k. Chemical engineering is an exact science X X l. Chemical engineering is an occupation respected by other people X X m. I like the professionalism that is immersed in being a chemical engineer X X n. Chemical engineering is more concerned than other professions for improving the welfare of society

X X

o. Studying chemical engineering provides more money than is not possible with other professions

X X

p. The chemical engineers have contributed enormously to solve the problems in the world

X X

q. A chemical engineer title guarantees a job X X r. My parents want / wanted me to be / were a chemical engineer X X s. Chemical engineers are creative X X t. Chemical engineering involves finding precise answers to problems X X u. Studying chemical engineering allows you to discover how things work X X

Note: Own elaboration

Fig C.2. Abilities a chemical engineer has according to the participants. Own elaboration

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

z. Develop learning strategies that can be applied in professional life (MZL)z. Develop learning strategies that can be applied in professional life (BTA)

y. Compare and judge alternative solutions (MZL)y. Compare and judge alternative solutions (BTA)

x. Ensure that processes or products have a diversity of technical and practical criteria (MZL)x. Ensure that processes or products have a diversity of technical and practical criteria (BTA)

w. Develop a course of action based on the complete understanding of the system (MZL)w. Develop a course of action based on the complete understanding of the system (BTA)

v. Draw conclusions from tests or premises (MZL)v. Draw conclusions from tests or premises (BTA)

u. Recognize and understand the organizing principles (laws, methods, rules, etc.) that underlie the problems (MZL)u. Recognize and understand the organizing principles (laws, methods, rules, etc.) that underlie the problems (BTA)

t. Know when to use a formula, algorithm or other rules (MZL)t. Know when to use a formula, algorithm or other rules (BTA)

s. Identify critical variables, information and / or relationships involved in the problems (MZL)s. Identify critical variables, information and / or relationships involved in the problems (BTA)

r. Apply the theoretical foundations to problems that have not been seen before (MZL)r. Apply the theoretical foundations to problems that have not been seen before (BTA)

q. Disaggregate complex problems into simpler ones (MZL)q. Disaggregate complex problems into simpler ones (BTA)

p. Use contemporary knowledge of contemporary issues to make chemical engineering decisions (MZL)p. Use contemporary knowledge of contemporary issues to make chemical engineering decisions (BTA)

o. Understand that decisions in chemical engineering and contemporary issues impact each other (MZL)o. Understand that decisions in chemical engineering and contemporary issues impact each other (BTA)

n. Understand contemporary issues (economic, environmental, political, social, etc.) at a local, national and global …n. Understand contemporary issues (economic, environmental, political, social, etc.) at a local, national and global …

m. Understand the social impact of chemical engineering solutions (MZL)m. Understand the social impact of chemical engineering solutions (BTA)l. Understand the global impact of chemical engineering solutions (MZL)l. Understand the global impact of chemical engineering solutions (BTA)

k. Transmit ideas in written and verbal form, in presentations, graphics, figures, etc. (MZL)k. Transmit ideas in written and verbal form, in presentations, graphics, figures, etc. (BTA)

j. Integrate techniques, skills and tools of chemical engineering to solve real-world solutions (MZL)j. Integrate techniques, skills and tools of chemical engineering to solve real-world solutions(BTA)

i. Apply chemical engineering techniques, skills and tools in practice (MZL)i. Apply chemical engineering techniques, skills and tools in practice (BTA)

h. Formulate a range of solutions to an engineering problem (MZL)h.Formulate a range of solutions to an engineering problem (BTA)

g. Define key problems of chemical engineering (MZL)g. Define key problems of chemical engineering (BTA)

f. Design solutions to meet the needs (MZL)f. Design solutions to meet the needs (BTA)

e. Apply systematically designed procedures to open and / or closed problems (MZL)e. Apply systematically designed procedures to open and / or closed problems (BTA)d. Understand the essential aspects of process design in chemical engineering (MZL)d. Understand the essential aspects of process design in chemical engineering (BTA)

c. Design, implement, analyze the evidence or data and interpret the results of an experiment (MZL)c. Design, implement, analyze the evidence or data and interpret the results of an experiment (BTA)

b. Apply the specific knowledge of chemical engineering (MZL)b. Apply the specific knowledge of chemical engineering (BTA)

a. Apply knowledge of mathematics and physical sciences (MZL)a. Apply knowledge of mathematics and physical sciences (BTA)

Definitely not Probably not Posibly Probably Very probably Definitely

Table C.2. Abilities a chemical engineer has according to the participants analysis

Statement Agree ≥ 80% Agree ≤ 80% BTA MZL BTA MZL

a. Apply knowledge of mathematics and physical sciences X X b. Apply the specific knowledge of chemical engineering X X c. Design, implement, analyze the evidence or data and interpret the results of an experiment X X d. Understand the essential aspects of process design in chemical engineering X X e. Apply systematically designed procedures to open and / or closed problems X X f. Design solutions to meet the needs X X g. Define key problems of chemical engineering X X h. Formulate a range of solutions to an engineering problem X X i. Apply chemical engineering techniques, skills and tools in practice X X j. Integrate techniques, skills and tools of chemical engineering to solve real-world solutions X X k. Transmit ideas in written and verbal form, in presentations, graphics, figures, etc. X X l. Understand the global impact of chemical engineering solutions X X m. Understand the social impact of chemical engineering solutions X X n. Understand contemporary issues (economic, environmental, political, social, etc.) at a local, national and global level

X X

o. Understand that decisions in chemical engineering and contemporary issues impact each other X X p. Use contemporary knowledge of contemporary issues to make chemical engineering decisions X X q. Disaggregate complex problems into simpler ones X X r. Apply the theoretical foundations to problems that have not been seen before X X s. Identify critical variables, information and / or relationships involved in the problems X X t. Know when to use a formula, algorithm or other rules X X

u. Recognize and understand the organizing principles (laws, methods, rules, etc.) that underlie the problems

X X

v. Draw conclusions from tests or premises X X w. Develop a course of action based on the complete understanding of the system X X x. Ensure that processes or products have a diversity of technical and practical criteria X X y. Compare and judge alternative solutions X X z. Develop learning strategies that can be applied in professional life X X

Note: Own elaboration

Fig. C.3. School environment. Own elaboration Table C.3. School environment analysis

Statement Frequently ≥ 80% 80% Frequently > x < 80% Ocasionally Ocasionally ≥ 80%BTA MZL BTA MZL MZL BTA

a. In my classes during the race emphasizes / emphasized tolerance and respect for difference

X X

b. In my classes during the race, I am encouraged / encouraged to examine my beliefs and values

X X

c. My chemical engineer friends and I discussed / discussed various issues

X X

d. During my career I observe / observed the use of words, behaviors or offensive gestures to students due to their identity

X X

e. During my career I was harassed by others because of my identity X XNote: Own elaboration

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

e. During my career I was harassed by others because of my identity (MZL)

e. During my career I was harassed by others because of my identity (BTA)

d. During my career I observe / observed the use of words, behaviors or offensive gestures…

d. During my career I observed / observed the use of words, behaviors or offensive…

c. My chemical engineer friends and I discussed / discussed various issues (MZL)

c. My chemical engineer friends and I discussed / discussed various issues (BTA)

b. In my classes during the race, I am encouraged / encouraged to examine my beliefs and…

b. In my classes during the race, I was encouraged / encouraged to examine my beliefs and…

a. In my classes during the race emphasizes / emphasized tolerance and respect for…

a. In my classes during the race emphasizes / emphasized tolerance and respect for…

Never Almost never Ocasionally Frequently Usually Always

Fig. C.4. Actions developed in the universities around diversity. Own elaboration

Table C.4. Actions developed in the universities around diversity analysis

Statement Agree ≥ 80% Disagree ≤ 80% BTA MZL BTA MZL

a. The faculty is/was committed to treating students fairly X X b. My department emphasizes / emphasized the importance of diversity in workspace X X c. I know some students who felt / felt that they did not fit the department because of their identity

X X

d. The campus is / was generally open and tolerant X X Note: Own elaboration

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

d. The campus is / was generally open and tolerant (MZL)

d. The campus is / was generally open and tolerant (BTA)

c. I know some students who felt / felt that they did not fit the department because of theiridentity (MZL)

c. I know some students who felt / felt that they did not fit the department because of theiridentity (BTA)

b. My department emphasizes / emphasized the importance of diversity in workspace (MZL)

b. My department emphasizes / emphasized the importance of diversity in the workplace(BTA)

a. The faculty is / was committed to treating students fairly (MZL)

a. The faculty is / was committed to treating students fairly (BTA)

Strongly disagree Very disagree Disagree Agree Very agree Strongly Agree

Annex D

Table D.1. Significant results U de Mann-Whitney

Variable Question Category Bogotá Manizales Total Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.) Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.) Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.)

Sex P17 Man 0,400 11,500 5,000 12,000 0,043 1,000 17,500 5,000 8,000 0,698 0,700 60,000 10,000 19,000 0,650 Woman 1,750 1,250 1,550

P28R Man 1,810 274,500 16,000 36,000 0,785 1,630 72,000 16,000 17,000 0,018 1,720 675,000 32,000 53,000 0,110 Woman 1,890 3,120 2,280

P30S Man 3,810 282,500 16,000 36,000 0,909 3,690 83,000 16,000 17,000 0,043 3,750 715,000 32,000 53,000 0,206 Woman 3,890 4,290 4,020

Student - Graduated

P28C Student 4,000 212,000 16,000 36,000 0,106 4,310 97,500 13,000 19,000 0,196 4,140 580,500 29,000 55,000 0,021 Graduated 3,400 3,700 3,540

P28E Student 3,630 209,500 16,000 36,000 0,106 4,310 74,500 13,000 19,000 0,033 3,930 524,500 29,000 55,000 0,006 Graduated 3,000 3,150 3,050

P28G Student 2,400 203,000 16,000 36,000 0,080 2,850 82,000 13,000 19,000 0,070 2,620 546,500 29,000 55,000 0,012 Graduated 1,600 1,900 1,770

P28I Student 4,690 107,000 16,000 36,000 0,000 4,000 119,000 13,000 19,000 0,648 4,380 526,500 29,000 55,000 0,005 Graduated 3,670 4,100 3,820

P28J Student 1,190 218,000 16,000 36,000 0,133 2,310 72,000 13,000 19,000 0,027 1,690 526,500 29,000 55,000 0,005 Graduated 0,690 1,150 0,860

P28L Student 4,250 178,500 16,000 36,000 0,021 4,310 125,000 13,000 19,000 0,839 4,280 589,500 29,000 55,000 0,027 Graduated 3,750 4,100 3,880

P28M Student 4,440 155,500 16,000 36,000 0,005 4,150 115,000 13,000 19,000 0,540 4,310 608,500 29,000 55,000 0,042 Graduated 3,720 4,300 3,930

P28N Student 2,800 236,500 16,000 36,000 0,297 3,380 87,000 13,000 19,000 0,103 3,070 599,000 29,000 55,000 0,044 Graduated 2,300 2,450 2,360

P28O Student 2,380 151,000 16,000 36,000 0,005 2,230 89,000 13,000 19,000 119,000 2,310 482,000 29,000 55,000 0,002 Graduated 1,330 1,450 1,380

P28Q Student 2,000 189,000 16,000 36,000 0,040 2,310 63,000 13,000 19,000 0,016 2,140 463,000 29,000 55,000 0,001 Graduated 1,060 1,000 1,040

P30B Student 4,500 104,500 16,000 36,000 0,000 4,460 98,500 13,000 19,000 0,210 4,480 417,500 29,000 55,000 0,000 Graduated 3,250 3,950 3,500

P30C Student 4,630 178,000 16,000 36,000 0,018 4,690 91,000 13,000 19,000 0,107 4,660 521,500 29,000 55,000 0,003 Graduated 4,030 4,050 4,040

P30E Student 3,880 234,000 16,000 36,000 0,268 4,150 77,500 13,000 19,000 0,046 3,930 591,500 29,000 55,000 0,035 Graduated 3,530 3,200 3,050

P30F Student 4,630 198,000 16,000 36,000 0,050 4,620 107,500 13,000 19,000 0,351 4,620 599,500 29,000 55,000 0,029 Graduated 4,190 4,350 4,250

P30G Student 3,560 262,000 16,000 36,000 0,596 4,380 58,500 13,000 19,000 0,006 3,930 588,500 29,000 55,000 0,033

Variable Question Category Bogotá Manizales Total Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.) Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.) Average U N1 N2 p (asymp.)

Graduated 3,360 3,300 3,340 P30I Student 4,690 187,500 16,000 36,000 0,039 4,230 115,000 13,000 19,000 0,553 4,480 613,500 29,000 55,000 0,060

Graduated 4,000 3,950 3,980 P30J Student 4,670 198,500 15,000 36,000 0,087 4,620 103,500 13,000 19,000 0,334 4,640 599,000 29,000 55,000 0,043

Graduated 4,060 4,200 4,110 P30L Student 4,630 202,000 16,000 36,000 0,059 4,690 67,500 13,000 19,000 0,014 4,660 517,000 29,000 55,000 0,003

Graduated 4,000 3,500 3,820 P30M Student 4,190 259,500 16,000 36,000 0,547 4,770 73,000 13,000 19,000 0,020 4,450 612,500 29,000 55,000 0,046

Graduated 3,940 3,850 3,910 P30N Student 4,240 194,000 16,000 36,000 0,050 4,230 107,500 13,000 19,000 0,378 4,240 592,500 29,000 55,000 0,032

Graduated 3,590 3,850 3,590 P30O Student 4,730 166,500 16,000 36,000 0,012 4,170 90,500 13,000 19,000 0,224 4,290 513,500 29,000 55,000 0,007

Graduated 3,500 3,650 3,550 P30P Student 4,360 121,000 16,000 36,000 0,001 3,920 108,500 13,000 19,000 0,411 4,360 494,000 29,000 55,000 0,004

Graduated 3,520 3,500 3,520 P30X Student 4,130 239,500 16,000 36,000 0,389 4,380 67,000 13,000 19,000 0,016 4,240 570,500 29,000 55,000 0,026

Graduated 3,830 3,250 3,620 P31A Student 2,380 209,500 16,000 36,000 0,112 2,770 68,500 13,000 19,000 0,020 2,550 523,000 29,000 55,000 0,006

Graduated 1,610 1,650 1,630 P31B Student 2,310 163,000 16,000 36,000 0,010 1,920 115,500 13,000 19,000 0,583 2,140 556,600 29,000 55,000 0,015

Graduated 1,080 1,700 1,300 City P28A Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,600 652,000 52,000 32,000 0,048

Manizales N/A N/A 4,000 P28B Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,300 573,500 52,000 32,000 0,006

Manizales N/A N/A 4,100 P28J Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 0,800 633,000 52,000 32,000 0,032

Manizales N/A N/A 1,600 P28P Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,600 625,500 52,000 32,000 0,027

Manizales N/A N/A 4,100 P30A Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,300 628,000 52,000 32,000 0,032

Manizales N/A N/A 3,900 P30B Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,600 624,000 52,000 32,000 0,028

Manizales N/A N/A 4,100 P31C Bogotá N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3,100 625,000 52,000 32,000 0,031

Manizales N/A N/A 3,800

Note: Own elaboration

Table D.2. Significant results Kruskal-Wallis

Variable Question Category Bogota Manizales Total Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p

Age P19A 18,0-24,0 10,680

7,224 3,000 17,000 0,054

8,280

3,721 3,000 13,000 0,054

4,350

11,439 3,000 29,000 0,010 24,1-25,0 4,250 4,130 2,880 25,1-32,0 14,000 - 5,000 32,1-52,0 4,500 - 3,000

P19B 18,0-24,0 6,590

7,438 3,000 17,000 0,059

6,060

0,636 3,000 12,000 0,425

1,150

7,991 3,000 29,000 0,040 24,1-25,0 13,880 7,830 2,710 25,1-32,0 12,500 - 3,000 32,1-52,0 12,500 - 3,000

P28A 18,0-24,0 4,080

10,347 3,000 52,000 0,016

14,110

2,008 3,000 32,000 0,571

41,600

5.645 3,000 84,000 0,130 24,1-25,0 2,640 13,640 31,640 25,1-32,0 4,250 7,250 38,900 32,1-52,0 3,380 11,170 28,530

P28C 18,0-24,0 4,250

8,288 3,000 52,000 0,040

16,940

5,414 3,000 32,000 0,144

4,330

13,211 3,000 84,000 0,004 24,1-25,0 2,910 10,860 3,320 25,1-32,0 3,630 8,250 3,600 32,1-52,0 3,310 12,170 3,380

P28E 18,0-24,0 4,080

12,263 3,000 52,000 0,007

16,060

5,199 3,000 32,000 0,158

4,190

14,479 3,000 84,000 0,002 24,1-25,0 2,270 12,500 3,050 25,1-32,0 3,250 4,000 3,000 32,1-52,0 2,540 11,670 2,630

P28G 18,0-24,0 28,130

4,916 3,000 52,000 0,178

3,220

9,152 3,000 32,000 0,027

2,810

9,248 3,000 84,000 0,026 24,1-25,0 16,820 2,090 1,690 25,1-32,0 24,060 0,050 1,700 32,1-52,0 21,150 0,670 1,560

P28I 18,0-24,0 4,830

14,590 3,000 52,000 0,002

12,330

4,302 3,000 32,000 0,231

43,790

6,906 3,000 84,000 0,075 24,1-25,0 3,910 12,500 31,680 25,1-32,0 4,130 8,500 32,900 32,1-52,0 3,460 19,830 29,340

P28J 18,0-24,0 1,670

10,275 3,000 52,000 0,016

17,560

7,669 3,000 32,000 0,053

2,100

15,681 3,000 84,000 0,001 24,1-25,0 0,180 10,450 0,590 25,1-32,0 0,880 5,000 0,700 32,1-52,0 0,770 14,000 1,000

P28L 18,0-24,0 29,920

6,317 3,000 52,000 0,097

16,610

5,457 3,000 32,000 0,141

4,430

11,623 3,000 84,000 0,009 24,1-25,0 18,910 10,050 3,820 25,1-32,0 19,250 10,500 3,800 32,1-52,0 20,690 14,670 3,880

P28M 18,0-24,0 4,500

9,401 3,000 52,000 0,024

13,890

3,317 3,000 32,000 0,345

4,380

8,250 3,000 84,000 0,041 24,1-25,0 3,820 11,180 3,910 25,1-32,0 3,880 11,000 3,900 32,1-52,0 3,460 18,330 3,690

Variable Question Category Bogota Manizales Total Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p

P28N 18,0-24,0 27,750

3,294 3,000 52,000 0,348

3,780

8,774 3,000 32,000 0,032

3,480

10,600 3,000 84,000 0,014 24,1-25,0 22,410 2,640 2,640 25,1-32,0 20,130 2,000 2,300 32,1-52,0 19,190 0,067 1,940

P28O 18,0-24,0 3,000

16,149 3,000 52,000 0,001

2,780

9,039 3,000 32,000 0,029

2,900

24,613 3,000 84,000 0,000 24,1-25,0 1,360 1,360 1,360 25,1-32,0 1,630 1,000 1,500 32,1-52,0 0,920 0,330 0,810

P28P 18,0-24,0 4,420

9,273 3,000 52,000 0,026

11,440

1,279 3,000 32,000 0,734

42,690

5,165 3,000 84,000 0,160 24,1-25,0 3,360 13,090 32,930 25,1-32,0 3,500 16,250 30,150 32,1-52,0 3,460 15,170 30,780

P28Q 18,0-24,0 28,130

4,718 3,000 52,000 0,194

2,560

8,621 3,000 32,000 0,035

2,290

9,421 3,000 84,000 0,024 24,1-25,0 17,550 1,360 1,090 25,1-32,0 23,810 0,000 1,200 32,1-52,0 20,690 0,330 0,940

P30A 18,0-24,0 3,670

7,793 3,000 52,000 0,050

13,440

2,592 3,000 32,000 0,459

37,210

4,962 3,000 84,000 0,175 24,1-25,0 4,180 12,090 40,450 25,1-32,0 3,380 8,500 29,950 32,1-52,0 2,770 18,000 27,750

P30B 18,0-24,0 4,500

11,147 3,000 52,000 0,011

13,440

3,009 3,000 32,000 0,390

4,430

9,993 3,000 84,000 0,019 24,1-25,0 3,910 13,270 4,050 25,1-32,0 3,630 5,500 3,500 32,1-52,0 3,000 15,670 3,310

Familiy income

P12 High 2,000

3,313 4,000 52,000 0,507

2,000

13,842 4,000 32,000 0,008

2,000

6,029 4,000 84,000 0,197 High average 0,830 1,250 0,910 Average 0,810 1,110 0,950 Low average 0,890 0,670 0,800 Low 1,330 0,330 0,830

P22 High 0,000

2,615 4,000 35,000 0,624

5,000

7,213 4,000 19,000 0,027

0,000

1,830 4,000 55,000 0,767 High average 1,380 1,000 1,300 Average 1,180 2,210 1,650 Low average 1,750 0,000 1,170 Low 1,000 - 1,000

P28D High 0,000

6,082 4,000 52,000 0,193

3,000

9,897 4,000 32,000 0,042

2,500

9,235 4,000 84,000 0,055 High average 0,390 0,000 0,320 Average 1,050 0,370 0,730 Low average 0,440 1,330 0,800 Low 1,670 1,000 1,330

P28I High 2,000

10,677 4,000 52,000 0,030

0,000

2,980 4,000 32,000 0,561

2,500

10,159 4,000 84,000 0,038 High average 4,220 4,250 4,230 Average 3,760 4,050 3,900 Low average 3,890 4,170 4,000

Variable Question Category Bogota Manizales Total Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p

Low 5,000 4,000 4,500 P28O High 2,000

0,632 4,000 52,000 0,959

3,000

11,026 4,000 32,000 0,026

1,000

3,783 4,000 84,000 0,436 High average 1,830 4,000 2,230 Average 1,570 1,420 1,500 Low average 1,440 1,500 1,470 Low 1,670 2,000 1,830

P28S High 2,000

8,673 4,000 52,000 0,070

3,000

4,562 4,000 32,000 0,335

2,500

9,869 4,000 84,000 0,043 High average 3,610 4,000 3,680 Average 3,520 3,790 3,650 Low average 3,220 4,330 3,670 Low 5,000 4,330 4,670

P30A High 3,000

2,466 4,000 52,000 0,651

3,000

9,875 4,000 32,000 0,043

3,000

9,705 4,000 84,000 0,046 High average 3,280 3,250 3,270 Average 3,430 4,160 3,780 Low average 3,780 4,500 4,070 Low 2,670 3,000 2,830

P31B High 0,000

2,786 4,000 52,000 0,594

0,000

10,056 4,000 32,000 0,040

0,000

4,992 4,000 84,000 0,288 High average 1,440 1,500 1,450 Average 1,480 1,580 1,530 Low average 1,110 3,330 2,000 Low 3,000 1,000 2,000

P31C High 0,000

12,148 4,000 52,000 0,016

2,000

12,835 4,000 32,000 0,012

1,000

6,928 4,000 84,000 0,140 High average 3,610 2,750 3,450 Average 2,810 4,050 3,400 Low average 2,670 4,500 3,400 Low 2,000 3,670 4,330

Religiosity P28M Very religious 4,000

11,401 5,000 52,000 0,044

4,670

8,901 5,000 32,000 0,113

4,500

11,727 5,000 84,000 0,039

Pretty religious 4,750 5,000 4,830 Moderately religious 3,630 4,270 3,870 Little religious 4,330 3,710 4,140 Nothing religious 3,580 4,200 3,760 Antireligious 5,000 4,400 4,500

P30N Very religious 2,000

11,498 5,000 52,000 0,042

3,670

4,042 5,000 32,000 0,543

3,250

6,643 5,000 84,000 0,249

Pretty religious 2,500 5,000 3,330 Moderately religious 3,320 3,910 3,530 Little religious 4,270 3,570 4,050 Nothing religious 4,000 4,400 4,120 Antireligious 5,000 4,200 4,330

P30O Very religious 2,000

11,866 5,000 52,000 0,037

3,670

0,504 5,000 32,000 0,992

3,250

8,155 5,000 84,000 0,148 Pretty religious 2,500 3,500 2,830 Moderately religious 3,530 3,900 3,660 Little religious 4,330 3,570 4,090 Nothing religious 3,920 4,200 4,000

Variable Question Category Bogota Manizales Total Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p Average Chi-Square df N p

Antireligious 5,000 4,000 4,170 P31C Very religious 3,000

3,377 5,000 52,000 0,967

2,670

9,732 5,000 32,000 0,083

2,750

11,320 5,000 84,000 0,045

Pretty religious 3,000 4,500 3,500 Moderately religious 2,790 3,820 3,170 Little religious 3,000 3,710 3,230 Nothing religious 3,750 4,000 3,820 Antireligious 5,000 4,600 4,670

Note: Own elaboration