P R O M O T I N G C I T I Z E N S H I P I N E U R O P E

A T R A I N I N G M A N U A L

Written and compiled by Luis Arnaut, Arjen Bos and Alessio

Surian Project supported by the European Commission

EUROPE THROUGH OUR HEARTS AND MINDS

�May 2006

AFS has been preparing and supporting exchange students living intercultural learning experiences all over the world for almost sixty years.This support has never only been practical, but has always aimed to provideparticipants with opportunities to learn and share about important issues ofour globalised world.

Including activities on citizenship in Europe in the educational programmethat AFS provides to participants, schools, host families and volunteers is anext step for many organisations.

Producing this handbook would not have been possible without the contributions of many, volunteers and staff, around Europe. Partner officesand volunteers across Europe have invested their time and energy in identifying tools on citizenship education in use in their respective countries.Luis Arnaut, Arjen Bos and Alessio Surian contributed their professionalexpertise as trainers and authors of this manual.

We would also like to thank Filipa Almeida Santos for her contribution on thechapter on European Institutions, all the participants at the training course inLille, France, for the many fruitful discussions on the manual and their numerous valuable suggestions and comments that considerably raised thequality of this handbook, the chapter of Lille-Flandres for being such a greathost of the training course, Elisabeth Hardt for proofreading the manual andHenni Bartram and Bram Goris for the support and the coordination of theproject.

We also thank the European Commission DG Education and Culture for thefinancial support of this project.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INTRODUCTION 3

CHAPTER 1:Key Concepts 5Citizenship 6Democracy 10Human Rights 14Cultural Diversity 20Identity 26Globalisation 30Intercultural Learning 33The building of Europe 37Citizenship in Europe 43European Citizenship and the European treaties in force 47

CHAPTER 2:Controversial Issues 52Introduction 53Migrants and Minorities 54Gender 59Information and Communication Technology 64Religion 67Sustainable Development 72Unemployment 76Violence and Non-violence 79Youth Culture 85

Anthology 90

INDEX

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Most Europeans were born within a divided continent. Not just divided interms of nations, religions or languages,but profoundly divided by ideologies. Themajority of the European population wasraised in a bipolar continent, with clearlydefined borders and rules. In fifty years,Europe has changed dramatically, witnessing the expansion of a EuropeanEconomic Community of six countries in1957, to a European Union that will gather27 countries in 2007. Two generations ofpeace for most of Europe, an unprecedented achievement in our common history, set the foundations of anextraordinary event: a massive movementof nation-states voluntarily abdicating oftheir sovereignty rights to join a free association of states. The success of thisendeavour is confirmed by the existenceof even more countries applying for membership.

It may seem that only one block prevailedin Europe, and that the attraction of theEuropean Union will eventually bring allnation-states to a common ground. Sucha vision neglects the essence of the process. Europe integrated the existingcultural diversity. The differences that wereour borders are now inside of us. Europeremains as diverse as in the past, butdiversity no longer differentiates betweenus. Rather, it is our ability to integratediversity that makes us different from other

parts of the world. It is also our greateststrength to remain influential in a globalworld that attentively observes our example.

The rules have changed and will continueto do so. Everyday we have to come upwith solutions for new problems related toour cultural diversity. In times punctuatedby culture-related conflicts, AFS MemberOrganisations in Europe, some of themwith more than 50 years of experience inthe intercultural dialogue, have a lot toshare. This was the spirit that motivatedthe project “Europe through hearts andminds” proposed by several AFS MemberOrganisations to the European Union, withthe main goal of promoting a more activeEuropean citizenship. This manual is oneof the material outcomes of this project.

The European Federation for InterculturalLearning (EFIL) was a precursor, when in1971 it placed intercultural learning, “aprocess that moves human beings to adeeper awareness of their own culturethrough a qualitative immersion in anotherculture,” as its core business. EFIL anticipated what was to become one ofthe building blocks of multicultural Europe.Without the benefit of intercultural learning, it is virtually impossible tobecome an "active" citizen of a multiculturalsociety.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

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Section 1:

Key Concepts and Controversial issues

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CHAPTER 1:

K E Y C O N C E P T S

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C I T I Z E N S H I P

"Citizenship is a complex and multi-dimensional reality which needs to be setin its political and historical context. Onecannot speak of citizenship in isolation,since the idea only has any meaning inrelation to the real needs of society or apolitical system (Consultation Meeting forthe Education for Democratic CitizenshipProgramme, Council of Europe, 1996)

�Q: What is citizenship?

There is still debate about the meaning ofcitizenship. The concept of legal citizenship appears to be relatively simple:it is normally linked to a nation state and isdefined in terms of the laws of that nation.This is perhaps why, for many people, theidea of citizenship has an immediateconnection with the idea of patriotism: a"good citizen" is often thought to be a"good patriot". However, the concept ofcitizenship has far more layers of meaningthan mere patriotism, as we can see fromthe historical origins of the idea, set out inthe next section. A helpful distinction tobear in mind is that between a citizen, onthe one hand, and a subject, on the other.

It is useful to look at some of the moreimportant developments in the idea of citizenship, since this helps to bring outthe various strands of meaning that arediscussed today.

� The origin of citizenship can be tracedback to Ancient Greece, when "citizens"were those who had a legal right to participate in the affairs of the state. But

by no means everyone was a citizen: slaves and women, in particular, weremere subjects. For those who did have theprivileged status of being citizens, the ideaof "civic virtue" or being a "good" citizen

was an important part of the concept. Thistradition led to an emphasis on the dutiesthat citizens were supposed to perform.

� The association of citizenship withnational identity arose naturally from thefact that the legal status of a "citizen" wasalways tied to a nation state, hence thelink between citizenship and patriotism.

� The liberal view of citizenship, whichwas developed in the nineteenth century,emphasised the importance of rights for allcitizens. As the franchise began to be gradually extended, so justice and politicalrights became a reality for an increasingproportion of the population.

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� In the twentieth century, the supportersof "social citizenship" went further, in recognising that civil and political rightsare only part of what citizens ought to beable to expect from the state. The rise ofthe welfare state in the last century oweda great deal to thinkers who argued thatrights of citizens ought to cover their ownliving and working conditions, rather thanjust their participation in "high" politics.

� The concept of "multiple citizenship"has been in existence for a while andallows that individuals may simultaneouslybe citizens of more than one state or organising body. For example, with thedevelopment of the European Union, citizens of the member states increasinglypossess some rights from and duties tothe Union as a whole, and not only to theirown nation state.

� A final strand in the concept of citizenship, but one that is gaining increasing importance, involves the idea of education. If citizenship in the traditionalsense involves enjoying rights and alsoperforming duties, then there is a sense inwhich citizens may be said not to be born,but created. Loyalty and responsibility, forexample, are qualities that need to be learned and cultivated. So, if these arequalities that are essential to being a citizen in the full meaning of the term, then"real" citizens need to be educated - in thebroadest sense of the word. Today, most people's notion of citizenshipwill include elements of each of the sixconcepts outlined above, although in different proportions. Some people willemphasise the "duties" element, whileothers will give more importance to"rights" or "patriotism", or to the qualitiesthat should be possessed by "real" citizens.

� Q: What should be the criteria for

citizenship in increasingly multicultural

societies?

We can see that both rights and responsibilities have been an important

part of the notion of citizenship from theearliest days: citizens are expected to possess certain fundamental rights, andthey are also required to perform certainduties. It is these "duties", or responsibilities,that people have in mind when they speakof what citizens ought to be like or howthey ought to behave.

However, if such a notion strikes us as toodirectorial or as limiting too much the inherent freedom and dignity of every individual citizen, then it is important toremember that these limits arise as adirect consequence of human rightstheory. It is only the desire to build societies which respect the human rightsof all citizens that imposes responsibilitieson us all as citizens.

There are two immediate links between the responsibilities of citizenship and humanrights theory: 1. The fact that every individual possessesbasic human rights does not give anyonelicence to behave exactly as he or shewishes. It only gives them licence to do soin so far as this does not infringe upon thehuman rights of other individuals. So onething we can certainly say about good citizenship is that it requires citizens tohave respect for the human rights ofothers. 2. The second close link with human rightsconcerns the way in which the concept of citizenship is essentially tied in with membership of society. We do not speak,for example, of citizens of desert islands,because a citizen is much more than justan inhabitant of a particular country orregion. A citizen is essentially a member ofthe society, which inhabits that region; so,if we are concerned with building societiesthat respect human rights, then this imposes another restriction on the waythat individuals inhabiting that societyshould behave.

Thus, another thing that we could sayabout good citizenship would be that itrequires the type of behaviour that wouldlead society as a whole to be more respectful of human rights.

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� Q: Have there been significant

citizenship campaigns in your country?

What was the outcome?

Most of the debate today concerning citizenship is focused on the problem ofincreasing citizens' involvement and participation in the processes of democratic society. It is being increasinglyrealised that periodic voting by citizens isinsufficient, either in terms of making thosewho govern in the interim period fullyaccountable or in promoting feelings ofempowerment among ordinary citizens.Furthermore, even voting patterns themselves indicate levels of political apathy among the population thatseriously undermine the effective functioning of democracy. It is with problems such as these in mind that programmes like the Council of Europe'sEducation for Democratic Citizenship havebeen initiated. A second set of issues which has possiblydeserved less attention to date, but whichis increasing in importance, concerns thequestion of those individuals who do not,for one reason or another, receive the fullbenefits of citizenship. One aspect of thisis a result of continuing patterns of discrimination within societies: minoritygroups may very often have formal citizenship of the country in which they areliving but may still be prevented from fullparticipation in that society. A secondaspect of the problem is a consequence ofincreasing globalisation, including newpatterns of work and migration, whichleads to a significant number of peoplethroughout the world being residentabroad but unable to apply for formal citizenship. Such people may includeimmigrant workers, refugees, temporaryresidents or even those who have decidedto set up permanent residence in anothercountry.

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�Q: Who is the main actor at the European level?

The Council of Europe's programme under this name has attempted to provide a Europeanframework for the strengthening of education for democratic citizenship. The Council callson member states to include such programmes within their educational, training, culturaland youth policies and practices, and it has itself worked actively to identify new strategiesand approaches and to disseminate these.

The Draft Declaration and Programme on Education for Democratic Citizenship (April 1999)identified the following essential characteristics, of Education for Democratic Citizenship,although they could be understood in a much wider sense:

� constitutes a lifelong learning experience and a participative process developed in various

contexts;

� equips men and women to play an active part in public life and to shape in a responsible

way their own destiny and that of their society;

� aims to instil a culture of human rights which will ensure full respect for those rights and

understanding of responsibilities that flow from them;

� prepares people to live in a multicultural society and to deal with difference knowledgea-

bly, sensibly, tolerantly and morally;

� strengthens social cohesion, mutual understanding and solidarity;

� must be inclusive of all age groups and sectors of society.

KEY QUESTIONS

�Q: Do you feel any “ownership” of the rules in your country? What might be the reasons for this?

�Q: What should the citizen do when society is failing to respect the rights of certain sections of

the community?

�Q: What forms of involvement and participation, other than voting in elections, are possible for

the ordinary citizen?

�Q: How do you participate in the life and decisions of your community? How could you improve

such participation?

ReferencesCrick, B., Essays on citizenship, Continuum, 2000. Education for Democratic Citizenship (Council of Europe) www.coe.int/T/EJournal of Citizenship Studies, www.tandf.co.uk/journals/arfax/13621025.html .Keane, J., Civil Society: Old Images, New Visions, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1998Kennedy, K. (Ed), Citizenship education and the modern state, Falmer Press, 1997Oliver, D., Heater, D., The foundations of citizenship, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994Source: adapted from “Compass”, EYCB, Budapest, 2002

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D E M O C R A C Y

"One ballot is stronger than the bullet." Abraham Lincoln

"The will of the people shall be the basis ofthe authority of government; this will shallbe expressed in periodic and genuineelections which shall be by universal andequal suffrage and shall be held by secretvote or by equivalent free voting procedu-res." Article 21, paragraph iii, UDHR.

Democracy describes a system of makingrules for a group of people. It comes fromthe Greek words demos - meaning people- and kratos meaning power. Accordingly,democracy is often defined as "the rule ofthe people"; in other words, a system ofmaking rules which is put together by thepeople who are to obey those rules.

� Q: Could such a system exist and

could it possibly be a good way of making

decisions?

� Q: Why did such an idea originally

arise and why is it today considered, at

least by most people and most countries in

the world, the only system that is worth our

attention?

�Q: Does it really make sense for eve-

ryone to rule?

There are two fundamental principles thatlie at the base of the idea of democracyand which help to explain its appeal: 1. the principle of individual autonomy:that no one should be subjected to rulesthat have been imposed by others.

2. the principle of equality: that everyoneshould have the same opportunity toinfluence the decisions that affect peoplein society.

Both of these principles are intuitivelyappealing to everyone, and a democraticsystem of government is the only one that,at least in theory, accepts both as funda-mental. Other systems, such as oligarchy,plutocracy or dictatorship normally violateboth principles: they give power to a cer-tain (constant) sector of society thatmakes decisions on behalf of the rest ofthe population. Neither equality nor indivi-dual autonomy is respected in such cases.

The two principles above provide themoral justification for democracy, and wecan see that both are in fact key humanrights principles, but there are also prag-matic reasons that are often given as justi-fication for a democratic system ofgovernment, rather than any other:

1. a democratic system is claimed to pro-vide for a more efficient form of govern-ment because the decisions that are takenare more likely to be respected by the peo-ple. People do not usually break their"own" rules. 2. acceptance by the population sincedecisions have been reached as a result ofbuilding a consensus among different fac-tions; the rules would not be realistic ifthey were unacceptable to large sectionsof the population. Thus, there is a form ofinternal control on the type of laws that ademocratically accepted governmentought to consider. 3. a democratic system is also supposedto foster more initiative and therefore to bemore responsive to changing conditions,on the "two heads are better than one"principle.

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In practice, it is of course not reasonable toexpect everyone in society to contribute to therule-making process nor would everyone wantto. Indeed, many countries use a system whe-reby citizens appoint representatives to makedecisions on their behalf: representative ratherthan direct democracy. Every citizen, in theory,has an equal possibility to select the personthey think will best represent their interests. Inthis way, the principle of equality is observed.This was not always the case: at the birth ofdemocracy, in Ancient Greece, women and sla-ves were not allowed to vote and neither, ofcourse, were children.

Today, in most countries of the world, womendo have the vote but the struggle was won onlyrelatively recently. As seen earlier, there areother sections of society, which commonlyinclude immigrants, prisoners, children, whoare not entitled to vote, even though they areobliged to obey the laws of the land.

�Q: If the principle of equality is more or less

respected today, at least as far as voting is

concerned, how does the first principle of auto-

nomy stand in the existing democracies?

� Q: To what extent do individuals in these

societies feel any "ownership" of the laws that

are made by their representatives?

The answer here is a great deal less encoura-ging. Indeed, most people, in most democraciesof the world, would claim that the laws of theland are "imposed" on them by rulers who donot represent their interests. So has the firstprinciple gone astray?

There are a number of senses in which peoplecan be said to have some control over the law-making process in a representative democracy.Again, we shall consider the ideal model, evenif it does not seem to represent accurately the

political situation in many countries. At least it assists us in identifying the problem areas andsuggests ways in which these may be over-come.

1. Citizens influence the law-making processbecause they select the people who will makethe laws: in theory, at elections, citizens choosebetween different possible representatives oftheir interests. Thus, they can choose the indivi-dual that offers the platform that is closest totheir own interests.2. Politicians have to stand for re-election. In thetime period between elections, lawmakers willbe aware that they will be judged at the nextelection on their performance and thereforeshould not be inclined to pass laws that will beobviously unacceptable to the people that elec-ted them. This is a form of tacit control.3. There are, in principle, ample opportunitiesfor citizens to indicate actively their displeasurewith particular policies or laws, and thus to senda message back to their representatives thatthis is an area of concern.4. There are also, in theory, opportunities forcitizens to have a more positive influence on thelegislative process by engaging in consultationwith political representatives, either throughNGOs, or other pressure groups and consulta-tive bodies.5. Ultimately, any individual is free to stand forelection if they feel that none of the candidatesis able to represent their interests.

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Elections are a method of exerting controlover the lawmakers, and they exert thatcontrol, in theory at least, by invoking a des-ire, or need to make sure that politicians totake their electorate into account in everythingthey wish for. Such a method clearly requiresthe elections to be free and fair but it alsorequires something that is perhaps more fun-damental: that politicians believe that they willbe held to accountable by the electorate ifthey fail to represent their interests. No politi-cian has any need to represent interests thatare different from his or her own unless he orshe fears the punishment of the electorate.The system depends on that belief to operateeffectively; and it therefore depends, ultima-tely, on the electorate applying that sanctionfrom time to time or at least appearing to beready to do so.

Thus "elections" may be quite easily introdu-ced into a political system without necessarilyhaving the effect of making that system genui-nely democratic. Structural elections onlycontribute to a democratic system where theelectorate uses them to call its representati-ves to account. High voter apathy in mostdemocratic countries at the beginning of thetwenty-first century threatens the effective-ness of this system of control.

It also calls into question the legitimacy of so-called democratically elected governments,which are, in some cases, actually elected bya minority of the total electorate.

� Q: How should one learn about demo-

cracy? What is it important to learn about it?

There are as many different forms of demo-cracy as there are democratic nations in theworld. No two systems are exactly the sameand no one system can be taken as a "model"of democracy. There are presidential and par-liamentary democracies; democracies thatare federal or confederal or unitary in nature;democracies that make constant use of refe-renda or other forms of consultation democra-cies that use a proportional voting system,

and ones that use a majoritarian system - orcombinations of the two; and so on.

Each of these systems can lay some claim tobeing "democratic" in virtue of the fact thatthey are, nominally at least, based on the twoprinciples above: equality of all citizens, andthe right of every individual to some degree ofpersonal autonomy. It is clearly not realistic toregard "autonomy" as meaning that everyindividual can do what he or she likes, but atthe least, the system, in allocating equal votesto all citizens, recognises that each individualis capable of independent choice and is entit-led to have that choice taken into account.After that, a great deal depends on the indivi-dual citizens.

Nevertheless, despite the claims of almostevery nation in the world to be "democratic",there is no doubt that every democratic sys-tem currently in existence is quite capable ofbeing more democratic than it is at present,something that each of them is arguably inneed of.

There is a fairly universal concern about thestatus of democracy since the beginning ofthe twenty-first century. Much of this is basedon the low levels of citizen participation atelections, which appear to indicate a lack ofinterest and involvement on the part of citi-zens and which undermine the democraticprocess in some of the ways that have beendiscussed. Although this is undoubtedly aproblem, there are other studies which indi-cate that participation in different forms isactually on the increase - for example, pres-sure groups, civic initiatives, consultativeorgans, and so on. These forms of participa-tion are just as essential to the effective func-tioning of democracy as voter turnout at elec-tions, if not more so. Elections, after all, are acrude way of ensuring that people's interestsare accurately represented, and four or fiveyears, which is the normal gap between elec-tions, is a long time to wait to hold the govern-ment to account. People have short memo-ries!

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There are two further problems that are more intricately connected to the notion of repre-sentative democracy, and these concern minority interests. The first problem is that mino-rity interests are often not represented through the electoral system: this may happen if theirnumbers are too few to reach the minimum level necessary for any representation, or it maymore commonly happen because electoral systems often use a "winner-takes-all" system.

The second problem is that even if their numbers are represented in the legislative body,they will have a minority of representatives and these may therefore not be able to summonup the necessary votes to defeat the majority representatives. For these reasons, demo-cracy is often referred to as "rule of the majority".

Democracy itself cannot be relied upon to solve the second of these issues. It is perfectlyconceivable - and has happened innumerable times - that the majority authorise decisionsthat are detrimental to the minority. That it is the "will of the people" is no justification forsuch decisions. The basic interests of minorities as well as majorities can only be safeguar-ded through adherence to human rights principles, reinforced by an effective legal mecha-nism - whatever the will of the majority may be.

KEY QUESTIONS

�Q: Does good governance coincide with proper democracy?

�Q: Did you know that only 50% of EU citizens voted at the last elections for the European

Parliament? How come?

�Q: Should youth aged 16 have the right to vote? Why?

References Beck, U., The Reinvention of politics: Rethinking Modernity in the Global Social Order,Cambridge, Polity Press, 1997Beetham, D., Democracy and human rights, Polity Press, 1999. Fotopoulos, T., Towards an Inclusive Democracy, Cassell, London, 1997Hirst, P., Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance,Cambridge, Polity Press, 1994International Institute for Democracy, www.iidemocracy.coe.int/.Inter-Parliamentary Union, www.ipu.org/.Lijphart, A., Patterns of democracy, Yale University Press, 1999. Politeia Network for Citizenship and Democracy in Europe, www.politeia.net.Santos de Sousa, B. (ed.), Another Democracy is Possible: Beyond the Liberal DemocraticCanon, London, Verso, 2005Source: adapted from “Compass”, EYCB, Budapest, 2002

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H U M A N R I G H T S

"Every time justice dies, it is as if it hadnever existed." José Saramago

A right is a claim that we are justified inmaking. I have a right to the goods in myshopping basket if I have paid for them.Citizens have a right to elect a president, ifthe constitution of their country guaran-tees it, and a child has a right to be takento the zoo, if her or his parents have pro-mised that they will take her of him. Theseare all things that people can be entitled toexpect, given the promises or guaranteesthat have been undertaken by anotherparty.

But human rights are claims with a slightdifference, in that they depend on no pro-mises or guarantees by another party.Someone's right to life is not dependenton someone else promising not to kill himor her: their life may be, but their right tolife is not. Their right to life is dependenton only one thing: that they are human.

An acceptance of human rights meansaccepting that everyone is entitled tomake the claim: I have these rights, nomatter what you say or do, because I am ahuman being, just like you.

� Q: Human rights are inherent to all

human beings. Why should that claim not

need anything to back it up? What does it

rest on? And why should we believe it?

The claim is ultimately a moral claim and itrests on moral values. What my right to lifereally means is that no one ought to takemy life away from me; it would be wrong to

do so. Put like that, the claim needs littlebacking up. Every reader is probably inagreement with it because we all reco-gnise, in our own cases, that there are cer-tain aspects of our life, our being, thatought to be inviolable, and that no oneelse ought to be able to touch, becausethey are essential to our being, who we areand what we are; they are essential to ourhumanity and our human dignity. Humanrights simply extend this understanding onan individual level to every human beingon the planet. If I can make these claims,then so can everyone else as well.

Key values

There are thus two key values that lie atthe core of the idea of human rights. Thefirst is human dignity and the second isequality. Human rights can be understoodas defining those basic standards whichare necessary for a life of dignity; and theiruniversality is derived from the fact that inthis respect, at least, all humans are equal.We should not, and cannot, discriminatebetween them.

These two beliefs, or values, are really allthat is required to subscribe to the idea ofhuman rights, and these beliefs are hardlycontroversial. That is why the idea recei-ves support from every different culture inthe world, every civilised government andevery major religion. It is recognisedalmost universally that state power cannotbe unlimited or arbitrary; it needs to belimited at least to the extent that all indivi-duals within its jurisdiction can live withcertain minimum requirements for humandignity.

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Many other values can be derived fromthese two fundamental ones and can helpto define more precisely how in practicepeople and societies should co-exist. Forexample:

Freedom: because the human will is animportant part of human dignity. To be for-ced to do something against our willdemeans the human spirit. Respect for others: because a lack ofrespect for someone shows a failure toappreciate their individuality and essentialdignity. Non-discrimination: because equality inhuman dignity means we should not judgepeople on the basis of non-relevant physi-cal (or other) characteristics. Tolerance: because intolerance indicatesa lack of respect for difference; and equa-lity does not signify identity or uniformity. Justice: because people, equal in theirhumanity, deserve fair treatment. Responsibility: because respecting the

rights of others entails responsibility forone's actions. Characteristics of human rights

�Q: Do you feel any “ownership” of the

rules in your country?

Philosophers may continue to argueabout the nature of human rights. Theinternational community has established aset of key principles that states haveagreed to and have to abide by. Accordingto these principles:

1. Human rights are inalienable. Thismeans that you cannot lose them,because they are linked to the very fact ofhuman existence. In particular circumstan-ces some - though not all - may be sus-pended or restricted. For example, ifsomeone is found guilty of a crime, his orher liberty can be taken away; or in timesof civil unrest, a government may imposea curfew restricting freedom of movement.

2. They are indivisible, interdependent andinterrelated. This means that differenthuman rights are intrinsically connectedand cannot be viewed in isolation fromeach other. The enjoyment of one rightdepends on the enjoyment of many otherrights and not a single right is more impor-tant than others.

3. They are universal, which means thatthey apply equally to all people everyw-here in the world, and with no time limit.Every individual is entitled to enjoy his orher human rights without distinction ofrace, colour, sex, language, religion, politi-cal or other opinion, national or social ori-gin, birth or other status. We should notethat the universality of human rights doesnot in any way threaten the rich diversity ofindividuals or of different cultures.Diversity can still exist in a world whereeveryone is equal, and equally deservingof respect.

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A Human Rights historical outline

In the later so-called section, we will also elaborate on the fact that universal rights differa great deal from culture to culture.

Ancient History

• The Code of Hammurabi in Babylonia (Iraq, c 2000 B.C.) was the first written legalcode, established by the king of Babylon. It vowed to 'make justice reign in thekingdom, to destroy the wicked and violent, to prevent the strong from oppressingthe weak, ... to enlighten the country and promote the good of the people'

• A Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt (c 2000 BC) was quoted as giving instructions to subordinates that 'When a petitioner arrives from Upper or Lower Egypt, ... makesure that all is done according to the law, that custom is observed and the right ofeach man respected.' • The Charter of Cyrus (Iran, c 570 BC) was drawn up by the king of Persia for thepeople of his kingdom, and recognised rights to liberty, security, freedom of movement and some social and economic rights.

The English Magna Carta and Bill of Rights

In 1215, English nobles and members of the clergy rallied against King John I's abuse ofpower, and made the King agree to abide by the law by drawing up a Great Charter of liber-ties (Magna Carta). Although the King did not respect it, the Magna Carta became a widelycited document in defence of liberties. It enumerates a series of rights, such as the rightof all free citizens to own and inherit property and to be free from excessive taxes. It esta-blishes principles of due process and equality before the law. Following King James II'sabuse of the law, his subjects overthrew him in 1688.

In 1689, Parliament passed a bill declaring that it would no longer tolerate royal interfe-rence in its affairs. This bill, known as the Bill of Rights, forbade the monarch to suspendthe law without Parliament's consent, specified free elections for members of Parliamentand declared that freedom of speech in Parliament was not to be questioned, in the courtsor elsewhere.

The birth of natural rights During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe, a number of philosophers pro-posed the concept of "natural rights". These were rights that belonged to a personbecause he or she was a human being, rather than, for example, being a citizen of a par-ticular country or a member of a particular religion or ethnic group. The idea that thesenatural rights should entitle people to certain legal rights became more widely acceptedand began to be reflected in the constitutions of some countries.

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The French Declaration on the Rights of

Man and the Citizen

In 1789, the French overthrew their monar-chy and established the first FrenchRepublic. The Declaration came out of therevolution and was written by representa-tives of the clergy, nobility and commo-ners, who wrote it to embody the thoughtsof Enlightenment figures such as Voltaire,Montesquieu, the Encyclopedists andRousseau. The Declaration attacked thepolitical and legal system of the monarchyand defined the natural rights of man as"liberty, property, security and the right toresist oppression". It replaced the systemof aristocratic privileges that had existedunder the monarchy with the principle ofequality before the law.

The United States Declaration of Inde-

pendence, Constitution and Bill of

Rights (1791)

In 1776, most of the British colonies inNorth America proclaimed their indepen-dence from the British Empire in theUnited States Declaration ofIndependence. This was largely based onthe "natural right" theories of Locke andMontesquieu, and inspired the Frenchrevolution and rebellions against Spanishrule in South America. Later on, the UnitedStates Constitution was amended, and thegovernment was centralised but withpowers limited enough to guarantee indivi-dual liberty. Twenty amendments to theconstitution form the American Bill ofRights.

Early international agreements

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,a number of human rights issues cameinto the fore and began to be questionedat an international level, beginning withsuch issues as slavery, serfdom, brutalworking conditions and child labour. It wasat around this time that the first internatio-nal treaties concerning human rights wereadopted. • Slavery became illegal in England andFrance around the turn of the nineteenth

century and, in 1814, the British andFrench governments signed the Treaty ofParis, with the aim of co-operating in sup-pressing the traffic in slaves. At theBrussels Conference of 1890, an anti-sla-very Act was signed, which was later rati-fied by eighteen states. • The first Geneva Conventions (1864 and1929) marked another field of early co-operation among nations in setting out theelaboration of the rules of war. In particu-lar, the Conventions laid down standardsfor caring for sick and wounded soldiers.

The idea of protecting the rights of humanbeings against the governing powersbegan to receive ever wider acceptance.The importance of codifying these rights inwritten form had already been recognisedby some individual states and, in this way,the documents described above becamethe precursors to many of today's humanrights treaties. However, it was the eventsof World War II that really propelled humanrights onto the international stage.

The International League of Nations wasan intergovernmental organisation createdafter the First World War, which tried toprotect basic human rights standards butit was only after the terrible atrocities com-mitted in the Second World War, and lar-gely as a result of them, that a body ofinternational law emerged. These eventsmade it both possible and necessary foran international consensus to emerge onthe need for international regulation toprotect and codify human rights.

The UN CharterThe Charter of the United Nations, signedon 26 June 1945, reflected this belief. TheCharter states that the fundamental objec-tive of the United Nations is "to save suc-ceeding generations from the scourge ofwar" and "to reaffirm faith in fundamentalhuman rights, in the dignity and worth ofthe human person and in the equal rightsof men and women".

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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR) was drawn up by the Commissionon Human Rights, one of the organs of theUnited Nations, and was adopted by theGeneral Assembly on the 10 December1948. Since then, a series of key instru-ments to safeguard its principles have alsobeen drawn up and agreed by the interna-tional community. More information onsome of these international treaties can befound below in this chapter, including infor-mation on the European Convention forHuman Rights and FundamentalFreedoms.

Human rights around the worldSeveral regions of the world have establi-shed their own systems for protectinghuman rights, which exist alongside that ofthe UN. To date, there are regional institu-tions in Europe, the Americas, Africa andthe Arab states, but not yet in the Asia-Pacific region. However, most countries inthis part of the world have also ratified themajor UN treaties and conventions - the-reby signifying their agreement with thegeneral principles, and expressing them-selves subject to international humanrights law.

The African Charter on Human andPeoples' Rights came into force in October1985 and has been ratified by more than 40states. The Charter is interesting for a num-ber of differences in emphasis between thetreaties that have been adopted in otherparts of the world: • Unlike the European or AmericanConventions, the African Charter coverssocial, economic and cultural rights as wellas civil and political rights. • The African Charter goes beyond indivi-dual rights, and also provides for collectiverights of peoples. • The Charter also recognises that indivi-duals have duties as well as rights, and

even lists specific duties that the individualhas towards his or her family, society, theState and the international community.

In the Arab world, there currently exists aregional Commission on Human Rights,with only limited powers. However, an ArabCharter on Human Rights has been adop-ted. This document, like the AfricanCharter, includes social-economic rights aswell as civil-political rights, and also a listof 'Collective Rights of the Arab People'.

There have been calls for such a system tobe set up in the Asian-Pacific region, butno formal agreements have yet been adop-ted. A meeting of NGOs in the region in1993 resulted in the Bangkok NGODeclaration on Human Rights, which sta-ted:

"We can learn from different cultures froma pluralistic perspective. ... Universalhuman rights are rooted in many cultures.We affirm the basis of universality ofhuman rights which afford protection to allof humanity. ... While advocating culturalpluralism, those cultural practices whichderogate from universally accepted humanrights, including women's rights, must notbe tolerated. As human rights are of univer-sal concern and are universal in value, theadvocacy of human rights cannot beconsidered to be an encroachment uponnational sovereignty".

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One important role in exerting pressure on states is played by associa-tions, non-governmental organisations, charities, and other civic initiativegroups. This forms the subject matter of the section on activism and therole of NGO's.The role of such associations is particularly relevant to theman - and woman - on the street, not only because such associations fre-quently take up individual cases, but also because they provide means forthe ordinary person to become involved in the protection of human rights.

Key questions

�Q: Why is it wrong to infringe someone else's right to life? Why is it

wrong to take their life away? Are these the same questions?

�Q: Do you know which rights you have?

�Q: Have you ever been involved in any campaigning or human rights

activism?

�Q: Is it permissible to restrict the rights of minorities in the name of

national security? If so, should there be any limits?

�Q: Should cultural values ever be able to 'override' the universality of

human rights?

�Q: In the name of a good cause

�Q: Can the defence of human rights be used to justify a military cam-

paign?

References

Europe, Youth, Human Rights, Report of the Human Rights Week, by Yael Ohana(ed.), European Youth Centre, Budapest, 2000. Human Rights, a basic handbook for UN staff, Office of the High Commission ofHuman Rights, United Nations, Geneva. Levin, L., Human Rights, Questions and Answers, Unesco, Paris, 1996

Source: adapted from “Compass”, EYCB, Budapest, 2002

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C u l t u r a l D i v e r s i t y

Introduction

Cultural diversity is a fact: the world hassome 6000 communities and as many dis-tinct histories and languages. Such diffe-rences naturally lead to a diversity ofvisions, values, beliefs, practices andexpressions.

�Q: What community (which communi-

ties) are you part of?

There is a general consensus amongmainstream anthropologists that humansfirst emerged in Africa about two millionyears ago. Since then we have spreadthroughout the world, successfully adap-ting to widely differing conditions and toperiodic large-scale changes in local andglobal climate. The many separate socie-ties that emerged around the globe diffe-red markedly from each other, and many ofthese differences persist to this day.

As well as the more obvious cultural diffe-rences that exist between peoples, suchas language, dress and traditions, thereare also significant variations in the waysocieties organise themselves, in theirshared moral values, and in the ways theyinteract with their environment.

Cultural diversity is our everyday reality.Due to international migration, one thing issure: we live in an increasingly heteroge-neous society. Hence, we can choose tounderstand cultural diversity as the varietyof human societies or cultures in a specificregion, or in the world as a whole.

The meaning of culture

Prompted by unprecedented global flowsof information, capital, goods and people,'cultural diversity' became a buzzword ofthe 1990's. However, the underlying

concept of culture is very complex and nosingle definition has been agreed upon inliterature. Anthropologists have collected more than160 different definitions of culture, a dis-cussion of which is beyond the scope ofthis chapter. A widely accepted definitionis that "culture is not a 'thing', a substancewith a physical reality of its own" but rather"made by people interacting, and at thesame time determining further action".

"Culture is a set of shared and enduringmeanings, values and beliefs that charac-terise national, ethnic, or other groups andorient their behaviour" (Leitner: 2000).

Culture is therefore something shared by(almost) all members of a social group,something one tries to pass on, whichshapes (through morals, laws, customs)behaviour, or structures one’s perceptionof the world.

Cultural diversity as a resource forEuropean Citizenship

� Q: If Trompenaars (1997) is right to

argue that "every culture distinguishes

itself from others by the specific solution it

chooses to certain problems which reveal

themselves as dilemmas" and that "culture

is the way in which a group of people sol-

ves problems and reconciles dilemmas",

what could that imply in terms of European

citizenship?

� Q: An approach which harness and

encompasses this diversity and a way of

thinking which helps to free us from outda-

ted patterns and can break the shell of

indifference and ignorance?

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�Q: How is cultural diversity a resource

for you, in your daily life?

This requires going beyond awareness ofour own cultural heritage and producingsomething greater through cooperationand collaboration. The very diversity ofpeople can be utilised to enhance pro-blem-solving by combined action. Culturalsynergy builds on similarities and fusesdifferences resulting in more effectivehuman activities and systems. Thisapproach recognises both the similaritiesand the differences between the culturesand suggests that we neither ignore norseek to minimise cultural diversity, butrather that we view it as a resource in des-igning and developing organisational andsocietal systems and structures.

Cultural diversity, indeed, is not just anatural fact that we need simply recognizeand respect. It is about plurality of know-ledge, wisdom and energy which allcontribute to improving and moving theworld forward (Leitner: 2000).

Cultural diversity 'under threat'

Cultural diversity is a tricky thing to quan-tify, but a good indication is thought to bea count of the number of languages spo-ken in a region or in the world as a whole.By this measure, there are signs that wemay be going through a period of precipi-tous decline in the world's cultural diver-sity.Even if we only look at the projections onthe conservative estimate of 50% of theworld's languages disappearing in thecoming century, the rate of death compu-tes at one language dying roughly everytwo weeks. Overpopulation, globalisation,immigration and imperialism (of both thecultural and old-fashioned kind) are rea-sons that have been suggested to explainany such decline.

�Q: Is your culture 'under threat'? If so,

how?

There are several international organisa-tions that work towards protecting threa-tened societies and cultures, including theCouncil of Europe and UNESCO. TheUNESCO Universal Declaration onCultural Diversity, adopted by 185Member States in 2001, represents thefirst international standard-setting instru-ment aimed at preserving and promotingcultural diversity and intercultural dialo-gue.

Article 2, of UNESCO

In our increasingly diverse societies, it isessential to ensure harmonious interactionamong people and groups with plural, variedand dynamic cultural identities as well as theirwillingness to live together. Policies for theinclusion and participation of all citizens areguarantees of social cohesion, the vitality ofcivil society and peace. Thus defined, culturalpluralism gives policy expression to the realityof cultural diversity. Indissociable from ademocratic framework, cultural pluralism isconducive to cultural exchange and to theflourishing of creative capacities that sustainpublic life.

Council of Europe Declaration on Cultural Diversity

1.1 Cultural diversity is expressed in the co-exis-tence and exchange of culturally different practicesand in the provision and consumption of culturallydifferent services and products.

1.2 Cultural diversity cannot be expressed withoutthe conditions for free creative expression andfreedom of information existing in all forms of cul-tural exchange, notably with respect to audiovisualservices

1.3 Sustainable development as defined in relationto cultural diversity, assumes that technologicaland other developments, which occur to meet theneeds of the present, will not compromise the abi-lity of future generations to meet their needs withrespect to the production, provision and exchangeof culturally diverse services, products and practi-ces.

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The situation of cultural diversity 'underthreat' sharpens a long-standingdilemma: How can universal human rightsexist in a culturally diverse world? As theinternational community becomes increa-singly integrated, how can cultural diver-sity and integrity be respected? Is a glo-bal culture inevitable? If so, is the worldready for it? How could a global cultureemerge based on and guided by humandignity and tolerance? These are some ofthe issues, concerns and questionsunderlying the debate over universalhuman rights and cultural relativism.

Cultural relativismCultural relativism is the assertion thathuman values, far from being universal,vary a great deal according to differentcultural perspectives.

�Q: Are you a cultural relativist some-

times? Why (not)?

Some would apply this relativism to thepromotion, protection, interpretation andapplication of human rights which couldbe interpreted differently within differentcultural, ethnic and religious traditions. Inother words, according to this view,human rights are culturally relative ratherthan universal.

Taken to its extreme, this relativism wouldpose a dangerous threat to the effective-ness of international law and the interna-tional system of human rights that hasbeen painstakingly constructed over thedecades. If cultural tradition alonegoverns State compliance with internatio-nal standards, then widespread disregard,abuse and violation of human rightswould be given legitimacy.

Accordingly, the promotion and protec-tion of human rights perceived as cultu-rally relative would only be subject toState discretion, rather than international

legal imperative. By rejecting or disregar-ding their legal obligation to promote andprotect universal human rights, Statesadvocating cultural relativism could raisetheir own cultural norms and particulari-ties above international law and stan-dards.

EthnocentrismIf we highlight cultural relativism, weshould also briefly take ethnocentrism asa response to cultural diversity intoaccount. Our judgements, evaluationsand justifications are influenced stronglyby our ethnocentrism. This means that webelieve our response to the world - ourculture - is the right one, others are some-how not normal. We feel that our valuesand ways of living are universal, the cor-rect ones for all people, the “others” arejust too stupid to understand this obviousfact. Mere contact with people from othercultures can actually reinforce our prejudi-ces, our ethnocentric spectacles blindingus to anything but that which we expectto see. Other cultures may seem attrac-tive or exotic for us but usually our view iscoloured by negative prejudices and ste-reotypes and so we reject them (AllDifferent, All Equal: 2004).

Cultural diversity for building HumanCapital

To be able to make use of our culturaldiversity, to improve and move the worldforward, we need a strategy that releasesthe plurality of all knowledge, wisdom andenergy that we hold together, as opposedto ethnocentrism or cultural relativism. Wecould synthesize our main strategy formaximizing human capital through cultu-ral diversity as "empowering citizens andcommunities of whatever culture toengage in communicational interactionbased on mutual respect" (Marsh: 2002).How to do so is not entirely clear foranyone.

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� Q: What do you need to make positive

use of cultural diversity?

Although some recent developments point topossible directions for action, as an example,we develop approaches for each of the threecomponents identified below: technical lite-racy, cultural literacy and collective creativity.

Technical LiteracyTechnical literacy stands at the intersectionof Access and Competence, which currentlyconstitute (separately) the two main informa-tion society priorities in Europe. From anindustrial policy point-of-view, the mainconcern is to close "gaps" in individualopportunities for access and skills in themost technically efficient manner.

Cultural LiteracyCultural literacy (alphabétisme culturelle) is aterm appearing ever more frequently, andrefers to the ability of an individual (or per-haps community) to critically relate to ano-ther culture in a positive way. This meanslearning from both similarities and differen-ces, being able to reject some aspects andaccept others. From a social point-of-view,this may suggest that we aim to promoteintercultural interaction and mutual unders-tanding and respect.

Collective CreativityCollective creativity is of great importance ifwe are aiming for a shift towards social inno-

vation. Particularly if we consider technolo-gies as socially constructed, then the buil-ding of an information society most appro-priate to a given community will dependmore on the collective creativity of its indivi-duals and organisations than on the actualavailability of state-of-the-art infrastructures.Even more so, we need artistic activities thatencourage innovation through interaction.

The Developmental Model ofIntercultural Sensitivity

The Developmental Model of InterculturalSensitivity (DMIS) was created by Dr. MiltonBennett (1986, 1993) as a framework toexplain the reactions of people to cultural dif-ference. In both academic and corporatesettings, he observed that individualsconfronted cultural difference in some pre-dictable ways as they learned to becomemore competent intercultural communica-tors.

Using concepts from cognitive psychologyand constructivism, he organised theseobservations into six stages of increasingsensitivity to cultural difference. The under-lying assumption of the model is that asone’s experience of cultural difference beco-mes more complex and sophisticated, one’scompetence in intercultural relations increa-ses. Each stage indicates a particular cogni-tive structure that is expressed in certainkinds of attitudes and behaviours related tocultural difference. By recognizing the under-lying cognitive orientation toward cultural dif-ference, predictions about behaviour andattitudes can be made and education can betailored to facilitate the development into thenext stage.

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The first three DMIS stages (denial,defence, and minimisation) are ethnocen-tric, meaning that one’s own culture isexperienced as central to reality in someway:

Denial of cultural difference is the state inwhich one’s own culture is experiencedas the only real one. Other cultures areavoided by maintaining psychologicaland/or physical isolation from differen-ces. People at this stage generally are notinterested in cultural difference, althoughthey may act aggressively to eliminate adifference if it impinges on them.

Defence against cultural difference is thestate in which one’s own culture (or anadopted culture) is experienced as theonly good one. The world is organisedinto “us and them,” where “we” aresuperior and “they” are inferior. People atthis stage are threatened by cultural diffe-rence, so they tend to be highly critical ofother cultures, regardless of whether theothers are their hosts, their guests or cul-tural newcomers to their society.

Minimisation of cultural difference is thestate in which elements of one’s own cul-tural world view are experienced as uni-versal. Because these absolutes obscuredeep cultural differences, other cultures

may be trivialised or romanticised. Peopleat this stage expect similarities, and theymay become insistent about correctingothers’ behaviour to match their expecta-tions.

The second three DMIS stages (accep-tance, adaptation and integration) areethno-relative, meaning that one’s ownculture is experienced in the context ofother cultures.

Acceptance of cultural difference is thestate in which one’s own culture is expe-rienced as just one of a number of equallycomplex worldviews. Acceptance doesnot mean agreement—cultural differencemay be judged negatively—but the judg-ment is not ethnocentric. People at thisstage are curious about and respectfultoward cultural difference.

Adaptation to cultural difference is thestate in which the experience of anotherculture yields perception and behaviourappropriate to that culture. One’s world-view is expanded to include constructsfrom other worldviews. People at thisstage are able to look at the world“through different eyes” and may intentio-nally change their behaviour to communi-cate more effectively in another culture.

Integration of cultural difference is thestate in which one’s experience of self isexpanded to include the movement inand out of different cultural worldviews.People at Integration often are dealingwith issues related to their own “culturalmarginality.” This stage is not necessarilybetter than the previous stage (adapta-tion) in most situations demanding inter-cultural competence, but it is commonamong non-dominant minority groups,long-term expatriates, and “globalnomads.”

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The DMIS has been used with great success for the last fifteen years to develop cur-riculum for intercultural education and training programmes. Content analysisresearch has supported the relevance of the stage descriptions and has suggestedthat a more rigorous measurement of the underlying cognitive states could yield apowerful tool for personal and group assessment.

Resources

� Ayton-Shenker, D. "The Challenge of Human Rights and Cultural Diversity" UnitedNations Background Note DPI/1627/HR, 1995

� Bennett, M.J. "A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity". InInternational Journal of Intercultural Relations 10 (2), 179-95, 1986

� Bennett, M.J. "Towards ethno-relativism: A developmental model of intercultural sen-sitivity". In M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience. Yarmouth, ME:Intercultural Press, 1993.

� Council of Europe "All Different, All Equal Education Pack", second edition, 2004

� Council of Europe "Declaration of the Committee of Ministers on cultural diversity",adopted 2000

� Hall, E.T. "Beyond culture", Anchor Books, 1989

� Hofstede, G. "Culture's consequences international differences in work-relatedvalues", Sage, 1984

� Leitner, C. "Walking the tightrope, cultural diversity in the context of European inte-gration", appeared in Eipascope, 2000

� Marsh, J. "Cultural Diversity as Human Capital", a paper for the STOA Unit of theEuropean Parliament, 2002

� Simons, G.F. "Eurodiversity, a business guide to managing difference" ButterworthHeinemann, 2002

� Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner "Riding the waves of culture, understandingcultural diversity in business", Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 1997

� UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, adopted 2001

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Introduct ion

"Cultural background is one of the primary sources of identity. It is the source for a greatdeal of self-definition, expression, and sense of group belonging. As cultures interact andintermix, cultural identities change. This process can be enriching, but disorienting." (UNBackground Note DPI/1627/HR – March 1995, by Diana Ayton-Shenker)

"Men and women are not only themselves; they are also the region in which they were born,the city apartment or the farm in which they learnt to walk, the games they played as chil-dren, the tales they overheard, the food they ate, the schools they attended, the sports theyfollowed, the poets they read and the God they believed in." (W. Somerset Maugham, TheRazor's Edg

�Q: What do the latter quote tell you about identity?

Our identity includes many layers and features that we can attach to ourselves. Some ofthese will be related to:� The roles we play in life: a daughter, a friend, a school student, a baker, a banker;� The parts of our identity we may be able to choose: fan of a certain type of music, mem-ber of a political party, style of clothes;� Where we were born, where we now live;� Belonging to a minority or not;� Our gender and your sexuality;� Our religionAnd, perhaps strangely,� What we are not or don't want to be: not a woman, not a socialist, not French, not analcoholic.

When looking at identity in general and European Citizenship in specific it might be conve-nient to organise the different features of our identity in an easy framework, or 'identity map'you like.

I D E N T I T Y

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�Q: Can you make a map of your identity, using the framework above?

The following questions go with different quadrants:

�Q: What are your personal values? (Individual Interior)

�Q: How do you express your values? What rights are important for you to claim?

What responsibilities are important for you to take on? (Individual Exterior)

� Q: What are your main senses of belonging? What values do you share with

those communities? (Collective Interior)

�Q: How do you engage with the cultural, social, political and economic structu-

res and systems of your communities? (Collective Exterior)

For every individual we can distinguish between the interior and exterior. The interior iswhat's inside of that person and might not easily show (such as values, opinions, sexualpreferences, personal interests and spirituality).

The exterior can on the one hand be considered the manifestation of this inner-self, ofthe interior; for example through sexual behaviour, personal health, interest in books orfilms, or style of clothes. On the other hand, an individual can also be identified bypurely biological features, such as sex, skin colour or disability. When someone's beha-viour is congruent with the inner-self, then we refer to 'personal alignment' of the iden-tity.

At the same time, referring to the first quote in this chapter, every individual is a mem-ber of different communities that contribute to their identity. From the interior point-of-view that tends to be first and foremost: culture, but also, socialisation through acquain-tances with specific groups of friends, colleagues or family members. The congruencybetween our own personal values and those values of the cultural and social groups thatwe belong to is referred to as 'values alignment' of the identity.

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On the exterior side, we are also mem-bers of different political, social, culturalor economic systems and structures. Forexample, an individual can be identifiedas a member of the Green Party, as aninhabitant of Spain, as a member of thelower-income class, as a member of thenative English speakers, and so forth.The big difference with the collectiveinterior is that the exterior can easily bemeasured and recognised (for examplewith a membership card or passport).The extent to which those more 'formal'memberships of different structures andsystems match with our cultural back-ground is what we call 'structural ali-gnment'.

Finally, how our behaviour (individual,exterior) corresponds and interacts withthe systems and structures that we are(or choose to be) part of, is what we referto as 'mission alignment'. Or maybeclearer to say: how we behave in the dif-ferent structures and systems, in order tomanifest ourselves and our ideas is agood indicator of how we align withthose structures and systems.

Cultures & Communit ies: asense of belonging

Another way of approaching the indivi-dual identity and the issue of citizenshipis to look at it purely from the perspectiveof senses of belonging. The identity ofeach individual is shaped by many diffe-rent belongings or senses of belongingto certain groups of people. Of course, itis not always easy for yourself or forother people to recognise or to point-outwhat different senses of belonging youhave.

The more senses of belonging we reco-

gnise in ourselves, the more aware webecome of the complexity of our identity.At the same time, each of these sensesof belonging opens us up to a new groupof people. The more senses of belongingwe are aware of, the more able we are torelate to and interact with other people.In other words, identity - if it is conside-red in all its complexity - whilst distingui-shing us from others also implies open-ness to different individuals, othergroups and our common humanity.However, this can only be the case if wedo not reduce identity to solely a coupleof senses of belonging.

This process of development involves amove away from egocentrism andtowards a more world-centric view of theworld and approach to people, as ourconsciousness expands from an aware-ness of ourselves to one including thoseclose to us to one embracing all huma-nity. Such a process is not always easyand sometimes provokes fears (e.g.losing one’s national identity). It is impor-tant to remember that as a more world-centric consciousness emerges, it trans-cends and includes the earlier more ego-centric and ethnocentric ways of thinking– they do not disappear, they are simplyframed within a more complex way ofthinking, making their expression morehealthy and constructive. (Inspired byWilber (2000))

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The different senses of belonging of eachindividual do not have the same impor-tance (e.g. you may rank your sense ofbelonging to a religious group higher thanthat of your nationality).

This approach rooted in the senses ofbelonging embraces two important affir-mations. Firstly, everybody is different, isinfluenced by different life conditions, hasdifferent values and needs, and, there-fore, needs to be treated as their indivi-dual condition determines. At the sametime, it acknowledges that different indi-viduals are connected with differentgroups and in the end all people areconnected by the very fact of their beinghuman – equality of being. In the words ofthe Council of Europe campaign, “AllEqual, All Different”. Within these affirma-tions, all of us are negotiating our agencyas individuals and our communion withothers. This is also recognised by the ins-titutions of the EU as they seek to look atcitizenship in a holistic way, includingdiverse values and identities.

European Cit izenship: a sense of belonging?

As seen in the first section on KeyConcepts, citizenship, a lot of adjectiveshave been used combined with citizens-hip: e.g. environmental citizenship, stu-dent citizenship, feminist citizenship. Toooften those adjectives which emphasisea certain understanding of citizenship areonly trying to promote a legitimate butexclusive sense of belonging in a specificgroup of individuals.

Should European be one more adjectiveof citizenship? Should “EuropeanCitizenship” be one more “kind of citi-zenship”?

The identification of the individual with acontinental reality which is already part oftheir life is probably desirable; the senseof belonging to Europe is important. Thissense of belonging to Europe is neces-

sary, with all the external symbols atta-ched to it, but European Citizenshipshould not be reduced to it. EuropeanCitizenship, even considered from thepoint of view of the individuals, should bemore than another sense of belonging toanother "family".

At least for this reason it is useful to startto draw some conclusions about its rele-vance for our youth work in relation to theconcept of citizenship. This secondapproach to the issue of citizenshipthrough the senses of belonging gives usa perspective about what happens, fromthe point of view of the individual, thoughin the interaction between an individualand a community. We could say that thisapproach is “person-centred”, since thedescription of the relation between theindividual and the community is donethrough an individual notion: the sensesof belonging. Without going too muchinto detail at this point and without pre-tending to explain everything through thisapproach, we think that it can help tounderstand the identities, behaviours,tensions and even apparent "contradic-tions" in individuals, particularly in youngpeople. Youth work, at the end of the day,is a question of working for and withyoung people. To consider the senses ofbelonging of individuals can, as a firststep, help us to understand others’ iden-tity and the mechanisms of interaction ofindividuals living in complex and deman-ding societies. This is especially relevantin some thematic fields of youth worksuch as minorities, discrimination, anti-racism, where the attention to and theconsideration of the individual dimensionis particularly important.

Resources� Council of Europe "All Different, All EqualEducation Pack", second edition, 2004 � Epstein, J.S. "Youth culture, identity in a post-modern world", Blackwell, 1998� Merry, P.D. (ed.) "T-Kit Under Construction:Citizenship, Youth and Europe", Council of EuropePublishing, 2003� Wilber, K. "A Theory of Everything", Gateway,2001

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As nações todas são mistérios cadaUma é todo um mundo a sós

All nations are all mysteries eachOne is a whole world alone

Fernando Pessoa

Globalisation is a major part of our dailylives. The supermarkets offer grapes fromChile, bananas from Costa Rica, kiwisfrom New Zealand, pineapples fromSenegal, litchis from China and dates fromIraq. Often, such fruits are flown in over-night and priced lower than the applesproduced by our neighbours, and they alljust taste delicious in our fruit salads. Inclothing retail shops, you may buy a skirtfrom Cambodia, with a shirt from China, ajumper made in Turkey, a leather pursefrom Tunisia, a Brazilian necklace, shoesfrom Indonesia and glasses made inEurope, and their designs, materials andcolours all perfectly fit and correspond tothe latest fashion. We communicate withsoftware made in India, screens made inSouth Korea, American chips assembledin Mexico, keyboards made in Malaysia,headphones from China, and the impec-cable service provider is a simple web-page. All of this, and much more, hasbeen integrated in our lifestyle and turnsout to be normal. Abnormal is to realisethat eating fruit that does not correspondto the local season (i.e., refrigeration andtransport) costs twice the energy spent inproducing it. That the delocalization offashion serves the higher profits of the fewwell-known brands that use the competi-tion between delocalized production unitsto lower their costs and increase their

margins. That the cheap communicationservice providers also may keep a registryof our personal and financial data, our“digital fingerprint”, and that they arebeyond the control of our national laws.

Globalisation is the planetary dimension ofinformation, corporations, products, workand services. It was made possible thanksto the amazing possibilities offered bysatellite communications and computers,but also because of the unparalleledtriumph of the market economy.

In recent years, the World TradeOrganisation reached free-trade agree-ments in key areas dealing with Tariffs andTrade, Agriculture, Textiles and Clothing,e-related aspects of InvestmentMeasures, and others (Uruguay Round).The explicit agenda was opening the mar-kets of the Industrialized World to the pro-ducts, primarily agricultural, of theDeveloping Nations. In practise, as italways happens in a deregulated society,the strongest always takes advantage.Today, it is clear that a few strong coun-tries (such as China for industry and Indiafor services) are rapidly pushing weakercountries away from the open markets.The incipient industry and traditional agri-culture of the Developing Nations may notreally have the opportunity to everbecome relevant. The richest quarter ofthe world’s population saw its per capitaGDP increase nearly six-fold during thecentury, while the poorest quarter expe-rienced less than a three-fold increase.Income inequality has increased. In parti-cular, per capita incomes in Africa havedeclined relative to the industrial countriesand in some countries have declined inabsolute terms.

G L O B A L I S A T I O N

The effects of the deregulated global societyare most felt in finance. Over 1.4 trillion euroare traded across borders each day, andabout 90 percent of the short-term currencytrades are speculative. In 1978 James Tobin, aNobel laureate economist, proposed a salestaxes on currency trades across borders at0.1 to 0.25 percent of volume. The idea of the"Tobin currency transfer tax" is to restrain themovement of capital by currency speculatorsand produce funds for development. This taxwould generate an estimate of 100 - 300billion per year, and make it possible to meeturgent global priorities, such as preventingglobal warming, disease, and poverty(www.tobintax.org).

Free trade is not necessarily synonym of fairtrade. Half of the budget of the EU - 12 billionEuros - is spent in sponsoring farmers whorepresent 4.2% of the total population. Theysupply sponsored cereals, sponsored sugar,sponsored dairy products, sponsored fruit,often in excess for our needs, and definitelykeeping the prices of European agriculturalproducts unrealistically low. Clearly, shouldthe sponsorship not exist, most of that agri-cultural activity in Europe would just disap-pear and farms would be abandoned. Fairtrade is the lemma of a number ofOrganisations (www.fairtradefederation.com,www.fairtrade.net, www.fairtraderesource.org,www.ifat.org) that aim at an equitable andsustainable global system of production andtrade.

Mobile phones and the Internet changed theway we communicate. The cost of sendingmessages or calling over the Internet is notrelated to the location or the distance. Globalinstantaneous communication is pervasive. Itassigns a new meaning to time and space.The “where are you?” replaced the “how areyou?” We experience an urge to be perma-nently on-line, with Instant Messaging rende-ring Emails obsolete. Globalizing is also “goo-glelizing” the knowledge at your fingertips.Soon, the (partial) contents of all publishedbook will be available in the Internet. Butknowledge is not wisdom, just as power andjustice are unrelated. They are separated by along travel through the deceptive sea ofethics, that few dare to sail in solo. And thechoice of partners, blind dates over theInternet, becomes crucial and difficult. Whodares to make the first step out of the digitalcocoon to enter the real world? Is it time todrop the mask and reveal the real identity?What is left of that identity?

The most dramatic changes induced byGlobalisation are taking place inside of eachone of us. The way that global informationpresents the world is shaping our minds andhearts. Tsunamis washing out thousands ofpeople with their belongings. Earthquakeserasing entire cities. Bombs exploding inschools. Live… Or death? To the point that theapplication of the death penalty next door isnot likely to make it in the tonight news.Globalisation sets a new criterion for disaster:the availability of strong and poignant images.It also gives another dimension for solidarity.Our perception of who our neighbours are ischanging.

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Globalisation is a double-edge knife. It encourages common values forhumankind and global thinking, at the risk of cultural homogenization andglobal lifestyles. It seems irresistible, like gravity. A grassroots movement,aimed at “countering the trend of Globalisation and its harmful effects, andto reform unbridled capitalism” (www.anti-marketing.com) is fighting a loo-sing battle against it. It is a disproportional fight between big-becoming-big-ger and divergent-defending-diversity. Another reaction to Globalisation isself-segregation, enforcing regional cultures and identities. “The clash ofcivilizations” by Huntington published in the journal “Foreign Affairs” in 1993,re-centred the fundamental source of conflict in this new world away fromideological or economic issues. The great divisions among humankind andthe dominating source of conflict would be cultural. Nation states remain themost powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of globalpolitics will occur between nations and groups of different civilizations.According to Huntington, the clash of civilizations will dominate global poli-tics, and the fault lines between civilizations will be the battle lines of thefuture. In the quest for Peace, should we encourage common values orshould we promote a multicultural society? Can we do both?

When the media are offering “live” all significant events, and everybody“interesting” is on-line, why visit the places and meet people personally?Why go through the humiliation of being searched like a terrorist at the air-port, make a fool of oneself in a language on the brink of extinction, eatstrange things, and be questioned? What is the added value of actuallybeing there and kiss her / shake his hand? Can we digitalize “turning placesinto people”?

Perhaps surprisingly, travelling has never been so intense. 700 million tou-rists crossed borders in 2004, an increase of nearly 50% over the last 10years. Cross-cultural exchanges accompany this trend. There is an increa-sing recognition that our preparation for the future requires that we actuallygo to places to meet and understand the people and their culture. Structuredexchanges are the most reliable method to prepare that future while respec-ting our past.

Globalisation placed Intercultural Learning on the agenda of many interna-tional Organisations. Soon it will also be assimilated by national govern-ments, as the cement of ever more diverse societies, where the State divor-ced the Nation. Our contribution is to nourish this concept with the best oflong our experience in this field.

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Try google-ing “Intercultural Learning”. Youwill find a quarter million hits, the first of thembeing the European Federation forIntercultural Learning, EFIL. Many of theGoogle hits are institutional, others are acade-mic, and quite a few are offering training orreading on the subject. Intercultural Learningbecame a large market, with demand andoffers coming from all continents. It is a part oflanguage training, a competence in diplo-macy, a key to international business efficacy,and a good political practise. It is perceived assolution to many problems of our increasinglymulticultural societies.

Try now to look for books referring to“Intercultural Learning”, using the Googlebook search engine www.books.google.com.You will find over 150 books addressing thesubject, although, just like the one above, thissearch is intrinsically restricted to the Englishlanguage. They range from handbooks, toactivity books, to essays and reports.However, perhaps what’s most striking is thatthey all were written over the last 20 years.

For specialists, there are several professionaljournals and publishers in the area ofIntercultural Learning. The journal with thehighest impact in this area is the InternationalJournal of Intercultural Relations, published byElsevier since 1977 and ranked in 44th placeamong the professional journals in Sociology,according to the Science Citation Index (SCI).Intercultural Learning, however, should not beconfused with the study of social interactions,which is the subject of Sociology. InterculturalLearning is a personal process.

Additionally, Intercultural Learning may bepresented under different names, with subtlenuances. The most common, and the closest,is “Intercultural Education”, with an additionalquarter million hits at Google’s. This is the

designation chosen by many institutions, mostnotably, the Council of Europe. In the early80’s, the Council for Cultural Co-operation ofthe Council of Europe started to lobby for animportant role of Intercultural Education in thepolitical agenda. In 2002, a decision of theSecretary General made intercultural andinterfaith dialogue one of the major axes of theCouncil of Europe’s development.

With such a vast literature on InterculturalLearning and thousands of specialists produ-cing more of it every day, it is virtually impos-sible to say anything new about it, and thisintroductory chapter may seem redundant.And yet, the foundation of the EuropeanFederation for Intercultural Learning in 1971preceded the Internet, all the books on thesubject presently retrieved by Google, thescholar articles and journals of the SCI data-base, and institutional efforts of the Council ofEurope. It would be abusive to say that EFIL “invented” the concept of intercultural learning,but it is not an overstatement that the foundersof EFIL were precursors in this area and hadthe extraordinary vision of the central role thatit was going to play in our societies.

According to EFIL, Intercultural Learning is “aprocess that moves human beings (minds,hearts and bodies) to a deeper awareness oftheir own culture (norms, behaviours, rela-tionship and visions) through a qualitativeimmersion in another culture.” The perceptionof Intercultural Learning as a process and theacknowledgment that it must be accomplishedthrough immersion in another culture sets ahigh standard to those working in this field.One of its most fundamental implications isthat a process is always evolving and there isno final result, just an “unfinished product”.Another consequence is that the method (theway it is done) is as important as the content(what is acquired).

I N T E R C U LT U R A L L E A R N I N G

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�Q: Is it possible to become an expert in

Intercultural Learning by studying the bookswritten on the subject? Is the experience ofliving in another culture enough to attain thegoals of Intercultural Learning?

The flagship of EFIL member organisation isthe 10-month AFS study abroad programme.An assessment of this programme wasrecently conducted by an external auditor,based on the experience of 1,500 partici-pants from September 2002 to July 2003 anda control group of 600 “students friends”.Intercultural immersion programme is remar-kably effective across a number of importantbenchmarks. Intercultural competence isimproved, knowledge of the host cultureincreases, intercultural anxiety decreases,cross-cultural networks expand, friendshipsincrease upon return home, and strong gainsin host language fluency result. Not surprisin-gly, the member organisation of EFIL give thefollowing definition of the benefit of such anexperience: a greater flexibility when dealingwith other people and situations, a strongconnection to and involvement with the peo-ple and way of life of the host country, a pas-sion for understanding different cultures, newrelationships that change one’s outlook inprofound ways, and the ability to understandand to express oneself in another language.

But the study also revealed a tendency forthe programme participants to be uncriticaltoward their host culture and more criticaltoward their home culture. They are expe-riencing cultural differences from a polarizingorientation in which the host culture is vie-wed as superior to their own culture. This hasa profound resonance with Lévi-Strauss whoonce observed “while often inclined to sub-

version among his own people and in revoltagainst traditional behavior, the anthropolo-gist appears respectful to the point ofconservatism as soon as he is dealing with asociety different from his own.” The paralle-lism with such an eminent anthropologist ismore than just a coincidence. It reveals thecommon traits between the participant of anintercultural learning experience and a fieldanthropologist who lived many years with theSouth American Indian tribes.

But this common pattern with the founder ofstructural anthropology is not the primaryorientation of AFS programme participants.They view cultural differences largely throughthe lens of human and value similarities andmay ignore culture differences that cannot besubsumed under the “similarity” orientation.In short, they are largely discovering how cul-tures and peoples in the world are similarrather than probing more deeply into morefundamental cultural differences in familyinteraction patterns, communication and cul-tural values. Moreover, AFS students do notexperience difficulties concerning their cultu-ral identity as they do not have confused cul-tural perspectives or alienation around theircultural identification. This secure identity isessential for a successful InterculturalLearning experience.

The Intercultural Learning process, as defi-ned by EFIL, presupposes a prolongedimmersion in a host culture. It is the outcomeexpected from a long-term stay abroad,through a successful adjustment cycle. Thisprocess is pictured in the figure below, inspi-red from the work of Grove and Torbiörn, andrequires a few concepts to be fully apprecia-ted. In our native culture we have a clearunderstanding of the cultural values and ofits manifestations.

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Hence, our mind operates with a framework that gives meaning to what we see, hear, smell,taste and feel. The “clarity of our mental frame of reference” is high. Also, we were raised to havea socially acceptable behaviour in our society. Thus, our behaviour is highly adequate to the cir-cumstances, or our “applicability of behaviour” is high. When we move to another culture, ourbehaviour suddenly becomes inadequate. This can be manifested in our difficulty to express our-selves in a foreign language, lack of understanding of how things work, rejection of dietary chan-ges, etc. Slowly, what seemed to be simple becomes awkward. The “normal” rules do not seemto apply anymore, and a state of confusion starts to dominate our mind. For a tourist, it is pro-bably time to return home and tell friends how exciting the trip was. For a prolonged immersionin a host culture the time comes when we feel that our behaviour is not adequate and our mindis troubled. It is a time of personal crisis, or “culture shock”. There are hundreds of little concretethings that justify our feeling miserable, and it seems that nobody understands that. A secureidentity is very important to overcome such a crisis. Writing a diary, or any other type of intros-pection, may help to re-organise the mental structure. Appropriate counselling will certainlyassist in finding the right track. Trial-and-error, as a last resource, will also bring the behaviour toan acceptable level. And, with time, the clarity of the mind will also improve, as we finally startto understand how things work and reach a level of competence comparable to the one we hadin our own culture. The “culture shock” triggered the process of intercultural learning.

�Q: Can we have intercultural learning without going through a “cultural shock”? Does the “cul-

tural shock” always lead to intercultural learning? Can we learn about the others without exposingourselves? What is the role of training for Intercultural Learning? Can it reduce the severity andshorten the duration of culture fatigue, or “cultural shock?”

Intercultural learning is not a trademark, it is not copyrighted and it is not the property of anyone.Many, other than AFS organisations, have contributed to the field. Amongst those that haveadopted the same strategy for promoting intercultural learning, it is fair to mention TheExperiment for International Living, founded in 1932 and that introduced the concept of homes-tay. Today it runs one to four week stays with host families. Another early player in family livingexperience was Youth for Understanding, which started in 1951 with student exchanges bet-ween Germany and the US.

Many other non-governmental organisations, corporations, international and state agencieshave been training people to stay abroad and accompany them during their stay, using methodscomparable to those used by specialised NGOs such as AFS. However, we can

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often see a fundamental difference between their work and that of EFIL member orga-nisations: RECIPROCITY.

Intercultural learning is a personal enrichment and it only becomes socially valuablewhen it is associated with reciprocity. All the work in this area is based on the postu-late that all cultures have an equal value. This core value is likely to take us to cultu-ral immobilism if reciprocity is not engaged. We accept to learn from each other,because each one of us has something to give and something to receive. And puttingall peoples on an equal footing, the same opportunities to give and receive are offe-red to everyone. In simpler terms: the community that hosts must also have the oppor-tunity to send some of its members abroad.

This is point where the AFS programme participant and the anthropologist differ. Theanthropologist studies culture and humanity, usually with the utmost respect and theleast interference. However, the AFS participant comes back to change his commu-nity, which, due to reciprocity, is also a host community. Another AFS student thusgoes back to change another community, that is his own. This is a unique process tostimulate social change where the respect for the equal value of all cultures does notlead to the preservation of cultures as they are today, that is, to cultural immobilism.

Intercultural learning and reciprocity are not passive. They are used to promote tole-rance, respect for diversity, solidarity, peace."The discovery of others is the discovery of a relationship, not of a barrier".(Claude Lévi-Strauss)

�Q: Is Intercultural Learning creating new cultural identities, or one universal cul-

tural identity? Is this a viable method to change our societies? Can we find a methodas efficient as the “culture shock” to trigger Intercultural Learning for a vast audience(millions of people) and promote its values at a larger scale?

References

Visit the EFIL site athttp://efil.afs.org

In the AFS sitehttp://www.afs.org/AFSI/see the “Benefits of Intercultural Study”and, in particular, the “Assessment ofthe Impact of the AFS Study AbroadExperience”

In the council of Europe sitehttp://www.coe.intvisit the page on “Intercultural dialogueto overcome conflict”http://www.coe.int/T/E/Com/Files/T

hemes/dialogue-interculturel/C. Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques,1973.

Grove, C. L. & I. Torbiorn. (1985) "Newconceptualization of interculturaladjustment and the goal of training,"International Journal of InterculturalRelations 9 (2):205-233.

For another perspective have a lookate the T-Kit on Intercultural Learningproduced by The Council of Europeand European Commission athttp://www.youth-knowledge.net/INTEGRATION/TY/Publications/

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T h e b u i l d i n g o f E u r o p e

“La construction européene, comme toutesles révolutions pacifiques, a besoin de temps– le temps de convaincre, le temps d’adapterles esprits et d’ajuster les choses a des gran-des transformations” – Jean Monnet

The political unity of Europe is an old aspira-tion, but it was only about 60 years ago thatthis idea started to emerge out of the consen-sus that the devastation caused by World WarII should never happen again.

However, in Europe’s foundation there isn’teven a shadow of epic heroism. Contrary toNation-States, Europe cannot ornament themain arteries of its imaginary capital withmonuments to our warriors and thinkers. AsEuropeans, we lack the persistent figure of theexternal enemy, who with its warfare and des-ire of domination would create in us a seed ofunion and common resistance. In fact, wehave always been the most ferocious enemiesof ourselves.

Even though there might not be heroism in theEuropean aura, there certainly is greatness.The nature of the European project requirespatience and persistence and it that mustn’tjust be the political leaders and the adminis-trative elites of each European State thatdetermine the routes and the building stagesof the European path.

The people (the individuals) must act as well,more and more, because the future of Europeis inseparable from the appropriation of theidea that Europe belongs to each of usEuropeans, whether or not we belong to theEuropean Union, and democratic public deba-tes should be promoted.

Jean Monnet, one of the founding fathers ofthe European Union, very clearly emphasisedthe role of time in the building of Europe. Time

is needed to listen and adapt to each other, tobuild trust, to make projects involving all of us,to fulfil our collective memory with the thingsthat we achieved together.

A brief History of the European Union

In 1950, in a speech inspired by Jean Monnet,the French Foreign Minister Robert Schumanproposed integrating the coal and steel indus-tries of Western Europe. As a result, in 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC) was set up, with six members:Belgium, West Germany, Luxembourg, France,Italy and the Netherlands. The power to takedecisions about the coal and steel industry inthese countries was placed in the hands of anindependent, supranational body called the"High Authority". Jean Monnet was its firstPresident.

The ECSC was such a success that, within afew years, these same six countries decided togo further and integrate other sectors of theireconomies. In 1957 they signed the Treaties ofRome, creating the European Atomic EnergyCommunity (EURATOM) and the EuropeanEconomic Community (EEC). The memberstates set about removing trade barriers bet-ween them and forming a "common market".

In 1967 the institutions of the three Europeancommunities were merged. From this point on,there was a single Commission and a singleCouncil of Ministers as well as the EuropeanParliament.

Originally, the members of the EuropeanParliament were chosen by the national parlia-ments but in 1979 the first direct electionswere held, allowing the citizens of the memberstates to vote for the candidate of their choice.Since then, direct elections have been heldevery five years.

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The Treaty of Maastricht (1992) introducednew forms of co-operation between the mem-ber state governments - for example ondefence, and in the area of "justice and homeaffairs". By adding this inter-governmental co-operation to the existing "Community" sys-tem, the Maastricht Treaty created theEuropean Union (EU).

In 1992 the EU decided to go for economicand monetary union (EMU), involving the intro-duction of a single European currency mana-ged by a European Central Bank. The singlecurrency - the euro - became a reality on 1January 2002, when euro notes and coinsreplaced national currencies in twelve of the15 countries of the European Union (Belgium,Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy,Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria,Portugal and Finland).

The EU has grown in size with successivewaves of accessions. Denmark, Ireland andthe United Kingdom joined in 1973 followedby Greece in 1981, Spain and Portugal in 1986and Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1995. TheEuropean Union welcomed ten new countriesin 2004: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia,Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Bulgaria andRomania expect to follow in 2007; Croatia andTurkey began membership negotiations in2005.

In 2007, with the two new countries joining theEU, its population will attain 500 million peo-ple. Only China and India have a larger popu-lation. However, its gross domestic product(GDP) is the largest in the world, just slightlylarger than that of the US and ten times largerthan that of China.

The greatest challenge of the EU is its gover-nance. Its extraordinary growth and diversifi-cation require a more streamlined system fortaking decisions, a balance between its mem-bers, and a method to render its leadersaccountable to the people.

The Structure of the European UnionThe European Union is composed of three"pillars":� The European Community is the legal fra-mework for Community policies relating to thesingle market, international trade, develop-ment assistance, monetary policy, agriculture,fisheries, environment, regional development,energy, etc;� The Common Foreign and Security Policy(CFSP);� The Justice and Home Affairs, coveringcooperation within the Union in areas such ascivil and criminal law, immigration and asylumpolicy, border control, drug trafficking, policecooperation and exchange of information.

The major overriding internal objective of theEuropean Union is to promote economic andsocial progress, notably through the creationof a border-free area, through the promotionof economic and social cohesion, and throughthe establishment of economic and monetaryunion, including a single currency. Externally,the main overall objective of the Union is toassert its identity on the international scene, inparticular through a Common Foreign andSecurity Policy, including the development ofa common defence policy. The central basicprinciples governing the Union are respect fornational identities, democracy and fundamen-tal human rights.

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As for the single institutional framework of the Union, the main EUinstitutions are as follows:

The European Parliament is directly elected bythe 370 million citizens of the European Union.Its role is to pass legislation and to subject toscrutiny and control the use of executive powerby the institutions of the European Union. The most important powers of the EuropeanParliament fall into three categories: firstly, legis-lative power, where the Parliament's influencehas been extended to amending and adoptinglegislation proposed by the Commission.Secondly, power over the budget, where theEuropean Parliament approves the Union's bud-get each year. Thirdly, supervision of the execu-tive branch of the Union, through its power ofappointment of the President and members ofthe Commission. The European Parliament mayquestion individual Commissioners and ultima-tely has the power to dismiss the Commissionitself. Individually, or as a group, European citi-zens have the right to petition the Parliament. AnOmbudsman is responsible for investigatingallegations of maladministration brought by citi-zens.

The Council of the European Union, known asthe Council of Ministers, which acts on propo-sals from the Commission and is the Union's pri-mary decision-making body. The Council's roleis to define political objectives, coordinate natio-nal policies and resolve differences between itsmembers or with other institutions. TheCouncil's competence extends across all threepillars of the Union. It is composed of ministersof the governments of the Member States.Ministerial meetings are prepared by thePermanent Representatives of the MemberStates.

The Commission, which is responsible for safe-guarding the EU Treaties and for initiating andproposing community legislation and policy, aswell as overseeing the implementation of suchlegislation. In addition, the Commission acts asthe guardian of European Community law andcan refer cases to the European Union's Court

of Justice. The Commission is in effect themanager and executive authority of EuropeanUnion policies and international trade relations.It is the Union's executive body and consists of20 Commissioners nominated by the MemberStates and appointed for a period of five years.

The Court of Justice, which is the final arbiter onCommunity law. Its judges (one from eachMember State, one of whom is appointedPresident) settle disputes over the interpretationand application of Community law and have thepower to overturn decisions deemed to becontrary to the Treaties establishing theCommunity. Its judgements are binding on theCommission, on national governments, and onfirms and individuals. It thus provides the judicialsafeguards necessary to ensure that the law isobserved in the interpretation and implementa-tion of the Treaties and in EU activities as awhole.

The Court of Auditors completes the list of themain institutions of the European Union. Its jobis to oversee the financial aspects of theCommunity, to ensure that money is not miss-pent and to highlight cases of fraud. The Courtthus represents the interests of the taxpayer

The European Investment Bank is theEuropean's Union's financing institution, whichprovides loans for capital investment promotingthe Union's economic development.

The Economic and Social Committee advisesthe Parliament, Council and Commission oneconomic and social activity in the Union, eitheron its own initiative or at the request of the ins-titutions.

The Committee of the Regions was created toprotect regional and local identities in theregions of the European Union and to ensurethat they are taken into account in the manner inwhich EU policies are implemented

The European Ombudsman represents themechanism that enables victims of any improperadministration by EU institutions to haverecourse to appeal.

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A brief History of the Council ofEurope

In 1946, Winston Churchill was the first topropose some a kind of a “United States ofEurope". Movements of various persua-sions, but all dedicated to European unity,were springing up everywhere at the time.All these organisations were to combine toform the International Committee of theMovements for European Unity. Its first actwas to organise the Hague Congress, on 7May 1948, remembered as "The Congressof Europe".

More than a thousand delegates fromsome twenty countries, together with alarge number of observers, among thempolitical and religious figures, academics,writers and journalists, attended theCongress. A series of resolutions wasadopted at the end of the Congress, cal-ling, amongst other things, for the creationof an economic and political union to gua-rantee security, economic independenceand social progress, the establishment of aconsultative assembly elected by nationalparliaments, the drafting of a Europeancharter of human rights and the setting upof a court to enforce its decisions.

Two months after the Congress of Europe,the French Minister for Foreign Affairs,issued an invitation to his Brussels Treatypartners, the United Kingdom and theBenelux countries, and to all those whowished to give substance to The Hagueproposals. France, supported by Belgium,called for the creation of a EuropeanAssembly, with wide-ranging powers,composed of members of parliament fromthe various states and deciding by a majo-rity vote. This plan, assigning a fundamen-tal role to the Assembly seemed quiterevolutionary in an international orderhitherto the exclusive preserve of govern-ments. But Great Britain, which favoured a

form of intergovernmental co-operation inwhich the Assembly would have a purelyconsultative function, rejected thisapproach. Finally, on 27 and 28 January1949 the five ministers for foreign affairs ofthe Brussels Treaty countries, meeting inthe Belgian capital, reached a compro-mise: a Council of Europe consisting of aministerial committee, to meet in private;and a consultative body, to meet in public.The Assembly was purely consultative innature, with decision-making powers ves-ted in the Committee of Ministers. From1951 onwards, parliaments alone were tochoose their representatives to theAssembly.

On 5 May 1949, in London, the treatyconstituting the Statute of the Council ofEurope was signed by ten countries:Belgium, France, Luxembourg, theNetherlands and the United Kingdom,accompanied by Ireland, Italy, Denmark,Norway and Sweden. The Council ofEurope was now able to start work. Its firstsessions were held in Strasbourg, whichwas to become its permanent seat. In theinitial flush of enthusiasm, the first majorconvention was drawn up: the EuropeanConvention on Human Rights, signed inRome on 4 November 1950 and cominginto force on 3 September 1953.

In the years between 1949 and 1970, eightnew countries joined the founder mem-bers: in order of accession Greece,Iceland, Turkey, Germany, Austria, Cyprus,Switzerland and Malta. In this period, theorganisation gradually developed its struc-ture and its major institutions. Thus, thefirst public hearing of the European Courtof Human Rights took place in 1960. On 18October 1961, the European SocialCharter was signed in Rome: a text whichthe Council sees as the counterpart of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights inthe social domain.

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The Council of Europe's first major politicalcrisis came in 1967 when the Greek colonelsoverthrew the legally elected government andinstalled an authoritarian regime which openlycontravened the democratic principles defen-ded by the organisation. On 12 December1969, just a few hours before a decision wouldhave been taken to exclude Greece, the colo-nels' regime anticipated matters by denoun-cing the European Convention on HumanRights and withdrawing from the Council ofEurope. A new crisis arose in 1981 when theParliamentary Assembly withdrew the Turkishparliamentary delegation's right to their seatsin response to the military coup d'état a fewweeks earlier. The Turkish delegation onlyresumed its place in 1984 after the holding offree elections.

Greece's return in 1975 marked the disappea-rance of the last authoritarian regime in wes-tern Europe. Portugal made its Council ofEurope debut on 22 September 1976, twoyears after its peaceful revolution of April1974, while the death of General Franco in1975 eventually led to Spain's accession on24 November 1977.

Liechtenstein's accession on 23 November1978, San Marino's on 16 November 1988and Finland's on 5 May 1989 more or lesscompleted the absorption of west Europeanstates while the Council of Europe wasalready laying the foundations for a rappro-chement with the countries of central and eas-tern Europe.

In 1989, the Council of Europe started to openits gates very carefully to East European coun-tries. The arrival of the Russian Federation inFebruary 1996 meant that the institution hadfinally become fully pan-European.Henceforth, more than 700 million citizenswould be concerned in building the newEurope. The Council's activities are nowhaving to adapt to an environment that is notonly wider and more diverse but also morecomplex and less stable.

The structure of the Council ofEurope

The Council of Europe has three main bodies:

The Committee of Ministers is the Council ofEurope's decision-making body. It comprisesthe foreign affairs ministers of all the memberstates, or their permanent diplomatic repre-sentatives in Strasbourg. The Council ofEurope describes the Committee of Ministersas "both a governmental body, where nationalapproaches to problems facing Europeansociety can be discussed on an equal footing,and a collective forum, where Europe-wideresponses to such challenges are formula-ted”.The Parliamentary Assembly is made up of626 members, elected by their national parlia-ments and based on the country's populationsize. One of the members is then elected toserve as Assembly President. The work of theParliamentary Assembly is carried out by spe-cialized committees, which address suchissues as human rights, social, health andfamily affairs, economic affairs and develop-ment and equal opportunities for men andwomen. The Assembly meets quarterly inStrasbourg, France, in sessions in whichEuropean and world events that requireCouncil of Europe action are discussed,

The Congress of Local and RegionalAuthorities is a political assembly composed ofrepresentatives holding an electoral mandateas members of a local or regional authorityappointed each by a specific procedure. Its315 members, representing over 200 000European municipalities and regions, are grou-ped by national delegation and by politicalgroup.Thus the Congress offers an ideal forumfor dialogue where representatives of local andregional authorities discuss common pro-blems, compare notes about their experiencesand then put their points of view to the nationalgovernments

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Additionally, the Council of Europe adoptedthe Convention for the Protection of HumanRights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1953,and, in 1959, entrusted the European Courtof Human Rights with the enforcement ofthe obligations of the member states. Thiscourt is composed of a number of judgesequal to that of the Contracting States (cur-rently forty-five). There is no restriction onthe number of judges of the same nationa-lity. Judges are elected by theParliamentary Assembly of the Council ofEurope for a term of six years. The terms ofoffice of one half of the judges elected atthe first election expired after three years,so as to ensure that the terms of office ofone half of the judges are renewed everythree years

Finally, in 1999, the Council of Europe crea-ted the office of the Commissioner forHuman Rights. The Commissioner is elec-ted by the Parliamentary Assembly and hasthree main functions: (1) to promote educa-tion in and awareness of human rights inEurope; (2) to identify "shortcomings in thelaw and practice of member States withregard to compliance with human rights";and (3) to help promote the "observanceand full enjoyment of human rights, asembodied in the various Council of Europeinstruments."

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C I T I Z E N S H I P I N E U R O P E

In the relationship between the individual and society, Ruud Veldhuis distinguishes fourdimensions, which correlate with the four subsystems that one may recognize in our societyand which are essential for its existence. Briefly, these four dimensions are presented in thefollowing table.

These four dimensions of citizenship are attained via a socialisation process which take placein an organised way at school, in families, civic organisations, political parties, and in a lessorganised way via associations, mass media, the neighbourhood and peer groups.

�Q: How can citizenship, and especially European citizenship, be taught?

Values and attitudes are formed through long exposures to stimulating environments. Theyare difficult to acquire by training. Education for citizenship should cover knowledge, skills(social, intellectual, technological), attitudes (respect for cultural and political diversity, res-pect for rational argument, interest in community affairs) and values (justice, democracy, ruleof law) and stimulate participation.

It is easiest to list the cognitive aspects that should be part of a curriculum for citizenship edu-cation.

The political/legal dimension of Citizenship should include:� The concept of democracy and concepts of democratic citizenship;� Political structures and decision-making processes on a national and international/European level, voting systems, political parties, pressure groups;� Political participation and forms of participation (demonstration, writing letters to the press,etc.);

Political/legal dimensionPolitical citizenship refers to political rightsand duties vis à vis the political system

Cultural dimensionCultural citizenship refers to conscious-ness of a common cultural heritage

Social dimensionSocial citizenship refers to the relationsbetween individuals in a society, anddemands loyalty and solidarity

Economic dimensionEconomic citizenship refers to the relationof an individual towards the labour- andconsumer market and implies right towork and to a minimum subsistence levelv

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� The history and basis of civil society, democratic values, human rights in Europe, etc.;� Consciousness of current political issues including European integration and internationalpolitics;� International relations, international organisations and legislation;� The role of the media;� The judicial system;� The state budget.

The cultural dimension of Citizenship should include:� Intercultural experience/ experience of different cultures;� The national cultural heritage and the common European cultural heritage;� The predominance of certain norms and values;� National history;� Critique of racism and discrimination;� The preservation of the environment;� The role of information technology and the mass media;

The social dimension of Citizenship should include:� Structures of social security, welfare, literacy, health on a global level;� Sustainable social models;� Critique of social isolation and social exclusion;� Reinforcing human rights;� Bringing together different groups of society (i.e. national minorities and ethnic groups);� Gender issues;� Information and communication technological society;� National and international security.

The economic dimension of Citizenship should include� Structures of the European labour market;� Aspects of the market economy;� The challenges of European and global economic cooperation;� Improving vocational qualifications;� Integrating minority groups into the economic process;� Meeting the challenges of Globalisation with innovative methods and strategies;� Aspects of employment/unemployment;� Principles of labour legislation;� Mechanisms of the European single market;� Ecological aspects of the global economy;� Social consequences of changes in world economy;� Consumer rights.

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� Q: Is there other important rational issues

that should be associated with citizenship edu-cation? Will the cognitive contents be sufficientto improve our European citizenship? Whatcan be the role of the civic movements in pro-moting this curriculum at the European level?

There are essentially two umbrella institutionsconcerned with citizenship in Europe: theEuropean Union and the Council of Europe.

The Citizenship of the European Union was for-mally established by the Treaty on EuropeanUnion (the Maastricht Treaty), which entered intoforce in 1993. According to Article 8 of thistreaty (now article 17 of the consolidated Treatyof Rome): “Citizenship of the Union is herebyestablished. Every person holding the nationa-lity of a Member State shall be a citizen of theUnion. Citizenship of the Union shall comple-ment and not replace national citizenship.”Articles 18-22 then go on to set out the rightsassociated with EU citizenship:� The right to travel and reside anywhere in theEU;� The right to vote and to stand for election inmunicipal and European elections in the mem-ber state of residence, regardless of nationality;� The right to consular protection by the consu-late of another member state while outside theEU;� The right to petition the European Parliamentand to seek the intervention of the EuropeanOmbudsman.

The same rights are enshrined in Article 8 of theDraft Treaty Establishing a Constitution forEurope (CONV 850/03), but this draft has not yetbeen ratified by some of the Members of theEuropean Union.

It is recognised within the institutions of theEuropean Union that the legal definition of citi-zenship, while establishing an important princi-ple that may develop further, is currently of limi-ted practical significance to most European citi-zens. With this in mind, EU policy makers arekeen to see the development of a more wides-pread sense of European citizenship and of citi-zenship practices with a European dimension. In1998, for example, the Directorate-General for

Education and Culture published Education andActive Citizenship in the European Union, whichargued that, in contrast to legalistic definitions,a more holistic conception of citizenship is moreappropriate to modern European society, whichcan incorporate legal, political and social ele-ments as well as working critically with a foun-dation of diverse and overlapping values andidentities. Thus, in time, a more holistic concep-tion of citizenship, that incorporate questions ofattachment, identity and participation, is likely toprevail over the quite narrow legal definition ofEU citizenship contained in the Treaties and theDraft Constitution.

In principle, citizenship of Europe might alsorefer to a Europe wider than the EU. With 44member states, the Council of Europe is muchlarger than the EU. While it does not itselfunderwrite a legal concept of European citizens-hip, its aims bear directly on the question of citi-zenship in the more holistic sense of the term.Indeed, the Council of Europe is an intergovern-mental organisation, which aims:� to protect human rights, pluralist democracyand the rule of law;� to promote awareness and encourage thedevelopment of Europe's cultural identity anddiversity;� to seek solutions to problems facingEuropean society (discrimination against minori-ties, xenophobia, intolerance, environmentalprotection, human cloning, Aids, drugs, organi-sed crime, etc.);� to help consolidate democratic stability inEurope by backing political, legislative andconstitutional reform.

The Council of Europe is also responsible for asubstantial amount of training, research andpublishing on the issue of European citizenship.Moreover, it is the progenitor and guardian ofthe European Convention on Human Rights(ECHR). While human rights and citizenshiprights are not the same (human rights apply toall human beings, while citizenship rights applyonly to citizens) their contents overlap. If citi-zenship is becoming more transnational, and itis widely argued that there are clear develop-ments in that direction, then the practical dis-tinction between human rights and citizenshiprights may become less clear.

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�Q: Should the European Union go further in its concept of European

Citizenship than the expression of the rights recognized by the Treaty ofRome? Should the holistic view of the Council of Europe be adapted toa legal framework for citizenship of the European Union?

References

"Education for Democratic Citizenship: dimensions of citizenship, corecompetences, variables and international activities" - Seminar on BasicConcepts and Core Competences, Strasbourg, 11-12 December, 1997Ruud Veldhuis, Instituut voor Publiek en Politiek, Amsterdam.

“Learning for active citizenship”, European Unionhttp://europa.eu.int/comm/education/archive/citizen/citiz_en.html

The T-Kit on European Citizenshipw w w . t r a i n i n g - y o u t h . n e t / I N T E G R A T I O N /TY/Publications/tkits/tkit7/4_contemporary.pdf - 6 Dez 2005

European Unionhttp://europa.eu.int/

Council of Europehttp://www.coe.int/

Ruud Veldhuis (b 1944), Graduated as a political scientist, specialisedin international relations, sociology, history and mass psychology. Beenas a teacher of history and social studies in secondary schools. From1981 until 1994 worked as lecturer and deputy-director at the StichtingBurgerschapskunde (The Citizenship Foundation) in Leiden. Since 1994he has managed the European projects of the Instituut voor Publiek enPolitiek, the Dutch Centre for Civic Education, in Amsterdam. At pre-sent his activities concentrate on ‘European citizenship’, the promotionof citizen participation in the European integration process, and civicand political education projects which support institutions in countriesevolving towards democracy. One of the co-ordinators of POLITEIA,Network for Citizenship and Democracy in Europe.

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“The European Union is founded on the valuesof respect for human dignity, freedom, demo-cracy, equality, the rule of law and respect forhuman rights, including the rights of personsbelonging to minorities. These values are com-mon to the Member States in a society inwhich pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance,justice, solidarity and equality between womenand men prevail” (Article I-2 of the draft of theEuropean Constitution).

This is the source of the concept of EuropeanCitizenship, and is written down in the Treatiesthat constitute the European Union and theCommunities: because one of the goals of theUnion is “to strengthen the protection of therights and interests of the nationals of itsMember States through the introduction of acitizenship of the Union.” (Paragraph 3 ofArticle 2 of The Treaty of the European Union).

The European Union is, in fact, a “new stage inthe process of creating an ever closer unionamong the peoples of Europe, in which deci-sions are taken as openly as possible and asclosely as possible to the citizen” (Article 1 ofthe Treaty of the European Union).

Etymologically, citizen is someone who is amember of a “city”, the civitas. As such, a citi-zen is someone who has the correspondingcivil and political rights.

The various Treaties of the European Unionhave always contained rules to promoteEuropean citizenship, namely the right to voteand to be elected at local levels for all citizensof the Union in every Member State.

The Treaty of Nice – the version in force of theEuropean Treaty – dedicates its Part II to theCitizenship of the Union, as does the draft ofthe European Constitution of 2004, showingthat more than a Europe of Homelands, wehave to build a Europe of Citizens, in the sense

that the European construction is for every citi-zen and with every citizen. It involves the ideaof proximity between the European Institutionsand a stronger participation in European mat-ters.

Every person who is a national of a MemberState is a citizen of the European Union, whichmeans that the nationals of a member stateautomatically enjoy European citizenship. So,European citizens enjoy the rights and aresubject to the duties determined in theEuropean Treaties, which involve:

1. the right to move freely and reside in the terri-tory of Member States;2. the right to vote and to be elected in the elec-tions for the European Parliament, as well as themunicipal elections in the Member State of resi-dence, in the same conditions as the nationals ofthat State;3. the right to benefit from protection of a MemberState where the State of nationality doesn’t haverepresentation;4. the right to protection from the diplomatic andconsular authorities of each Member State in thesame conditions as the nationals of that State;5. the right to petition the Parliament, to approachthe Ombudsman and the Institutions of the Unionin one of its languages and to receive an answer inthat same language;

E U R O P E A N C I T I Z E N S H I P A N D T H E E U R O P E A NT R E AT I E S I N F O R C E

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TREATY OF NICE PART TWO

CITIZENSHIP OF THE UNION

Article 171. Citizenship of the Union is hereby establi-shed. Every person holding the nationality ofa Member State shall be a citizen of theUnion. Citizenship of the Union shall comple-ment and not replace national citizenship.2. Citizens of the Union shall enjoy the rightsconferred by this Treaty and shall be subjectto the duties imposed thereby.

When the Nice Legislators say that “theCitizenship of the Union shall complementand not replace national Citizenship”, theywant us to understand that above all eachindividual has their own nationality, we arecitizens of one determined country, usuallythe one where we are born and to this citi-zenship we are adding a second one that isparallel to it, not a substitute of our nationaland natural citizenship.

This is because “the Union shall respect thenational identities of its Member States”, assaid in Article 6, paragraph 1 of the Treaty ofthe European Union. The goal is not toreplace our individuality, but to create asense of togetherness – for examplesomeone Portuguese is at the same timeEuropean, someone Italian is at the sametime European. In the end, no matter wherein Europe we are from, we are all Europeans.

This is a clear manifestation of the principleof subsidiarity present in Article 5 of theTreaty of Nice that says that the Communitycan interfere in national affairs “only if theobjectives of the proposed action cannot besufficiently achieved by the Member Statesand can therefore be better achieved by theCommunity”. That is to say that the Europeancitizenship doesn’t interfere with the nationalcitizenship unless the national citizenshipisn’t sufficient to insure a citizen’s needs. Andeven then, our European citizenship only actscomplimentarily, it doesn’t substitute nationalcitizenship and powers.

TREATY OF NICEArticle 18

1. Every citizen of the Union shall have theright to move and reside freely within the ter-ritory of the Member States, subject to thelimitations and conditions laid down in thisTreaty and by the measures adopted to giveit effect.2. If action by the Community should provenecessary to attain this objective and thisTreaty has not provided the necessarypowers, the Council may adopt provisionswith a view to facilitating the exercise of therights referred to in paragraph 1. The Councilshall act in accordance with the procedurereferred to in Article 251.3. Paragraph 2 shall not apply to provisionson passports, identity cards, residence per-mits or any other such document or to provi-sions on social security or social protection.

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Article 18 grants the rights to reside andmove freely in Member States, whichmeans that any national of a Member Stateis allowed to go wherever they want, whe-never they want, and to stay there for aslong as they deem convenient, in the termsdecided on by each State, again to pro-mote togetherness.

The European Parliament has a muchmore active intervention in the proceduredestined to facilitate the exercise of therights to move and reside freely in the terri-tory of Member States, because instead ofemitting just a favourable or unfavourableopinion of the Council’s proposal, theParliament can suggest corrections, pro-pose amendments, approve common posi-tions or reject them.

So, the decisions are made with a moreactive intervention of the representativeselected by the citizens of the EuropeanUnion representing a bigger control overwhat is decided by the members ofParliament and a greater democratic legiti-macy.

However, paragraph 3 of Article 18 doesnot permit the Union to interfere in eachState’s rulings on how they issue pass-ports, identity cards, residence permits orany other such documents, or even on pro-visions on social security or social protec-tion in their countries. Once again, theUnion establishes a limit that demonstratesthat first comes national individuality, andthen a complementary subsidiary “com-mon” citizenship.

TREATY OF NICEArticle 19

1. Every citizen of the Union residing in aMember State of which he is not a nationalshall have the right to vote and to stand as

a candidate at municipal elections in theMember State in which he resides, underthe same conditions as nationals of thatState. This right shall be exercised subjectto detailed arrangements adopted by theCouncil, acting unanimously on a proposalfrom the Commission and after consultingthe European Parliament; these arrange-ments may provide for derogations wherewarranted by problems specific to aMember State.2. Without prejudice to Article 190(4) and tothe provisions adopted for its implementa-tion, every citizen of the Union residing in aMember State of which he is not a nationalshall have the right to vote and to stand asa candidate in elections to the EuropeanParliament in the Member State in whichhe resides, under the same conditions asnationals of that State. This right shall beexercised subject to detailed arrangementsadopted by the Council, acting unani-mously on a proposal from the Commissionand after consulting the EuropeanParliament; these arrangements may pro-vide for derogations where warranted byproblems specific to a Member State.

This article clearly states that Europeancitizens, regardless of the Member Statethey are residing in, always have the rightto be elected for the municipal bodies ofthat country – the local, closest administra-tive body to a citizen – and for theEuropean institutions, exactly under thesame conditions as a national of that State.

It emphasizes not only an active participa-tion on behalf of the European citizens,making them aware that they can play apart in the political life of their own coun-tries and their institution, but also that thisopportunity is open to every European citi-zen, even if they are not living in their natu-ral countries.

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TREATY OF NICEArticle 20

Every citizen of the Union shall, in the territory of athird country in which the Member State of whichhe is a national is not represented, be entitled toprotection by the diplomatic or consular authori-ties of any Member State, on the same conditionsas the nationals of that State. Member States shallestablish the necessary rules among themselvesand start the international negotiations required tosecure this protection.

As citizens of the Union, regardless of the MemberState of nationality, we are granted protection andhelp from the diplomatic or consular authorities ofevery Member State wherever we are in the World.

This is a great benefit of the European Citizenship.It means that no matter where we are from, we willnever be “alone” if we need any kind of help,especially when we cannot reach someone fromour national countries. It demonstrates the princi-ple of equality, and the principle of subsidiarityexplained above: if the State of nationality is notable to protect its citizens, the European Union,through European citizenship allows and providesthat all Member States will be there for anotherEuropean in case of need.

TREATY OF NICE Article 21Every citizen of the Union shall have the right topetition the European Parliament in accordancewith Article 194. Every citizen of the Union mayapply to the Ombudsman established in accordance with Article 195.Every citizen of theUnion may write to any of the institutions or bodiesreferred to in this Article or in Article 7 in one of thelanguages mentioned in Article 314 and have ananswer in the same language.

Article 21 determines the right of any citizen topetition almost all of the European Institutions, intheir own national languages, and to receive ananswer in that same language. The European Ombudsman investigates com-plaints about administrative failures of the institu-tions and bodies of the European Community. Thisoccurs when a public body fails to act in accor-dance with a binding rule or principlen.

The Ombudsman has been active in ensuring thatthe treaties are taken seriously by the institutionsthat proclaimed them, constantly reminding themof the promises they made to European citizensand applying pressure so that the institutionsprove in practice that they respect the treaties intheir daily work.

It is a big step towards the genuine participation ofthe citizens in European life, and the assurancethat there will be someone making sure that thepeoples’ desires and complaints are listened to,answered and if necessary righted.

TREATY OF NICE Article 22The Commission shall report to the EuropeanParliament, to the Council and to the Economicand Social Committee every three years on theapplication of the provisions of this part. Thisreport shall take account of the development ofthe Union.On this basis, and without prejudice to the otherprovisions of this Treaty, the Council, acting unani-mously on a proposal from the Commission andafter consulting the European Parliament, mayadopt provisions to strengthen or to add to therights laid down in this part, which it shall recom-mend to the Member States for adoption in accor-dance with their respective constitutional require-ments.

As citizenship in the Union is in constant growthand development, every three years theCommission must produce a report on how theMember States are applying the concept ofEuropean Citizenship. Based on the results of thereport, adequate provisions are taken to streng-then the existing rights or to create new rightsdeemed necessary that the Member States shouldadopt according to their national laws.

As demonstrated in the Articles of the Treaty ofNice above, European citizenship, as the Unionitself, is based on the national sovereignty of eachMember State who in turn decided to shareEuropean sovereignty, and is designed to makeevery individual the European project and anactive participant in it.

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The European Union has diversity as an“angular stone”, defining itself as a Union ofStates and Peoples. In a Union of States andPeoples it is essential to make the Europeancitizen aware that the Community’s powers,specially the legislative power, have to resultin the convergence of the two legitimacies –that of the States and that of the citizens.Therefore the citizens must be adequatelyrepresented, so that their legitimacies are, infact, relevant in European life.

The text reproduced above corresponds tothe version in force of the Treaties of theEuropean Union, that is to say, the legislationin force to which the States and the citizensare bound and must obey. Law is as mutableas are the realities of the community is regula-tes, so it is only natural that the concept ofEuropean citizenship acquires even moreimportance in the future, and evolves tomatch our necessities as Europeans.

The evolution of the Union based on theseideas has already led to the creation, in 2004,of a draft for a European Constitution. Treatiesof this sort need to be approved by the citi-zens themselves, via referendum or via theirelected representatives in order to be imple-mented within the Union. This is another wayto make each European citizen responsible forthe supranational decisions that affect them.

Although the draft for the EuropeanConstitution was not yet approved and willprobably need some remodelling before it is,the fact is that the Treaties will evolve in orderfor the structure of the Union to reflect thecomplementary relations between the Statesand the citizens.

When it comes to European Citizenship, the2004 Constitutional Legislators decided toemphasize it as much as before, so there wereno substantial alterations to the regime. Themain point of relevance was the recognition,as general principle of the Union’s law of thefundamental rights as guaranteed by theEuropean Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedomsand as they result from the constitutional tra-ditions common to the Member States.

In conclusion, there is a constant Europeantradition of “cultural, religious and humanistheritages, from which the universal values thatconstitute the inviolable rights of the humanperson, as well as democracy, equality, free-dom and rule of law evolved” (Preamble of thedraft European Constitution), and it seemsthat the peoples of Europe “proud of theiridentity and their national history” are ready to“surpass their ancient divisions, and, united inan even stronger bond, to forge their commondestiny” (Preamble of the draft EuropeanConstitution).

Therefore, more than ever, Europe needs tomeet and feed the qualities of persistence,resilience, participation and flexibility thatmade and still make the spirit of the Europeanconstruction. A spirit ever more inseparablefrom the strengthening and of the exercise ofcitizenship at a scale of the States– each andevery one of us individuals – and at the scaleof the Union – the administrative bodies andthe institutions.

“L’Europe ne se fera pas d’un coup, ni dansune construction d’ensemble: elle se fera pardes realisations concretes, créant d’abord unesolidarité de fait” – Robert Schuman.

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CHAPTER 2:

C O N T R O V E R S I A L I S S U E S

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This manual is about practical ways and exerci-ses enabling young people to understand issuesof citizenship, rights and responsibilities and whatthey, as citizens, can do to protect these rights.Within this framework, an essential issue is howwe develop critical thinking and the understan-ding of the ways in which bias and stereotypingare used to influence popular opinion.

This section deals with controversial views on keyissues. Controversial texts can be ideal pedagogi-cal tools to foster debate and to guide the deve-lopment of critical thinking skills and cooperativelearning. The texts have been selected in order tohighlight diversity and to encourage understan-ding of human differences. By exploring contro-versial texts, participants are empowered toacquire the tools of logical thinking by which theycan approach, analyse and debate controversialissues in a context of mutual respect and unders-tanding.

Opening questions up for general comment mightnot be always stimulating and/or inclusive.Controversial issues can be further developed byusing a variety of techniques. Here are four exam-ples:

Snowballing debate: Ask participants to dividein pairs and to think about an issue. After a while,ask pairs to focus their discussion and then feed-back on just one point – for, against or in any wayrelated to the key topic. In this way it should beeasier to involve everyone and can lead to awhole group discussion, or the pairs could doubleup and come up with several new points.Snowballing is one way of ensuring that the morevocal participants do not dominate discussions.

Circle time: Set up participants in the circle.Using the format of circle time can yield goodresults as it avoids the formality of desks, withmuch of the majority of participants staring at thebacks of their fellow colleagues (not the ideal set-up to foster discussion).

Role-play: Giving participants different opinionsto defend or different characters to assume is auseful tool. It can depersonalise contentiousissues and not force participants to expose theirown opinions. It is also a good tactic to use ontopics where participants don’t as yet have anystrong opinions.

Formal debates: A sort of group role-play wherethe group acts like an assembly of members. Amotion is proposed; speakers from two teamsalternate in arguing for or against the motion;questions are taken from the floor; the floor thenvotes.

The next outlines provide food on thought oneight controversial issues:

� Discrimination, Migrants and Minorities: Do wewant multicultural societies in a global world? Ordo we want to preserve the native cultures of oursocieties in a world of civilisations? Can we doboth?� Gender: Should a man or a woman write thatsection?� ICT: Is there such a thing as the right to com-municate? How would you define it?� Religion: Is it possible to identify universalvalues that are common to all world religions?� Sustainable development: if the tale of develop-ment consists in progressively acquiring a wealthof goods to attain a wealth of time, then richsocieties today have evidently missed the mark.What went wrong?� Violence and Non-violence: Should peace bepreserved at all costs, or is there a threshold forinjustice that justifies violent means?� Unemployment: Should solutions to unemploy-ment favour local vs global employment measu-res?� Youth Culture: Your culture?

I N T R O D U C T I O N

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The vast majority of the scientific communityshares the view that Africa was the birthplaceof humanity. Genetic studies reveal that atleast five geographic populations stem fromone woman who is postulated to have livedabout 200,000 years ago, probably in Africa.This postulate is consistent with the fossilrecord: the transformation of archaic to anato-mically modern forms of Homo sapiens occur-red first in Africa, about 100,000-140,000years ago. Archaeologists have observed thatblades were in common use in Africa 80-90thousand years ago, long before they replacedflake tools in Asia or Europe.

The National Geographic Society proposes agenetic journey through time where everyonecan enrol. For the price of ca. 100 USD,anyone can buy a Participation Kit, learn ofhis/her deep ancestry, and add his/her data tothe global research database. In a shrinkingworld, the mixing of populations scramblesour genetic signals, and this is probably thelast chance to delineate our common genetictree, giving detailed shape to its many twigsand branches.

As seen above archaeology and genetics bothshow that all present-day humans descendfrom a common African woman, that severalwaves of migration coming from Africa coloni-zed all the continents, and that the success ofthe modern humans was their adaptation to achanging environment. There are still manymysteries to be solved, such as the apparentfailure of the interbreeding between earlyhumanoids, in sharp contrast with the easymiscegenation between all modern humans.Additional scientific research may clarify thesepoints, but contemporary science has clearlyestablished that there is absolutely no scienti-fic basis to classify humans according to“races”, especially in their traditional definitionwhere a set of physically recognizable traits(colour, hair texture, cheekbone and eyesshape, proportion of limbs and trunk, etc) is

associated with attributes of behaviour, intelli-gence, performance, etc. What really distin-guishes modern humans is not their physicalappearance but their culture. Thus, their dis-tinction based on shared physical traits is fla-wed. Rather, they should be classified by theirethnic group, on the basis of certain distinc-tive characteristics such as religion, language,history, cultural heritage, relation with the envi-ronment, nationality, etc.

� Q: Can science prove the existence ofAdam and Eve? Is it true that men and womenwere created equal? Is the current anti-evolu-tion activity, fuelled by fundamentalistChristians, going to revive creationism? Is eth-nocentrism the source of our identity and dis-crimination, or an adaptive response to achanging environment?

M i g r a n t s a n d M i n o r i t i e s

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Most stereotypes and ensuing discriminationis based on skin colour, because it is soobvious. The darkness of a skin is due to theamount of a pigment called melanin, presentin the skin. In animals, melanin comes andgoes at the dictates of evolutionary pressures.Coloration is, in fact, one of the easiest chan-ges for organisms and the same evolutionarydictates seem to apply humans. Some of themost darkly pigmented people in the worldlive on the Solomon Island. They rarely haveany skin cancer. Caucasians living in Hawaii,on the other hand, have the highest documen-ted skin cancer rate in the United States. It isclear that darker pigmentation protects fromskin cancer. On the other hand, the exposureof our skin to ultraviolet light is necessary forthe formation of the precursor of Vitamin D.Vitamin D is necessary for proper bone forma-tion. It is believed that lighter levels of pigmen-tation at higher latitudes enable the proces-sing of Vitamin D while higher levels of pig-mentation near the equator prohibits the pro-duction of too much.

The distinction between humans based ontheir appearance, including any disabilities,brings us directly to the issues of migrantsand minorities in our societies. Waves of new-comers have always threatened the way of lifeof the first settlers. The unprecedented unba-lance of material goods in the world, with theaccumulation of wealth in some geographicareas and the concomitant impoverishment ofothers, associated with a greater globalconscience of this fact, generates a tremen-dous pressure in the fracture line between richand poor. For example, the earning per monthin manufacturing increases by a factor ofapproximately 10 when we cross from Mexicoto the US, from Morocco to Spain, or fromAlbania to Italy. The legitimate aspiration for abetter life encourages people to migrate to thewealthier countries. These, in turn, elaboratedregulations to prevent the poor to endangertheir lifestyles, either by restricting their

entrance or their empowerment.

The changes in the environment have alwayspressed for adaptive responses and stimula-ted the development of our societies.Although the “environment” is usually percei-ved as the “physical environment”, the sameapplies to the “social environment”.Economy-motivated migrations are one of themost important driving forces for changes inmodern society. The presence of people withsignificantly different cultures, and sometimeswith conflicting lifestyles, is more than just achallenge for rapid social changes. It is per-ceived as a threat by the most insecure mem-bers of society, or by those that have difficultyto change. Changes are always associatedwith some form of stress, and there is a limitto the amount of stress that anyone can take.

The cohesion of the social groups is fre-quently maintained by self-segregation.Typically, the modern cosmopolitan city ismulticultural, but each one of its neighbour-hoods has one strongly dominating culture.For example, some 7% of the French and UKpopulation classify themselves as non-White,but in certain neighbourhoods they representthe vast majority of the population. Most eth-nic group members accommodate to thissituation, because it reduces the stress. It isreassuring to be surrounded by identity traitssuch as their own language, ethnic restau-rants, building for their worship, family, etc.Each community develops its selective set ofrules, builds its own identity and chooses itsleaders. Often, in the migrant communities,the leaders are not vested by any legal power,because they do not have citizenship rights inthe host country. This leads to problems in lawenforcement. Only the nationals of the hostcountry have the means to enforce the law,but they have to do it “abroad”, in the neigh-bourhood of the immigrants, where they areeasily stigmatized as the “enemy”. Law enfor-cement may be perceived as an invasion.

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The tension between the different cultures easilybuilds up, in the same way as between countries.Actually, migration transposes to the cosmopolitancity the fracture lines that divide nations.Neighbourhoods of immigrants, with unemploymentrates attaining 40%, can be found just a few hun-dred meters away from middle-class neighbour-hoods, with their display of status symbols.Interestingly, some studies reveal that a city will beabandoned when more than 37% of its populationis lost as the result of a natural catastrophe or anepidemic, and the same figure applies to the maxi-mum number of casualties that an army can with-stand before loosing its cohesion. The unemploy-ment rates in some immigrant communities are atthe onset of loss of social cohesion.

One alternative is to empower the minority leaders,let them organise the social and economic network,and apply the law. The dilemma is obvious. Solvingthe problem of law enforcement by granting citi-zenship rights to the migrants creates the problemof having the “new” citizens influencing the makingof the laws. The dynamics of social change are thusaccentuated. The modern cosmopolitan city isalways in the delicate balance between socialchange and social conflict.

The United Nations Development Programmerecently published a report where it is argued thatunless people who are poor and marginalised – whomore often than not are members of religious or eth-nic minorities – can influence political action at localand national levels, they are unlikely to get equitableaccess to jobs, schools, hospitals, justice, securityand other basic services.

The strategic goals of member states of theCouncil of Europe in terms of promoting cohe-sion by valuing diversity, include:

� Implementing international human rights stan-dards;� Developing economic, social and cultural policieswhich are inclusive;� Establishing equal treatment of all citizens;� Eliminating legal and other barriers for the full par-ticipation of immigrants and minorities in all sectorsof society� Combating all forms of discrimination;� Valuing the diversity of the population in terms ofpersonal abilities and assets, cultural background,linguistic skills and ethnic and national origin;� Designing and implementing methods for inter-cultural exchanges and cooperation;� Responding to the needs of a diverse population

in terms of education, health, housing and other ser-vices;� Fostering a sense of belonging and commitmentto the state that reconciles multiple and varying affi-liations people hold.

�Q: Can we change the way one culture rela-

tes to other cultures? Should we promote a mul-ticultural society through multicultural schools?(Ex.: support Catholic, Jewish, Islamic, or Hinduschools, teach multilingual courses, tell historyas viewed by different ethnicities). Should weteach common values for all the communities inour schools? (Ex.: liberal democracy, laicism,human rights, equality between man andwoman, abortion, gay marriages, outlaw veils inschools).

The multicultural cosmopolitan city describedabove seems to be the model recommended byEuropean Institutions, notably, the Council ofEurope. For example, the Framework Conventionfor the Protection of National Minorities, dated from1995, states in Article 5, “1. The Parties undertaketo promote the conditions necessary for personsbelonging to national minorities to maintain anddevelop their culture, and to preserve the essentialelements of their identity, namely their religion, lan-guage, traditions and cultural heritage. 2. Withoutprejudice to measures taken in pursuance of theirgeneral integration policy, the Parties shall refrainfrom policies or practices aimed at assimilation ofpersons belonging to national minorities againsttheir will and shall protect these persons from anyaction aimed at such assimilation.” Article 13 goesone step further and says, “Within the framework oftheir education systems, the Parties shall recognisethat persons belonging to a national minority havethe right to set up and to manage their own privateeducational and training establishments.” Article 14specifies “1. The Parties undertake to recognise thatevery person belonging to a national minority hasthe right to learn his or her minority language.” Withthese objectives in view for the protection of theminorities, in 2003, the Council of Europe EuropeanMinisters of Education adopted the Declaration onintercultural education in the new European contextthat emphasises the role of intercultural educationas a major contribution to maintaining and develo-ping the unity and diversity of European societies.The Declaration points to the necessity for memberstates to introduce the intercultural dimension intotheir education policies and contains a number ofrecommendations to this effect.

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It should be noted that immigrants and mino-rities refer to two different realities that overlaponly partially. The dominant population fre-quently perceives both groups as competitorsin the labour market, threats to cultural normsand national identities, and sources of socie-tal ills. Most European countries, or states, areoccupied by different nationalities, one orseveral of them being minorities. We can seethis everywhere from the Basque Country inSpain to Lapland in Finland. These nationalminorities were probably in the minds of thewriters of the Framework Convention citedabove. But could, or should, the same regula-tions be applied to immigrants when theyconcentrate for more than one generation inthe same neighbourhood of the multiculturalcosmopolitan city? Still more difficult to define is the framework ofthe Roma/Gypsy. It is generally believed thatthe Roma people migrated from NorthernIndia to Europe between the 10th and 13thcenturies. Although there are 8.5 millionRoma/Gypsy in Europe, traditionally they donot occupy a specific territory and often haveundefined nationalities. The Roma/Gypsycommunity has often been encumbered bynumerous layers of often contradictory andbureaucratic restrictions upon their lifestyle:for example, legislation limiting duration andlocation of stay in urban areas versus the legalobligation of parents to send their children toschool. They have often perceived the formaleducation system to be hostile and a potentialmeans of undermining their cultural values.However, there is also the recognition that intoday's society, illiteracy is a serious handicapin social and economic terms.

There are other models for the modern cos-mopolitan city. The integration of immigrantscan be encouraged by establishing quotas forimmigrants in neighbourhoods and in schools.This makes the ethnic background of theimmigrant more permeable to that of the localhost. Their children are not likely to becomefluent in the mother tongue, they will not

become a connaisseur of the traditional cui-sine of the immigrants, they will probablymarry someone from the host community andreligion may not become an important part oftheir lives. In fact, in the 60’s, integration wasthe policy for European citizens from othernationalities. Today they cannot be classifiedas immigrants because their citizenship rightsapply equally at home and in their Europeanhost countries. This existence of quotas ensu-res a larger degree of diversity in all areas,hopefully followed by an equally larger degreeof competences and job opportunities. Ineach neighbourhood we should find diversity,both with all social classes and ethnic back-grounds present.

� Q: Should the wealthier countries esta-

blish quotas for migrants and preserve theirlifestyles? Should we have quotas for disad-vantaged neighbourhoods in large cities?Should urban planning reinforce mixed (ethni-city, income, age) housing rather than closedcondominiums? Do we have the right tochange the culture of a given person andimpose a lifestyle?

The survival of humankind has been sustainedby the richness of its cultures and its ability toadapt to the changing environment. Whensome have failed, others have replaced them.The explosion of our demography in the lastmillennium, as we increased from 100 millionto 6 billion, changed the nature of our threats.In fact, today we are the greatest threat to our-selves.

� Q: Should we respond with a larger

degree of cultural homogeneity, matching ourgenetic homogeneity, or should we encouragethe diversity of the responses to the environ-ment? Do we want multicultural societies in aglobal world? Or do we want to preserve thenative cultures of our societies in a world ofcivilisations? Can we do both?

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References

A turning point of our understanding about our common origin on a scientific genetic basis, publi-shed in the most respected scientific journal, Nature."Mitochondrial DNA and Human Evolution"Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking & Allan C. Wilson, Nature, 325 (1987), 31-6.

An authoritative account of the population of Europe from 150,000 to 20,000 years ago.Neanderthals and modern humans in the European landscape during the last glaciation: archaeo-logical results of the Stage 3 Projectedited by Tjeerd H. van Andel & William DaviesThe McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research 2003.

You can watch a video and register for a massive genetic survey at the National GeographicSociety sitehttps://www5.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/

Statistics on wages across the world

http://laborsta.ilo.org/

Diversity and cohesion : new challenges for the integration of immigrants and minoritiesJan Niessen, Council of Europe, 2000.

The United Nations Development Programme offers on-line the Human DevelopmentReport 2004.http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/

Additional resources can be found in the Organisation for Security and Co-operation inEurope, namely in the site of its High Commissioner on National Minoritieshttp://www.osce.org/hcnm/

Declaration by the European Ministers of Education on intercultural education in the newEuropean context www.see-educoop.net/education_in/pdf/ declarat-eur-minist-educ-intercult-educ-oth-enl-t02.pdf

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� Q: Do you think this chapter should be

written by a man or a woman?

INTRODUCTIONControversy surrounds the reasons, history,validity, and usefulness of the term gender. Anenormous number of pages exist exploringthe practical differences between men andwomen at present, but few, if any, provide un-contradicted information on the exact causeof those differences. There is an ongoingdebate concerning nature versus nurture thatshows no sign of being resolved in the nearfuture.

Before anything else, you might be more fami-liar with the term "sex" when it comes to theissues described in this chapter. We haveopted to use the term "gender" which inAnglo-Saxon (educational and academic)contexts is more widely applied to describethe social status, position and behaviour ofmen and women. Often, "sex" is consideredtoo restrictive and solely referring to the biolo-gical (re-productive) features of a humanbeing.

There is debate to what extent gender is asocial construct and to what extent it is a bio-logical construct. At the extremes of theseviews you have constructionism which sug-gests that it is entirely a social construct andessentialism which suggests that it's entirely abiological construct. In general, personalityand behavioural differences are believed to bedue to learning and conditioning or modellingand imitation rather than purely biologically-based tendencies. It is widely believed thatthe environment that a person experienceshas a much greater impact upon the develop-ment and personality of that person thangenetic factors.

In European youth work we can distinguish afew different approaches to the issue of gen-der. But first and foremost there seems to bea tendency to promote "gender equality" as abasic human right, for women and men.Nevertheless in this debate we can discoverdifferent types of discourse: a few who rely onfeminist arguments, a few who rely on mascu-list arguments, some who argue from a beliefin nurture (constructionism), and others whosee more nature (essentialism) arguments tothe debate. This doesn't suggest that a femi-nist argument is the sole monopoly of women-feminists or a masculist argument belongswith men-masculists. They are perspectives,not labels! This chapter will hopefully help youto better understand the different perspecti-ves.

FUNNY?

How many jokes do you know about malestereotypes and how many jokes do youknow about female stereotypes? Of whichtype do you know more? Do you think theyare funny? Why? Where do the stereotypesthat the jokes are inspired on come from?Who maintains these stereotypes? And why?

� Q: Why do you think books about Mars

and Venus are best-sellers?

When looking at stereotypes regarding gen-der and consequent behaviour, it is importantto explore and understand what constitutesthese stereotypes. They often address a bio-logical difference between both sexes('nature'), but by putting these differences inthe perspective of social behaviour (in an iro-nic way), we contribute to inequality of gender('nurture'). We build and uphold mutual nega-tive social constructs, and hence obstructgender equality.

G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y

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Gender equal i ty as a human r ight

Since the 1990's, gender issues have become part of policy planning in all public policy areas.

Today, both the terms 'women’s rights' and 'gender equality' are used. What do the terms meanand what is the difference between them? The phrase "women's human rights" is used to empha-sise the point that women’s rights are human rights, rights to which women are entitled simplybecause they are human. This idea integrates the topic of women into the human rights move-ment, and integrates human rights principles into the women’s movement at the same time.

Gender equality means an equal level of empowerment, participation and visibility of both sexesin all spheres of public and private life. Gender equality is not to be thought of as the opposite ofgender difference but rather of gender inequality. It aims to promote the full participation of womenand men in society. Gender equality, like human rights, must be constantly fought for, protectedand encouraged.

Gender roles therefore depend on a particular socio-economic, political and cultural context andare affected by other factors including race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation and age. Genderroles are learned and vary widely within and between cultures. Unlike a person’s biological sex,gender roles can change.

Feminist perspect ive

Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements and moral philosophies,largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social,political, and economic situation. As a social movement, feminism largely focuses on limiting oreradicating gender inequality and promoting women's rights, interests, and issues in society.

Feminist political activists commonly campaign on issues such as reproductive rights, violencewithin a domestic partnership, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, street harassment,discrimination and sexual violence. Themes explored in feminism include patriarchy, stereotyping,(sexual) objectification, sexual objectification and oppression.

Although many leaders of feminism have been women, not all feminists are women. However,there remains controversy over whether men should actively participate in feminist organisations.Some feminists argue that men should not take positions of leadership in the movement, becausemen, having been socialized to aggressively seek positions of power or direct the agendas withina leadership hierarchy, would apply this tendency to feminist organisations; or that women, havingbeen socialised to defer to men, would be hindered in developing or expressing their own self-lea-dership in working too closely with men. Other feminists do believe that men should be acceptedas leaders in the movement.

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Today, young women may associate "feminism" with radical and gender feminism, andthis may prevent them from being active in feminism. However, the basic values of femi-nism (women's rights and gender equality for women) have become so integrated intoWestern culture as to be accepted overwhelmingly as valid, and non-conformity to thosevalues characterised as unacceptable.

The first kind of response to feminism came from Ernest Belfort Bax, a socialist theoreti-cian in the height of socialism at the beginning of the 20th century, and an associate ofKarl Marx. Bax wrote The Fraud of Feminism in 1913, which was in essence the first mas-culist text. However, the term masculism did not gain usage until the end of the 20th cen-tury and even today is sometimes confused with masculinism.

Essentially the difference can be considered as:Masculinism: breaking heterosexual male stereotypingMasculism: distinguished from masculinism; men's rights movement: sometimes anti-female

Some masculists believe that profound gender differences are inherent in human nature,contrary to the idea that both genders have the same capacity in virtually every respect.They believe that feminists who have denounced differentiated gender roles as anoppressive artificial construct are conducting a fallacious experiment by attempting tonegate these differences via legislation and other means (this view is also held by manynon-masculists).

Other masculists, such as Warren Farrell, celebrate the notion of a gender-free societyand fluid gender roles. Many masculists espouse a belief that feminism has played a rolein the high rates of divorce (see marriage strike), alienation of the genders, female chau-vinism, love-shyness, disintegrating communities, fatherless children, high school dro-pouts, drug addiction, consumerism, teenage pregnancy, male suicide, violent crime(especially murder), road rage, and overfilled prisons.

Some masculists suggest that gender equality laws have helped to make feminist ideo-logy mainstream - that such laws serve primarily women and have created significantunconstitutional discrimination against men. While some feminists fight against an "all-powerful patriarchy", some masculists consider patriarchy inevitable. They oppose theidea that women are powerless victims of patriarchal oppression; they suggest that femi-nists use this idea to curtail men's rights and to justify their negative views of men. Theyclaim this has achieved a covert matriarchy, aided by chivalry towards women that itselfundermines the notion of female oppression.

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Masculist concerns

Masculists cite one-sided legislation, selectiveenforcement, and neglected civil rights as exam-ples of discrimination against men (and boys).Other examples include:

- tolerance and approval of anti-male discrimina-tion - a culture that conditions males to feel bad aboutbeing male - child custody rules strongly favouring mothers inmost countries; belief that children's growth is fos-tered more so with mothers than with fathers - children aborted or given up for adoption withoutfathers' consent - men risking their lives in conscripted military ser-vice (exceptions exist, e.g. Israel, where womenare also conscripted; though they are not requiredto serve in combat) - high-risk employment, but receiving no specialhonour for doing so - biases in the justice system against men (i.e. -longer incarceration rates compared with women,for the same crimes) - men being charged in domestic violence caseseven when they are victims - men being charged in rape and sexual harass-ment cases when there is no evidence beyond theplaintiff's claim - men fired from their jobs for dissenting with femi-nist ideology in the workplace - hate crimes against men - humorous depiction of violence by womenagainst men in the media, particularly castrationand striking of testicles - lack of advocacy for men's rights; more socialprograms for women than for men - lack of educational aid for boys and men, giventhat their performance/enrolment at most levelslags behind girls'/women's- special government agencies for women's affairswith no corresponding agencies for men's affairs - men less likely to receive aid from strangers if introuble (broken down car, harassed, attacked byan animal, etc.) - women treated more respectfully than men inpublic - widespread infant male circumcision

Feminist concerns

Although many different feminist movements exist,each with their own principle focus, aims andvalues, here are few examples of common issuesthat are on the feminist agenda of concerns:

- high unemployment for women and/or employ-ment with unequal wages compared to men- lack of possibilities for women to initiate a divorce- child custody rules strongly favouring men- no or poor access to contraception or safe abor-tions for women- victims of rape and sexual harassment, in domes-tic environments as well as in the workplace orpublic space- unequal access to universities or education ingeneral- some feminist movements condemn the act ofabortion, claiming that the reason that abortion is socommon is because women do not have access toalternate resources and information.- English-speaking feminists are often opponents ofwhat they consider to be sexist language, using"Ms." to refer to unmarried women and "Mrs." tomarried women, where there is no such equivalentdistinction for men's marital status; similar examplesof sexist language exist in other languages- promoting the use of gender-inclusive language,such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "he orshe" (or other gender-neutral pronouns) in place of"he" where the gender is unknown - women suffer from the demands of trying to live upto the so-called "superwomen" identity, and strug-gle with to 'have it all', i.e. manage to happilybalance a career and family- the lack of state-provided child-care facilities as anobstruction to careers for women as well as leisuretime activities- promoting a new sexual morality and behaviourwith the onset of the "Pill"; women are then more incontrol of their bodies, and are able to experiencesex with more freedom than was previously sociallyaccepted for them; enabling women to experiencesex in a free and equal manner- feminists have debated whether marriage is an ins-titution that oppresses women and men; those whodo view it as oppressive sometimes opt for cohabi-tation or more recently to live independently rever-ting to casual sex to fulfil their sexual needs- unequal access to positions of clergy in religiousinstitutes or discrimination of females based on reli-gious discourse

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An al ternate v iew…

There exists an alternate view of masculism as a complementary movement to feminism, theso-called "New Masculinity." In this viewpoint, both feminism and masculism are attempts tocorrect disadvantages induced by gender roles. While feminism addresses areas wherewomen are seen to be disadvantaged such as equal pay and promotion, masculism addres-ses areas where men are seen to be disadvantaged, for example, criminal prosecution andsentencing. These masculists may object to specific aspects of feminism or to the expressedviews of specific feminist groups, but do not reject feminism as a concept, or believe that thefeminist movement as a whole is hostile to masculism.

This suggests that masculism in some form can assist and aid the women's movement; femi-nists have met this with both encouragement and trepidation. Some feminists believe thatspace for women to have a voice would be threatened by the presence of men, or that a gro-wing presence of men in the women's movement would displace the voices of the women.Others greet masculist interests in the women's movement as important for the ending ofsexism in society. Some masculists, however, decry this idea entirely, and do not believe thatmasculism and feminism can possibly co-exist culturally - that they are politically incompati-ble.

Gender egalitarians call for both masculists and feminists who are truly interested in equalityto unite under the banner of gender egalitarianism. This philosophy is sympathetic to legiti-mate grievances from both males and females, but does not tolerate prejudice or bigotry fromeither gender.

�Q: How can you acknowledge gender differences, but promote gender equality?

Resources� Bacchi, C. "Women, Policy and Politics: The Construction of Policy Problems", London,Sage, 2000� Council of Europe "Compass, A Manual on Human Rights Education with Young People",2002� Lister, R. "Citizenship. Feminist Perspectives", 2nd edition, London, Palgrave, 2003� Siim, B. "Gender and Citizenship. Politics and Agency in France, Britain and Denmark",Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000� Thiers-Vidal, L. "From masculinity to anti-masculinism", published in Nouvelle QuestionsFéministes, Volume 21, n° 3, pp. 71-83, December 2002

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Introduct ion

Today 600 million people use Internet and researchers estimate that 800 megabytes of informationis produced every year for every person on the planet. However, 600 million people represent 10%of the world’s population, of which nearly 90% are locatedin industrialised countries. 70% of theworld’s population have never heard a dial tone. In Africa less than 1% of the population (800 mil-lion people) has a computer.

So far the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS, Geneva 2003 and Tunisia 2005) failedto involve civil society in the debate. It is a major failure that neglects key contributions to a betterand more comprehensive and just understanding of core educational and information issues asreported in recent documents such as the People’s Communication Charter and the San PaoloCharter that are the result of long consultation and networking process.

A critical issue within the Communication Rights in the Information Society (CRIS) campaign thathas tried to affect the WSIS process is the "Free Software / Hacker ethical discourse". A discoursewhich is highly transformative and therefore of utmost importance for proper information and edu-cation in the information age, an age that “denies education” (according to former UN Rapporteuron the Right to Education, Katerina Tomasevski).

Free software such as Linux or GNU/Linux (because it draws many technical elements from theGNU project), a clone of the UNIX operating system, have their code available and improved bycomputer experts from all over the world and by products disseminated under General PublicLicences (GPL). Based on this ongoing experience and network, Pekka Himanen (2001) argues thatcomputer hackers - as distinct from crackers, people who try to breach the security of networks -represent a “spiritual challenge to our time” “hacker ethic is a new work ethic (n-ethic) that challen-ges the attitude toward the Protestant work ethic”. The hacker relation to time, property, money andpolitical freedoms resists the rational organisation of labour, property and meaning under the waywe understand capitalism today. The next few years are crucial to see whether education agenciesas well as local and regional authorities will be able to read the challenges to information and edu-cation as public space, and to knowledge as private property as a comprehensive global and localstruggle that needs a shift from ethical to n-ethical responses: networking contextual universalism(Beck).

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

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Neil Postman 2

"Five ideas about technological change"

First, that we always pay a price for technology; thegreater the technology, the greater the price.

Second, that there are always winners and losers,and that the winners always try to persuade thelosers that they are really winners.

Third, that there is embedded in every great tech-nology an epistemological, political or social preju-dice. Sometimes that bias is greatly to our advan-tage. Sometimes it is not. The printing press annihi-lated the oral tradition; telegraphy annihilatedspace; television has humiliated the word; the com-puter, perhaps, will degrade community life. And soon.

Fourth, technological change is not additive; it isecological, which means, it changes everything andis, therefore, too important to be left entirely in thehands of Bill Gates.

And fifth, technology tends to become mythic; thatis, perceived as part of the natural order of things,and therefore tends to control more of our livesthan is good for us.

Source: speech delivered at the Conference, "TheNew Technologies and the Human Person:Communicating the Faith in the New Millennium"Denver, Colorado, March 27, 1998, www.new-tech.org/address10-en.htm)

Sean Kidney 1

"The Internet as a facilitator of citizen activity"

For people interested in the web, I think the scena-rio is optimistic. Like any kind of major upheaval andchange, the web creates opportunities, but also los-ses.

We will see some losses of print media as a result.I think this is a revolution where there is enormousscope for individuals to have an impact, becausethere is scope for people to actually have their say -scope to be informed. News usually disappears inrevolutions, but here it doesn't.

One of my hopes for the Internet is that it willbecome a facilitator of citizen activity, and lead to adifferent kind of democracy. I think this is quiteimportant for us if we are to make sure we don'tincrease social division, especially in the next 10years or so while the revolution slowly catches upwith the rest of the world.

We need to work together, not just nationally, butalso globally, to help craft the future of this particu-lar revolution.

If you can read, the next barrier to knowledge isaccess to information, access to stuff to read, likea library.

Think about what a revolution community librarieshave been in our culture. The promise of the web,of course, is of a global library.

Source: talk to the NSW Society of Editors, 6 April1999, http://online.socialchange.net.au)

1 Sean Kidney (http://media.socialchange.net.au/people/sean_kidney.html) is the co-director of Social Change Online, an internet servi-ces firm based in Sydney, Australia. The company is the leading candidate for a whole-of-government online spatial integration solution.Sean has worked on social issues communications projects for more than 15 years.2 Neil Postman (1931 – 2003), (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postman) was a prominent American education and culture critic. For more thanforty years, he was associated with New York University.Postman wrote 18 books and more than 200 magazine and newspaper articles. His most famous book is probably “Amusing ourselves todeath” (1985) in which he argues against the TV industry.

Controversia l v iews on ICT

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Key questions

�Q: Is there such a thing as the right to communicate? How would you

define it?

�Q: What are the consequences of the digital divide? How is it possible

to address it?

�Q: Why is free-software important to public domain policies?

Further reading:

Association for Progressive Communication, www.apc.orgCastells M., Flecha R., Freire P., Giroux H., Macedo D., McLaren P., Willis P.,Critical Education in the new Information Age, Rowman & LittlefieldPublishers, Oxford, 1999CRIS Campaign, www.crisinfo.orgHimanen P., The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age, London:Secker & Warburg, 2002Leon, O., Burch, S., Tamayo, E., Social Movements on the Net, Quito, ALAI,2001UNDP, Human Development Report 2001, New York, 2001World Summit on the Information Society,www.itu.int/wsis, www.unesco.org/wsis

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R E L I G I O N

In a recent paper presented at the 18th International Peace ResearchAssociation Conference in Tampere, Finland, Petter Larsson from the Universityof Wales argued that most contemporary armed conflicts are based on under-lying “philosophical” assumptions of superiority and identity. Since followers ofany religion justify their existence by assuming superiority over other belief-sys-tems, this makes “violence not only possible, but also inevitable”. He thenemphasized, “religions are by definition incompatible, and peace is thereforeimpossible as long as there is religion.” With news from around the world, withkillings between Muslims and Christians in Indonesia and the Philippines or vio-lence and terrorism in a largely Buddhist society such as Sri Lanka with seniormonks coming out in the name of patriotism against problematic peace accordsdesigned to end the bloodshed, or the Israeli-Palestine conflict, the terrorattacks of New York and Washington D.C. and the American response with warin Afghanistan and Iraq and heightened security discourse, among others, it iseasy to highlight the role of religions as justifications for violence. Nonetheless,peace researchers such as Chaiwat Satha-Anand argue that in a world frag-mented by conflicts of interest and politics of identity, it is intellectually muchmore challenging to try to elucidate the role religions play in justifying peace andnon-violence. Satha-Anand says that “intellectual challenges aside, no matterhow one characterises this age as civilizational clash or dialogue, the factremains that civilizations informed by religious doctrines and histories are sha-ping the lives of a large number of people on the planet. The relevant questionis what can ordinary people, a large number of them with some religious per-suasions, do in the face of violence shattering their lives both at the individualand collective levels? She argues that unless the role that religions play in nur-turing peaceful conflicts is unders-cored, there is a good chance thatconflicts in the world today couldturn out to be more violent with thedeadly chemistry of hatred, anger,hunger for ‘justice’ amidst unjuststructures, modern weapons, andincreasing disregards for the livesof the innocents. Scholars such asSatha-Anand and RaimundoPanikkar suggest that it is possibleto tap into the existing religiousresources for creative alternativesthat could be useful to empowercommon people.

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Each religious tradition has its own inbuiltbias towards affirming the indispensability ofwhat counts for it as ‘salvation’; eachregards its own ‘way’ as in one sense or ano-ther ‘absolute’ and thus, at least by implica-tion, as unique and superior to all others.Precisely this need to assert identity-in-rela-tionship is the problem of dialogue; it is thetension between “the need to integrate andmerge versus the need to be unique”.

Although the study of religion offers amplescope for the rational sifting of evidence andgeneralisation from it, in the end, reliableknowledge of religions, one’s own andothers’, is intersubjective. To me it is illusoryto think that in any field of intellectual endea-vour, even the ‘hard’ sciences, individualstandpoint, emotional response, creativeimagination and personal commitment playno part in the acquisition of knowledge. ForHegel, the dual movement of ‘passing over’into the unfamiliar world of another cultureand ‘coming back’, transformed by theexperience, to re-inhabit one’s own was theessence of education, an insight that hasbeen re-appropriated for interreligious dialo-gue by John Dunne and Raimon Panikkar.Disciplined dialogue is thus not merely a legi-timate but an indispensable means of acqui-ring reliable knowledge of both one’s ownand other traditions.

Quotes from Ivan Illich 4

In Rome, barbarians could become membersof the city, but to bring them into it was neverthe intent or mission of Rome. Only duringlate antiquity, with the Western EuropeanChurch, did the alien become someone inneed, someone to be brought in. This view ofthe alien as a burden has become constitutivefor Western society; without this universalmission to the world outside, what we call theWest would not have come to be.

The perception of the outsider as someonewho must be helped has taken on successiveforms. In late antiquity, the barbarian muta-ted into the pagan - the second stagetoward development had begun. The paganwas defined as the unbaptized, but ordainedby nature to become Christian. It was the dutyof those within the Church to incorporate himby baptism into the body of Christendom. Inthe early Middle Ages, most people in Europewere baptized, even though they might notyet be converted. Then the Muslim appeared. Unlike Goths andSaxons, Muslims were monotheists, andobviously prayerful believers; they resistedconversion. Therefore, besides

Quotes from John D’Arcy May 3

3 John D´Arcy May (http://www.tcd.ie/Religions_Theology/staff/may_john-darcy.php) is Associate Professor of Interfaith Dialogue, IrishSchool of Ecumenics, Trinity College, The University of Dublin; his research topics cover Religious pluralism; ethics in multicultural socie-ties; Buddhism-Christian Dialogue; religion, modernity, and post-modernity; Christian dialogue with Asian religions;

4 Ivan Illich (1926-2002) (http://www.cogsci.ed.ac.uk/~ira/illich/) served as assistant pastor in an Irish-Puerto Rican parish in New York Cityand was then assigned as vice-rector to the Catholic university of Puerto Rico, where he organized an intensive training center for Americanpriests in Latin American culture. Illich was co-founder of the controversial Center for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) in Cuernavaca,Mexico. Since 1964 he has directed research seminars on `Institutional Alternatives in a Technological Society'.

C o n t r o v e r s i a l v i e w s o n r e l i g i o n

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one’s own was the essence of education, aninsight that has been re-appropriated forinterreligious dialogue by John Dunne andRaimon Panikkar. Disciplined dialogue is thusnot merely a legitimate but an indispensablemeans of acquiring reliable knowledge ofboth one’s own and other traditions.

Religion is said to have arisen in order torationalise the murder of a mythical patriarch(Sigmund Freud), the killing of animals in thehunt (Walter Burkert) or the scapegoating ofindividuals to purge the community of guilt(René Girard); indeed, if we follow Nietzschewe could say that violence is itself religious, atheme that can readily be detected in thenoble sacrifices of classical literature and theredemptive vengeance that figures so promi-nently in contemporary film and televisiondrama (Walter Wink).Considerably less effort has been put intoresearching the connection between the reli-gions and peace, what Marc Gopin calls their‘prosocial’ potential. Religion, it seems, iscapable of inspiring both the depths of vio-lence in Crusade and Jihad, Holocaust andIntifada, and the heights of reconciliation,from Saints Francis of Assisi and RaymondLull to Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther Kingand Thich Nhat Hanh, thus demonstrating the‘ambivalence of the sacred’ (R. ScottAppleby).

baptism, the further needs to be subjectedand instructed had to be imputed. The paganmutated into the infidel, our third stage.

By the late Middle Ages, the image of the alienmutated again. The Moors had been drivenfrom Granada, Columbus had sailed acrossthe ocean, and the Spanish Crown had assu-med many functions of the Church. The imageof the wild man who threatens the civilizingfunction of the humanist replaced the imageof the infidel who threatens the faith. At thistime also, the alien was first described in eco-nomy-related terms. From many studies onmonsters, apes and wild men, we learn thatthe Europeans of this period saw the wild manas having no needs. This independencemade him noble, but a threat to the designs ofcolonialism and mercantilism. To impute needs to the wild man, one had tomake him over into the native, the fifthstage. Spanish courts, after long deliberation,decided that at least the wild man of the NewWorld had a soul and was, therefore, human.In opposition to the wild man, the native hasneeds, but needs unlike those of civilizedman. His needs are fixed by climate, race, reli-gion and providence. Adam Smith still reflectson the elasticity of native needs. As GunnarMyrdal has observed, the construct of dis-tinctly native needs was necessary both tojustify colonialism and to administer colonies.The provision of government, education andcommerce for the natives was for four hun-dred years the white man's assumed burden.

Each time the West put a new mask on thealien, the

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for enmity and animosity carry the ‘ultimate’sanction of worldviews and beliefs which maynot be compromised under any circumstan-ces. By the same token, these worldviews, inall their particularity, contain for each of theirrespective adherents the key to transcendingthe conflict through the ‘re-membering’demanded by reconciliation, if only they canbe brought into communication and interac-tion through dialogue.Underlying all that we have said so far is aresidual ambiguity about what it means to ‘bereligious’ in the post-modern context of limit-less diversity, the post-colonial situation ofresurgent ethnic, cultural and religious auto-nomy, and what Manuel Castells calls the ‘realvirtuality’ of the ‘network society’ broughtabout by global electronic communication.What counts as ‘religion’ in these newcontexts? As Westerners, even those whohave repudiated Christianity, still think of reli-gion in terms of theism, religion in this senseis widely rejected in the West, though sometheologians seem unaware that it is preciselya vivid and lively theism that is being enthu-siastically embraced by ever larger numbersof both Christians and Muslims in the ‘South’.

The religions, as the ‘narrators of transcen-dence’, have found many different ways todramatise and institutionalise the human rela-tionship to the transcendent, understood inboth its ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ senses. Inthe new global public sphere, in conse-quence, we are all ipso facto pluralists,because in virtually every social and culturalcontext, even formerly closed or mono-chrome ones like China or much of theMuslim world, we are constantly beingconfronted with new and unfamiliar ways of‘being religious’.

Source: “The dialogue of religions: source ofknowledge? Means of peace?”, CURRENTDIALOGUE, Issue 43, July 2004

old one was discarded because it was nowrecognized as a caricature of an abandonedself-image. The pagan with his naturallyChristian soul had to give way to the stubborninfidel to allow Christendom to launch theCrusades. The wild man became necessaryto justify the need for secular humanist edu-cation, The native was the crucial concept topromote self-righteous colonial rule. But bythe time of the Marshall Plan, when multina-tional conglomerates were expanding and theambitions of transnational pedagogues, the-rapists and planners knew no bounds, thenatives' limited needs for goods and servicesthwarted growth and progress. They had tometamorphose into underdeveloped people,the sixth and present stage of the West's viewof the outsider. Thus decolonization was also a process ofconversion: the worldwide acceptance of theWestern self-image of homo economicus inhis most extreme form as homo industrialis,with all needs commodity-defined. Scarcelytwenty years were enough to make two billionpeople define themselves as underdeveloped.I vividly remember the Rio Carnival of 1963 -the last before the Junta imposed itself."Development" was the motif in the prize-win-ning samba, "development" the shout of thedancers while they jumped to the throbbing ofthe drums.

Development based on high per capita energyquanta and intense professional care is themost pernicious of the West's missionaryefforts - a project guided by an ecologicallyunfeasible conception of human control overnature, and by an anthropologically viciousattempt to replace the nests and snakepits ofculture by sterile wards for professional ser-vice.

Source:http://www.preservenet.com/theory/Illich/Vernacular.html#1

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Some key questions

�Q: Is it possible to identify universal values that are common to all world religions?

�Q: How do the different religions contribute to peaceful conflict transformation?

�Q: What can ordinary people with some religious persuasions do in the face of

violence shattering their lives both at the individual and collective levels?

�Q: How is it possible to promote interfaith dialogue?

Some key questions by John D’Arcy MayThe examples of religious controversial issues are as manifold as they are baffling tothose with a European concept of religion, whether classical or modern, and toEuropean Christians of a ‘liberal’ cast of mind.

The value of the ‘objective’ and comparative study of religion becomes apparent whenwe learn that for much of humankind, whether in the Pacific Islands, East Asia, or theAmerican and African continents, religion traditionally had little to do with theism butsprang from the immanence of the sacred within the phenomena of nature, whichdoes not necessarily mean that it was not transcendent.

�Q: Why are Muslim women in Iran burning the chador in protest while their sis-

ters in neighbouring Turkey are demonstrating for the right to wear it?

�Q: Why are young girls in the more relaxed Muslim circles of Indonesia or Britain

suddenly seized with a religious dread which compels them to wear the hijab and bedominated by men?

�Q: Why are Christians in Latin America turning to an apolitical Pentecostalism in

their millions?

� Q: How could so much of the vast Pacific have become so enthusiastically

Christian in such a short time?

� Q: Why is a seemingly reactionary Roman Catholicism flourishing in Asia and

Africa?

Further reading:Council of Europe, Intercultural Dialogue Project, www.coe.int/InterculturalDialogueKüng, H: A Global Ethic for Global Politics and Economics. Translated by J. Bowden ,London: SCM Press LTD. Chapter V.: ”World Peace – A Challenge for the WorldReligions”, pp.114-156, 1997Pack-Brown, S.P., Braun Williams, C., Ethics in a Multicultural Context, London, Sage,2003Panikkar, R: Religions and the Culture of Peace. In Religion, Politics, and Peace, edi-ted by L. S. Rouner , Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 185-204, 1999

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Introduct ion

"The basic purpose of development is to enlargepeople's choices. In principle, these choices canbe infinite and can change over time. Peopleoften value achievements that do not show up atall, or not immediately, in income or growth figu-res: greater access to knowledge, better nutritionand health services, more secure livelihoods,security against crime and physical violence,satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural free-doms and sense of participation in communityactivities. The objective of development is tocreate an enabling environment for people toenjoy long, healthy and creative lives."Mahbub ul Haq (United Nations DevelopmentProgramme, UNDP)

As the UNDP defines it through its series ofHuman Development Reports(http://hdr.undp.org/), human development isabout much more than the rise or fall of nationalincomes. It is about creating an environment inwhich people can develop their full potential andlead productive, creative lives in accord with theirneeds and interests. People are the real wealth ofnations. Development is thus about expandingthe choices people have to lead lives that theyvalue. And it is thus about much more than eco-nomic growth, which is only one possible meansof enlarging people ’s choices.

Fundamental to enlarging these choices is buil-ding human capabilities —the range of thingsthat people can do or be in life. The most basiccapabilities for human development are to leadlong and healthy lives, to be knowledgeable, tohave access to the resources needed for adecent standard of living and to be able to parti-cipate in the life of the community. Without these,many choices are simply not available, and manyopportunities in life remain inaccessible.

This way of looking at development, often forgot-ten in the immediate concern with accumulatingcommodities and financial wealth, is not new.Philosophers, economists and political leaders

have long emphasized human wellbeing as thepurpose, the end, of development. As Aristotlesaid in ancient Greece, “Wealth is evidently notthe good we are seeking, for it is merely useful forthe sake of something else.”

In seeking that something else, human develop-ment shares a common vision with human rights.The goal is human freedom. And in pursuingcapabilities and realising rights, this freedom isvital. People must be free to exercise their choi-ces and to participate in decision-making thataffects their lives. Human development andhuman rights are mutually reinforcing, helping tosecure the well-being and dignity of all people,building self-respect and the respect of others.For critics of mainstream development theoriessuch as Indian researcher Vandana Shiva, theparadox and crisis of development arises fromthe mistaken identification of culturally perceivedpoverty with real material poverty, and the mista-ken identification of the growth of commodityproduction as a better satisfaction of basicneeds. For example, water management hasbeen transformed from the management of anintegrated water cycle by those who participatein it, particularly women, into the exploitation ofwater with dams, reservoirs and canals byexperts and technocrats. Agricultural `develop-ment' has split the activity into two sectors -- thehighly visible, globally planned and controlledand state subsidised production for profits andmarkets, and the less visible, sometimes invisi-ble, decentralised self-provisioning of foodthrough what is commonly called subsistencefarming. Shiva points at the `masculinisation' ofmodern, chemical-mechanical and intensive andmechanised, capital intensive agriculture, andthe `feminisation' of traditional subsistence foodproduction which feeds the bulk of the rural poor.This dichotomy has been accentuated withmodern production and distribution systems,which are integrated into global markets and areintroduced through international aid and finan-cing which has become a major factor in exclu-ding certain parts of the population, notablywomen from the possibility to produce food.

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5 Jeffrey D. Sachs http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/about/director/) is Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, Quetelet Professor of SustainableDevelopment, Professor of Health Policy and Management, Special Advisor to UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan. He is the author of “The End of Poverty” (the EarthInstitute)6 Vandana Shiva http://www.zmag.org/bios/homepage.cfm?authorID=90) is the Director of The Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural ResourcePolicy. She serves as an ecology advisor to several organizations including the Third World Network and the Asia Pacific People's Environment Network. In 1993 shewas the recipient of the Right Livelihood Award, commonly known as the "Alternative Nobel Prize".

Quotes from JEFFREY SACHS 5

Economic development works. The mainarguments of the Millennium Project Report isthat there are certain places on the planetthat, because of various circumstances—geographical isolation, burden of disease, cli-mate, or soil—just can't quite get started. So it's a matter of helping them get started,whether to grow more food or to fight malariaor to handle recurring droughts. Then, oncethey're on the first rung of the ladder of deve-lopment, they'll start climbing just like the restof the world.

Many of these countries are invisible places,neglected by us politically, neglected by ourbusiness firms, by international markets, andby trade. We tend to focus on these countriesonly when they're in such extraordinary crisesthat they get shown on CNN because they'rein a deep drought or a massive war, which issomething that impoverished countries aremuch more prone to falling to. There haven'tbeen too many stories in our press aboutSenegal, Ghana, Tanzania, Malawi orEthiopia, other than when disasters hit. Andyet these are places that are in very deeptrouble all of the time, but with largely solva-ble problems. And those are the kinds of theplaces that I'm talking about as being stuck inextreme poverty.I've found in talks and discussion about theMillennium Project that people are very sur-prised to find out what the U.S. is and is notdoing vis-à-vis the world's poor. Opinion sur-veys show, and I find this verified in audien-ces, e-mails, and discussion groups, thatpeople tend to overestimate U.S. assis-tance efforts, usually by a factor of about 25or 30. People think that we give

Quotes from VANDANA SHIVA 6

The market economy dominated by capital isnot the only economy. It is useful to separatea cultural conception of simple, sustainableliving as poverty from the material experienceof poverty that is a result of dispossession anddeprivation. Culturally perceived poverty neednot be real material poverty: sustenance eco-nomies, which satisfy basic needs throughself-provisioning, are not poor in the sense ofbeing deprived. Yet the ideology of develop-ment declares them so because they do notparticipate overwhelmingly in the market eco-nomy, and do not consume commodities pro-duced for and distributed through the marketeven though they might be satisfying thoseneeds through self-provisioning mechanisms. People are perceived as poor if they eat millets(grown by women) rather than commerciallyproduced and distributed processed junkfoods sold by global agri-business. The coverstory of the Time Magazine of March 14, 2005was based on an essay by Jeffrey Sacks "TheEnd of Poverty", from his book with the sametitle. The photos accompanying the essay arehomeless children, scavengers in garbagedumps, heroin addicts. These are images ofdisposable people, people whose lives, resour-ces, livelihoods have been snatched from themby a brutal, unjust, excluding process whichgenerates poverty for the majority and prospe-rity for a few. Jeffrey Sachs has got it wrong. The poor arenot those who were left behind, they are theones who were pushed out and excluded fromaccess to their own wealth and resources. The"poor are not poor because they are lazy ortheir governments are corrupt". They are poorbecause their wealth has been appropriatedand wealth creating capacity destroyed.Development has been based on the growth of

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Controvers ia l v iews on development

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several percent of our annual income andseveral percent, maybe even a quarter ofbudget to foreign aid and they're shocked tofind out that it's actually much less than 1 per-cent of our budget. They're shocked to findthat throughout Africa, the practical invest-ments run to about 1 penny out of every 100of our GNP. They can't believe it, but that'sthe unfortunate situation. When they find thatout, and they see that we're spending 500billion on the military and only about 1 to 2billion on investments in Africa, they'reconcerned because I think that they feel thisis probably not the best choice for America.

Source: Time Magazine, March 14, 2005

the market economy. The invisible costs ofdevelopment have been the destruction of twoother economies: nature's processes and peo-ple's survival. The ignorance or neglect ofthese two vital economies is the reason whydevelopment has posed a threat of ecologicaldestruction and a threat to human survival,both of which, however, have remained 'hiddennegative externalities' of the development pro-cess. Instead of being seen as results of exclu-sion, they are presented as "those left behind".

Source: “Making Poverty History and theHistory of Poverty”, March 28, 2005

An anecdote by Heinrich Boell and some key questions by Wolfgang Sachs 7

A tourist focuses in on a most idyllic picture: a manin simple clothes dozing in a fishing boat that hasbeen pulled out of the waves which come rolling upthe sandy beach. The camera clicks, the fishermanawakens. The tourist offers him a cigarette andlaunches into a conversation: “The weather is great,there is plenty of fish, why are you lying around ins-tead of going out and catching more?”The fisherman replies: “Because I caught enoughthis morning.”“But just imagine,” the tourist says, “you would goout there three or four times a day, bringing homethree or four times as much fish! You know whatcould happen?” The fisherman shakes his head.“After about a year you could buy yourself a motor-boat,” says the tourist. “After two years you couldbuy a second one, and after three years you couldhave a cutter or two. And just think! One day youmight be able to build a freezing plant or a smokehouse, you might eventually even get your own heli-copter for tracing shoals of fish and guiding yourfleet of cutters, or you could acquire your own trucksto ship your fish to the capital, and then ...”

7 Wolfgang Sachs (http://www.wupperinst.org/staff/en/sachs.html) is Head of the Cross-cutting Project "Globalization and Sustainability"at the Wuppertal Institute Germany and the editor of “The Development Dictionary” (Zed Press)

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“And then?” asks the fisherman.“And then”, the tourist continues triumphantly, “you could be calmly sitting at thebeachside, dozing in the sun and looking at the beautiful ocean!” The fishermanlooks at the tourist: “But that is exactly what I was doing before you came along!”

The story — told by writer Heinrich Böll — plays upon the hopes and fears of therich. The tourist, upon seeing the lazy fisherman dozing in the sun, remembers hisfears of becoming poor, of getting stuck in a situation in which he has no options.At the same time, he instinctively projects the hope of the rich upon the poor.Without thinking twice, he outlines a road map to expand productivity. And at theend, holds out a promise that is supposed to give meaning to all these efforts: achie-ving freedom from one’s labour and gaining mastery over time.

What makes the anecdote so puzzling is the circular structure of the story; the richstrive to arrive where the poor began. A paradox is offered, which throws up a setof unsettling questions for the affluent.

�Q: Why all the pains and efforts of development, if the rich attain only what the

poor seem to have all along?

�Q: Or, worse, how come that the rich, despite all the hustle and bustle, appear

never even to reach the state enjoyed by the poor?

�Q: For if the tale of development consists in progressively acquiring a wealth of

goods to attain a wealth of time, then rich societies today have evidently missed themark. What went wrong?

Further reading:

Sachs, W., The Development Dictionary, London, Zed Books, 1992Shiva, V., Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development, London, Zed Books,1988Stiglitz, J., Globalisation and its Discontents, London, Penguin, 2003UNDP, www.undp.org

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The “Employment in Europe” 2005 EU report shows that, in contrast to the positive developmentsfor older people, the large majority of Member States have experienced deterioration in the labourmarket situation for the youth population in recent years. At 18.7%, youth unemployment in the EU is still around twice as high as the overall unemploymentrate. Increase in the employment rate over the late 1990s for people aged 15-24 have been repla-ced by declines from 2002 onwards, with developments more severe for young men than youngwomen. However, the decline was much more moderate in 2004. This evolution in employmentrates reflects the general development in youth activity in Europe, namely a decline in labour mar-ket participation which coincides with recent trends for young people to remain longer in educa-tion and training.

Greater efforts are needed to integrate young people into the labour market and to support themas they pursue "non-linear" careers alternating between employment, study, unemployment andretraining or the updating of skills. The European Council recently adopted a European Youth Pactto enable young people to benefit from a set of policies and measures fully integrated in the revi-sed Lisbon Strategy.

Controversial views on unemployment

8 Philippe Van Parijs (http://www.etes.ucl.ac.be/PVP/VanParijshomepageEN.htm) is professor at the Faculty of economic, socialand political sciences of the Catholic University of Louvain (UCL), where he directs the Hoover Chair of economic and social ethicssince its creation in 1991. Since 2004, he is also a Visiting Professor at Harvard University's Department of Philosophy. He is oneof the founders of the Basic Income Earth Network (www.basicincome.org)

U N E M P L O Y M E N T

EU 2005 Employment Report

Europe’s need to take urgent effective actionto improve its labour market performancewas underlined by the European Council ofMarch 2004, and, on 7 April, theCommission adopted new recommenda-tions for national employment policies with aview to strengthening the implementation ofthe European Employment Strategy.

Quotes from Philippe Van Parijs 8

The idea of the universal basic income,UBI, is at least 150 years old. Its two ear-liest known formulations were inspired byCharles Fourier. By universal basicincome I mean an income paid by agovernment, at a uniform level and atregular intervals, to each adult member ofsociety. The grant is paid, and its level isfixed, irrespective of whether the person

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Apart from the country-specific recommen-dations, there are four common recommen-dations to all Member States which call onthem to give immediate priority to:

o Increasing adaptability of workers andenterprises, inter alia, by promoting flexibi-lity combined with security in the labour mar-ket; by modernising and broadening theconcept of job security; by maximising jobcreation and raising productivity;

o Attracting more people to enter andremain on the labour market, and makingwork a real option for all, inter alia, by buil-ding comprehensive active ageing strategies;by further developing policies to increaselabour market participation; by strengtheningactive labour market policies, with personali-sed services to all those seeking employ-ment; by pursuing “make work pay” policiesthrough both financial and non-financialincentives;

o Investing more and more effectively inhuman capital and lifelong learning, interalia, by sharing costs and responsibilitiesbetween public authorities, companies andindividuals; by broadening the supply of trai-ning, in particular for those most in needsuch as the low-skilled and older workers;and

o Ensuring effective implementation ofreforms through better governance, interalia, by building reform partnerships to mobi-lise the support and participation of thesocial partners and various stakeholders;where appropriate, by defining targets toreflect those set at a European level, andensuring effective use of public funds; bypromoting the role of National Action Plansand increasing their visibility; and by streng-thening the role of the country-specificrecommendations and developing moreeffective mutual learning.

is rich or poor, lives alone or with others, iswilling to work or not. It is called "basic"because it is something on which a personcan safely count, a material foundation onwhich a life can firmly rest. Any otherincome – whether in cash or in kind, fromwork or savings, from the market or thestate – can lawfully be added to it.

The main argument for UBI is founded on aview of justice. Social justice requires thatour institutions be designed to best securereal freedom to all. It is necessary that thedistribution of opportunity – understood asaccess to the means that people need fordoing what they might want to do – be des-igned to offer the greatest possible realopportunity to those with least opportuni-ties, subject to everyone’s formal freedombeing respected.

A second way to make the case for UBI ismore policy-oriented: as a way to solve theapparent dilemma between a European-style combination of limited poverty andhigh unemployment and an American-stylecombination of low unemployment andwidespread poverty. The argument can bespelled out, very schematically, as follows. For over two decades, most WestEuropean countries have been experien-cing massive unemployment. Even at thepeak of the jobs cycle, millions ofEuropeans are vainly seeking work. Howcan this problem be tackled?

If we reject both accelerated growth andreduced earnings, must we also give up onfull employment? No, if we are willing toredefine full employment by either shorte-ning the working week, paying subsidies toemployers, or paying subsidies toemployees.Any strategy for reducing unemploymentwithout increasing poverty depends onsome variety of the active welfarestate–that is, a welfare state that does notsubsidize passivity (the unemployed, theretired, the disabled, etc.) but systemati-cally and permanently (if modestly) subsidi-zes productive activities. I

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Together, the four common recommenda-tions to all Member States and the country-specific recommendations form a powerfulpackage. Governance will be brought moreto the fore of the European EmploymentStrategy to ensure that, after defining objec-tives together, implementation follows.

The implementation of these recommenda-tions should bring about a more effectiveEuropean Employment Strategy, one thatcan contribute to taking the Lisbon processforward with more and better jobs for all.

Source: EU 2005 Employment Report

Such subsidies can take many differentforms. In Europe, this approach usually takes theform of proposals to abolish employers’social security contributions on the lowerearnings while maintaining the workers’entitlements to the same level of benefits. At the other extreme we find the UBI, whichcan also be understood as a subsidy, butone paid to the employee (or potentialemployee), thereby giving her the option ofaccepting a job with a lower hourly wage orwith shorter hours than she otherwisecould. UBI makes it easier to take a break bet-ween two jobs, reduce working time, makeroom for more training, take up self-employment, or to join a cooperative. Andwith a UBI, workers will only take a job ifthey find it suitably attractive, whileemployer subsidies make unattractive,low-productivity jobs more economicallyviable. If the motive in combating unem-ployment is not some sort of work feti-shism–an obsession with keeping eve-ryone busy–but rather a concern to giveevery person the possibility of taking upgainful employment in which she can findrecognition and accomplishment, then theUBI is to be preferred.

Source: October/November 2000 issue,Boston Review

Key questions

�Q: How should education and training deal with employment issues?

�Q: What are the generational (youth-aged people) issues at stake concerning employment?

�Q: Should solutions to unemployment favour local vs global employment measures?

Further reading:

EU 2005 Employment ReportPhelps, E.S., Rewarding Work, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1997Van Parijs, P., Real Freedom for All, New York, Oxford University Press, 1995

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Violence and Non-violence are probably asold as Humankind. Here we understand“violence” as an organised use of force toinjure someone, not just an isolated andindividual abuse of force or power againstsomeone. Collective violence has a longrecord, especially because we have alwaysbeen very ingenious and persistent inmaking the artefacts that go with it. Largeamounts of time and effort have been devo-ted to this activity, and history books,museums, scholars and entertainers havepopularized the tools of violence and war.Some of these tools were elevated to mysti-cal heights, and their users became icons.Excalibur and King Arthur. Kalashnikov andChe Gevara. Enola Gay (Little Boy) andTruman. Suicide bombers and Bin Laden. Itlooks as if our history was that of war. Amoment of reflection tells us that this is avery simplistic view: we would not have sur-vived! The times of growth and prosperityare times of peace.

�Q: Why do we retain so much better the

dates and places of the bloodiest battles andtend to forget the inventers of technologicaladvances? How come we know whoconquered Troy in 1,200 BC but we cannottell who made the oldest wheel known, dis-covered in Mesopotamia and dated backfrom 3,500 B.C? Who was the commanderof the Nazi army in North Africa and whoinvented penicillin?

On February 1943, Rommel commandedthe German army that defeated the USArmy in Kasserine Pass (Tunisia), inflictingover 6,000 casualties in the US Army. At thesame time, Penicillin, one of the earliest dis-covered and widely used antibiotic agents,passed its clinical trials; shortly after, it wasproduced in large scale to treat thousandsof Allied soldiers wounded on D-Day.

The nature of wars has changed with the

increased asymmetry of our societies.Conventional wars between two contendersof comparable strength separated by a frontline, yielded to guerrilla wars opposing awell-equipped regular army to high mobilitylight-armed groups dispersed in less-popu-lated areas, and, more recently, to urban ter-rorism opposing omnipresent high-techintelligence agencies to small groups ofindividuals with home-made bombs. Thesechanges in strategy have had a tremendousimpact on the casualties of civilians.“Strategic bombings”, such as those of theEnola Gay, wiped out entire cities. With theSecond World War, the number of civiliancasualties matched, for the first time, that ofthe soldiers. In the subsequent conflicts,more civilians are killed than soldiers. Themodern urban terrorism has no military pur-pose and aims exclusively at civilians, the“soft targets”.

�Q: Are we entering an era when there is

a greater risk of facing a bomb in a publictransport to go to work than in a tank in theway to the front line?

Non-violence also has its tools and icons.For example, fasting and Mahatma Gandhiwas the combination that changed the fateof the greatest empire. According to Gandhi,“Non-violence is the law of our species asviolence is the law of the brute. The spiritlies dormant in the brute and he knows nolaw but that of physical might. The dignity ofman requires obedience to a higher law-tothe strength of the spirit.... The fact is thatnon-violence does not work in the sameway as violence. It works in the oppositeway. An armed man naturally relies upon hisarms. A man who is intentionally unarmedrelies upon the Unseen Force called God bypoets, but called the Unknown by scientists.But that which is unknown is not necessarilynon-existent. God is the Force among allforces known and unknown.”

V I O L E N C E A N D N O N - V I O L E N C E

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As a Hindu, Gandhi's favourite text was theBhagavad Gita (Song), which is part of the sixthbook of the Maha-bharata, a poem of about100,000 verses, the most widely read Hindu scrip-ture. It is a discourse between the Lord Krishnaand the warrior Arjuna that takes place in 3138B.C., setting forth moral and religious doctrines.The story takes place on the battlefield of Kuru,symbolizing the Field of Right (dharma). Twoarmies face each other, the Kurus and Pandus,and Arjuna notices that the opposing armycontains relatives and friends whom he doesn'twant to kill, so he lays down his arms. In view ofGandhi’s appreciation for this text, it may come asa surprise that Krishna (the Supreme Being, PrimalGod, Highest Abode and Eternal Spirit) has nosympathy with Arjuna's difficulty. Krishna’s firstargument is that Arjuna should "cease from sor-row" because he cannot actually kill his relatives.The Spirit in them is immortal and will simply passon to a new body. Krishna's second argument isthat, even if Arjuna can't get past the killing part,the truth is that death is simply followed by rebirth,so it amounts to the same thing as the first argu-ment. Krishna's third argument provides a positivereason, the only one, why Arjuna must fight thebattle: It is his dharma, his duty, as a Kshatriya tofight the battle. This is the problem with Gandhi'sdesire to interpret the Gita pacifistically:Kshatriyas really were in the business of fighting,and both Krishna and Arjuna are Kshatriyas.Krishna's fourth and final argument adds an emo-tional goad to his substantive arguments: If Arjunadoesn't fight, people will think he is a coward andwill insult him. Gandhi was well aware of thecontroversy generated by his interpretation. “Ihave been even seriously told that I am distortingthe meaning of the Gita, when I ascribe to thatgreat poem the teaching of unadulterated non-vio-lence. Some of my Hindu friends tell me that killingis a duty enjoined by the Gita under certain cir-cumstances… The Gita represented the eternalduel between forces of evil and good, and inculca-ted the duty of eradicating evil within us withouthesitation, without tenderness”. From the Gita,Gandhi preferably retained the passage “Better forme if the sons of Dhrita-rashtra...found me unar-med, unresisting, and killed me in the struggle ofwar."

It is rather ironic that Robert Oppenheimer, whowas in charge of the Manhattan Project (whichbuilt the first atomic bombs), chose to cite Verse

32 of the Gita, when he saw the very first bombexplode in New Mexico, in 1945. Oppenheimerwas familiar with the translation: "Now I ambecome Death, the destroyer of worlds." Thisseems more to the point, for the Atomic Bomb,than the current translation "I am all-powerful Timewhich destroys all things." The word kâla inSanskrit can mean "Time, fate; death, god ofdeath," so both translations express part of themeaning.

Another icon of non-violence is the 14th DalaiLama, and his tool is meditation. In his 1989 NobelPeace Prize acceptance speech, he stated:“Peace, in the sense of the absence of war, is oflittle value to someone who is dying of hunger orcold. It will not remove the pain of torture inflictedon a prisoner of conscience. It does not comfortthose who have lost their loved ones in floods cau-sed by senseless deforestation in a neighbouringcountry. Peace can only last where human rightsare respected, where the people are fed, andwhere individuals and nations are free. True peacewith oneself and with the world around us can onlybe achieved through the development of mentalpeace.” The Dalai Lama interprets the Buddhismphilosophy in Tibet, which is an autonomous formof Buddhism since the 10th century. His tools arethose of Buddhism.

Buddha himself lived around 600 B.C. in India. Hewas raised as a prince. After the birth of his firstson, he left his family and began a quest to seekout the source of suffering in the world.Incidentally, this personal story presented a pro-blem for the initial acceptance of Buddhism inChina, because it arrived there when China wasunder the influence of Confucionism and its highregard for the fulfilment of the duties towards thefamily. Within a month of Buddha’s death, his fol-lowers gathered together and wrote down hismost famous sayings and teachings. These havecome down to us as the Dhammapada, whichcontains 423 verses. The following, which can befound in Canto XXVI – Who is a Brahman – reflectshis philosophy of non-violence:“388. Because a man has discarded all evil, he iscalled a Brahman.”“405. He who has laid aside the cudgel that inju-res any creature whether moving or still, who nei-ther slays nor causes to be slain -- him I call aBrahman.”

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“406. He who is tolerant amongst the intole-rant, who is calm amongst the violent, andwho is unattached amongst those who areattached -- him I call a Brahman.”

At the time Buddhism was spreading in India,Confucius ("Master Kung", K'ung Fu-tzu, 551-479 B.C.) was born in China. He lived at a timewhen the Chou Dynasty was in collapse andChina was the stage of continuous warfarebetween rival baronies. A collection of hismaxims was compiled in the Lun Yü(Analects). His overwhelming message is thatif we are to achieve a state of orderliness andpeace, we need to return to traditional valuesof virtue. These values are based entirely onone concept: jen, which is best translated as"humaneness," but can also mean "huma-nity," "benevolence," "goodness," or "virtue."The essence of his teachings is reflected inone of his best-known citations: “What you donot want done to yourself, do not do toothers.” Confucius’ hierarchy of values trans-pires from the following passage (Analects,Book 12:7): “Zigong asked about government.The master said, ‘sufficient food, sufficientweapons and the trust of the people.’ Zigongsaid: ‘If you had to do without one of thesethree, which would you give up?’ —‘Weapons.’ — ‘If you had to do without one ofthe remaining two, which would you give up?’— ‘Food; after all everyone has to die even-tually. But without the trust of the people, nogovernment can stand.’"

� Q: How do you compare the ancient

Eastern doctrine of security, wealth and trust,with our current political practises?

Non-violence is not an exclusive of Easternphilosophy. A Christian icon was Martin LutherKing and his tool was massive demonstra-tions. At the age of thirty-five, he was theyoungest man to have received the NobelPeace Prize, in 1964. In his Nobel Lecture, hedefines non-violence and violence:

“Broadly speaking, non-violence in the civilrights struggle has meant not relying on armsand weapons of struggle. It has meant non-cooperation with customs and laws which areinstitutional aspects of a regime of discrimina-tion and enslavement. It has meant direct par-ticipation of masses in protest, rather thanreliance on indirect methods which frequentlydo not involve masses in action at all.”

“Violence as a way of achieving racial justiceis both impractical and immoral. I am notunmindful of the fact that violence often bringsabout momentary results. Nations have fre-quently won their independence in battle. Butin spite of temporary victories, violence neverbrings permanent peace. It solves no socialproblem: it merely creates new and morecomplicated ones. Violence is impracticalbecause it is a descending spiral ending indestruction for all. It is immoral because itseeks to humiliate the opponent rather thanwin his understanding: it seeks to annihilaterather than convert. Violence is immoralbecause it thrives on hatred rather than love.It destroys community and makes brother-hood impossible. It leaves society in monolo-gue rather than dialogue. Violence ends updefeating itself. It creates bitterness in the sur-vivors and brutality in the destroyers.”It is certainly not a coincidence that faithplayed a major role in the choices of theseicons of non-violence. Religion is an obvioussource of conflicts and wars, but can also beinspirational for their peaceful resolution.Oppenheimer’s and Gandhi’s interpretationsof the Gita are paradigmatic examples of this.Although religious beliefs are central to ourunderstanding of violence and non-violence,this has not excluded, and will not excludenon-believers from playing decisive roles inthis arena. An appropriate example is JohnLennon, and his tool was music. “Imagine” isoften ranked among the best songs in popularmusic history. It is probably the best anthemfor peace:

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Imagine there's no heaven, it's easy if you try,No hell below us, above us only sky,Imagine all the people, living for today.Imagine there's no countries, it isn't hard todo,Nothing to kill or die for, and no religion too,Imagine all the people, living life in peace.You may say I'm a dreamer, but I'm not theonly one,I hope someday you'll join us, and the worldwill be as one. Imagine no possessions, I wonder if you can,No need for greed or hunger, a brotherhood ofman,Imagine all the people, sharing all the world.You may say I'm a dreamer, but I'm not theonly one,I hope someday you'll join us, and the worldwill live as one.

The Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated in1948. Martin Luther King was assassinated in1968. John Lennon was assassinated in 1980.The 14th Dalai Lama is still living in exile, afterhaving escaped from Tibet during the Chineseinvasion of 1959. However, their achieve-ments are part of our history and are not lost.They left many followers. What is perhapsmore striking is what that they have achievedit through fasting, meditation, music and mas-sive demonstrations. Although faith in God isnot essential to accomplish the ideals of non-violence, it is essential to be able to acceptdeferred rewards. “We want it now” simply does not work. This is a major diffe-rence between the tools of violence and non-violence.

� Q: Can we develop tools that are more

rapidly effective in stopping wars and preven-ting new conflicts? Is it in the nature of non-vio-lence that all transformations must take placevery slowly? Is intercultural learning one ofthose slow-motion tools of non-violence?

Another major difference in the tools of vio-lence and non-violence is the financial invest-ment. The development of the F/A-22 Raptoradvanced tactical fighter aircraft for the US AirForce (USAF) took 19 years and 60,000 million

euros to be completed in 2005. Each one ofthe 180 units will cost 110 million euros. Withthe delivery of these units, this titanium extra-vaganza will have cost 80,000 million euros,more than the annual GNP of the CzechRepublic. But the USAF already estimates thatthey will need 200 units more. Karla Schefter,that runs the Chak-e-Wardak Hospital inAfghanistan since 1989, is likely to see themcruising at supersonic speeds over her head,while she is completely renovating her hospi-tal with a generous CARITAS donation of200,000 euros.

The lobbies behind such immense invest-ments are extremely powerful. Enough todecide between Peace and War, between whois going to live and who is going to die.However, the supporters of non-violencefinally became influential in the network ofnational and international laws that regulateour societies sixty year ago, after the end ofthe deadliest of all wars (over 50 milliondeaths, half of them civilian). Representativesof 51 countries signed the Charter of theUnited Nations, “To practice tolerance and livetogether in peace with one another as goodneighbours, and to unite our strength to main-tain international peace and security”. Threeyears later, 48 members of the GeneralAssembly of the United Nations “Whereasrecognition of the inherent dignity and of theequal and inalienable rights of all members ofthe human family is the foundation of free-dom, justice and peace in the world, (…)Whereas disregard and contempt for humanrights have resulted in barbarous acts whichhave outraged the conscience of mankind,and the advent of a world in which humanbeings shall enjoy freedom of speech andbelief and freedom from fear and want hasbeen proclaimed as the highest aspiration ofthe common people (…)” adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR). This Declaration was proclaimed “asa common standard of achievement for allpeoples and all nations”. The strength of thisDeclaration is only moral, but its influence hasgrown stronger and became a paradigmagainst which the governance of men hasbeen measured.

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The UDHR was not signed by all the United Nations members. Several Muslin countriesdid not subscribe to this Declaration. In particular, the Islamic Republic of Iran criticizesthe UDHR as a Western secular concept of Judeo-Christian origin, incompatible with thesacred Islamic shari'a. As an alternative, the 19th Islamic Conference of ForeignMinisters (session of Peace, Interdependence and Development) of the 45 MemberStates of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, adopted on 5 August 1990 theDeclaration on Human Rights in Islam (CDHRI) in Cairo. The CDHRI establishes theshari'a law as "the only source of reference" for the protection of human rights in Islamiccountries, thus giving it supremacy over the UDHR, based on divine revelation. TheCDHRI cannot be considered universal, since it endorses all the differentiations betweenindividuals as spelled out in the Islamic shari'a law, which non-Muslims do not accept.For example, in the shari'a legal system - practised in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Sudan and inother Muslim countries - the testimony of a Muslim man is equal to the testimony of twoMuslim women.

The CDHRI introduces into the political sphere an Islamic religious criterion, which impo-ses an absolute decisive and divine primacy over the political and legal spheres. On theother hand, the UDHR places social and political norms in a secular framework, sepa-rating the political from the religious. There is a profound conflict between the twovisions of man inherent to these declarations of rights. According to the Islamic view,man is of divine origin and human dignity cannot be reduced to a series of secularnorms. This is a holistic view of man, which incorporates physical, mental, social andtranscendental aspects in the same entity. The universality aimed by those who draftedand approved the UDHR was based on the common human nature and its separationfrom particular and religious contexts, which introduce and sanctify differences and dis-criminations. The roots of such separation go probably as deep as Jesus sentence "(…)repay to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God” (Matthew22:21). The attempt to remove all cultural and religious particularisms and strengthenthe universal character of the UDHR, is in itself a cultural and religious particularism.

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�Q: Is cultural relativism going to block the establishment of universal stan-

dards for human rights? Should we apply different standards for different peo-ple and cultures? Can we have peace without human rights? Should Peace bepreserved at all costs, or is there a threshold for injustice that justifies violentmeans? Do we have the right to intervene when appalling injustices take placein other regions of the world? Who can decide when and how to intervene?

The Freedom House recently published a report on 67 transitions from autho-ritarian rule that have occurred since 1972, the beginning of what politicalscientists call the "Third Wave" of democratisation. The study examines fourkey characteristics of each transition - the societal forces driving it, thestrength of non-violent civic resistance, the level of violence, and the sourcesof that violence - to determine how successful transitions to democracy areachieved. In large measure, the study finds that transitions generated by non-violent civic coalitions lead to far better results for freedom than top-downtransitions initiated by elites. In particular, the presence of strong and cohe-sive non-violent civic coalitions was identified as the most important of thefactors examined in contributing to freedom. This study calls for a paradigmshift. The most common method encountered in the past to promote thechange from an authoritarian towards a democratic regime, has been thefinancial and logistical support of “freedom fighters”, usually a cover for sometype of armed opposition. Now it seems that the most efficient methodshould be the support of indigenous civic movements, providing expertiseand training on how to organise and sequence non-violent protests and massdemonstrations, strikes and other forms of industrial action, boycotts andcivil disobedience. Some of the strongest arms in this fight for democracy aretelephone text messaging and the Internet, that remain largely outside thecontrol of authoritarian states.

Even if we agree with the method, can we agree with the casting? Who arethe actors and who is the metteur en scène?

References

Naturally, for this topic, the Internet. See, for example,http://www.un.org/

Freedom Househttp://www.freedomhouse.org/research/specreports/civictrans/

Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Researchwww.transnational.org

Transcendwww.transcend.org

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Introduction

From Justin Timberlake to Jamie Cullum, fromHarry Potter to Star Wars, from Levi's toReplay and Mustang, and from McDonalds toJamie Oliver, it seems that popular youth cul-ture has never been as diverse but also asshared as ever before. Some argue for a stillincreasing Americanisation of popularEuropean youth culture, others tend to seeEuropean youth closing the ranks for toomuch American input.

Equally we can notice how the dispute of gro-wing individualisation versus subcultures sur-faces again: is every young person one thatwe identify by purely individual characteristicsand features or do we 'label' him or her by the(social) group membership. I.e. are you forexample a young Dutch homosexual personwho likes to play computer games andattends rave parties. Or does that by definitionmake you "a raver", a "gamer", a "nerd" or a"gay", with all the consequences for musicpreferences, clothing and leisure time accor-dingly?

� Q: You are because you do, or you do

because you are?

Perhaps before getting into more preciseunderstandings of popular youth culture, weneed to explore the term 'popular culture' firstas such.

History of Popular CultureIn modern urban mass societies, popular cul-ture has been crucially shaped by the deve-lopment of industrial mass production, theintroduction of new technologies of sound andimage broadcasting and recording, and thegrowth of mass media industries: the film,broadcast radio and television, and the book

publishing industries, as well as the print andelectronic news media.

But popular culture cannot be described asjust the aggregate product of those industries;instead, it is the result of a continuing interac-tion between those industries and those whoconsume their products. Bennett distingui-shes between 'primary' and 'secondary'popular culture, the first being mass productand the second being local re-production.

Popular culture is constantly changing and isspecific to place and time. It forms currentsand eddies, in the sense that a small group ofpeople will have a strong interest in an area ofwhich the mainstream popular culture is onlypartially aware; thus, for example, the electro-pop group Kraftwerk has "impinged on mains-tream popular culture to the extent that theyhave been referenced in The Simpsons andFather Ted."

Yo u t h C u l t u r e

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Items of popular culture most typically appeal to abroad spectrum of the public. Some argue thatbroad-appeal items dominate popular culturebecause profit-making companies that produce andsell items of popular culture attempt to maximizetheir profits by emphasizing broadly appealingitems. And yet the situation is more complex. Totake the example of popular music, it is not the casethat the music industry can impose any productthey wish. In fact, highly popular types of musichave often first been elaborated in small, counter-cultural circles (punk rock, grunge or rap and hip-hop would be three examples).

SourcesPopular culture has multiple origins. A principalsource is the set of industries that make profit byinventing and promulgating cultural material. Theseinclude the popular music, film, television, radio,video game, and book and comic book publishingindustries. A second and very different source ofpopular culture is folklore. In pre-industrial times,the only mass culture was folk culture. This earlierlayer of culture still persists today, sometimes in theform of jokes or slang, which spread through thepopulation by word of mouth and the Internet. Thishas, by providing a new channel for transmission,renewed the strength of this element of popular cul-ture. Although the folkloric element of popular cul-ture is heavily engaged with the commercial ele-ment, the public has its own tastes and it may notembrace every cultural item sold. Moreover, beliefsand opinions about the products of commercial cul-ture (e.g. "My favourite character is SpongeBobSquarePants") are spread by word of mouth, andare modified in the process just as all folklore is.

A different source of popular culture is the set ofprofessional communities that provide the publicwith facts about the world, frequently accompaniedby interpretation. These include the news media,and scientific and scholarly communities. The workof scientists and scholars is mined by the newsmedia and conveyed to the general public, oftenemphasizing "factoids" that have inherent appeal orthe power to amaze. For instance, giant pandas areprominent items of popular culture; parasiticworms, though of greater practical importance, arenot.

Both scholarly facts and news stories are modifiedthrough popular transmission, often to the point ofoutright falsehoods. At this point, they becomeknown as legends. Other urban myths have no fac-tual origin at all, and were simply made up for fun.

� Q: Who and what inspires your cultural

behaviour? Are you member of a culturalgroup? How many members does this culturalgroup have?

CriticismPopular culture, being so widely available, has beenopened to criticism. One charge is that popular cul-ture tends to be superficial. Cultural items thatrequire extensive experience, training, or reflectionto be appreciated seldom become items of popularculture. Others claim that popular culture is rootedmore in sensationalism than reality. Still anothersays that popular culture is actually the cultureadopted by cultural mavens or alphas, and thenmodified later by the laggards of the mainstream.

Trends in Popular Youth CultureTrends in youth culture are, from a sociologicalviewpoint, the following:

Dance and pop music festivals are attendedbecause they give people a strong experience oftogetherness, which is obviously something youngpeople are looking for. Again and again, somethinglike a unique event is happening. Many young peo-ple are chronically seeking the uniqueness ofevents. The character of the event is also determi-ned by innovative technological developments, bytelecommunication and by ICT.

Culturally and socially controlled behaviour anddress codes are indispensable. During live encoun-ters new trends are being set and the latest fashionexposed. Prescriptions and codes of social beha-viour are reinforced, based merely on outwardappearances: style, fashion, design, controlledmovement and gesture.

Spending leisure time in youth culture can beconceived as an attempt to compensate hard-livedlife lived in jobs, family homes and class rooms. Thesparsely available leisure time has to be spent aseffectively as possible in order to relax (or: recover)sufficiently from the other life experiences. Lack ofmoney is only a small problem for participationcompared with lack of time. In general, time spenton socialising with other family members has beenreduced in favour of spending time with self chosenfriends – also mediated by ICT. In modern patternsof youth communication, individual freedom is clo-sely intertwined with social networks. These net-works are characterised by informal behaviour anda high degree of equality in human relationship.

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Roger Tredre reports European teenagers are turning their backs on American culture and dis-playing a much greater enthusiasm for European unity than their elders, according to a survey report. Eurokids, published tomorrow by Alto, a pan-European advertising agency group,suggests that young Europeans are more independently minded than was once thought. Theywatch American films, but do not consider the US or its culture the source of all inspiration.

Americanisation of Youth Culture

Quotes from C. Smithuijsen

There has been a general lift of the averagestandard of general education. In correlationwith general education, young people arereaching a high degree of independence inan early stage of their live.

They develop abilities in many directions.Computer dexterity is acquired amazinglyfast, a key instrument in contemporary com-munication. In 1993 only 26% of the youngpeople could use a computer. This percen-tage has risen to 90% in 2004. It also opensnew strategies in spending time effectively.

The emergence of multi tasking (combiningwatching TV, using internet and makinghomework) is characteristic for youth cul-ture.

The raise of welfare has lead to a significantincrease of spending power amongst youngpeople. Resources can be obtained eitherthrough pocket money or through self ear-ned money. At a relatively early stage,young people are allowed to spend theirmoney according to their own wishes. Moremoney also means more mobility.

Europeanization of Youth Culture

Quotes from R. Tredre 9

The report suggests that the young aremore eager than previous generations tolive a genuinely Euro-lifestyle: English istheir lingua-franca and Inter Rail their pass-port. They are in a hurry to learn Englishand they make 40 per cent more foreignvisits than adults (in Spain, Portugal andGreece, the figure is nearer 60).

Home-grown youth culture is the unifyingforce of the new generation.

"Eurokids" listen to European rave music,wear French and Italian jeans, watchEuropean "video-jockeys" on the satellitemusic channel MTV, and gather in tapasbars. When they do look beyond Europe, itis to the East. They are interested in Japan,which they see as a hi-tech paradise andhome of hip foods such as sushi.

The researchers built up their portrait of thetypical Eurokid by interviewing groups ofpeople aged under 25 in Amsterdam,Barcelona, Brussels, Dusseldorf, London,Milan and Paris. Seventy-eight per centexpressed approval of the EC. "Everywherewe went, we found the young talking enthu-siastically about a united Europe".

9 Roger Tredre is the editor in chief of Worth Global Style Network (WGSN). WGSN provides online research, trend analysis and news to the fashion, design and styleindustries.

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Processes of informalisation and de-hierar-chisation open up the possibility for youngpeople to built up there cultural preferencesaccording to their own insight and with selfassembled circles of friends.

As a result of commercialising, mass produc-tion and increase in scale, the price of cultu-ral products has gone down substantially. (cf.the price of a mobile phone of digital camera)Apart from this accessibility, culture is alsoinstant accessible, without long learningcourses.

Important features (also international) of theofficial culture, like originality, quality, techni-cal virtuosity and the use of high standard,specialised accommodations are absent inyouth culture. Moreover, official culture ismono-tasking almost everywhere, speciali-sed in form and content, traditionally produ-ced (without ICT) and both intellectually andphysically difficult to enter.

The convergence of north and southembraces everything from sex to food. TheSpanish are adopting the favourite dishesof German youth: frozen chips and pizzas.A third of young Spaniards eat conve-nience meals - unknown 10 years ago.

The spread of video and youth orientedprogrammes is pushing European youthculture underground. Ninety-one per centof the 18- to 25-year-olds had colour TV intheir home, and 50 per cent had a video.Mr Silvester said: "In the Sixties, the TVculture which unified and directedAmerican youth had an anodyne contentbecause it had to be acceptable for familyviewing. In the Nineties, kids are watchingtheir own programmes on their TVs andvideos in their bedrooms. TV is now beco-ming part of a youth subculture."

Inclusion / Exclusion values

In principle, youth culture is open to anybody who wants to enter the scene looking for relaxation,cultural entertainment and emotional fulfilment. But there is an invisible requirement: individual beha-viour has to correspond to the social situation, which presupposes a high degree of self-discipline.Even when informal behaviour seems to be the norm, informal, for outsiders hardly perceptible waysof social exclusion are at work. But neither in cultural policy, nor in the cultural scene is this really anissue. Social exclusion is not related to cultural entertainment, as it is explicitly related to poverty,unemployment and restricted social changes due to lack of education or professional abilities.According to a recent survey, Dutch citizens want Dutch society to be more cohesive. But they donot expect results from a government taking serious actions. Social cohesion has to developthrough better relationships between citizens themselves. (Social and Cultural Planning Office,2004:69)

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�Q: What makes you a unique individual? Do you see yourself included or exclu-

ded for that reason?

Resources

� Bigsby, C.W.E. "Super culture - American popular culture and Europe", The BowlingGreen University Press, 1975� Epstein, J.S. (ed.) "Youth culture, identity in a post-modern world", BlackwellPublishers, 1998� Eurobarometer: http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/index_en.htm� Gerard-Sharp, L. "Eurokids Go Through the EC Blender", from "Ideas and Issues" byL. Gerard-Sharp, published by kind permission of Chancerel International, publishd inPoland by British Council, 2003� Gomez, D.P. "The characterization of the youthfulness: Anglo-American influencethrough the TV screen", Estonian Social Science Online, issue 2,http://www.psych.ut.ee/esta/online/2000/� Keyes, M. "Youth Culture and Growing Up". This article was adapted from a lectureKeyes gave at the 2000 L’Abri Conference.� Robertson, R. "Globalisation and Social Theory and Global Culture", SAGEPublications, London, 1992� Roche, M. "Citizenship, Popular Culture and Europe", Sheffield University, publishedas chapter 6 in Nick Stevenson (ed.) Culture and Citizenship, Sage, 2001� Smithuijsen, C. "Youth culture and cultural policy in The Netherlands", in conferencereader for Trans-generational approaches to culture: 17 - 18 December 2004,Barcelona, Spain

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List of contents

AskingHumanityHuman rights embody the fundamental values of human civilizations Democracy as Universal ValueThe Worst Cruelties in Life are its Killing InjusticesSuperducks and underducks The Age of ConsentFebruary 13, 2006I know why the caged bird sings

A N T H O L O G Y

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Asking

I ask the earth: How does earth live with earth? —We honour each other. I ask water: How does water live with water? —We fill each other up. I ask the grass: How does grass live withgrass? —We weave into one another creating horizons. I ask man: How does man live with man? I ask man: How does man live with man? I ask man: How does man live with man? Huu Thinh

Humanity

It was during those long and lonely years thatmy hunger for the freedom of my own peoplebecame a hunger for the freedom of all peo-ple, white and black. I knew as well as I knewanything that the oppressor must be liberatedjust as surely as the oppressed. A man whotakes away another man's freedom is a priso-ner of hatred, he is locked behind the bars ofprejudice and narrow-mindedness. I am nottruly free if I am taking away someone else'sfreedom, just as surely as I am not free whenmy freedom is taken from me. The oppressedand the oppressor alike are robbed of theirhumanity.(Nelson Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom)

Human rights embody the funda-mental values of human civilizations

People are different, and so are their cultures.People live in different ways, and civilizationsalso differ.People speak in a variety of languages.People are guided by different religions.People are born different colours, and manytraditions influence their lives with varyingcolours and shades.People dress differently and adapt to theirenvironment in different ways.People express themselves differently. Music,literature and art reflect different styles as well.But despite these differences, all people haveone single common attribute: they are allhuman beings—nothing more, nothing less.And however different they may be, all culturesembrace certain common principles:No culture tolerates the exploitation of humanbeings.No religion allows the killing of the innocent.No civilization accepts violence or terror.Torture is abhorrent to the human conscience.Brutality and cruelty are appalling in every tra-dition.

In short, these common principles, which areshared by all civilizations, reflect our funda-mental human rights. These rights are treasu-red and cherished by everyone, everywhere.

So, cultural relativity should never be used asa pretext to violate human rights, since theserights embody the most fundamental values ofhuman civilizations. The Universal Declarationof Human Rights is needed universally, appli-cable to both East and West. It is compatiblewith every faith and religion. Failing to respectour human rights only undermines our huma-nity.

Let us not destroy this fundamental truth; if wedo, the weak will have nowhere to turn.(Shirin Ebadi)

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Democracy as Universal Value

In the distant future, when people look back atwhat happened in the XX century, they will find itdifficult not to accord primacy to the emergence ofdemocracy as the preeminently acceptable formof governance.

The idea of democracy as a universal commitmentis quite new, and it is quintessentially a product ofthe twentieth century. The rebels who forced res-traint on the king of England through the MagnaCarta saw the need as an entirely local one. Incontrast, the American fighters for independenceand the revolutionaries in France contributedgreatly to an understanding of the need for demo-cracy as a general system. Yet the focus of theirpractical demands remained quite local--confined,in effect, to the two sides of the North Atlantic, andfounded on the special economic, social, and poli-tical history of the region. It is necessary to grasp clearly the sense in whichdemocracy has become a dominant belief in thecontemporary world. In any age and social cli-mate, there are some sweeping beliefs that seemto command respect as a kind of general rule--likea "default" setting in a computer program; they areconsidered right unless their claim is somehowprecisely negated. While democracy is not yet uni-versally practiced, nor indeed uniformly accepted,in the general climate of world opinion, democra-tic governance has now achieved the status ofbeing taken to be generally right. The ball is verymuch in the court of those who want to rubbishdemocracy to provide justification for that rejec-tion. This is a historic change from not very longago, when the advocates of democracy for Asia orAfrica had to argue for democracy with their backsto the wall. While we still have reason enough todispute those who, implicitly or explicitly, rejectthe need for democracy, we must also note clearlyhow the general climate of opinion has shiftedfrom what it was in previous centuries. We do nothave to establish afresh, each time, whether suchand such a country (South Africa, or Cambodia, orChile) is "fit for democracy" (a question that wasprominent in the discourse of the nineteenth cen-tury); we now take that for granted. This recogni-tion of democracy as a universally relevant sys-tem, which moves in the direction of its accep-tance as a universal value, is a major revolution inthinking, and one of the main contributions of thetwentieth century. It is in this context that we have

to examine the question of democracy as a univer-sal value.

How well has democracy worked? While no onereally questions the role of democracy in, say, theUnited States or Britain or France, it is still a mat-ter of dispute for many of the poorer countries inthe world. This is not the occasion for a detailedexamination of the historical record, but I wouldargue that democracy has worked well enough.

India, of course, was one of the major battle-grounds of this debate. In denying Indians inde-pendence, the British expressed anxiety over theIndians' ability to govern themselves. India wasindeed in some disarray in 1947, the year itbecame independent. It had an untried govern-ment, an undigested partition, and unclear politi-cal alignments, combined with widespread com-munal violence and social disorder. It was hard tohave faith in the future of a united and democraticIndia. And yet, half a century later, we find a demo-cracy that has, taking the rough with the smooth,worked remarkably well. Political differences havebeen largely tackled within the constitutional gui-delines, and governments have risen and fallenaccording to electoral and parliamentary rules. Anungainly, unlikely, inelegant combination of diffe-rences, India nonetheless survives and functionsremarkably well as a political unit with a democra-tic system. Indeed, it is held together by its wor-king democracy.

India, of course, was one of the major battle-grounds of this debate. In denying Indians inde-pendence, the British expressed anxiety over theIndians' ability to govern themselves. India wasindeed in some disarray in 1947, the year itbecame independent. It had an untried govern-ment, an undigested partition, and unclear politi-cal alignments, combined with widespread com-munal violence and social disorder. It was hard tohave faith in the future of a united and democraticIndia. And yet, half a century later, we find a demo-cracy that has, taking the rough with the smooth,worked remarkably well. Political differences havebeen largely tackled within the constitutional gui-delines, and governments have risen and fallenaccording to electoral and parliamentary rules. Anungainly, unlikely, inelegant combination of diffe-rences, India nonetheless survives and functionsremarkably well as a political unit with a democra-tic system. Indeed, it is held together by its wor-king democracy.

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India has also survived the tremendous chal-lenge of dealing with a variety of major lan-guages and a spectrum of religions. Religiousand communal differences are, of course, vul-nerable to exploitation by sectarian politi-cians, and have indeed been so used on seve-ral occasions (including in recent months),causing massive consternation in the country.Yet the fact that consternation greets secta-rian violence and that condemnation of suchviolence comes from all sections of the coun-try ultimately provides the main democraticguarantee against the narrowly factionalexploitation of sectarianism. This is, of course,essential for the survival and prosperity of acountry as remarkably varied as India, whichis home not only to a Hindu majority, but to theworld's third largest Muslim population, to mil-lions of Christians and Buddhists, and to mostof the world's Sikhs, Parsees, and Jains.(Amartya Sen)

The Worst Cruelties in Life are itsKilling Injustices

The world today is suffering another form ofmodern poverty. No need to quote the figures;they are widely known and repeating themagain only makes another wall of statistics.Perhaps as much as a third of the world’spopulation live with less than 2 a day. Localcultures with their partial remedies – both phy-sical and spiritual – for some of life’s afflictionsare being systematically destroyed orattacked. The new technology and means ofcommunication, the free market economy,productive abundance, parliamentary demo-cracy, are failing, so far as the poor areconcerned, to keep any of their promisesbeyond that of the supply of certain cheapconsumerist goods, which the poor can buywhen they steal.

The secret of storytelling amongst the poor isthe conviction that stories are told so that theymay be listened to elsewhere, where some-body, or perhaps a legion of people, knowbetter than the storyteller or the story’s prota-gonists, what life means. The powerful can’ttell stories: boasts are the opposite of stories,and any story however mild has to be fearlessand the powerful today live nervously.

A story refers life to an alternative and morefinal judge who is far away. Maybe the judge islocated in the future, or in the past that is stillattentive, or maybe somewhere over the hill,where the day’s luck has changed (the poorhave to refer often to bad or good luck) so thatthe last have become first.

Story-time (the time within a story) is notlinear. The living and the dead meet as liste-ners and judges within this time, and the grea-ter the number of listeners felt to be there, themore intimate the story becomes to each lis-tener. Stories are one way of sharing the beliefthat justice is imminent. And for such a belief,children, women and men will fight at a givenmoment with astounding ferocity. This is whytyrants fear storytelling: all stories somehowrefer to the story of their fall.(John Berger)

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Superducks and underducks

Every day we spend 2.2bn on killing eachother. Global military spending in effect paysfor huge hunting parties in which hunter andhunted are of the same species; the winner iswhoever kills the biggest number of his peers.Think how all this money could better bespent to provide food, education and health-care for deprived children worldwide.

The first impression is that such vast expendi-ture on arms is grotesque. Does it appearmore justified if we look closely at thecontext? The official line is that the wastage isessential to the global war on terror. Yet com-mon sense suggests that terrorists are grate-ful for the many weapons in circulation and somuch military action under way. The wars inAfghanistan and Iraq have greatly stimulatedterrorism: you do not need to be a statisticianto notice the increasing number of attacks.Wars are state terrorism, which feeds and isfed by private terrorism.

The five largest arms producers are the US,Russia, China, the United Kingdom andFrance. They are also the countries with a vetoin the United Nations Security Council. Itinsults common sense to make those whoprovide the world’s weapons the guarantors ofworld peace.

These five countries are in charge. They runthe International Monetary Fund and all(except China) are among the eight countriesthat take most key decisions at the WorldBank and the World Trade Organisation,where the right of veto exists but is neverused. Surely it would be common sense forthe struggle for world democracy to beginwith the democratisation of international orga-nisations. But common sense hardly has achance to be heard, let alone vote.

Many of the worst crimes and injustices onearth are carried out through these three inter-national organisations: the IMF, World Bank

and WTO. Their victims are the disappeared -not the people who vanished under militarydictatorships but the things that have goneunder democracy. Over the past few years,my country, Uruguay, has seen jobs, decentwages, pensions, factories, lands and evenrivers disappear. The story is the same all overLatin America and in many other regions. Weare even seeing our children disappear, rever-sing their forebears’ emigrant dreams andheading for Europe and elsewhere. Doescommon sense tell us that we have to endureavoidable suffering and accept these trage-dies as the work of fate?

Little by little, the world is getting less and lessfair. True, the difference between a woman’ssalary and that of a man is not quite the gap itonce was. But at the current sluggish rate ofprogress, wage equality between men andwomen will not be reached for 475 years.Common sense does not advise us to wait forit to happen: as far as I know, women do notlive that long.

True education, based on common sense andleading to it, tells us we must fight to regainwhat has been taken from us. The Catalanbishop Pedro Casaldaliga has worked formany years in the heart of the rainforest inMato Grosso, one of the poorest states inBrazil. He says that it may be true that if yougive a man a fish you feed him for a day whileif you teach him to fish you feed him for life;but there is no point teaching anyone to fishwhen the rivers have all been poisoned orsold.

A circus trainer teaches bears to dance by hit-ting them on the neck with a spiked stick. Ifthey dance correctly; the trainer stops hittingthem and they get fed. If not, the torture conti-nues, and the bears go back to their cageshungry. The bears dance for fear of blows andof going hungry. To the trainer, this is goodsense. But do the bears see it that way?

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After the second hijacked plane of 9/11 hit thesecond tower of the World Trade Centre, itbegan to disintegrate; people rushed to thestairs to get out quickly. A Tannoy messageordered all workers to return to their desks.Workers had to use their common sense: noone who obeyed that order can have survived.

To save ourselves, we must work together.Like ducks in the same covey. Collective flyingworks like this: a duck sets off and makes wayfor two others, who are then followed by ano-ther pair, whose energy inspires a fourth pair tojoin, and so on, so that the ducks fly in an ele-gant V formation. Each duck at some time fliesboth at the head of this V and at its tail.According to my friend Juan Diaz Bordenave,who is no palmipedologist but still knows whathe is talking about, no duck ever felt like asuperduck when it was heading the V nor likean underduck flying at the tail. At least duckshave kept their common sense.(Eduardo Galeano: Translated by GulliverCragg)

The Age of Consent

Without global democracy, national demo-cracy is impossible. The shift of power to theglobal sphere is the reason why almost everymajor political party on earth now has thesame policies. Their policies are pre-determi-ned by the banks and financial speculators,the corporations and the global institutions. Atthe national level, there is democracy but nochoice. At the global level, there is choice butno democracy. The great question of our ageis what the hell we intend to do about it.

Many within our movement have responded tothis problem in two related ways. The first is toseek to regain control of politics by dragging itback to the only level at which true democracycould be said to work: the local community.The second is to accept that representativepolitics has failed, and to ditch it in favour of“participatory” or “direct” democracy. Iunderstand and sympathise with both posi-tions. But I feel they are inadequate responses

to the challenges we face.All the issues we care about most – climatechange, international debt, nuclear prolifera-tion, war, the balance of trade between nations– can be resolved only at the global or theinternational level. Without global measures, itis impossible to see how we might distributewealth from rich nations to poor ones, tax themobile rich and their even more mobile money,control the shipment of toxic waste, sustainthe ban on landmines, prevent the use ofnuclear weapons, broker peace betweennations or prevent powerful states from forcingweaker ones to trade on their terms. By wor-king only at the local level, we leave these, themost critical of issues, to the men who haveappointed themselves to run the world.

Moreover, everything we attempt to implementat the local level can be destroyed at the glo-bal or the continental level. Look at what theFree Trade Agreement of the Americas hasdone to local environmental protection. Lookat what the General Agreement on Trade inServices will do to public education andhealthcare. Look at what European subsidieshave done to small farmers in the developingworld. Ignoring global governance does notmake it go away. It is happening now. It willcontinue to happen, with or without us. And –and this is the most uncomfortable truth withwhich we must engage – it must happen, if theissues which concern us are not to be resolvedsimply by the brute force of the powerful.

It seems to me, in other words, that it is notenough to think globally and act locally, impor-tant as this is. We must act globally as well.Our task is not to overthrow globalisation, butto capture it, and to use it as a vehicle forhumanity’s first global democratic revolution.Now many will respond, “but we are operatingat the global level already. Are you not aware ofthe protests in Seattle, Cancun, Genoa andone hundred other cities? Are you not aware ofthe World Social Forum and the meetingswhich build up to it? Are we not already doingall that we can to seize control of global poli-tics?

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My response is that these are the most exci-ting political developments in decades, andthat we have begun a movement which reallydoes have the potential to change the world.

But we have two basic problems, with whichwe must engage if we are serious about globaljustice. The first is that, vast and inspiring asour movements are, they have not yet shakenthe seat of power, and do not yet show anysign of being able to do so. We rightly exposed,for example, the outrageous trading demandsof the rich nations, and helped some of theweaker nations to find the courage to stand upto them, contributing to the collapse of the revi-led World Trade Organisation. But has this pre-vented injustice? Not a bit of it. The EuropeanUnion and the US have discovered that theyare in fact better off without the WTO. Theyhave now struck bilateral deals with most ofthe weaker nations, which are even moreoppressive than the policies they tried toimpose through the trade organisation. Whatwe have found, in other words, is that the WTOwas not power, simply the organisationthrough which power was brokered. We havehelped to smash a symbol of power. We havedone nothing to prevent the exercise of power.

The second problem is that, though we have abetter claim than any other global grouping tospeak on its behalf, we are not the world. Mostof us who attend the national and global socialforums, who travel to our capitals or other peo-ple’s to protest, who fill cyberspace and theprinted page with our opinions and debates,are members of a priveleged minority. We havetime, money, passports, literacy and access totechnology.

These two problems are, I feel, closelyconnected. Our power is limited partly becauseour mandate is limited. In all periods of history,people seeking democracy under conditions ofdictatorship have possessed two sources of

power. The first is force of arms. Modern mili-tary technology ensures that the overthrow ofexisting powers by means of armed civilianrevolt has become all but impossible. If wesought to storm the modern world’s Bastille atGuantanamo Bay, we would be blown to bitslong before we came anywhere near.Terrorism, of course, remains an effective wea-pon: Bin Laden’s key demand, that US troopsbe removed from Saudi Arabia, has quietlybeen met by the superpower. But, like all vio-lent revolutionary means, it is inherently anti-democratic. It requires secrecy, while demo-cracy requires transparency and accountabi-lity. It empowers those with the means to vio-lence, and they are likely, once their first aimshave been met, to turn it against the citizenswith whom they disagree.

So just one legitimate source of powerremains: moral authority. It is the force whichhelped to remove Marcos, Ceauceascu,Suharto, Milosevic, de Lozada andShevardnadze from government. It is the forcewe possess in some measure already – whyelse did James Wolfenson, the head of theWorld Bank, apply to speak at the World SocialForum last year? It is a force which we wouldpossess in far, far greater measure if we couldshow that we represented the people of theworld, rather than just ourselves.

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Alongside participatory forums, in otherwords, we need to build a representativeforum. We need a world parliament. Manypeople consider this an appalling idea, and Ican understand why. Representative demo-cracy at the national and the regional levellooks bad enough. Why on earth would wewant to replicate that system at the globallevel? And if true democracy can function onlyat the level of the community, surely by thetime we get to the global level, it’s going to bea pretty shoddy version of the Athenian (orZapatistan) ideal.

The answer to the second question is yes, itwill be. But I would ask this. If not by thismeans, then what? Not having a world parlia-ment is also a decision. It is a decision to per-mit the world to continue to be run by a self-appointed group of men from the rich nations.A world parliament is a far-from-perfect solu-tion to the problem of global governance. Butnot nearly as far-from-perfect as the alterna-tive: permitting the global dictatorship toresolve the problem on our behalf.

The answer to the first question is also yes.The existing model of national parliamentaryor congressional democracy in most parts ofthe world is a dreadful template on which tobase a new system. It has been corrupted bymonied interests, by unfair voting systems, byexecutive power and media control. But thereare many lessons we can learn from the failu-res of our systems.

Let us assume for the moment that we havethe means to design whatever system weplease. What would that system be? It seemsto me that it must do what the existing globalinstitutions claim to do but fail to do. In otherwords, we need a body through which nationscan negotiate with each other to achievepeace. We need a body which distributeswealth between nations. We need a bodywhich lays down fair trading rules, defending

citizens and the environment. To travel fromhere to there means transforming some of theworld’s institutions and destroying others.

I should emphasise at this point, as the idea iscommonly misunderstood, that I am not tal-king about any further transfer of powers fromthe nation states to global or internationalbodies. I am simply talking about the demo-cratisation of those powers which havealready been ceded by nation states to theglobal level. I am not inventing global gover-nance, but merely trying to make it work in theinterests of the people.

Let us start with the United Nations. In princi-ple, it’s a good idea. In practice, it helps thestrong to bully the weak, for three reasons.The first is that the permanent members of theSecurity Council have been granted absolutepower. The second is that it is riddled with rot-ten boroughs: the tiny nations have the samevote as the very large ones. This is grosslyunfair – every Tuvaluan, for example, is worth100,000 Indians – and it also means that thestrong nations have a powerful incentive tokick the small ones around. The third is thatthe dictatorships have the same voting rightsas the democracies, and none of the atten-dant governments have any obligation to referto their people before voting. It seems to methat the answer here is not to junk the UN, butto democratise it. The first step is surely toscrap the Security Council and vest its powersin the UN General Assembly. The second is toweight the votes of the member states accor-ding to their country’s size and their degree ofdemocratisation. Democracy rankings arealready being developed by groups such asDemocratic Audit. But we should begin todevelop our own. Among the criteria weshould investigate are the nation’s degree ofeconomic democracy (the distribution ofwealth) and the extent of public consultationbefore global voting takes place.George Monbiot

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February 13, 2006

The Western democracies, so keen onexporting their political model to the rest ofthe world, seem to be perfecting the art ofshooting themselves in the foot, and I'm noteven going to mention the war in Iraq.

The cartoon affair which showed up Danishdemocracy as religiously illiterate at theonset and by last week's end defensivelybigoted was preceded only two weeks earlierby President Jacques Chirac of Franceboldly announcing that any (presumablyIslamic) nation that supported groups thattried to use terrorism and weapons of massdestruction against France should expect anuclear riposte.

In an age when a terrorist group could at bestdetonate a so-called "dirty bomb", conven-tional explosives wrapped around some sto-len nuclear waste and kill at most a thousandpeople, or biological weapons like theanthrax letters that killed all of half a dozenpeople in the U.S. four years' ago, this wasshowing a European democracy at its mosttendentious not to say callous and barbaric.

Democracies seem presently so intent onrevealing an ugly side that, unless one absor-bed it with one's mother's milk as most wes-terners have, present practice might dis-suade one for all time.

All that democracy appears capable of at themoment, to quote Professor John Dunn ofCambridge University in his magisterial newstudy of the subject, is to make "Europe'sbigotries and parochialisms a global world-historical force, instead of a mere local defor-mity or a continental stigma."

Alas, for all its failing the world has no betteridea, as Winston Churchill famously decla-red. The twentieth century saw all sorts ofexperiments from fascism to national socia-lism, to anarchism, to monarchism, toMarxism, to theocracy and all came undone.Out of the ferocious competition betweenpolitical ideas democracy came out well ontop. But today, as Dunn writes, "the term

democracy has become (as the Freudiansput it) too highly cathected: saturated withemotion, irradiated by passion, tugged toand fro and ever more overwhelmed byaccumulated confusion. To rescue it as anaid in understanding politics, we need tothink our way past a mass of history andblock our ears to many pressing importuni-ties."

We need to know far more about it than wedo. President Bush, for example, has decla-red that, "the reason I'm so strong on demo-cracy is democracies don't go to war witheach other." Indeed, much academicresearch has proved his point and it is animportant and good one. But democracieshave a terrible record of going to war againstnon-democracies, often on the flimsiestexcuse. Look at America's nineteenth cen-tury war against Spain. Britain, a recentstudy has revealed, has gone to war moretimes in the last hundred years than anyother country in the world.

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Perhaps we should not be surprised that Platowas against the democracy of his homeland,Athens. Plato believed that in the best form ofgovernment philosophers would rule.Historians have wondered why he was soagainst democracy. Was it because he wasfrom a rich landed family and Athenian demo-cracy seemed to be in favour of more equalincome distribution? Or was it because ademocratic state had sentenced to death histeacher, Socrates, falsely accusing him ofimpiety and treading on Greeks' religious sen-sibilities? But it was also because Plato sawdemocracy as the rule of the foolish, viciousand always potentially brutal.Athenian democracy flourished but then theidea faded away for the best part of 2000years. The Romans had little time for it. Itreturned, called something else, in the strug-gle for American independence and a fewyears later, under its own name, it became thecentral rallying cry of the French Revolution.Only after 1789 did people start to speak ofdemocratising societies and it was the Frenchspirit not the American one that was its potentexporter. Every soldier in Napoleon's ranks, ashis armies tore across Europe, carried a copyof "The Rights of Man" in his rucksack. But wemust never forget that democracy wouldnever have achieved the promise it didwithout the vision of Robespierre, this figure of"reptilian fascination", who organised themass executions of those thought to opposethe path of the Revolution.

Over the next 150 years the cause of demo-cracy gradually edged forward but it onlytriumphed after 1945.

Today some of us like to think, as Pericles didin his great oration on the subject, that demo-cracy gives society its sobriety of judgementand respect for wisdom, the pride necessaryfor its economic energy and generosity andeven its respect for taste and responsivenessto beauty. But we are engaged in a perpetualfight against its worst elements.Jonathan Power

I know why the caged bird sings

A free bird leaps on the back of the windand floats downstream till the current endsand dips his wing in the orange suns rays anddares to claim the sky.But a bird that stalks down his narrow cagecan seldom see through his bars of ragehis wings are clipped and his feet are tied sohe opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings with a fearful trillof things unknown but longed for stilland his tune is heard on the distant hillfor the caged bird sings of freedom.

The free bird thinks of another breezeand the trade winds soft through the sighingtreesand the fat worms waiting on a dawn-brightlawn and he names the sky his own.

But a caged bird stands on the grave ofdreamshis shadow shouts on a nightmare screamhis wings are clipped and his feet are tied sohe opens his throat to sing.

The caged bird sings with a fearful trillof things unknown but longed for stilland his tune is heard on the distant hillfor the caged bird sings of freedom.Maya Angelou

Section 2:

Activities

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INDEX

�

Methodology 4Index of Activities 7Eurogizers 9Open Space Technology 12

CHAPTER 1: Activities with sending students 15Cultural Time Capsule 16Cowboys and Princesses 18Taboo! 20Can you? 22Paola or Pedro 24That makes me so angry! 26Citizionary! 30

CHAPTER 2:Activities with host students 31Strangers in the Night 33Critical Incidents 36The Parable 39Ideas and Challenges 42The Trading Game 51The Albatross 60

CHAPTER 3: Activities for volunteer trainings 66Ecological Footprint 67If the World were a Village 70News Factory 75Take One Step Forward 86Wheel Rights 91Who are I 93

CHAPTER 4:Activities for schools communities 96Critical Questions about Consumerism 97The Imaginary Country 101Probable and Preferable Futures 103Rights Bingo! 107Rights in the News 110Taking the Human Rights Temperature of Your School 113

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METHODOLOGY

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METHODOLOGIES IN C IT IZENSHIP EDUCATION

“Methodology” is the bridge betweenconcepts and issues on one side, and activi-ties on the other one. Once we have agreedon the concepts and issues, we have todecide on how we are going to bring them topractice.

Citizenship (and peace) Education is argua-bly an area where “how it is done” becomesas important as “what is done”. History hasrepeatedly proven that the “war to end allwars” is just another war. Learning aboutCitizenship (and peace) is necessarily lear-ning by example. It is about setting thehighest standards for oneself, being transpa-rent in the actions and giving examples of thebest practices. Preaching about Citizenshipin Europe is simply not enough. It must beaccompanied by the practice of its values ofsolidarity, respect for the cultural identities ofothers, and appreciation of diversity. Perhapsthe most important method to transmitCitizenship Education is to practise an activecitizenship in Europe.

The challenge of bringing EuropeanCitizenship into practice is further amplifiedby the nature of its contents. It is not like trai-ning in mathematics, with nicely worked outexamples and exact solutions, or like debrie-fing a poem, following the leads of its authorand critics. Bringing European Citizenshipinto practice is about making each one of usa better citizen. It is a path of personal trans-formation, experienced differently by eachindividual, with rational and emotionalcontents. Following this path requires someguidance and encouragement, but it isessentially a free choice that each one of usmakes.

� Q: How can we help an individual to follow the path of active citizenship? Whatseparates guidance from conditioning?What should we do if his free choice differsfrom ours?

The method of citizenship education is theway of accompanying and supportingsomeone willing to show more solidarity, res-pect for the others and appreciation of diver-sity. Many methods have attempted to fostercultural sensitivity and awareness at the indi-vidual level. First, it was thought that tea-ching about it, just like one may teach mathe-matics or languages, would be enough.However, formal teaching schemes are ineffi-cient in changing values and attitudes in adurable manner. Subsequently, psychologi-cal and psychoanalytical methods were intro-duced, but they were insufficient to bringabout massive social transformation in atimely manner.

The method currently employed by AFS andEFIL member organisations to achieve a bet-ter understanding of oneself and of one’sown culture, and to become more apprecia-tive of cultural diversity, is the studentsexchange programme. The essence of thisprogramme is a deep immersion in a hostcommunity. The success of AFS and EFIL’smethods is measured by the success of theintegration of a foreign pupil in a host com-munity. The keys to this success are theexchange students, the host families, theout-of-school counsellors, and the teachers.A satisfactory experience depends muchmore on the host family than on the

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host school: a pupil may gradually accept adifferent school system and do well, if he/sheis happy and at ease with the host family. Thecontrary is usually not true: most exchangepupils fail also at school, if they are not ade-quately supported at home. Also, approxima-tely 50-60% of the pupils require intensivecounselling sessions during their stayabroad. The out-of-school counsellor, whohas a more comprehensive view of the pupil’sneeds and of his/her relations with the hos-ting environment, takes most of the responsi-bility for this counselling. Only about onefourth of the exchange students need tochange host families, and early returns arenot significant.

The students exchange programme is anexperiential method. The preparation for thisprogramme anticipates the difficulties thatmay be experienced and gives clues on howto resolve them. That preparation is based ongames, simulations, role-playing, brainstor-ming, etc, which require personal engage-ment and interaction with others, often in amulticultural environment. Such activitieshave been described in many books, and aselection of them is offered in the next chap-ter of this manual. They were designed tohelp participants in cross-cultural experien-ces. The question is whether they are valua-ble for stimulating the interest for Citizenshipin Europe.

� Q: Can the methods of Intercultural

Education be extended to deal with issuesof Citizenship in Europe? Is experientialtraining relevant to raise our awareness ofcitizens of the same part of the world? Isthis a step towards becoming citizens of thewhole world? Does the incorporation andinclusion of citizenship education in EFILwork require a new approach?

This Manual, and most of the current work onIntercultural Education, is based on the follo-wing principles:� All cultures have equal value� Questioning stimulates personal growth� Durable social changes start at the perso-nal level� Reciprocity recognises the contribution ofeveryone� Intercultural competences are the cementof multicultural societiesMuch of these principles also apply to thestrengthening of Citizenship is Europe,because Europe can only be built as a multi-cultural/multi-ethnical society where thecontribution of all groups is recognised andtheir differences are respected. In someaspects, however, the approach toIntercultural Education goes beyond therequirements of citizenship educationbecause of its emphasis on personal change.The basic idea behind that approach is toprepare the individual (the citizen) for his/hernew role. Just as we cannot expect a foreignpupil to integrate himself/herself in a hostcommunity without any orientation and coun-selling, we can also not expect to makeEuropeans better citizens just because newlaws (or constitutional rights) were passed.Approving such constitutional rights andapplying them to the people is a “top-down”approach, contrary to the intercultural princi-ples on personal growth and social change.

The approach to Citizenship in Europe follo-wed in this Manual is a “bottom-up”approach. It is based on questioning the indi-vidual, making him/her experience gamesand simulations, debriefing with him/her afterthe experiences, share the knowledge, thedoubts, and the anxieties. The changes in theindividual brought about by this method mayeventually lead to social changes.

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Caminante, son tus huellas Wanderer, your footstepsel camino y nada más; are the road, and nothing more;caminante, no hay camino, wanderer, there is no road,se hace camino al andar. the road is made by walking

Al andar se hace camino By walking one makes the road,y al volver la vista atrás and upon glancing behindse ve la senda que nunca one sees the path that never se ha de volver a pisar. Will be trod again

Caminante no hay camino wanderer, there is no road,sino estelas en la mar... only wakes upon the sea.

Antonio Machado, “Cantares”

�Q: Is citizenship education an additional

topic in the same framework onIntercultural Education, or is it a differentapproach to a different public? Is it anenrichment of EFIL’s mission, or a change inthe organisation? Can it be done with thesame resources, or does it require newactors, new partnerships, new competen-ces, new resources, additional training andpreparation?

The “Activities” described next in this Manualmeet the principles of Intercultural Education.They train for ambiguity and prepare forchange. They also fulfil the needs of trainingfor Citizenship in Europe because theyaddress the issues of solidarity, respect forothers and appreciation of diversity. Many ofthe activities rely on experiential learning andrequire personal involvement. Not just theparticipants’ personal involvement, our ownpersonal involvement as facilitators too. Andthe best of our contribution to the field is pre-cisely our personal involvement.

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INDEX OF ACTIVITIES

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Index of ActivitiesTitle Recommended for…Cultural Time Capsule Pre-departure orientation 2 x x x 16Cowboys & Princesses Pre-departure orientation 2 x x x 18Taboo! Pre-departure orientation 3 x x x x x x 20Can You?! Pre-departure orientation 2 x x x 22Paola or Pedro Pre-departure orientation 2 x x x 24That makes me so angry! Pre-departure orientation 3 x 26Citizionary Pre-departure orientation 2 x x x 30Strangers in the Night Inbound Students 1 x x x 33 Critical Incidents Inbound Students 3 x x x 36 The Parable Inbound Students 1 x x x 39Ideas and Challenges Inbound Students 3 x x x 42 The Trading Game Inbound Students 3 x x 51Albatross Inbound Students 2 x x x 60Ecological Footprint Volunteer Training 2 x x x 67If the World were a Village Volunteer Training 2 x x x 70News Factory Volunteer Training 3 x x 75Take One Step Forward Volunteer Training 2 x x 86Wheel Rights Volunteer Training 2 x x 91 Who are I Volunteer Training 1 x x 93 Critical Questions about Schools 2 x x x 97 ConsumerismThe Imaginary Country Schools 1 x x x 101Probable and Preferable Futures Schools 2 x x x x x x 103Rights Bingo! Schools 1 x x x 107Rights in the News Schools 2 x x x x 110 Temperature Activity Schools 2 x x x 113

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EUROGIZERS

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EUROGIZERS: GET EUROGIZED!

Most of you, the readers, will be aware of andprobably using energisers and ice-breakersat the beginning and during a group learningprocess.

For the purpose of this manual we thought itwould be convenient and fun to play with anew concept: Eurogizers! They are short, lit-tle exercises that don't need a long thoroughdebriefing, but that can help your partici-pants to warm up for the issue of Citizenshipin Europe.

Of course it is always possible to run a (short)debriefing after doing the exercises orgames, to see if any interesting learningpoints can be elicited. Your choice!

To keep the following descriptions short andto-the-point, we narrow down the instruc-tions to a simple brief overview. Long lists ofobjectives, debriefing questions, requiredmaterials or time schedules are consideredirrelevant for this purpose.

1) Symbols of EuropeAsk each of the participants to bring anobject that symbolises Europe to him/her.During the introductory round, each partici-pant explains briefly to the group what theobject is and why s/he chose it. After theexplanation, all the objects are put in the cen-tre of the circle, so a nice and diverse exhibi-tion of Europe emerges.

2) Passport to EuropeAsk every participant to bring their passportor ID card to the introductory round. Eachparticipant is asked to explain if, how andwhy this document expresses Europe forhim/her. What are the rights and responsibili-ties that come with the passport? Any restric-tions? Are all passports equal?

3) Maps of EuropeDivide the participants into small groups (4 –5 persons). All the groups are given the taskto draw in 5 minutes a map of Europe to thegreatest level of detail that they can achieve.Afterwards compare the maps with eachother in a small exhibition. For extra spice,you can try working in regional groups (i.e.divide the participants by what region ofEurope they come from: Scandinavia,Northwest, South, Balkan, Baltics,Mediterranean, East, Central-East etc.)

4) European MoleculesAsk all the participants to walk around freelyin the working space. The facilitator calls outa 'group size' and a 'binding variable'. Forexample: "4, favourite holiday destination inEurope". The participants are then to make,as quickly as possible, groups of 4, of peoplewho share the same favourite holiday desti-nation in Europe. Or, "3, religion", "5, lan-guage" or something more challenging: "2,favourite European politician". And so forth,and so forth!

5) Europe's Hall of FameFirst ask all the participants to think of a'famous European, who they admire'. Theydraw the outline of this person on an A4paper, and write down the name of the per-son on the paper. All the A4's are put up in anexhibition. The other participants walkaround in the exhibition, and are invited towrite comments, questions or maybe quota-tions that they know about the other 'famousEuropeans' on the different papers. At theend, each participants collects his/her ownpaper, gets an impression of what's writtendown and is invited to make a final statementto the rest of the group.

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A variation: each participant thinks of a'famous European' and writes this person'sname on a yellow sticky note (i.e. post-it),and attaches it to the forehead of anotherparticipant, so that s/he can't read it. Aftereveryone has received a new identity, all theparticipants are walking around freely andcan ask yes-no questions only, to find outwhich 'famous European' they are.

6) European FairytalesNo cultural art is practised more aroundEurope (or the world for that matter), than theart of storytelling. People tell each other sto-ries every day. Invite your participants to tella fairytale from their cultural background tothe other participants. Of course this methodworks best in a good storytelling environ-ment: evening/night, open fire, drinks, circleof chairs (or wooden seats), candles, etc.

7) Sensing EuropeAsk all the participants to sit in a circle andput a very large empty flip-chart in the mid-dle. Then draw a circle in the middle andwrite "Europe" in it. Now, participants areinvited to a silent floor discussion/mind-mapto write down all the things they don't likeabout Europe: whatever! After 5 minutes, askpeople to step back, sit on their chairs andlook at the mind-map that they've created.Next, invite the whole group into a conversa-tion with one key question: "What do you do,yourself, as a citizen of Europe, that contribu-tes to maintaining the things we don't likeabout Europe?" or "How are you, yourself, asa citizen of Europe, responsible by youractions and daily behaviour for the thingsthat you don't like about it?"

8) Cooking a true Euro-DishAsk all the participants to bring one substan-tial food ingredient (so no alcohol!) that istypical for their city, region or country. Put allthe ingredients in the middle and invite theparticipants to cook an interesting 3-courseEuro meal with the provided ingredients.Next, enjoy! (or in some cases: good luck!)

9) Around Europe in 80 secondsDo you know the concept of speed dating? Itis the opportunity to meet as many people asquickly as you can in a short period of time.This exercise is your chance to get to know asmuch about Europe as you can in a very shortperiod of time. Ask the participants to distri-bute themselves equally in an inner circle ofchairs and an outer circle of chairs: both cir-cles facing each other. When everybody isseated, everyone on the inner circle shouldhave a partner from the outer circle sittingopposite from him/her, and vice versa ofcourse. Explain that each round will beexactly 80 seconds, and that each round willhave a conversation topic that you get tospeak about during these 80 seconds. Aftereach round, the outer circle will move onechair clockwise, thus, everybody has a newconversation partner, and so forth. Here aresome suggestions for topics, but feel free tobe create new ones:1) your flag, 2) your anthem, 3) your currency,4) your head-of-state, 5) most stupid TV-show, 6) last Eurovision Songfestival artist, 7)typical food, 8) a lost war, 9) a won war, 10)what should your country do with a 10 billioneuro surplus on the budget, 11) a commonmisunderstanding

10) The Citizen MachineAsk for one participant to be a volunteer. S/hewill stand in the middle. The task is to build amachine that can 'build' this participant into a'true citizen'. All the other participants can bethe different elements of the machine thathelp building the citizen. When they step for-ward, they should make a movement andsound that express clearly what they'readding, it should be directed at the volunteerin the middle or another part of the machine,and it should be repeated. For example: veryoften, one of the first participants makes themovement of stamping a document and thenpassing this document to the person in themiddle, saying something like "Here's yourpassport"! Another one might come forwardand making a movement that shows 'readingbooks', and saying something like"Education". And so forth…

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OPEN SPACETECHNOLOGY

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OPEN SPACE TECHNOLOGY

IntroductionOpen Space Technology is a method forgroup conversations that was discovered byHarrison Owen. He did not create thismethod rationally, sitting behind his desk,trying to think of something new. Instead, heexplored and researched what participantsand conversation partners considered apowerful and empowering way to invite forstrategic and meaningful conversation.

During this discovery he noticed that manypositive group experiences of meaningfulconversation are inspired by self-organisingprinciples, as they were already practised forcenturies by many cultures and ancient tri-bes. Open Space Technology is nothingmore, and nothing less, then a description ofthis practice for a contemporary context,aiming to meet the needs of individuals andorganisations in the 21st century.

The key values of any successful OpenSpace are: passion and responsibility; agroup of individuals who care deeply about acertain issue and who are not afraid to takethe responsibility to put their doubts,concerns and questions on the agenda. Thesuccess of any Open Space is solely depen-dent on the willingness of individuals to stepinto the fire, into the unknown and uncertain,and to engage themselves in diversity, inorder to uncover the deeper patterns andanswers that lie beneath and that can helpthem to move forward and beyond theobvious. This sense of collective intelligenceis also one of the principle carriers and dri-vers of Citizenship in Europe, hence we find

it appropriate to offer and share this methodwith you.

The goal of an Open Space Forum:….is to create time and space for people toengage deeply and creatively around issuesof concern to them. The agenda is set bypeople with the power and desire to see itthrough, and typically, Open Space meetingsresult in transformative experiences for theindividuals and groups involved.

When is Open Space Technology thebest meeting format to use?Any situation in which there is:� A real issue of concern� Diversity of players� Complexity of elements� Presence of passion (including conflict)� A need for a quick decision.Open Space will work under all of these cir-cumstances. It is only inappropriate whenthe outcome of the meeting is already prede-termined or if the facilitators or sponsoringorganisation are not prepared to be surpri-sed by the outcomes and wish to control it.

An Open Space Forum is not:� A brainstorming session (people discusstheir heartfelt concerns) � A glorified suggestions session (the empha-sis is on taking personal responsibility) � A complaints session (again: the emphasisis on taking personal responsibility) � A game day (An Open Space Forum invol-ves high play, but also high learning) � Total anarchy (there is appropriate structureand appropriate control

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What outcomes can I expect from anOpen Space Technology Meeting?Open Space Technology meetings result inthe following deliverables:� Every single issue that anybody caresabout enough to raise, will be "on the table"� All issues will receive as much discussionas people care to give them� All discussion will be captured in a report,and made available to the participants� All issues will be prioritised� Related issues will be converged� Responsibility will be taken for next stepactions

How does an Open Space Technologymeeting work?Open Space operates under four principlesand one law. The four principles are:1. Whoever comes are the right people2. Whatever happens is the only thing thatcould have happened.3. When it starts is the right time4. When it's over it's over

The Law is known as the "Law of Two Feet":if you find yourself in a situation where youare not contributing or learning, movesomewhere where you can.

The four principles and the law work to createa powerful event motivated by the passionand bounded by the responsibility of the par-ticipants.

The Steps1. A meeting room prepared for Open Spacehas a circle of chairs in the middle, letters ornumbers around the room to indicate mee-ting locations, a blank wall that will becomethe agenda and a news wall for recording andposting the results of the dialogue sessions

2. Group convenes in a circle and is welco-med. The facilitator provides an overview ofthe process and explains how it works, inclu-ding the Principles and the Law of Two Feet.3. Facilitator invites people with issues ofconcern to come into the circle, write theissue on a piece of quarter size flip chartpaper and announce it to the group. Thesepeople are "conveners."4. The convener places their paper on thewall and chooses a time and a place to meet.This process continues until there are nomore agenda items.5. The group then breaks up and heads to theagenda wall, by now covered with a variety ofsessions. Participants take note of the timeand place for sessions they want to be invol-ved in.6. Dialogue sessions convene for the balanceof the meeting. Recorders determined byeach group capture the important points andpost the reports on the news wall. All of thesereports will be rolled into one document bythe end of the meeting.7. Following a closing or a break, the groupmight move into convergence, a process thattakes the issues that have been discussedand attaches action plans to them to "getthem out of the room."8. The group then finishes the meeting with aclosing circle where people are invited toshare comments, insights, and commitmentsarising from the process.

Further resources- Owen, H. "Open Space Technology, AUser's Guide", Berrett-Koehler Publishers,San Francisco, 1997- http://www.openspaceworld.org- http://www.openspacetechnology.com

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CHAPTER 1:

A C T I V I T I E S S U G G E S T E D F O R S E N D I N G S T U D E N T S

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SOURCEwww.eduplace.com/activity/3_2_act2.htmlMifflin Company © 1997-2002 Houghton

THEMESCultural Diversity, Identity, Youth Culture

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

OVERVIEWYoung people tend to forget their roots. In education for citizenship it can beconsidered essential to carefully consider where you come from and howfuture generations might need our accumulated wisdom in order to betterunderstand where they'll be heading. This is a great activity that can be star-ted and completed at any given time in a learning process. For AFS purposesmany variations are imaginable. The essence is to invite participants to thinkabout their cultural identity, and to make a history – future connection.

OBJECTIVEParticipants will create and bury a time capsule filled with materials that reflectthe cultures and traditions found in their community today.

GROUP SIZEAny

TIMEDependent on the level of detail or supplies available

MATERIALS & PREPARATIONYou will need to start by giving the participants:- A container that can be sealed against the elements (a large plastic or metalbox with a lid)- Sealing materials (heavy-duty plastic bags or plastic sheets, waterprooftape)- Participants' collections of print materials, photos, and small objects repre-sentative of cultural or traditional activities taking place in their community- Recent newspapers and magazines- A variety of art supplies (crayons, coloured pencils or markers, long scrollsof drawing paper, and so forth)- Eventually they will also need a shovel

C u l t u r a l T i m e C a p s u l e

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Instructions1. Tell participants that a time capsule is acontainer filled with things that reflect theway of life, cultures, and traditions of a givencommunity at the time when the capsule isassembled. Explain that the capsule is buriedwith the intention that it'll be discovered bypeople living at a later time, when it will serveas a historical record of an earlier time.

2. Ask participants to think about their way oflife, cultures, and traditions of their commu-nity today. Then have them gather and bringto the group small objects that reflect thecommunity's current life. You may want tooffer some of the suggestions for items tocollect: a local newspaper; advertisements orannouncements about current events in thecommunity; recent photos of public buil-dings, local celebrations, and local people;small toys, games, or clothing accessoriesthat are currently popular; a sampling ofsmall products made in the area; maps; andphotos or drawings of animals and plant lifefound locally. You might also suggest thatparticipants work together to create a papermural (using a long scroll of drawing paper)that depicts life today in your community.

3. Place the time capsule's contents into acontainer and seal it. Obtain permission tobury the capsule in a place selected by thegroup (perhaps on the venue's property or ina park). Let participants take turns diggingthe hole in which the capsule will be placed.

4. The group can hold a small ceremony tocelebrate the completion of this project.Remind participants that every time theypass by the spot where the capsule is buried,they will remember the items they have leftfor future generations.

DebriefingThis exercise doesn't require much debrie-fing to elicit learning outcomes. Lots of valua-ble conversation already happens as partici-pants collect materials to include in the cap-sule. You can consider reflecting on the finalselection of materials chosen. Why these?Anything missing?

Tips for facilitatorsAn interesting variation with AFS outgoingstudents might be to invite them to review thecontents of their capsule after their exchangeyear. Has the exchange experience shiftedtheir perception of their own community, dothey wish to change the contents of the cap-sule accordingly?

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SOURCE© Arjen Bos, 2002

THEMESGender, Identity (stereotyping)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

OVERVIEWThe European Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity,freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and the respect for humanrights (Draft European Constitution). Some parts of the European popula-tion do not feel that they can fully enjoy these rights because of their gen-der or because of the role-stereotyping related to their gender. By lookingat stereotypes regarding gender implicitly and in a playful manner, this exer-cise invites for an interesting dialogue between the opposite sexes.

OBJECTIVES- Reflect on gender stereotypes- Encourage dialogue between the (opposite) sexes- Develop more empathy towards 'the other' sex

GROUP SIZEAny, minimum 2, but some sort of equal amount of men and women is pre-ferable

TIME1 hour

MATERIALS- Two flip-charts- Enough markers

PREPARATION- Split the group into "men" and "women", if there are more than five in onegroup, split them into two, etc.- Set up the two flip-charts in separate corners.

C o w b o y s a n d P r i n c e s s e s

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Instructions1. Invite the women to write down on the flip-chart:a. Three advantages of 'being a man'b. Three disadvantages of 'being a man'

2. At the same time, invite the men to write ontheir flip-chart:a. Three advantages of 'being a woman'b. Three disadvantages of 'being a woman'

3. Both groups can only write down(dis)advantages that all the members of thegroup agree upon.

4. Encourage both groups to finish inapproximately 5 – 10 minutes.

5. Next, ask the women to explain to the menwhat they've written down and why. Startwith the advantages.

6. After the 'presentation', the men can chal-lenge the (dis)advantages that the women'sgroup came up with, only by using real lifestories to contradict the statement!! Avoiddiscussions between the groups at thisstage.

7. Next, ask the men to explain to the womenwhat they've written down and why. Startwith the advantages.

8. After the 'presentation', the women canchallenge the (dis)advantages that the men'sgroup came up with, only by using real lifestories to contradict the statement!! Avoiddiscussions between the groups at thisstage.

9. Upon completion of both presentationsand possible contradictions, ask both groupsto sit in a circle, mixed up, so alternating 1

man - 1 woman – 1 man, etc. Time for debrie-fing!

DebriefingIn the debriefing focus on:� How did the different group members feelwhen the other group presented their(dis)advantages?� How did the different group members per-ceive the contradicting real life stories, hadthey thought about that? Considered it?Why? Why not?�What was the source for writing down spe-cific (dis)advantages? What were they inspi-red on?�What was easier: to think of advantages ordisadvantages? Any difference between thesexes here? If so, why?� Should we speak about advantages ordisadvantages of being a man or a woman,or should ideally, both sexes be equallyadvantaged and disadvantaged?

Tips for facilitatorsTo make the exercise more difficult, you canencourage the groups not to write down any(dis)advantages that are solely based onbiological differences, but to primarily focuson social differences.

Suggestions for follow-upAfter the debriefing, you can consider twovariations:

1) Ask the women now to come up withthree advantages and disadvantages of'being a woman' themselves. And vice versafor the men. All group members must agree!

2) Or create two mixed groups and askthem to come up with two lists of threeadvantages and disadvantages for men andwomen. All group members must agree!

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SOURCE© Arjen Bos, 2004 (inspired by The World Café and Appreciative Inquiry)

THEMESIdentity, Youth Culture, Gender, Discrimination (and many more if you like…)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL3

OVERVIEWThis method invites for meaningful conversation around sensitive topics. It isespecially suitable for young people. It is essential to look at the 'collectiveintelligence' of the group as opposed to the individual case. And, the keyemphasis should be on appreciation of challenges and difficulties as oppo-sed to negligence or apathy towards them. In education for citizenship weneed to put more often our shared/common issues in the centre, as oppo-sed to our individual needs and agenda's.

OBJECTIVE• Create a safe environment for young people to explore sensitive issuesthat are highly relevant to their (living) situation• Enable the competency to approach such issues as a challenge and toinvite a pro-active approach towards them as opposed to apathy• Encourage a collective search for deeper meaning, as opposed to scrat-ching the surface, to be able to better understand and so the act with moreclarity

GROUP SIZE9 or more

TIMEDepending on group size and issue: average 2 hours

MATERIALSOn every table, flip chart paper, markers, crayons. Maybe some flowers, acandle or something else to make it look nice.

- Flip chart paper + at least one stand- CD player with some nice background musicFor every four/five participants, you will need a small table and chairs. I.e. with 20participants: 5 tables, each seating 4 people. With 22 participants: 5 tables, 3tables with 4, 2 tables with 5. Etc.

Ta b o o !

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Instructions1. It essential for the success of this activity thatyou, as facilitator, set the right tone for theconversation. Invite participants to step into thespace, to sit at a table, maybe even offer a drinkor a small snack.2. Explain what issue you have selected fortoday's conversation and why. How does it meetthe reality of these young people?3. Explain to participants that during this conver-sation they'll be exploring their stand towards thespecific issue. What does it mean for them andwhy? It is not about their individual resent orappreciation, but instead, about building groupinsight around the issue.4. In order to facilitate this type of conversation afew important principles apply. You can presentthese on a flip chart to them, and explain themclearly:

� When you speak, speak with intention� Always listen with attention, hold your judge-ment� Be aware how you contribute to the understan-ding of the issue� Speak your mind and heart� Focus on what matters� Look together for connections, deeper insightsand new questions� Link and connect ideas� Write, doodle and draw on the flip charts onyour table

5. Explain to participants that the conversationwill happen in six rounds. For each round they'llsit at a different table. Whenever they 'travel'from table to table, they do not only carry theirown ideas, answers and suggestions, but parti-cularly also the ones they heard from others. Inthe first round, each table will agree on a host.This 'host' has only one task: to provide theconnections between each round for the thingsthat have spoken about. They do not need tofacilitate the conversation or anything else. Thehosts stay the same all throughout the conversa-tion, in every round!

6. Here are the questions you can ask for the dif-ferent rounds:a. Round 1: "Please share a real story aboutwhen you personally had a difficult time speakingto others about the particular issue. (20 mins)b. Round 2: "What made it difficult for you tospeak frankly and openly about this specificissue in this specific situation?" (20 mins)c. Round 3: "So, what would have made it easierfor you to speak your mind and heart about thisissue in this specific situation?" (15 mins)d. Round 4: "What conditions can you come upwith that encourage a frank and open conversa-tion about this issue in general?" (15 mins)e. Round 5: "What do you dream possible whenpeople would create those conditions and actupon them more consciously in daily life?" (20mins)f. Round 6: "What can you start doing now, your-self, to contribute to creating those conditions?"(20 mins)7. At the end of round 6, you can ask everyone tosit in a circle and to share their personal outco-mes of round 6. And/or you can ask the differenttables to present their outcomes of round 5.

Possible issues- Homosexuality- HIV/AIDS- Discrimination- Bullying- Violence- Unemployment- Sexual harassment- Exclusion- Divorce- Religion

Tips for the facilitatorThis method can work with anyone, anywhere, aslong as you as a facilitator create the right, hos-pitable environment. Keep it simple! Don'texplain too much and do not interpret the issuebeforehand. Continue to emphasise the impor-tance of collective thinking and feeling, as oppo-sed to centring the individual.

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SOURCEwww.salto-youth.net: Find a Training Tool, submitted by Jugo Rostas (deve-loped by Hillary Spiers)

THEMESIdentity, Discrimination, Gender

COMPLEXITY2

OVERVIEWIn education for citizenship, it can be important to try to put yourself in some-body else's shoes. Try to imagine what life is like for another citizen who livesin a different setting or comes from a different background than you. This canhelp us to overcome turning existing inequalities into discrimination or stereo-typing. This activity demonstrates in a clear, fairly quick way the inequalitiesthat can exist within society. Numbers are not important but it can be fun witha large group. It aims to highlight an individual's experiences and inequalitieswithin everyday activities.

OBJECTIVEIn a light and playful manner explore how certain features of identity canaffect our daily lives and activities in a negative / restrictive manner. This exer-cise is merely a 'conversation starter'.

GROUPAny, but especially fun with a large group

TIME30 minutes

MATERIALS- A copy of the questions- A copy of the roles already cut up

C a n Yo u ?

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Instructions1. Hand out a role to each member of thegroup. Ask them not to discuss it with anyoneelse. Make sure that whatever the group sizeyou have always given someone the 'white,heterosexual man' card.

2. Read out the situations on the sheet.Explain that the young people should taketwo steps forward for each situation that theyfeel their card could do easily, one if it is pos-sible, and to stay still if it impossible. Start atan agreed point and set a finish line acrossthe space or room.

DebriefingOnce the 'race' has taken place discuss howit felt with the young people still in characterand in their finishing position. Were they sur-prised where they finished? What other emo-tions did they feel? How does it feel to be atthe "front" or "back" of the field?

ROLESo White, heterosexual mano Black, heterosexual mano Asian homosexual womano White homosexual womano Rich teenagero Poor teenagero Young immigrant living in a suburbo Unemployed young mothero Blind girlo Young boy in a wheelchairo Muslim girlo Christian girl

Questions

� Can you use public transport?� Do you feel safe going home alone atnight?� Do you feel comfortable kissing your part-ner in public?� Do you feel that people listen to you?� Do you feel welcome at your local youthclub?� You go into a club full of white men: do youstay?� Do you feel comfortable drinking in a pubon your own?� If you are competing with people of a simi-lar standard for the same job, do you feel youhave an equal chance of getting it?� Do you see yourself represented on TV?� Can you easily adopt a child?� Do you think you receive fair treatmentfrom the police?� Do you feel comfortable moving into a sha-red house?� Would you get a job as a nanny easily?� Can you play football easily?

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P a o l a o r P e d r o

SOURCEAdapted from "Creating a Character" in T-Kit on Social Inclusion,Partnership Council of Europe & European Union: www.training-youth.net

THEMESYouth Culture, Identity, Cultural Diversity

COMPLEXITY2

OVERVIEWAs young exchange students go abroad they'll encounter different youthcultures. Certain traditions they might be accustomed to while going out orbeing with friends can be radically different. Society might perceive youngpeople's behaviour from a very different paradigm, what is allowed or tole-rated and what's not. This activity can help young people to better unders-tand and reflect on how the position and behaviour of young citizens variesper nation.

OBJECTIVEYoung people becoming aware of the effect of youth culture on a specificissue and how a particular issue can be perceived by and affect other mem-bers of society.

GROUP SIZEAt least 10

TIME1 hour

MATERIALS- CD of current chart music and CD player- Flipchart, stand and pens

PREPARATIONChoose an issue that is of relevance to the group and that you find important forthem to learn about. Make the issue as specific as possible, so instead of "drugs",perhaps "drug abuse of teenagers" works better. Or "sexual assault of teenagegirls" is stronger than "sex".

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Instructions1. Play the current chart/popular music tape/CDin the background to encourage a going outatmosphere. Draw an outline of a person (non-gender specific) on the flipchart.

2. Ask the participants to close their eyes andabsorb the music while you are doing this.Explain what will happen for the rest of the ses-sion, specifying that you will be creating andexploring the selected issue using a character.

3. Ask everyone to close their eyes. Begin thestory: "Imagine, it's Saturday night, it's eighto'clock, a young person is getting ready to goout. The person has just got out of the showerand is getting dressed. The young person is reallylooking forward to this evening." Then ask ques-tions to make them think about the character.Questions could include: Is it a boy or a girl?Paola or Pedro? Where is s/he going? What is theperson wearing? How old? Who is s/he going outwith? Where does the person live? What doess/he do in daily life? And so on. Be careful toleave details to their imagination.

4. Now, ask them to open their eyes. Go throughthe questions again and ask the participants toshout out answers to the questions and fill in thedetails on the picture and any other informationshould be written down the side of the flipchart.

5. Now that you have built the character, continuewith the story by placing the character in anemergency situation around your issue. Forexample, if your issue is drug abuse, the charac-ter may go to a nightclub and be offered a drug;if your issue is sexual assault, the character maybe going to a party and meeting the 'wrong per-son'. Leave this open-ended and ask the groupto complete the story by calling out what happe-ned. Agree on the story. It is essential that thestory is urgent, real and clear, it can be rough andhard, don't accept soft compromises.

6. Now get each person in the group to imaginethey know their character and ask them to saywho they are and what their relationship is (forexample, I am Paola's or Pedro's mother – I'mPaola's or Pedro's friend – I'm Paola's or Pedro's

dog – I'm Paola's or Pedro's next door neighbour)and what their feelings/views of Paola or Pedroare (for example, I'm Paola's or Pedro's tutor.S/he is very likeable and lively. I've been worriedabout him/her lately, etc.).

7. Ask the group to form a "conscience alley".Participants form a double row facing each other.The facilitator takes the role of Paola or Pedroand walks through the alley, facing each personin turn. In their roles, each gives advice or com-ments to Paola's or Pedro's behaviour in thesituation.

8. Afterwards de-role group – ask them, as them-selves, to comment on Paola's or Pedro's beha-viour. Identify the moment How could things haveturned out differently? What were the risks/pres-sures?

Reflection and evaluationGet them to review the character and situation:Was it realistic? Which bits are true or false?What about stereotypes? What should educationfor young people around this issue include to givea realistic reflection of youth culture?

Tips for the facilitatorThis exercise works with free association andimagination. Not every participant is able to stepimmediately into that kind of energy. In order toencourage your participants to let ideas andassociations come freely, perhaps you mightwant to warm them up using a (theatre) exercisesthat asks for free association and imaginationwithout working with the specific issue yet.

For the "conscience alley" it might be wise tohave two facilitators available, one who takes onthe role of Paola or Pedro, and who walksthrough the alley, the other to facilitate the alleyand who challenges the participants to be clear.

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T h a t m a k e s m e s o a n g r y !

SOURCET-Kit on Social Inclusion, Partnership Council of Europe & European Union:www.training-youth.net

THEMESViolence

COMPLEXITY3

OVERVIEWViolence tends to be an emotional response between citizens or societies. Inorder to combat violence we need to become aware what behaviour or situa-tions can drive someone to violent responses, only then we can act as res-ponsible active citizens. This activity can help to better understand the indi-vidual responses to certain situations and confrontations.

OBJECTIVEThe following session is an introduction to anger management and copingwith aggressive situations. This is a complex and specialised area, but thistraining gives a basic understanding and guidelines on how to work in poten-tially difficult situations.

MATERIALS- Two A4 sheets of card pinned to opposite sides of the wall marked ANGRYand NOT ANGRY- Flipchart paper- Marker pens- Copies of anger role-play cards

GROUP8-12

TIME

3 hours 10 minutes

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Instructions

That makes me so angry! (20 minutes)1. This warm-up game opens the trainingsession by recognising that anger is an emo-tion that we all feel. Everyone gets angry if asituation triggers a certain feeling or thought.This can be a direct response to what hashappened or a reaction due to a previousexperience. The participants will begin toreflect on the difference in personal triggersby reviewing the answers shared within thegroup.

2. Explain to the group that you are going toread out a series of situations that may ormay not make them feel angry. Introduce thetwo sides of the room with the ANGRY andNOT ANGRY cards and ask the participantsto move towards the area that most repre-sents their feelings.

3. Encourage the group to be honest withtheir reactions. Reinforce the point that angeris an emotion as valid as any other, and thatwe all have a right to feel anger at certainsituations.

4. As the activity progresses, review the pro-cess with the group. Why does a certainsituation provoke anger? Are there commo-nalties? For example, do the majority of thegroup become angered by rudeness or dis-respect?

Recognising the signs (30 minutes)1. Divide the group into two groups and askfor a note taker and spokesperson to benominated from each group.

2. The task is for each group to list ten physi-cal symptoms that are recognisable as thebody's expression of anger.

Prompt points:o Red faceo Sweaty palmso Pointing fingero Invading personal spaceo Shouting/swearing

3. Invite the two groups to join together andeach spokesperson to share the points thathave been made within their group.Encourage the group to discuss the symp-toms listed. How easy was it to contribute tothe list? Are these feelings familiar to thegroup? Ask the group to consider how easy itwill be to recognise the signs of anger in peo-ple.

Resolving conflict (20 minutes)1. Introduce the idea that to resolve conflict ina potentially difficult situation you need to:o Recognise the signs – step back from theangry person and make sure you are notinvading their space. Try and position your-self nearer the door and do not allow yourselfto be blocked in.o Listen – listen carefully to what is being saidand try not to butt in with your own opinionsor recollections.o Reflect – reflect back what the angry per-son is saying to show that you understand.Clarify facts and ask additional questions todiffuse anger and encourage the person toexplain what is wrong.o Resolve – Agree to a specific solution oraction with the angry person. It may notchange the situation much but it will makethem feel that something is being done. Italso helps when the angry person is invited totake control of the situation and the solutionthemselves.

If these fail you need to move yourself to thesafest place.

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Make sure that your participants are quiteclear that you are not asking them to placethemselves in danger or physically tackleaggressive people. This session is aboutrecognising the signs and trying to diffuse thesituation and, if all else fails, getting away.Additionally you can stress that as partici-pants they have not given up their humanrights to be safe and protected – if they are ina situation that is escalating out of controlmake sure people know the number for thelocal police.

In practice (1 hour 30 minutes)1. Introduce the idea of working throughpotentially difficult situations using role-play.The aim of this is to build confidence andhave an opportunity to put into practice newskills in a safe environment.

2. Divide your participants into groups of four.Each group will receive a 'role play card'.They distribute the roles among themselves.

3. Allow 30 minutes for the role-play to deve-lop, encouraging the antagonists to give theprotagonists as hard a time as possible!

4. When you can see that they have nearlyexhausted the role-play, ask the participantsto come out of character and in the smallergroups work through the following questions.o What is making the persons angry?o Is it direct or indirect anger?o Is it possible to resolve the conflict?o Write up an action plan to diffuse the situa-tion.

5. Finally ask the group to come togetheragain to share their action plans. Questionand support the groups in challenging eachother.

Prompt points:o How easy was it to maintain your position?o Could you empathise with the people's

point of view?o How frustrated did you feel?o Did you manage to agree on a conflict reso-lution?

Staying safe (30 minutes)1. Remaining in the large group, devise safetyguidelines for managing angry/aggressivebehaviour.

Prompt points:o Listen to what people are saying.o Look carefully at body language.o Assess danger to yourself and others.o Act – resolve the situation or move away.

THAT MAKES ME SO ANGRY!

� Someone jumps in front of you in a queue.� You are made late by someone delayingyou.� You overhear someone criticising yourwork.� You are stuck in a traffic jam and you needto get home.� You are short-changed in a shop.� You see someone being unkind to an ani-mal in the street.� You express your opinion and someonelaughs and tells you not to be ridiculous.� The football team you support loses.� You get caught out telling a lie.� You do not win the lottery by one number!� Someone keeps asking you to do some-thing you do not want to do.� You lose your house keys.� Somebody is rude about your family.� The phone keeps ringing but when youanswer no one is there.� A group of teenagers block your path intown.� A friend keeps borrowing money and neverreturning it.� You accidentally bump into someone in acrowded room, apologise, and they swear atyou.

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� You read a newspaper article about anassault on a young child.� You are accused of something you have notdone.� Something you buy is faulty, you return tothe shop but they won't give you your moneyback.� You are asleep and are woken by loud musicfrom next door.� You go to make a call and realise yourmobile is out of credit.

ANGER ROLE PLAY CARDS

Samantha has been barred from the local dan-cing club for two weeks for starting a fight.Tonight she turns up and demands from thedoorman that he lets her in.

Zack and Tom are playing basketball outsideon a public court. Two older guys pass by andthrow their ball in the bushes for fun. One olderwoman observes it all happening.

The caretaker discovers Jake and a friend out-side on the steps of the school drinking cans ofbeer. He reminds them that the school rulesare no alcohol and ask them to move off thepremises. Jake replies shouting: "It's a freecountry isn't it? I can sit here if I like!"

Sharon is crying in the toilet. Tanya has startedgoing out with her ex-boyfriend. When a tea-cher asks if she is okay Sharon tells him/her to**** off and mind their own business!

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C i t i z i o n a r y !

What is your first image of somebody from another country? How do youtranslate it into a drawing? If you like Pictionary you will love "Citizionary".

SOURCECouncil of Europe's Education Pack "All Different, All Equal", adapted byArjen Bos

THEMESCitizenship, images, stereotypes and prejudice

COMPLEXITY2

OVERVIEWCitizenship is a complex issue that embraces many different understandings,interpretations and paradigms. This activity invites for a dialogue to exploredifferent understandings of the same word or concept, in order to enable usto overcome issues of confusion and misunderstandings because of lan-guage and to focus on what citizenship is really about.

OBJECTIVEß Work with and explore our different understandings of certain citizenshipissuesß Work with the (stereotype) images we have of specific issuesß Explore what shapes our understanding and images of these issues; whatare the roots of the diversity in our different understandings and interpreta-tions?ß Generate creativity and spontaneous ideas in the group.

GROUP10 or more

TIME45 minutes to 2 hours (depending on the size of the group).

MATERIALS- A list of things for participants to draw- A flip chart and marker to record the scores- Sheets of paper (about A4 size) and pens for the group drawings- Sticky tape or pins to display the drawings

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1. Ask participants to form teams of three orfour people.2. Tell the teams to collect several sheets ofpaper and a pencil and to find somewhere to sitso they are slightly isolated from each other.3. Call up one member from each team andgive them a word.4. Tell them to return to their groups and todraw the word while the other team memberstry to guess what it is. They may only draw ima-ges, no numbers or words may be used. Nospeaking except to confirm the correct5. The rest of the team may only say their gues-ses, they may not ask questions.6. When the word is guessed correctly tell theteam to shout out.7. Put the score up on the flip chart.8. After each round ask the drawer to write ontheir picture, whether finished or not, what theword was.9. Now ask the teams to choose another mem-ber to be the drawer. Make sure everyone hasan opportunity to draw at least once.10. At the end ask the groups to pin up theirpictures so that the different interpretations andimages of the words can be compared and dis-cussed.

Debriefing� Do this in small groups (they can be thesame teams).� Ask participants to say if the activity was dif-ficult and why.� Then ask people to look at the drawings onthe walls and compare the different images andthe different ways people interpreted the sameconcepts/issues.� Ask the drawers to say why they chose todraw the particular images, what does that tellthem about their own understanding and inter-pretation; does this resonate with the rest ofthe group: why, why not?� Go on to ask where we get our understan-dings and interpretations from, whether theyare negative or positive and what effects thatmay have on our relations with the peopleconcerned and our behaviour.

Tips for the facilitatorIf you have a very small group, 'Citizionary' canbe played in one group; ask one person to drawin the first round, whoever guesses draws in thenext round.

Be aware that people who consider themselvespoor artists may think this will be difficult forthem. Reassure them that you are not lookingfor works of art and encourage everyone tohave a go at being the drawer.

This activity is likely to raise the most immediateand generalised stereotypes around certainissues. It is very creative and lots of fun.However, it is very important that the activitydoes not stop at the drawings or these stereoty-pes, but that the group reflects on where theseimages come from and what causes a certainunderstanding or interpretation and, especially,how they affect our behaviour (as citizens).

About the words to draw:The rules and ideas for what the teams will haveto draw must be adapted to the national andcultural context of the group and to the specificobjective for your working session with thegroup.You can choose for example to work witha specific dimension of citizenship and to set atheme accordingly: for example, only words thatare related to politics, or to gender issues, or toeconomy, or to Human Rights. The words in thelist below are merely suggestions for you toadapt.

Suggestions for words to draw:Citizen - Democracy - Education -Discrimination – Human Rights – Police -Conflict -Europe - Elections - Poverty - Religion– Violence – Youth - Equality - Media –Unemployment – Minority – European Union –Parliament – Politician – Community – Health –Sports – Exclusion – Migration – Member ofParliament – Power – Violation of Human Rights– Immigrant – Migration – Sexual Harassment –European Songfestival – Teenager – Non-profitOrganisation (NGO) – Injustice – Privatisation –Participation – Diversity

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CHAPTER 2:

A C T I V I T I E S W I T H H O S T S T U D E N T S

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S T R A N G E R S I N T H E N I G H T

SOURCEUnknown.

THEMESCultural Diversity, Identity, Communication, Violence.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL1

GROUP SIZE15 to 30.

TIMEThe duration of the first part of this activity increases significantly with thenumber of participants. Allow for 20 min for a group of 15, followed by a 30min discussion.

OVERVIEW“Strangers in the Night” introduces the participants to the problems of com-munication in a multicultural environment, and to the role of non-verbal com-munication. It is particularly effective in the early stages of a training sessionbecause it also contributes to consolidate the group, to break barriers bet-ween its members and to give a sense of togetherness. In the course of theexercise, the participants will experience a wide range of emotions, from lossand isolation to realization and solidarity. A parallel can be drawn between theprocess of finding one’s place in the group and the making of a larger com-munity, like the one under construction in Europe.

OBJECTIVESTo simulate an intercultural experience.To analyse its own reactions in an intercultural setting.To become aware of the difficulties in communication in a foreign environ-ment.To stimulate group dynamics.

MATERIALSA spacious room, free of all obstacles, such as chairs and tables. Small pie-ces of paper, numbered from 1 to n, where n is the number of participants. Inthe example below, it is assumed that the group has 20 participants, n=20.

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Instructions1. All the participants are requested to standand walk for a while, to randomize their posi-tions.2. While they are walking, each participant isgiven a piece of paper with a number andasked to memorize it, but not share it withanybody else.3. Once all the participants have memorizedtheir numbers, they are asked to stop, closetheir eyes or blindfold themselves, andremain silent to listen for the instructions.4. The participants are told the following ins-tructions: i) they cannot talk during the wholeexercise; ii) they are n (the actual number ofparticipants is given) and each one of themhas a different number, from 1 to n; iii) withouttalking, and without opening their eyes, theyhave to order themselves according to theirnumbers, in such a way that number 2 musthold number 1 with his left hand and number3 with his right hand, number 3 must holdnumber 2 with his left hand and number 4with his right hand, and so on, until number nholds number n-1 with his left hand and num-ber 1 with his right hand.5. When each participant is holding handswith the number immediately before and afterhis own number, a circle is completed. Thenthe participants can open their eyes and saytheir numbers, in order.6. Occasionally, for a large number of partici-pants, the exercise is not completed within areasonable time, say, 40 min. When this hap-pens, the instructor may interrupt the exer-cise and start the debriefing and evaluation.

Debriefing and evaluationA few participants may express their lack ofconfidence in completing the exercise, assoon as they are informed that they cannottalk or open their eyes. The instructor mustencourage them to proceed and cannot allowany participants to give up: that would com-promise the success of all of them.Some participants may remain very passive,

not trying to engage any type of communica-tion with the others, while some others will tryto cheat and talk with the each other or opentheir eyes. The instructor must remain veryattentive to the behaviour of all the partici-pants, and persistently discourage the brea-king of the rules, but should also avoid inter-fering too much with the group. All theseaspects should be brought to the final dis-cussion, once the exercise is completed.While some are passive and others cheat,most participants will try to develop a non-verbal communication scheme.

The counting systems developed by the par-ticipants depend largely on the numbers theywere assigned. Participants with numberslower than 10 will try to communicate usingtheir fingers, clap their hands, or tap theothers lightly and repeatedly.

Such schemes do not work properly for largenumbers, above 15, for which such countingis too long and subject to many errors. Theparticipants with such high numbers have toinvent a way to express multiples of ten.Sometimes the method employed to expressten by one participant corresponds to themethod to express units by another, and amismatch will occur. This will leave anotherparticipant without its place, and the error willbe difficult to correct, leading to potentialconflicts. With time, a common counting sys-tem will emerge and the participants will startfilling their places. Occasionally, a leader willtry to impose his own counting system andwill go beyond the task of finding his place, toattempt to place the others. This may beaccepted, or not, by the others, and a com-promise has to be reached. In some casesthe leader will try to use physical strength toput some participants in what he believes istheir place, and a certain amount of pushingaround will result. The instructor must beattentive to such surges of violence and beprepared to contain them if they threaten thephysical integrity of the other participants.

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The series of emotions experienced by theparticipants in the course of this exercisehave a clear analogy with an intercultural lear-ning experience. This analogy should be usedto guide the debriefing at the end of the exer-cise.In the beginning, the participants doubt oftheir ability to complete their tasks with theresources they are allowed to use. The leastmotivated tend to be discouraged. However,as they realize that the others are trying, theywill also attempt to communicate. Manyattempts fail because the non-verbal langua-ges are different. Often, totally inadequatecodes are used, such as waving a NO in theair, in front of another participant waiting forfeedback with his eyes shut. A sense of des-pair may start to install in the hearts andminds of some participants. But once in awhile someone will find his partner, and thenan explosion of joy is heard. When both part-ners are found, the feelings change to secu-rity and enthusiasm. The hands are hold veryclosely tight and, when everyone finds itsplace, there is a sense of achievement andbelonging.

The debriefing should be focused on the emo-tions experienced by the participants in thecourse of this activity. Such emotions shouldthen be tied up with the attitudes of the parti-cipants along the game.

Issues related to passiveness, violence, lea-dership, or cooperation, may be introduced atthis point. The need for a common languagein order to have an effective communicationmay also be addressed.

Tips for facilitatorsThe instructor must take not of the attitudesand reactions of the participants during theexercise to bring them to the debriefing andstimulate the discussion and the understan-ding of such attitudes and reactions.

Suggestions for follow-up This activity can be extended to addressissues such as how can we, humankind, finda common language to communicate moreeffectively? Should this language be imposed,chosen, created, or is it going to emerge as aresult of cultural dominancy?

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C R I T I C A L I N C I D E N T S

SOURCEFor an early description, which does not correspond entirely to the presentapproach, seeHenry Holmes and Stephen Guild, Manual of Teaching Techniques forIntercultural Education, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 1971.

THEMESCultural Diversity Discrimination, Identity.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL3

GROUP SIZE12+, divided in subgroups of 5-7.

TIME90’ with additional time needed if more than 3 sub-groups are involved.

OVERVIEWA “critical incident” is a relatively brief case study, involving people from twoor more cultures in an event with cross-cultural significance. Critical inci-dents can be useful in illustrating day-to-day cultural problems, particularlyones concerned with cultural change.

The most common practise is to distribute a list of critical incidents (eachdescribed in 5-10 lines) to the participants, along with an answer sheet. Theanswer sheet is a “forced choice” technique whereby participants mustmake a judgment on the action that the incident describes. The sheet givesa scale of “completely agree” (1) to “completely disagree” (9). Each partici-pant responds first individually and then the sub-group is asked to reach aconsensus rating, provide a rationally for their choice and offer an accepta-ble substitute action for the incident. However, this is not the method pro-posed here.

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The maximum effectiveness of this activity is achieved when the participantshave some cross-cultural experience. In this case, each member of the sub-group can share a personal “critical incident” with the others, rather thanrelying on written material provided by the instructor. This activity is descri-bed for that type of participants, and the “critical incident” presented bellowserves only to stimulate the participants to tell their own stories. Thisapproach to “critical incidents” involves role-playing. This exercise is bestrelated to the European Citizenship when the critical incidents address oneof the themes mentioned above.

OBJECTIVESTo be aware of cultural differences and their (sometimes subtle) manifesta-tions.To identify different responses to the same cross-cultural event.To understand and value diversity.To review his own (or others) critical incident with some distance, andacquire a critical perspective.

MATERIALSA spacious room where the sub-groups can perform their acts.

Instructions1. Explain to the participants what is a “criti-cal incident”. Give a personal example toillustrate it (an example is given below). Askthe participants to divide themselves ingroups of 5-7 and share a “critical incident”that they have experienced recently. The par-ticipants should also be informed that eachsub-group must select a “critical incident” toenact in a short (less than 5 min) theatre playto the other participants.2. In the sub-groups each participant shouldbe encouraged to share at least one cross-cultural event that he/she experienced. Themembers of the sub-group should briefly dis-cuss all their “critical incidents” and then

select one to present to the other partici-pants. By its own nature, a “critical incident”involves some action by two or more people.This gives the opportunity to assign roles tothe participants and let them give life to theircharacters. The incident should be presentedas it really happened.3. Each sub-group presents its act to theother participants. After each performance,the participations discuss the “critical inci-dent”. Some guidelines for the discussion arepresented below. 4. After the debriefing of each one of the inci-dents, the participants must make thedebriefing and evaluation of the whole acti-vity.

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Debriefing and evaluationThe debriefing of each incident after its per-formance should address the following ques-tions:� Who are the actors and why are theyacting like that?� What are the cultural issues underlying theincident?� Do I agree with the action taken? Do I havealternatives?

The final debriefing and evaluation on thewhole activity should address the followingquestions:� How was the decision taken to select the“critical incident” presented?� Which were the issues that were conside-red most relevant to be illustrated?� What are my concerns when facing cultu-ral differences? At the end, the participants should realizethat here are many possible outcomes for acritical incident and that they depend on thepeople and the circumstances. However, thefact that we are aware of this will help us tohave a better chance to overcome the inci-dents and adapt.

Tips for facilitatorsThe facilitator should involve himself in theactivity and share a critical incident of himown as an example for the group. A suitablelevel and length of a “critical incident” is pre-sented below. Most frequently, some partici-pants have lived through significant criticalincidents but may feel embarrassed to tellthem. Time and a few superficial stories maybe needed before the participants open upand tell the most significant incidents theyhave lived. Some degree of intimacy andsupportiveness within the group must be

built before the most interesting stories aretold. In the context of Citizenship in Europe,incidents that reflect European stereotypescan de-constructed.

Suggestions for follow-up

If the occasion is presented, other partici-pants may re-enact a scene already presen-ted, and may include a substitute action forclosing the incident. When another groupplays the role experienced by one partici-pant, it creates a “mirror effect” that may bevery helpful in analysing the incident.

Example of a “critical incident”I had a friend that suffered very much withasthma crises and, additionally, smoked alot. Aware of his problem, he always carriedhis asthma medicines with him. One day, hewas walking along the walls of a military basewhen we had a severe asthma crises. Thatday he was not carrying his medicine. Out ofbreath, we fell down on the sidewalk. Onesentinel of the base saw what was happe-ning, but he could not leave his post unatten-ded. So, he did not abandon the entrance ofthe base to help my friend. However, a groupof black youngsters was passing by and sawhim laying on the ground. They run to helphim, tried to give him a first medical assis-tance and then called for an ambulance.Meanwhile the sentinel was surrendered andthe police was drawn to the scene by all thisactivity. My friend died before the medicalassistance arrived and the police arrested theblack youngsters, suspecting them of havingattacked my friend. It was not before a morethorough police investigation found the eye-witness of the scene (the sentinel), that theblack youngsters were released from prison.

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T H E PA R A B L E

SOURCEDeveloped by Sidney Simon, University of Massachusetts. First publi-shed in A Manual of Teaching Techniques for Intercultural Education,(UNESCO), Henry Holmes and Stephen Guild, editors, October, 1971.

THEMESGender, Identity, Violence.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL1

GROUP SIZE10+.

MATERIALS1. Chalkboard and chalk2. Paper and pencils3. Comfortable seating arrangements, in which chairs can be moved intosmall groups.

TIMEAbout 25 minutes for the exercise itself.

OVERVIEWThis is a useful activity for1. helping participants get acquainted with each other2. demonstrating, through the discoveries they will make themselves,how their decisions are determined by cultural values3. acquainting participants with specific cultural differences and similari-ties among other members of the group4. stimulating awareness of problems in transmitting one’s own ideas andlistening to others’.The classical parable, known as “Abigale” or “Sinbad” in many intercul-tural circles, is reproduced below. For the purpose of introducing themesmore closely related to Citizenship in Europe, an alternative parable witha similar structure is also presented. This maintains the structure of theactivity and favours the economy of preparing for activities.

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InstructionsThe facilitator tells a simple yet somewhatambiguous parable, in this case involving 5characters. He may draw stick figures on theboard as “illustrations” of the story. Thebehaviour of each of the characters is inten-ded to suggest a number of different values.After the parable each participant is asked toselect, in rank of order, the characters whosebehaviour he most approves; then the largegroup is divided into groups of four or five todiscuss individual choices. An open discus-sion follows, in which participants are askedto share on a voluntary basis what they havelearned during the small group sessions.

Steps to follow:1. The facilitator tells the following parable tothe group, illustrating with rough drawings ifhe chooses:“Abigale is a girl of about 21 years of age. Forseveral months she has been engaged to ayoung man named – let’s call him Geoffrey.The problem she faces is that between herand her betrothed there lies a river. No ordi-nary river mind you, but a deep, wide riverinfested with hungry crocodiles.Abigale ponders how she can cross the river,She thinks of a man she knows, who has aboat. We’ll call him Sinbad. So she approa-ches Sinbad, asking him to take her across.He replies, “Yes, I’ll take you across if you’llspend the night with me.” Shocked at thisoffer, she runs to her mother, and tells her thestory. Her mother responds by saying, “Yes,Abigale, I understand your problem – but –you are a grown-up woman and it’s for you tosolve this problem. I don’t want to interfere.”Abigale decides to return to Sinbad, spendthe night with him, and in the morning hetakes her across the river.Her reunion with Geoffrey is warm. But on theevening before they are to be married,

Abigale feels compelled to tell Geoffrey howshe succeeded in getting across the river.Geoffrey responds by saying, “I wouldn’tmarry you if you were the last woman onearth.”Finally, at her wit’s end, Abigale turns to ourlast character, Dennis, a friend of hers andGeoffrey. Dennis listens to her story andsays, “Well, Abigale, I don’t love you… But Iwill marry you.” And that’s all we know of thestory.”Alternative story:

“Gunhild is 18-weeks pregnant of Ahmedwhen François, a common friend of both,challenges her to take a great job opportunitywith him in Spain. She asks Ahmed to quit hisjob and move with her from Stockholm toMadrid. Ahmed asks her not to accept that jobbecause he cannot have a Spanish work per-mit. Gunhild knows that she cannot take thejob and raise the child alone. She asks hermother whether she thinks that she shouldhave an abortion and go for the new job withFrançois, or stay with Ahmed and have thechild. Her mother responds by saying, “Well,Gunhild, I understand your problem – but –you are a grown-up woman and it’s for you tosolve this problem. I don’t want to interfere.”While she is hesitating, Ahmed denouncesthe case to the authorities because she haspassed the legal period for abortion. Françoistells her that he knows Stijn, the owner of anabortion boat, where she can have the abor-tion made without the risk of going to jail.Gunhild goes to Stijn boat to have the abor-tion and then leaves to Spain with François.”2. The facilitator now asks each participant towrite down on a piece of paper, in rank oforder, the characters whose behaviour hemost approves, plus a sentence or two explai-ning his first choice.

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3. Next, participants are split into groups offour or five, and asked to share –each with theothers in his group – the choices he made.Not more than 10 to 15 minutes should beallowed for this discussion; its main purposeis to raise the issues, not to exhaust them.4. He asks, “Would anyone care to volunteeranything you learned as a result of the discus-sion you have just had – anything at all?” Heshould allow a short discussion to follow andcall for a few other volunteers to share whatthey have learned.

Debriefing and evaluationThe facilitator may then ask the group, “Cananyone point to some place, some sourcewithin your own past where you learned thevalues that caused you to take the positionthat you did?” Participants probably havesome difficulty with this question, no matter. Itis intended to be a difficult question.Next the leader says, “Now I would like you toask yourselves – I don’t want an answer onthis one, I just want you to consider – howmany of you feel you could faithfully re-state,to the satisfaction of someone else in yoursmall group, the point of view, the value beingexpressed by that person? Again, I don’t wantyou to answer, just think about the question.”The leader may then summarize the sessionbriefly, making the following points, preferablyon chalkboard or newsprint:� Values come out of one’s cultural back-ground. They are difficult to track down to aparticular source and are often part of a per-son’s unconscious behaviour� Within any particular culture a person’svalues are usually very logical. They makesense in that culture.� For these reasons people should be verycautious about making moral judgementabout other people’s values.� If one really wants to understand someoneelse, one has to listen extremely well and try

to “get inside” the other person. This is thereason for the question, “How accurately dothink you could re-state someone else’s opi-nion?” Those of you who would have to ans-wer “not very” have some work to do.� What are some other areas in life wherepeople’s values differ?� Now that you are acquainted with somepeople from other cultures, you may want toinvestigate, directly with them, some of thevalues and believes which they prize themost.� The leader should conclude the sessionalmost as if it were the beginning, rather thanthe end, of a learning experience. One way todo this is simply to say that this is the end ofthe formal session and then join one of thesmall groups for conversation, rather thanleave the room.

Suggestions for follow-upThis activity, with the classical version of thestory, is frequently employed in the settingprovided by orientation of future exchangeparticipants. In such cases the background ofthe participants is more homogeneous andthey may find it easier to reach a consensus.In this case the separation between the parti-cipants is frequently guided by gender whilein a multicultural setting other divisions mayarise.Alternatively, rather than providing the story inwriting, it can be told and re-told. This allowsfor several versions to emerge and suit theinterests of the participants.Abortion still remains a very controversialissue in many European societies. There is apersonal, and religious, dimension to this sub-ject that can be explored in the discussion.The two examples of stories can be applied tomany different situations, but they obviouslynot exhaust all the possibilities. Make up yourown controversial Parable to best suit yourtraining needs!

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I D E A S A N D C H A L L E N G E S

SOURCEYouth for Understanding International Exchange, 1989

THEMESCultural Diversity, Identity, Minorities.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL3

GROUP SIZE15 to 35.

TIME2h30m

OVERVIEWThis is a relatively long and complex exercise that requires creativity and moti-vation. The participants have to “invent” cultures incorporating guidelines andmaterials, and express them in a ritual form. Several cultures are invented andmeet at a certain point. In that meeting they are required to perform some actionin common. This exercise serves to illustrate how values, myths, attitudes, rites,environment, etc, all combine to orient observable patterns of behaviour, inclu-ding those found in our “Common European House”.

OBJECTIVESThis cultural simulation exercise presents a definition of culture and provides acreative experience in which models of cultures are manipulated by the trainees.

MATERIALSCards with ideas, balls, ribbons.

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InstructionsThis exercise is made of 6 parts: the introduc-tion (to the exercise and to the concept of cul-ture), the construction of the culture, the culturalcelebration, the cross-cultural meeting, thehomecoming and the debriefing/evaluation.

Introduction (20 min)Present the exercise as a simulation that leadsto a more profound knowledge of what constitu-tes a culture.Use of the brainstorming technique to definewhat is a culture, writing on a board the partici-pants’ suggestions concerning the elementsthat constitute a culture.Next, the instructor makes a formal presenta-tion of some useful concepts related with cul-ture, linking these concepts to the participants’suggestions. In this presentation, the instructorshould refer that culture is not just what peoplecan see and record when they visit a foreignculture. Many of the elements of a culture pro-posed by the participants in the brainstorming fitin this category of what can be sensed (seen,heard, tasted, smelled). However, a culture islike an iceberg, where what can be sensed isjust what is above water. But beneath, there aredeep values, beliefs, attitudes, that require timeand attention to be perceived and understood.What can be seen comes from what is under-neath. Sometimes, the relation between whatcan and cannot be seen is difficult to unders-tand. Empathy and the study of history willeventually lead to a holistic understanding of allthe manifestations of a given culture. A simpledefinition of culture is the values, attitudes andbeliefs shared by a group of persons.Often the meaning of simple gestures or attitu-des was lost with time. For example, theWestern attitude of shaking right hands whenmeeting someone, originated in medievalEurope where the presentation of the right handwas a sign that the sword was not going to beused, and shaking hands was a sign of peace.Today, the non-violent meaning of shakinghands was forgotten, but this gesture is wides-pread.

Construction of cultures (40 min)The participants are told that they will be han-ded some ideas written in cards and that theywill have to use these ideas to build an imagi-nary culture. In fact, what is written in the cardsdoes not correspond to any real culture, and theparticipants will have to “invent” a culture usingthe ideas proposed to them. In addition to theideas written in the cards, the participants willalso have to incorporate some materials (ballsand ribbons) in the making up of their imaginarycultures.

The participants are also told that they will havetwo challenges. The first is a construction,consisting in creating an activity that expressessome values of their culture using the materialsand ideas in the cards. The second is the mee-ting, which is a gathering where representativesfrom all cultures join in a celebration where cul-tural values are shared. The participants areinformed that after the meeting they will havethe opportunity to meet and discuss what hap-pened.Next the participants are divided in 5 ou 6 sub-groups, or tribes, and the tribes are sent to theirterritories. Each tribe first chooses its scribe andits astronomer. The role of the scribe is to keepa record of the most important decisions of thetribe. The astronomer must keep the tribe onschedule for the remaining of the activity.The tribes are asked to come, one at the time,and chose their cards and materials. Each par-ticipant may chose either a ball or a ribbon, buta tribe cannot have only balls or only ribbons.The cards and the sheet with the instructionsare given to the scribes of each tribe.Once they return to their territory, the scribereads the instructions and distributes the cardsto the members of his tribe. The cards are readby the participants and the tribe decides whichtwo cards they do not wish to use. Each tribemust use at least 7 cards. The tribes cannotrefuse to use the cards with a frame.Each tribe must chose a name and prepare aritual that expresses its cultural values. Theritual must involve all the members of the tribe.

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Cultural celebration (10-15 min)Now that all the tribes have made a ritual, thetribes gather in the same place to celebratetheir cultures. The celebration consists in thepresentation of their rituals. The rational for thiscelebration is that they are about to leave tomeet other peoples, and, in the preparation oftheir journey, they make one last celebration.At this time, at least two cultures are celebratingat the same time, this offers the opportunity toeveryone to have a glimpse of what the othersare doing but, at the same time, they cannotmake a detailed analysis of the rituals perfor-med by the others.Next, two or three tribes with significantly diffe-rent rituals are invited to perform for 3 min forthe other tribes. The members of the other tri-bes may circulate to see better what is goingon. After this first performance, they change pla-ces and the observers become observed, andvice-versa. More rotations will be needed ifthere are more than 6 tribes.When all the performances are completed, thetribes return to their territory and prepare for themeeting. In that preparation, they should consi-der:� What they observed during the celebrationand what is the meaning.� What strategy to follow to have a successfulmeeting.� What they should take to the meeting� Who must take what.� Who goes with whom.

4. Cross-cultural meeting (10 min)The participants are asked to come to a cross-cultural meeting with representatives from theother tribes. They are supposed to participatetogether with the other tribes in an event where:� They express something about their cultures.� They respect the values and traditions of theother cultures.� They use as many ball and ribbons as pos-sible.� They involve all the participants.Each tribe names 2 or 3 participants to eachmeeting. There will be a sufficient number ofmeetings to allow all the participants to be pre-

sent at one meeting. Once they, meet, they per-form their event. They must allays maintain anattitude consistent with their culture. They mustreturn home as soon as the event is over.

Homecoming (10 min)At home the members of the tribe discuss whathappened during the meeting and how they feltabout it. The scribe registers the most relevantpoints. Each tribe may also speculate about thevalues of the other tribes and how they wereexpressed in the celebration.

Debriefing and evaluationAll the participants should gather together atthe same place for the debriefing and evalua-tion. This is an essential part of the exercise. Inthe beginning, the participants should expresswhat they felt about the exercise: embarrassed,defensive,…?Afterwards, the scribes should present their tri-bes, giving their names, values and fundamen-tal rites of their culture. This gives the opportu-nity to analyze the cards and try to categorizethem. How where the cards incorporated in theattitudes and rites? How did this lead to the dif-ferentiation of the cultures when facing thesame phenomena?Next the participants should comment on thecultural celebration. Was it felt as an expressionof their identity? Did it strengthen their sense ofbelonging to their tribe? Did it prepare them forthe next events?

The cross-cultural meeting was a major part ofthe exercise. Did they success in communica-ting the values of their culture and understan-ding the others? Was it possible to reconcile therespect for their own values and rites with a suc-cessful communication with the others? Didthey have to compromise? Which were themajor difficulties in the meeting? Did they haveenough time to understand the others?Finally, the discussion should focus on the ana-logies between this simulation and the realworld. Are there lessons to be learnt to improvethe success of cross-cultural meetings?

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Ideas and Challenges(Instructions for the participants)

Construction of cultures (40 min)Each member of the tribe must take one cardwith ideas, present it to the group and assignit a meaning. As the new cards with ideas arepresented, their meaning must be integratedwith that of the previous cards. At the end, allthe ideas must be linked, originating a newculture. This requires imagination and creati-vity. Be bold!Each culture will have 9 cards, but is onlyrequired to use 7, including the cards with aframe.Start now honouring your traditions, eachtime that a ball, is touched, transmitted orreceived.Give a name to your tribe.Develop your own culture, making an activitythat� Expresses something about your culture.� Respects the values and traditions of yourtribe.� Uses balls and ribbons.� Involves all the members of the tribeRehearse your activity and improve it as youmove on.

Cultural celebration (10 min)Prepare to leave your territory and interactwith the other tribes. You will need:� To celebrate your activity in front of theothers.� To observe the other as they celebratetheir activities.

Cross-cultural meeting (10 min)Prepare groups of 2-3 members of your tribeto go and meet with the other groups of theother tribes. Such groups will have to partici-pate in an event where:� They express something about their owncultures.� Respect the values and traditions of all thetribes.� Uses as many balls and ribbons as possi-ble.� Involves all the participants.

Homecoming (5 min)Come back to your territory after the meetingand try to answer the following questions:� What happened during the meeting?� How did you feel about it?

Ideas and Challenges(Instructions for the scribes)

The scribe must keep the records of whathappens in the tribe. He keeps track of themost important contributions to the construc-tion of the culture, as the cards with ideas arepresented and integrated

Card with ideas Meanings Other com-ments

Once the most significant meanings are iden-tified, the tribe must reconcile them in a cohe-rent culture. This culture is the bases for thesubsequent development of an activity repre-sentative of the tribe.

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Cards relating to Nature

Moving through the waters Dominating the computer and the video The buildings clampedIn the full moon to promote understanding against each other

Peacefully waiting for Running to the caves Drums and antelope The Spirits of Glass to leave waiting for the Spirit of Cold When their time comes to die

Climbing the highest trees Prostrating before Standing on the dry fieldsSearching for the enemy The Spirit of the Winds begging for rain

Laughing and dancing climbing the steep mountain Dancing on the sandAt mid-night light to find the deep cave while the warm waves

Source of the enchanted light wash the feet

Holding the waters Bowing in respectOf the great river for the Spirit of the burning mountain

Cards relating to Physical Environment

Smoke of the burning oven Drop of salted water SandIn the air

Canyons Reptiles Tundra

Salmon migrations Berries and fish Tropical rain forest

Airplanes flying over the dam The red sun raising over the grey river

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Cards relating to Physical Environment

Smoke of the burning oven Drop of salted water SandIn the air

Canyons Reptiles Tundra

Salmon migrations Berries and fish Tropical rain forest

Airplanes flying over the dam The red sun raising over the grey river

Mythic Cards

The Red Spirit and the Blue Spirit The first man saw the first woman The Big Cat sleeps with the worldPlay music. The Red with a drum on the other side of the river on his back. And if he wakes up?The Blue with a flute He made the first canoe

In four strikes the Bid Dances The Spirit of the Moose does not approve The Spirit of the Eath givesMade the world. On the fifth the hunters of the moose the little ones and takes awayHe danced of all the ages

Ritual Cards

The time of the greatest ritual The time of the greatest ritual The time of the greatest ritualIs when the summer sun reaches is every night with a full moon is that first Spring dayThe highest point and no clouds when the first flower blossoms

The time of the greatest ritual The time of the greatest ritual The time of the greatest ritualAre the two weeks of the Fall is the week after the marriage are the three days after the deathwhen the harvest is completed of the eldest son of our chief of our chief

The time of the greatest ritual Theatre is a mirrorAre the three longest Winter days and a hammerWhen the light barely reaches us

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Mixed Cards

Land commerce Working hard Kits and hawkswith the people of the South and not much to eatGuns and kangaroos Rainbows and seagulls Daisies and sunflower

T-shirts and tennis shoes The children are always hungry

Time-orientation Cards

We profoundly respect the way Knowledge is transmitted Just like a bird that cannot beThings were done in the past from one generation to the following kept is a cage, is the heart of Respect the elderly and encourage in the classroom a personOur children to adopt their ways

We tell stories that everyone knows We persist in making buildings Past is a prologueBut nobody is tired of listening that will improve the quality of liveAbout our ancestors in the next decades

Tomorrow will come We use flowers in our hair Centuries of dictatorship

Where one is born, he must stay We have many lives to live This was the land of my father’sfather

A tree for the children that The present is everything Maturity is everythingOne day will be born

Values and Meaning Cards

We must serve A happy person Those who gave to usThose who conquered us is a healthy person took away the most precious

Things from this earth Our mothers gave birth to us To make one’s own rulesMust be loved, not owned and our names are theirs is of utmost arrogance

A man is a man A girl becomes a woman The child is the centre of the familyWhen he owns more cattle when she has a child everything we do is for the childthan fingers

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To sit down and think about the A woman must never walk alone Theatre is our most important toolMeaning of everything around us or the others will think that she has to teach and develop a communityIs the noblest activity much to conceal

Decisions must be made Our great Masters lessen the uncertainty The computer is bringing highly By the whole group of our world appreciated gifts to our people

Random Cards

Romeo and Juliet The choice of the new generation Too much is not enough

No woman no cry Thank you for your support It’s a beautiful day

Take it easy It’s good to say no Hang a dozen

Great, isn’t it? Twenty-seven steps goal within reach

Hearts are trumpets two knights and one tower

Balls and Ribbons Meaning Cards

Balls and ribbons Balls and ribbons Balls and ribbonsSymbolize our roots Symbolize our faith are eternal memoriesIn the physical dimension in our deepest values of our original ritesWhere we live and breathe

Balls and ribbons Balls and ribbons Balls and ribbonsHave forever been used symbolize the most crucial never meanIn our ritual celebrations aspects of our culture what they seem to mean

Balls and ribbons are secretly usedTo represent the opposite of what they seem to represent

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Balls Manipulation Cards

Use both hands simultaneously Every time a ball is touched or moved

Only use your thumbsEvery time a ball is touched or moved

Never touch a ball with your handsEvery time a ball is touched or moved

Never touch the ball with your thumbsEvery time a ball is touched or moved

Balls must not touch the floorEvery time a ball is touched or moved

Never touch a ball with your feet Every time a ball is touched or moved

Only use your feetEvery time a ball is touched or moved

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T H E T R A D I N G G A M E

SOURCEChristian Aid, Last Ed.: Dec 2003

THEMESGlobalisation, Sustainable Development.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL3

GROUP SIZE15 to 30.

TIMEAt least one hour for the game and discussion; with a well-informed group allow lon-ger – up to two hours.

OVERVIEWThis game is intended to help the players understand more clearly how trade canaffect the prosperity of a country. Our planet is divided: the northern industrializedcountries such as North America, Europe or Japan have a much higher standardof living than the countries in Latin America, Africa or Asia. There are many waysof explaining this difference, but it is certain that the gap between rich and poor ismaintained and even made wider by a world trading system that helps the strong,well-organized countries rather than poorer ones. This game tries to show how tra-ding usually works: who benefits and who loses. It can only provide a simple out-line of some very complex relationships. But one of its aims is to make clear thebasic issues that determine these relationships. Citizenship is not just about ourrights: we also have obligations! Here we see that Europeans are privileged peo-ple. What can we do to encourage fair trade?

OBJECTIVESThis simulation game is an excellent tool for:� extending curriculum work in Geography, RE, Citizenship and Business Studies� increasing understanding of the world as a global community� considering experiences of poorer countries

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� confronting injustices in the current trading systemThe game is designed to illustrate how the process of trade can benefit and hinderthe economic development of different communities or countries. It aims to gene-rate interest and discussion about the world trading system in an enjoyable andnon-academic way: discussions on trade could be extremely boring but the playerswill almost certainly want to talk about their experiences during the playing of thegame and this in turn should lead to a broader discussion about trading relations-hips.

MATERIALSYou need a room large enough to accommodate up to six groups of four to sixplayers each; leave plenty of circulation space between the groups. Most class-rooms are just about large enough if the desks or tables can be moved around, butideally if you have a group of 30 it would be better to use a small hall.Each of the 6 groups needs a table or desk as a work surface and a chair or twofor each group would be useful.The organizers need a table or desk, and a blackboard or uncluttered wall surfacefor sticking up posters.Equipment:� 30 A4 sheets of paper – plain and all the same colour � 60 “Euro notes” of 100 each� 2 sheets of coloured sticky paper� 4 pairs of scissors� 2 compasses for drawing circles� 2 set squares� 2 protractors� 14 lead pencils� 2 chartsIn addition, it is useful to have some extra pencils and paper similar to the original30 sheets for “emergencies” as well as some paper for the organiser to use for pas-sing messages.

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InstructionsAll the players need to be able to see the Diagram of Shapes during the game, so this needs tobe copied to a blackboard or made into a poster for display: depending on the shape of your roomyou may need two posters.

The equipment indicated above needs to be arranged into “Resource Sets” as follows:

The furniture of the room needs to be arranged so that there are six areas for the groups to workfrom: each area should have a flat working surface.

GRADE A –Two Sets of the following: - 2 pairs of scissors

- 2 rulers- a compass- 1 set square- 1 protractor- 1 sheet of paper- 6 “Euro notes”- 4 lead pencils

GRADE B –Two Sets of the following: - 10 sheets ofpaper

- 1 sheet of sticky paper- 2 “Euro notes”

GRADE C –Two Sets of the following: - 4 sheets of paper

- 2 pencils- 2 “Euro notes”

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You need two organisers per game: one to act as banker and one to act as leader. The leader’srole is to keep control of the entire game, taking note of how it develops and occasionally chan-ging the game’s direction by introducing new elements into it. Leaders must be ready to lead thediscussion at the end of the game. For this it is very useful to jot down anything interesting orsignificant that players have said or done during the game.

The banker requires a pen/pencil and a sheet of paper with six columns – one for each of the sixgroups.

With the Diagram of Shapes in position, the equipment arranged in sets, the banker’s sheet pre-pared and the furniture re-arranged, you are now ready to play the game.

The Trading Game(Instructions for the instructor)

These instructions for playing must not be read aloud to the players.

1. Split the players into five or six groups as shown, allocate each group an area in the room orhall and then give each group a set of materials as indicated.

Nº Number of players Resource-setSome suggested Country names

1 &&&&&& GRADE A

USAUKITALYFRANCE

2 &&&&&& GRADE A

USAUKITALYFRANCE

3 &&&&& GRADE B

INDIABRAZILNIGERIAPERU

4 &&&&& GRADE B

INDIABRAZILNIGERIAPERU

5 &&&& GRADE C

TANZANIAKENYABURMAGHANA

6 &&&& GRADE C

TANZANIAKENYABURMAGHANA

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Do not point out to the groups that they are receiving different sets of materials; they willnotice soon enough!

2. Now red out the objectives and rules of the game to the players. These are as follows:“The objective of each group is to make as much wealth for itself as possible by using the mate-rials given to it. No other materials can be used. The wealth is made by manufacturing paper sha-pes. The goods you are going to manufacture are the shapes shown on the Diagram of Shapes.Each shape has its own value as shown on the Diagram and these paper shapes are given to theBanker in batches for checking and crediting to your bank account.You can manufacture as manyshapes as you like – The more you make, the wealthier you will be.”

“There are just four simple rules:� All the shapes need to be cut with clean sharp edges using scissors and must be of the exactsize shown – the shapes are taken to the banker for your account � You can only use the materials that have been given to you� There is no physical force used during the game� The leader represents the United Nations and will intervene in any disagreements”

Repeat the rules quickly and then announce that “manufacturing can begin.”

3. At the beginning of the game, some confused or puzzled players will bombard you with ques-tions: Can we borrow scissors? – Can we trade? – Why haven’t we got scissors (paper, etc.)? –What’s the sticky paper for?

Resist all temptation to answer these questions – just repeat the rules or stay silent.

After a difficult minute or two of confusion at the beginning, the players will start moving aroundthe room and begin trading; the initiative should come from them, not you.

4. The manufacturing and trading should continue for about 30-45 minutes, depending on the sizeand interest of the group.

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All edges must be cut with

Value: 500 (diameter: 13cm)

Value: 200 (diameter:13cm)

Value: 300 (12 cm / 7 cm)

Value: 150 (each side: 7cm)

Value: 200 (size of your actual set square)

Diagram of Shapes

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Tips for facilitators

Watch what is happening!

The Grade A groups will begin making sha-pes as soon as they have all materials andequipment, but they will soon run short of rawmaterials and probably try to buy some paperfrom other groups. At first, the groups withpaper will probably sell it for a very low price:note how the “terms of trade” change duringthe game and point this out later. You will bethe only person who can see how the game isdeveloping as a whole: the players will beengrossed in their own groups, so it is impor-tant for you to note the types of alliances anddeals which develop and bring these into dis-cussion at the end.

Stimulate activity! Some groups will feel impotent and neglec-ted. In order to encourage trading activity, theleader may have to feed in more informationand create new situations which have paral-lels in the real world. Some suggestions aremade below. Some of these changes willapply to all the groups, but others will be com-municated by secret messages given to parti-cular groups only by the leader.

. Changing market values: After a while,change the value of some of the shapes, sothat, for example, rich groups find that theircompasses are no longer as useful as theywere for making valuable shapes. Rememberto tell the banker of any price changes. Thisexample has parallels for countries that findtheir own technology outdated by changedcircumstances.

. Increasing the supply of raw materials ortechnology: From your own secret supply ofextra paper, you can “feed” an extra supply toone of the groups and announce to the world(i.e. all the groups) that a new deposit of raw

materials has been discovered in this group. Ifthis is done late in the game, when everyoneis running short of paper, it will quickly changerelationships between groups. Parallels of thischange in the real world include a new oil findor the discovery of mineral deposits.

. Using the coloured sticky paper: Two groupswill have a sheet of coloured sticky paper.They are not told anything about it and maynot even notice that they have it: its real lifeparallel is a resource which a country doesnot realize the full value of. You can give it avalue by secretly telling two other groups (bysecret written messages) that if they sticksmall squares of the paper to their products,they will be worth four times the original value.(Tell the banker). These groups will then startto search for sticky paper. As the holders don’tknow its value, they may well sell it cheaply,and the first group will make a profit.Alternatively, they might hold on to theirresource until the end of the game and neverlet it be used, in which case its potential isnever realized.

. Aid: During the game, you could encourageone or two groups by granting them U.N. aidon certain conditions: e.g. that a third of thegoods produced with the aid should be paidback to the U.N. as interest. The aid could begiven in the form of technology (e.g. extrascissors to one group for a short term only).Look out for examples of richer groups offe-ring aid to poorer groups: what were the termsof the deal? In fact, this is unlikely to happenunless the leader encourages it. Groups tendto be very reluctant to help others!

. Trade associations: may develop during thegame: two or more groups may agree to co-operate for their mutual benefit. We are fami-liar with this kind of co-operation in theEuropean Union. Trade associations alsoexist in other parts of the world: in WestAfrica, Central America and Latin America…

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. Tariffs and Duties: Some groups may placerestrictions or charges on trading with othergroups. Nations have tariff and quota arrange-ments which they have developed to protecttheir own interests.

. Colonisation and Annexation are other options which groups might try. A powerfulgroup offers “protection” to another group oroffers to absorb it, promising that its rightsand assets will be respected. History is full ofexamples of annexation and colonisation.

. Producer Cartels: The groups with the mostpaper might join and decide to stabilize theprice of paper to protect them from being indi-vidually exploited by the Grade A (industriali-zed) groups.

. Trade Embargo: Groups with large suppliesof paper could stop trading or reduce theiramount of trade. By with-holding supplies ofpaper, they may be able to improve the termsof trade for themselves and conserve stocksfor the future. However, this would be riskywithout the protection of a cartel (see above).

. Civil Strike and Industrial Unrest: The gameleader can halt production by declaring a tem-porary general strike. He should remove thescissors from a Grade A group for a few minu-tes, so that production has to stop.

Delocalization: A resourceful group may delo-calize one of its tools (for example, the scis-sors) and have another group working for it fora low price.

These developments will probably not happenunless the leader introduces them. It is notnecessary to try all ten within the game, butthey are all situations which might well deve-lop and they will provoke discussion at the

end of the game. One of the advantages ofthis game is that it is very open-minded: allkinds of alliances will emerge and then bebroken, and inevitably one of the players willask you whether he/she can “cheat”. Here wemove into the morality of international trade:when is a bargain a bargain – and when is itexploitation?

Debriefing and evaluation

If the game goes according to plan, then itshould soon become pretty clear to some ofthe groups of players that the whole set-up ofthe game is unbalanced right from the start.The groups aren’t equal in resources, andcomplaints of “it’s not fair” should soon start toreach the leader.

When the game is over and things havebegun to quieten down, it will need patientstirring on the leader’s part to guide the de-briefing. The feeling of unfairness that willundoubtedly have been aroused in some ofthe groups ought to provide a useful jumping-off point for discussion.

The first hurdle for the discussion leader is totry to make the groups see that the game isn’t“just a game”, but a sort of “acted parable”that tries to reflect structures in the real world.If the players are aware that the game is notfair, then it ought to be possible to get them todiscuss why it isn’t fair (for example, by get-ting them to look at how resources and toolswere distributed at the start).

You can then go on to look at the injustices enthe structures of the world’s trade and beginto appreciate the difficulties of arriving at ajust system of exchange between theresource-owners

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and the tool-owners. The players’ own expe-riences of helplessness, anger and potentialviolence (!) during the course of the gamecould well be explored at this point, since theyillustrate the sentiments felt on a worldwidescale by many of the Third World nations inthe face of Western controlling interests. Itmight be useful to bring in some of the exam-ples of exploitation at this stage, and how anIndian tea-worker feels, for instance, when thedecisions affecting his livelihood are mademainly by Western commercial interests?

Once this first hurdle has been cleared, thenthe next stage will be to dig a little deeper andtry to explore more profound issues. If somegroups of players felt that it was unreasonablefor other groups to control all the tools, thenthe discussion could move on to concentrateon the questions of ownership and control.This is a difficult area of debate, so do notexpect any easy answers! But the question“who owns the world’s resources?” ought tobe asked, together with its counterpart “whatright have nation-states to declare resourcesto be their property?” If the leader can bringthe discussion this far, then the debate willhave moved from thinking about the way theworld is towards thinking about the way theworld ought to be. Once the players havebegun to ask questions about who has theright to dictate terms to the rest, it should notbe too hard to let them see that the funda-mental issue is one of our own moral attitudetowards our wealth. If the world is an unfairplace, and if we admit that its structures needchanging, what sort of attitude should wehave towards the world’s resources and theuse we make of them?

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T H E A L B AT R O S S

SOURCEBatchelder, D. & Warner, E.C. Beyond Experience. Battleboro, VT:Experiment in International Living (1977).

THEMESGender, Discrimination, Cultural Diversity.

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZE15 to 30.

TIMEAllow from 1h to 1h30m, depending on group size.

OVERVIEWThis is a non-verbal role-playing activity that can incorporate a variety of the-mes, such as male-female relationships and privilege. Participants are askedto watch a brief role-play and then describe what they saw. Most will interpretwhat they saw and begin to judge the characters in the role while only havingseen, but not heard, anything. This exercise provides a good example of howpeople give meaning to unique events based on their own experiences. Thisactivity is a classical in pre-departure orientation for an interculturalexchange, and many inbound students already know it. Its use with outboundstudents is not discouraged, but using it with a group that is experiencing a“visit” leads to a more personal involvement. In that respect, it is possible torelate the activity to the judgments that may be made on the host community,and how they relate to the themes above.

OBJECTIVESTo simulate an intercultural experience.To analyse his own reactions in an intercultural setting.To become aware of how our culture conditions the way we read reality.

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MATERIALSChairs (in accordance to the number of male participants), water, glass, pie-ces of bread.Setting: a circle of chairs is put in a room. Only the instructors are in theroom. The male instructor is sitting on a chair, while the female instructorkneels barefoot on the floor next to him. The participants enter the room (theonly information they are given beforehand is that they are now visiting anew culture as guests)

INSTRUCTIONS(Description by Theodore Gochenour)

If you have never taken part in the Albatrossexercise, it would be best to do so first beforeyou decide whether it is useful for your trai-ning and orientation purposes.

There are two parts to the exercise. The firstpart consists of performing a ceremonialgreeting between members of an imaginaryculture (Albatross) and foreigners (those par-ticipants being trained or oriented). Thereshould be no on-lookers. The second partconsists of an extended discussion. Albatrossis an experiential learning device, but it isrelatively useless unless the discussion follo-wing the ceremony is treated with particularthoughtfulness and attention.

It is important first to realise that there is noset sequence or necessary pattern to follow. Itmay be best to create your own variations tomeet situations, such as having participantsall of one sex, or too many Albatrossians toinclude, etc. With that in mind, then, what fol-lows is an outline of the "standard" wayAlbatross is run. There are other sequenceswhich have been or can be developed. Someparticular sequence is not important but it isimportant to have clear objectives and validreasons for what is done.

A male and female Albatrossian are in theirplaces, the man on the chair, the womankneeling beside him. Participants are broughtor directed into the circle of chairs, femaleswith shoes off and males with shoes on. The

Albatrossian couple is dressed in their sheets,the woman without shoes, and the man withshoes.

The first activity (which can be done before, orcombined with the greetings) is for theAlbatrossians (mainly the man) to attempt toinduce the female participants to sit on thefloor, and the male participants the reverse.This effort, and all other communicationattempts during the exercise are in a specialAlbatrossian language.

Albatrossians are sedate, reserved, gentleand loving people who do not manhandletheir guests. Touching is only done in ceremo-nial ways, such as in the greetings. Thus, theeffort to get the participants into proper placeis done principally through (1) a hiss, whichindicates disapproval, (2) an appreciativehum, which indicates approval or (3) a clickingof the tongue, which basically serves for allsorts of getting-of-attention, transfer of factualinformation, etc.

The next activity is the circle of greetings. TheAlbatrossian man gets up and greets eachmale participant in turn around the circle, hol-ding by the shoulders and waist and by rub-bing the right legs together. After such gree-ting, the visitor should sit back down in achair. Then the Albatrossian woman greetseach female participant in turn around the cir-cle. She kneels in front of a standing femaleguest and runs both hands down the lowerlegs and feet in a ceremonious way. Thewomen resume a kneeling position.

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After the greetings, a pause ensues duringwhich all simply wait. The Albatrossiansalways maintain unsmiling (but serene, andpleasant) expressions, and do not register infacial reactions their various feelings or res-ponses to what may go on in the circle.Visitors who giggle or talk or otherwise disturbthe ritual are hissed at, but not with anger.

Then, a bowl of water is brought around thecircle by the Albatrossian woman. Beginningwith the Albatrossian man, each male in thecircle dips the fingers of his right hand into thebowl and lifts or waves the hand about grace-fully to dry. The women's hands are notwashed. The Albatrossian woman returns toher place for a few minutes before beginningthe next activity.

She then - upon a clicking cue from the man -rises and offers food to each male in turn,beginning with the Albatrossian man. Shesticks her hands into the food and stuffs a lit-tle into each mouth. Upon being fed theAlbatrossian man indicates his appreciationby a loud hum or moan (which can be accom-panied by a rubbing of the stomach). After themen are fed, the Albatrossian woman nextfeeds each woman in turn. After this, shereturns to her position next to the Albatrossianman.

During these pauses, which should be prolon-ged for effect, the Albatrossian man gentlypushes the woman's head from time to timedownward as she kneels.

Next follows the drink. In the same manner,the Albatrossian woman first gives the cup tothe Albatrossian man to drink from, then cir-cles among the male participants, thenamong the females, finally returning to herplace and resuming her kneeling posture.

After another pause, the two Albatrossiansrise and proceed around the circle of guests,

communicating with each other through thecustomary clicking sounds. Without makingclear indications to the participants, they iden-tify the guest with the largest feet. That parti-cipant is then led over to the Albatrossianchair, and she - like the Albatrossian woman -kneels next to his chair.

The last activity of the ceremony - theAlbatrossian man rises and makes the roundof the circle, greeting each male participant.He is followed by the Albatrossian woman,greeting each woman in turn. At that point, thetwo Albatrossians indicate to the selectedparticipant left kneeling by the chair to followthem, and the three people leave the circleconcluding the first part of the exercise.

Background

As elaborated later, part of the point of theAlbatross exercise is to provide an opportu-nity for people to learn by observation, to infermeaning from the totality of what happened.Since this "cultural observation" aspect isimportant, it is best to conduct the exercisewith as much consistency as possible, andwithin some frame of reference agreed on byall Albatrossian performers. Following aresome of the "standard" cultural assumptionswhich usually are in play, and which the parti-cipants have the problem of figuring out asthe exercise goes on.

Though the exercise is deliberately set up toindicate otherwise to a Western audience, infact the Albatrossian society values womenabove men. The Earth is sacred; all fruitful-ness is blessed; those (thus women) whobring life into being are one with the Earth,and only they are able (by virtue of their inhe-rent qualities) to walk directly upon theground. Thus, men must wear shoes, andthus their greeting does not deal with theEarth, where that of women emphasized theground and feet. Only women are able to pre-pare and offer the fruits of the Earth.

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The roles of men and woman in the societyreflect this relationship to Earth, though to thenew observer it may appear as if other mea-nings are present. For example, the fact thatthe Albatrossian man pushes down the headof the kneeling Albatrossian woman is a pur-suit of his obligations in the society, it is hisduty to remind her of sacredness, to approachit through her, to protect her from forgetful-ness. He drinks and eats first to protect her(and all that she represents) from harm ordefilement.

Albatrossians have a language, though onlysome part of it is required or used in the gree-ting ceremony (the clicks, hums, hisses). Itmay be useful to approach the languagequestion on another assumption: thatAlbatrossians communicate via mental tele-pathy, and that the few sounds they use aremainly means of getting a person's attention.The society values calm, serenity, stateliness.The Albatrossians are peaceful, welcoming ofstrangers, generous, loving and tolerant. Theyeat and drink things which they like (thoughthey may not agree to the taste of foreign visi-tors). Their patterns of life and their ceremo-nies (such as the greeting ceremony) aretime-honoured and are considered to be self-evidently correct and adequate.

This last is important. It is important forAlbatrossians to bear in mind (and for partici-pants to realize later in discussion) that whatis, is - and that Albatrossians are no differentfrom any other people in making the uncons-cious assumption that what they are is "nor-mal." Thus, they assume that the visitors wantto be greeted, that the visitor knows as well asthey what is correct (though they are tolerantand gently correcting of lapses); that thewoman with the largest feet among the parti-cipants is completely in accord with thenecessity of her selection, etc.

The ceremony is a greeting one - it is not tobe implied as the totality of the society (e.g., achurch service is both a bona fide segment ofcultural behaviour, and yet not indicative ofeverything in that culture). Performers of

Albatross may wish to create various philoso-phical or behavioural rationales, but usuallythe foregoing are more or less sufficient.During the discussion following the exercise,any inconsistencies in performance or trickyquestions can always be explained as "tribaldifferences."

But it is important for those doing Albatross tomake the jump into a different culture, onethat is not at all needing to be "explained" orjustified. One should attempt to enter into aspirit of "suchness," i.e., that an Albatrossianis as much of a whole, self-evident, implicitlyassumed person as is an American.

Debriefing

This is the most important part of the exer-cise. There are basically two broad levelsobtainable in the Albatross exercise. The firstis the "cultural observation" level. The exer-cise gives participants a chance to test theirpowers of observation, to infer correct beha-viour from non-verbal or indirect clues, and toget some idea (at least a beginning one) ofwhat the Albatross society is like. The secondbroad level is one of self-awareness - of par-ticipants being given a chance to assess theirown reactions and feelings and thereby to addto their self-knowledge.

Since participants after an Albatross usuallyare full of their own reactions, it is usually bestto structure the discussion on this pattern:

A. Collect ideas on "where they havebeen," i.e., what happened, what sort of acti-vity were they just doing. This develops into agenerally agreed understanding that theyhave had contact with some kind of "culture."This is more than a perfunctory introduction tothe discussion. The reason for exploring ideason the nature of what happened - letting thesearise without either immediate confirmation ordenial - is that it tells the discussion leadermuch about the group at hand: its state ofbeing.

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B. Then the discussion can move on towhat was objectively observed. Collect allpossible impressions: "they did this" or "theirlanguage is”. It is helpful to ask participants toscreen out for the moment their own feelingsand reactions - to tell what they observed andnow know about the culture, and later to tellwhat happened to them personally.

This part of the discussion will get into whe-ther Albatross (the name can be used at anytime or not, as desired) is a land wherewomen are oppressed, "an MCP society," etc.It is best to let all ideas flow if possible and notsupply "answers." Likewise, it is best ifcontrary views can arise from within the grouprather than from the leader. Eventually,someone will question the assumption ofmale superiority, and the discussion leadercan build on it naturally.

The major points which need to be realizedare: how our observations are coloured by ourown cultural assumptions; how well weobserve even to begin with (do we reallynotice details, or pay close attention?); thatwe can, in fact, infer a lot of useful informationand learn what is expected of us withoutbeing told in so many words; that things don'talways mean what they seem. Thus, this partof the discussion consists of sharing of (1)information and (2) opportunities to be thin-king about the participant’s own skills inobservation. At some point it will be valuableto make the additional point clear that many, ifnot most, of the observations offered by parti-cipants will be highly value-laden. Here again,one of the participants will eventually proba-bly point this out, and the leader needs to bealert to see that the idea is heard and diges-ted by the whole group.In this area of observation, there will usuallybe a strong tendency on the part of partici-pants to want answers from the discussionleader: "why did they do ...?" "Do allAlbatrossians...?" The goal here should be totry to get responses to such questions from

the group itself, varied ones, contradictoryones, some of which at the appropriatemoment the discussion leader can confirm, orsuggest be taken as probably right, or ashypothesis. The leader should try to help thegroup see that questions as "Do allAlbatrossians...?" are inherently meaninglessquestions in light of their own common senseand cultural experience. Finally, the leadershould be alert for ways in which to see thatsome grasp of the limitations in "why" is gai-ned. This means that “Why do Albatrossiansdo such and such?" followed by"Albatrossians do such and such becauseof..." simply confirms in participants a limitingpattern of thinking. While some questionsmight be given "here's why" answers, the lea-der should aim toward creating the aware-ness that the "why's" of human behaviour donot usually lend themselves to simple, neat(sociological/anthropological) concepts andanswers.

When the purely information elements beginto get exhausted, it is good to move the dis-cussion clearly into the area of personal fee-lings and reactions. Usually it is not difficult toget middle-ground reactions, "I got tired of sit-ting..." or "interesting..." It may take proddingto get participants to express more extremeopinions and reactions, positive or negative.The thing here to try for is to help participantssee that their own reaction is very relative:that next to them is sitting someone with quitea contrary reaction. In other words, a gooddiscussion leader takes opportunities as theyarise to enable participants to see that theexercise is not "good" or "bad" or "boring" orany other categorical label. Rather, that theexercise per se was none of these things, buttakes on this or that character through theexperience of individuals, that each personsees through a pair of personal glasses. Thebasic idea here is to let any and all reactionsbe expressed, yet to develop the awarenessin each participant that he or she is essen-tially responsible for what "happened."

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As participants often do not like their ownreactions and behaviours, inevitably the com-ments arise that "if the exercise were donedifferently..." or "had it not been an artificialsituation, I would have...." Sometimes thisquestion of artificiality arises from someonewho had no adverse reactions, but who wantsto offer advice on how the exercise can beimproved.

The question of artificiality is central to thewhole matter of those insights into self-aware-ness the exercise offers. The leader mustmake it clear that the Albatross exercise wasartificial insofar as it was a simulation. It wasnot "artificial" in the aspect which mattersmost: that during a given period of time, agroup of people did such and such in thatroom, and that each participant had real reac-tions. It is up to the participant to admit thatwhatever those reactions (and behaviours)were, they happened, and that it essentially isimmaterial how "well" or how "realistically" theexercise was run. It may help to run it realisti-cally and theatrically well (for the benefits tobe gained from the cultural observation level),but as an event in the lives of the participants,it was as real as anything which may happento them.

This insight, if it can be gained, is valuable. Itwill seem self-evident to some, and totallymeaningless or alien to others, but the leadershould try. In this, it helps to point out to theparticipant that Albatross is a device which hepersonally can use to look at himself. Eachperson knows how he reacted. It is up to eachperson to realize that (1) those reactions hap-pened and were real, (2) that whatever cau-sed those reactions, he has responsibility forwhat he does with those reactions, and (3)that there is no "right" or "wrong" to the exer-cise, simply it means whatever it can be seento mean in each person's inward awareness.

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CHAPTER 3:

A c t i v i t i e s f o r v o l u n t e e rt r a i n i n g s

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E C O L O G I C A L F O O T P R I N T

THEMESCitizenship, Globalisation, Sustainability

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZEAny

TIME60’

OVERVIEWEuropeans are consuming natural resources in an unsustainable way. Oneimportant dimension of European citizenship is raising awareness andtaking responsibility concerning lifestyles’ social and environmental impact.Participants are invited to calculate their own ecological footprint and tocompare their lifestyle and that of their country and region with that of othercountries in terms of the planet sustainability.

OBJECTIVESTo increase participants’ awareness of their own lifestyle and their responsi-bility as global citizens.

MATERIALSAccess to Internet (http://ecofoot.org/)Ecological Footprint calculator is available for both pc and mac and can bedownloaded at: http://www.kidsolve.com/products/The Ecological Footprint Calculator is a tool that enables people to calculatetheir own ecological footprint, and to visualize their footprint in various ways

PREPARATIONTest Internet connections and number of on-line computers to decide howto divide participants. Alternatively, download useful background informationand the Ecological Footprint Calculator in order to work off-line.

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INSTRUCTIONSAsk participants if they have an indicationwhether their lifestyle is sustainable or not. Is itpossible to measure it? Introduce theEcological Footprint (EF) as one way of doingso. (10’)Invite participants to calculate their ecologicalfootprint at:http://ecofoot.org/ (or with the help of theEcological Footprint calculator once downloa-ded at: http://www.kidsolve.com/products/It may be enough to have participants workingin small groups and to calculate the EF of justone member of the group (30’).Have participants comparing their EF and pro-vide them information about their countries EF.Compare their lifestyle with that of otherregions of the world and introduce key issuesfrom the Living Planet Report(http://www.panda.org/news_facts/publica-tions/key_publications/living_planet_report/index.cfm) (20’)

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATIONThis activity helps to highlight (un)sustainabi-lity of lifestyles. It is based on two keyconcepts:Global hectare as standardized comparableunit: Ecological Footprint accounts express theuse of built-up areas, and the consumption ofenergy and renewable resources—crops, ani-mal products, timber, and fish—in standardi-zed units of biologically productive area, ter-med global hectares (gha). Each global hec-tare represents an equal amount of biologicalproductivity. One global hectare is equal to onehectare with a productivity equal to the ave-rage productivity of the 11.2 billion bioproduc-tive hectares on Earth. Here productivity doesnot refer to a rate of biomass production, suchas net primary production (NPP). Rather pro-ductivity is the potential to achieve maximumagricultural production at a specific level ofinputs (see next section). Thus one hectare ofhighly productive land is equal to more globalhectares than one hectare of less productiveland. Global hectares are normalized so that

the number of actual hectares of bioproductiveland and sea on this planet is equal to thenumber of global hectares on this planet.

Europe is overconsuming: Humanity’s annualdemand for resources is now exceeding theEarth’s regenerative capacity by more than 20per cent, and it keeps growing. Humanitymaintains this overdraft by liquidating the pla-net’s natural resources. Europe’s demand onthe biosphere plays a significant part in this.With merely 7 per cent of the world population,the European Union uses 17 per cent of thebiosphere’s regenerative capacity. As a resultof increasing human demand and decliningecological wealth, Europe is losing room tomanoeuvre. It increasingly exports its insatia-ble demands for natural resources to poorercountries while it would need to reduce thisconstriction and to reverse these trends.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORSMore information about the EF are availableat:Global Footprint Network, http://www.footprint-network.org/index.phpA quick (and modifiable) example for the ave-rage European is provided at:http://www.bestfootforward.com/footprintlife.htmit shows that the average European ecologicalfootprint is estimated to be 6.3 hectares (15.6acres). If everyone in the World lived lived likeEuropeans we would need 3.4 Planets to sup-port global consumption.A more comprehensive presentation of the EFconcept is available at:http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/english/footprint/Based on the EF, the WWF publishes the bi-annual Living Planet Report:http://www.panda.org/news_facts/publica-tions/key_publications/living_planet_report/index.cfmYou can calculate your ecological footprint at:http://ecofoot.org/

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SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPLink this activity with “Critical questions aboutconsumerism” to deepen participants’ unders-tanding of key sustainable consumerism princi-ples.

IDEAS FOR ACTIONVisit the Living Planet Report and the GlobalFootprint Network for further information andideas.

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSIONBy 2001, humanity required 2.2 global hectaresof productive area per person to sustain currentlifestyles, 1.3 times more than in 1961. But theEarth currently has just 1.8 global hectaresavailable per person. This overshoot of some21 per cent depletes the Earth's natural capital,and is thus possible only for a limited period.What is it possible to do for Europeans toreverse the present consuming trend?

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I F T H E W O R L D W E R E A V I L L A G E

THEMESHuman Rights, Globalisation (Sustainability)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZEAny

TIME60’

OVERVIEWDo we understand European Citizenship also as a responsibility towardsthe whole of the planet? This question raises another question: what kind ofgeneral knowledge do we have of the world?

The activity is based on a simple form that can be photocopied to encou-rage participants to reflect (alone or in small groups) about their perceptionabout the world we live in. The overall data are available (and can in turn bedistributed to participants) to compare later on our estimates with availablestatistics.

OBJECTIVESTo reflect about the knowledge and perception about key facts concerningthe world we live in

MATERIALSOne photocopy for each participant of the Fill-in form and of the Data form(se annexes)

PREPARATIONHave the photocopies ready.Power-point slides with the Data form information can help the final debrie-fing.

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INSTRUCTIONSRemind participants that we often say that theworld has become a village and introduce them tothe idea that we could actually figure out the worldas a village of 100 people. Divide the participantsin pairs and distribute to each participant a photo-copy of the “Imagine: If the world were a village…”form to be filled in. (5’).Have the participants working for 20’-30’ trying toguess the appropriate figures.

If time allows you can have pairs forming groupsof four or eigth people comparing results (15’).In plenary, encourage participants to compareresults.

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATIONIt is useful to focus the final plenary round oncontroversial issues and identify topics concer-ning rights, justice, sustainability and informationsources.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORSThe activity can be carried out individually or inpairs or small groups. It is usually most effective inpairs.The form can be adapted before hand adding ordeleting information according to the group thefacilitator is working with and the interest focus.For certain topics you can have reports and year-book available for consultation.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPIt is possible to focus on specific contents and totest participants knowledge on-line through aQuiz builder:http://www.globaleducation.edna.edu.au/globa-led/quiz?action=publicQuiz

IDEAS FOR ACTIONTest participants ideas about how to addressissues of injustice and un-sustainability and theirknowledge about organisations trying to addressthese issues.

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSIONUseful questions:Why did we over -or under- estimate certainfigure?What does it say about our ideas about certain

areas of the world?What are the sources of our knowledge about theworld?What figures indicate social injustice at the localand/or at the global level?

ANNEXES:1. Fill-in Form:IMAGINE: IF THE WORLD WERE A VIL-LAGE…

In the world live over 6 billion 300 million peo-ple. If this world were shrunk to the size of avillage with 100 people living in this village,would you be able to fill in the following infor-mation?

� __ would be women, __ would be men � __ would be children, __ would be adults.� __ would be over 65.� __ would be heterosexual, __ would behomosexual � ___ would be Asian, __ African, __ fromNorth and South America, __ Europeans, andthe remaining one from the South Pacific.� __ would be Christians, __ believers inIslam, __ would be Hindus, and __ would fol-low Buddhist teachings. 5 would believe thatthere are spirits in the trees and rocks and inall of nature. __ would be believe in other reli-gions, or would believe in no religion.� __ would speak Chinese as first language,__ English, __ Hindi and Urdu, __ Spanish,__ Russian, and __ would speak Arabic. Thatwould account for half the village. The otherhalf would speak Bengal, Portuguese,Indonesian, Japanese, German, French, orsome other language.� In such a village with so many sorts of folks,it would be very important to learn to unders-tand people different from yourself and toaccept others as they are. But consider this.Of the 100 people in this village, � __ are underonurished, _ are dying of star-vation, while __ are overweight.� Of the wealth in this village, __ people own59% (all of them from the United States), __people own 39%, and __ people share theremaining 2%.

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. � __ people have some supply of food anda place to shelter them from the wind and therain, but __ do not. __ have no clean, safewater to drink.� If you have money in the bank, money inyour wallet and spare change somewherearound the house, then you are among therichest __.� If you have a car, you are among the richest__.� Among the villagers, _ have a college edu-cation. __ have computers. __ cannot read.� If you can speak and act according to yourfaith and your conscience without harass-ment, imprisonment, torture or death, thenyou are more fortunate than __, who can not.� If you do not live in fear of death by bom-bardment, armed attack, landmines, or ofrape or kidnapping by armed groups, thenyou are more fortunate than __, who do.� In one year, __ persons in the village willdie, but in the same year,__ babies will beborn, so that at the year's end the number ofvillagers will be __.

Population, Healthcare and Education__% of the children are immunised againstpreventable diseases such as measles andpolio.Just under __% of the married women in thevillage have access to and use moderncontraceptives.About __% have access to clean, safe drin-king water.___% of the adults in the village are illiterate.In ten years ten people will die, ___ of themfor lack of food, __ from cancer. __ of thedeaths will be of babies born within the year.

Environment and Economy Only __ people of the 100 own an automobile(although some members of this group ownmore than one car).The village has __ acres of land per person___ acres in all-of which:___ acres are cropland ___ acres are pasture ___acres are woodland ___ acres desert, tundra, pavement, and

other wasteland.The woodland is declining rapidly; the waste-land is increasing. The other land categoriesare roughly stable.

The village allocates __ percent of its fertiliserto __ percent of its cropland-that owned bythe richest and best fed __ people. Excessfertiliser running off this land causes pollutionin lakes and wells. The remaining __ percentof the land, with its 17 percent of the fertiliser,produces only __ percent of the food butfeeds __ percent of the people. The averagegrain yield on that land is one-third the har-vest achieved by the richer villagers.In ten village (a total of 1000 people), thereare:__ soldiers __ teachers __ doctor __ refugees driven from home by war ordrought.The village has a total yearly budget, publicand private, of over $ ___ -$ ___ per personif it is distributed evenly (which, as we havealready seen, it isn't).Of the total $ ___:$ ___ goes to weapons and warfare $ ___ to education $ ___ to health care.

The village has buried beneath it enoughexplosive power in nuclear weapons to blowitself to smithereens many times over. Theseweapons are under the control of just __ ofthe people. The other ___ are watching themwith deep anxiety, wondering whether theycan learn to get along together; and if they do,whether they might set off the weapons any-way through inattention or technical bungling;and if they ever decide to dismantle the wea-pons, where in the world village will they dis-pose of the radioactive materials of which theweapons are made?

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2. Data Form

IF THE WORLD WERE A VILLAGE OF 100PEOPLE

In the world live over 6 billion 300 million peo-ple. If this world were shrunk to the size of avillage with 100 people living in this village:� 52 would be women, 48 would be men � 30 would be children, 70 would be adults.� 7 would be over 65.� 90 would be heterosexual, 10 would behomosexual � 70 would be nonwhite, 30 would be white � 61 would be Asian, 13 African, 13 fromNorth and South America, 12 Europeans, andthe remaining one from the South Pacific.� 33 would be Christians, 19 believers inIslam, 13 would be Hindus, and 6 would followBuddhist teachings. 5 would believe that thereare spirits in the trees and rocks and in all ofnature. 24 would be believe in other religions,or would believe in no religion.� 17 would speak Chinese, 9 English, 8 Hindiand Urdu, 6 Spanish, 6 Russian, and 4 wouldspeak Arabic. That would account for half thevillage. The other half would speak Bengal,Portuguese, Indonesian, Japanese, German,French, or some other language.� In such a village with so many sorts of folks,it would be very important to learn to unders-tand people different from yourself and toaccept others as they are. But consider this.Of the 100 people in this village, � 20 are undernourished, 1 is dying of starva-tion, while 15 are overweight.� Of the wealth in this village, 6 people own59% (all of them from the United States), 74people own 39%, and 20 people share theremaining 2%.� Of the energy of this village, 20 peopleconsume 80%, and 80 people share theremaining 20%.� 75 people have some supply of food and aplace to shelter them from the wind and therain, but 25 do not. 17 have no clean, safewater to drink.� If you have money in the bank, money in

your wallet and spare change somewherearound the house, then you are among therichest 8.� If you have a car, you are among the richest7.� Among the villagers, 1 has a college edu-cation. 2 have computers. 14 cannot read.� If you can speak and act according to yourfaith and your conscience without harass-ment, imprisonment, torture or death, thenyou are more fortunate than 48, who can not.� If you do not live in fear of death by bom-bardment, armed attack, landmines, or ofrape or kidnapping by armed groups, thenyou are more fortunate than 20, who do.� In one year, 1 person in the village will die,but in the same year, 2 babies will be born, sothat at the year's end the number of villagerswill be 101.

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Population, Healthcare and Education Half the children are immunised against pre-ventable diseases such as measles and polio.Just under half of the married women in thevillage have access to and use moderncontraceptives.About one-third have access to clean, safedrinking water.Of the 70 adults in the village, half are illite-rate.In ten years ten people will die, 3 of them forlack of food, 1 from cancer. Two of the deathswill be of babies born within the year.

Environment and Economy Only 7 people of the 100 own an automobile(although some of the 7 own more than onecar).The village has 0,6 acres of land per person -600 acres in all-of which:70 acres are cropland140 acres are pasture190 acres are woodland 200 acres desert, tundra, pavement, andother wasteland.The woodland is declining rapidly; the waste-land is increasing. The other land categoriesare roughly stable.The village allocates 83 percent of its fertiliserto 40 percent of its cropland-that owned bythe richest and best fed 27 people. Excessfertiliser running off this land causes pollutionin lakes and wells. The remaining 60 percentof the land, with its 17 percent of the fertiliser,produces only 28 percent of the food butfeeds 73 percent of the people. The averagegrain yield on that land is one-third the har-vest achieved by the richer villagers.In ten villages (for a total of 1000) people,there are:5 soldiers 7 teachers1 doctor3 refugees driven from home by war ordrought.

The village has a total yearly budget, publicand private, of over 300.000 - 300 per per-son if it is distributed evenly (which, as wehave already seen, it isn't).Of the total 300.000:$ 18.100 goes to weapons and warfare $ 15.900 to education $ 13.200 to health care.The village has buried beneath it enoughexplosive power in nuclear weapons to blowitself to smithereens many times over. Theseweapons are under the control of just 10 ofthe people. The other 90 are watching themwith deep anxiety, wondering whether theycan learn to get along together; and if they do,whether they might set off the weapons any-way through inattention or technical bungling;and if they ever decide to dismantle the wea-pons, where in the world village will they dis-pose of the radioactive materials of which theweapons are made?

Main source: Resurgence, n°170 - Social Trends,n°68/1995 Other Sources:One World One Village, http://epic.mcmaster.ca/~gar-landw/refer/village.htm(different data and a one-page comment) Furtherinformation and suggestion for learning activities canbe found at:http://www.acblack.com/globalvillage/default.htm

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N E W S FA C T O RY

SOURCEFrom a development education activity developed by NCOS (Belgium)

THEMES:Citizenship (and commitment), Cultural Diversity (media), Globalisation

a) Theme: Citizenship (and commitment)Some of the slides used in the simulation show opportunities for people,especially young people, to commit themselves in very practical ways. Thereare enough possibilities to take action, but are these opportunities attractiveto young people? We may get some indication about this from the slideswhich the young people choose.

1. Young people, as well as adults, are continually swamped with a mass ofinformation through all the different media. Some people realise this, othersdon't. We can ask ourselves: What do we do with this information? Does itmean that we are all better informed? Not necessarily. Research shows thatpeople don’t necessarily interpret the information correctly and that there is ageneral lack of knowledge.2. The media are becoming more and more comercialised and the simplifica-tion of the message, stereotyping and sensationalism are alarming develop-ments. It is becoming increasingly difficult, especially for young people, to findquality news.3. Finding quality news is especially true in relation to news about globalissues. Non-western news is often seen only through western eyes. This veryoften results in negative and dismal news. One-sidedness and negativity isthe rule. It's only natural that those who counter this point of view are met withdisbelief.Giving young people the opportunity to think about the way the news is pre-sented can be a starting point to help them take a more critical approachtowards actual issues and to pay more attention to the form and manner inwhich the news is presented.

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c) Theme: GlobalisationThe media are obviously important for bringing us the news. However, theycan also be used to get to a deeper insight into what young people know andthink about issues. With regard to the environment, it is now quite clear thateverybody lives on one earth and that we are all responsible for it. Peopleoften think of cultures from the South as being attractive because they arenew, exotic and exciting. But do they still feel the same when news from theSouth concerns wealth, refugees and racism? What about the role ofInternational institutions?

COMPLEXITY LEVEL:3

GROUP SIZE:6-32

TIME:20-150’

OVERVIEWMedia and cultural images play an important role in defining opportunities toreflect and to take action in relation to European Citizenship.The News Factory is a simulation activity centred on tv news and addressinglocal-global issues. It is based on images and it encourages participants toselect images, to make news based on those images and to explore the pro-cess of making the news.Young people are introduced to a simulation gameenabling them to make their own television news reports and to write theirown scripts as professional reporters. It takes about 120-150 minutes to dothe whole activity.

OBJECTIVESTo encourage participants to explore local-global issues from their own pers-pectivesTo compare world-viewsTo provide a concrete experience about how media/images work and havean influence on our behaviourTo encourage citizenship commitment on local-global issues

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MATERIALS:Slide show: slides (can be borrowed from EFIL) and slide projector or power-poit presentation and pc and projector; white screen/wall; 10 minutes instru-mental music track;Editorial meeting: tables and chairs, pens and paper - a set of the photographs(preferably two sets to share among the working groups) - one copy for eachgroup of the memo and of the list of images (appendices I and II).Broadcasting: table and chair - screen - or white wall - projector - spotlight -microphone - props such as a jacket, glass of water to give a professionaltouch to the broadcast - for the facilitator: copies of appendix III (one per group)

PREPARATION

a) The roomThe room should be large enough and contain sufficient tables and chairs forthe working groups. There should be space to display the photos. Blackout (theability to have the room in the dark) is necessary for the slide show and broad-casts.

b) The groupsDepending on the type of participants, the game can be adapte to groups from6 to 32 participants. Please seek a balance between optimising the work insmall groups (better to have groups of 3-5 participants where all can partici-pate), and the number of groups/news presentations (not too many in order toavoid loosing attention; if necessary you can increase the number of personsin each group in order not to have more than five groups).

INSTRUCTIONS

a) Introduction of the programme (10 minu-tes)It is best, at the very start, before watching theslides, to divide the participants into smallworking groups of four to eight people.The workshop leader in the role of "Director"of the recently founded News Productionsaddresses the new team of journalists:

"Good morning. May I introduce myself? I amthe new Director of News Productions, thiscountry’s new TV channel. I am very honou-red to welcome you all here today as newjournalists working with me at NewsProductions. You have the difficult job of set-ting up our news programme which is to becalled the News Factory. I am convinced thatyou, with your excellent qualities, will succeedin this job.

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The idea of producing a programme like theNews Factory, is to make the news. You areprobably aware of existing television newsprogrammes which try to give a clear pictureof what is happening in our country and in theworld. But television news reports present thenews in different ways, and the papers - ofcourse - use other methods still. What's more,an issue brought to you in depth on one tele-vision channel isn't necessarily broadcast onanother.You may ask yourself what criteria do theyuse when choosing an issue?. When is some-thing important, and when is it not? Why isone thing included in the reports, and anothernot ?We, at News Productions however, want to bea quality TV channel which is not interested inviewing figures but rather in appreciationratings. Having this in mind, we want to giveyou, our quality journalists, "carte blanche" - a“free hand” - to make your reports. Youchoose the themes, the images and the texts.Through our programme, we want to give ourviewers a different perspective on today'sworld. We trust you will make the NewsFactory a really good programme.For tonight's first broadcast, we will divide youinto X (please choose the appropriate num-ber) editorial teams - for the broadcasts at 4,6 and 8 o'clock.

Our filing department has collected togetherall our stock of visual materials so in a fewminutes we will show you a series of 68 slideson a variety of issues and themes. Some ofthe images you will recognise immediately.Others you may or may not recognise, butthey are easy to understand. It is not your jobto recognise or identify the slides, nor to des-cribe what they show nor to pick the nicestones.Your job is to use the slides to give yourown view on issues or situations of your own

choosing.

First of all we will show you the slides andafterwards we will give you a list them. Thereis also a set of photographs of the slides soyou will be able to check everything in detailand choose those specific images which youwant to include in your report.Remember it is important to have a globaloutlook and to think about which themes youwould like to present in your news reports."

b) Showing the slides (10 minutes)Show each slide for approximately 6-7seconds without any spoken comment butwith instrumental background music. It isimportant to develop a steady rhythm movingfrom one slide to the next. The music helps tokeep the rhythm as well as to create a goodatmosphere.

c) Describing the task (10 minutes)Now again in the role of Director, give the fol-lowing instructions:"To give you some insight into our workingmethods here at News Productions, the filingdepartment has written a memo which inclu-des a number of practical tips. So you don’thave to take notes just now. (Appendix I - tobe distributed to the participants later on)To start you have to select a number of slidesfrom those you have just seen. As I saidbefore, to help you do this, you can have acloser look at the photographs of the slides ina minute.First I should tell you about a few practicali-ties. Because your broadcast is limited to fiveminutes, you will have to restrict the numberof slides you use to a maximum of 12-16, andthe number of themes or news items to four.This means that you will have to use severalslides in each news report.

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You should also know that the filing depart-ment has only two copies of each slide. Thismeans that there will be some competitionbetween the different teams (i.e. when wor-king with more than two editorial teams) andthat you will have to work fast and choosewhich images you want to use fairly quickly.Just before the broadcast, you may exchangethe photographs for the slides.The slides you show in your news reports canbe illustrated by interviews, demonstrations,etc. The news reports will be, of course,mainly a compilation of texts read or spokenby the reporter or anchorperson. These textscan be introductions to the images or com-ments on them, but most of the time they willbe giving key background information.Please note that there is a 60 minute dead-line. You have only got one hour to prepareyour news reports, about 15 minutes for eachnews!"

d) Editorial Meeting (60 minutes)The workshop leader should explain the pro-cedure.The editorial teams have one hour to edit theirnews reports.Each team should start by spending approxi-mately 10 minutes discussing the themes orissues they want to include in their reports.In the meantime, the workshop leader dis-plays the photos of the slides.After the preliminary discussions, the teamsreceive the list of numbered slides (appendixII) and the memo written by the filing depart-ment (appendix I). The real editorial work canstart now.The groups work separately from each otherand each team has to decide for itself how toorganise its own work. For example, a teammay choose to work in small sub-groups ondifferent news stories under the general res-ponsibility of an editor-in-chief. Each teamalso has to appoint an anchorman/newscas-ter, a video engineer (to operate the projector)etc. Everyone should have a role.To prevent the separate small sub-groupsfrom working separately without consultingeach other, the teams should have an edito-

rial meeting after half an hour.The time pressure is important. After a teamhas selected an image they can then ask forthe photograph but they cannot have any sli-des until just before they are due to broad-cast. Teams can ask the workshop leader formore information about the different images.Each team also has to write their news textswithin the hour.It is important to stress the time limit and tourge the teams to hurry up. Nonetheless,most groups will probably find it difficult tofinish in time. In which case, they could begranted an extra ten minutes.

e) The programme itself (15 minutes)After one hour, it is time to start the broad-casts. Background, table, microphone, smartclothes... it all adds to the motivation to do thejob well.The three groups present their news reportsin turn. It is important to check that the slidesare not upside down or in the wrong order.The workshop leader should make notesabout the themes and remarks each teammakes during its broadcast to help with thediscussion. (The report form appendix III willbe useful).After the last broadcast there could be a shortbreak before the discussion round which fol-lows next. This gives the workshop leadertime to prepare the discussion.

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATION

The discussion (30-60 minutes) should be themost important part of the workshop.It is a difficult job to lead a discussion, espe-cially when there are more than twenty parti-cipants. However, as whenever you run a par-ticipatory activity, the leader should know thesimulation in depth and should be able to anti-cipate what is coming. Leaders will find thereport form (appendix III) useful to help themstimulate the discussion but they should alsoremember that it is important to involve theparticipants and to let them have their ownsay.

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The duration of the discussion will of coursedepend on the group. If the young people donot participate actively it makes no sense tocarry on. On the other hand it is not good tointerrupt a good discussion because time isshort.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORS

The questions in the last paragraph aremeant as a help to guide the workshop leaderthrough the discussion round. They are divi-ded into sections: a review of the activity itselfand discussions to address the three aimsmentioned in the beginning ie the media, glo-bal issues and commitment.The workshop leader may use the report formto note down the themes and remarks madeby the different teams during the broadcasts.This can be a useful tool for conducting thediscussion round, especially when more thantwo groups are involved.The aim of the general discussion is, ofcourse, to further the discussions which star-ted during the editorial work and to supply thegroup with new discussion material. It is notthe leader’s role to read the participants a les-son nor to point out things they personallydisagree with. In principle, with this kind ofactivity, the participants cannot make mista-kes or present ‘wrong’ news. It is meant to bea model that allows participants to be outspo-ken and frank at all times, including during thediscussion round. However, participantsshould be confronted with critical questionsand remarks to give them food for thought.

Leading a discussion with over twenty youngpeople is certainly not easy a task. This isespecially so when the workshop leader hasthe additional task of stimulating the partici-pants to confront their own opinions. In addi-tion some young people are not used toexpressing themselves verbally so the dura-tion of the discussion will vary with differentgroups.

Below you will find some hints on how to leada discussion. Of course, for those who areused to running discussions these hints arenot new:1. Involve all participants2. Clarify3. Find connections4. Broaden the content5. Summarise6. Do not deviate from the topic7. Use tools

1. Involve all participantsIn an orderly discussion, only one persontalks at a time. Waiting and listening are the-refore important principles and it may benecessary to inform the participants how toask for the floor. Those who keep on talking orwho regularly interrupt others not only preventthe rest from having their own say, but alsohinder their trains of thought. As a conse-quence, the majority of the group will soon bereduced to mere listeners.

The discussion leader should keep the follo-wing in mind:- give the floor to those who ask in toagreed way- respect the order in which people askto speak- involve and stimulate (directly or indi-rectly) any passive participants and slowdown those who talk too much

It shouldn't be too hard to get everybody'sresponse to the first questions, since theywere all actively involved in editing the jour-nal.

2. ClarifyIf necessary the discussion leader shouldprompt a speaker to clarify what they havesaid. The leader can check with the other par-ticipants whether or not they understand byasking them to reflect back what has beensaid or by seeking additional responses. Ifnecessary the leader should summarise theopinions which have been expressed.

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3. Find connectionsThe participants may understand everythingthat has been said but may not make theconnections between different opinions.Therefore it may be useful to clarify whether astatement is an additional remark, a reaction,another solution, a new element, etc.

4. Broaden the contentThis means that the discussion leader shouldtry to extend and develop the content of thediscussion between the participants. The lea-der can repeat certain points and go into amore in-depth discussion by asking the parti-cipants for their reactions and opinions (verti-cal extension), or by raising additional points(horizontal broadening).The leader may make their own contributiononly when the group has nothing more to say.At that moment, however, they cease to bethe discussion leader and become a partici-pant, someone who wants to confront theothers with their own opinion. This may bepositive, but on the other hand it could berisky and result in confrontation between theleader and the rest of the group. As mentio-ned before, the aim of using this method ofworking, ie using participatory activities, is togive the young people the chance to havetheir own say.

5. SummariseA summary may be necessary to structurethe discussion, especially if the discussionhas been very animated. In principle, a sum-mary does not include personal opinions, jud-gements, approval or disapproval. Often asummary determines the further direction ofthe discussion.

6. Do not deviate from the topicThe first thing is to ensure that the questionsyou use to guide the discussion are clear andspecific. Nonetheless, participants will oftendeviate from the topic, and the discussion lea-der should prevent that from happening.Moreover, they should keep it in mind to askall the important and planned questions.

In this model, most of the questions are lin-ked, so it is likely that the answers will overlap.The specific discussion areas: the "media","global issues" and "commitment" are not100% defined. However, the discussion lea-der should try to ensure a certain sense ofdirection to the discussion.

7. ToolsIt may be helpful to remind participants aboutthe different news reports the groups made.One way to do this is for the discussion leaderto write down certain key words on a flipchart, for example the themes of the differentbroadcasts, a list of possible commitmentsetc.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPIDEAS FOR ACTION

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSION1. The News Factory: ResultsThe working groups talk about their work.Questions include:- What themes were chosen and howdid they interpret them? Did they discussthem within the group? Are there themesthey would have liked to have discussed butwhich they had to drop?- How did they organise the work? Insmall groups to cover the different newsitems? Was it difficult to reach agreementsand to work as a group?- What do the other groups think? Howdo their experiences differ and compare?Have the different groups used the sameimage but in different ways?

2. Media- Do they often watch the news on tele-vision? If yes, which kind of news pro-gramme? Or do they prefer to listen to thenews on the radio? Do they find it too difficult,too boring, too negative? How do they feelabout the news on global issues?

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- In this simulation did they try to imitate areal television news report? Or did they want todo it differently? What are the differences asregards themes, contents, working methodsetc?e.g. Was there more news on global issues?Were your news reports more positive? Whatwas more positive? Was that your intention ordid you feel forced to be more positive becauseof the particular slides that were shown ?- One of the major points of discussionregarding the media is its "objectivity". Do theythink it is possible to present news objectively?Have they tried to inform their viewers diffe-rently?

3. Global Issues - Which themes were included in thebroadcasts? Do they often talk about globalissues? About national problems? Did youmake any local-global connection? Can youthink of one?- Have they tried to link North and South,development and environment, rich and pooretc in their reports? Did they choose slides toput the contrasts into context?- Questions and themes that can beaddressed during the whole discussion include:e.g. What do you think are the causes of under-development? - What does racism mean toyou? - What does ‘Third World’ mean to you? -etc.- What image do you have of young peo-ple in the so-called Third World? Which slidesdo you think showed their schools, their work,their music etc?- Are there important themes missingfrom the slide series you saw?

4. Commitment- Do they think it is worthwhile followingthe news? Where do they look for information? - Concerning North-South issues, racism,environment etc: What are they already invol-ved in? What can they do? What motivatesthem to get involved?

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Annexes

A N N E X I :M E M O T O T H E E D I T O R I A L T E A M

MEMO TO THE EDITORIAL TEAM OF THE NEWS FACTORY

From: The Filing Department - News Productions

Re: The News Factory

Dear Colleagues,

Herewith we are sending you all the information about the materials which are availa-ble.

The filing department has images at its disposal. We can provide you with a photogra-phic print and a list of these images.

Please note:

a. Because the broadcast will only be five minutes long you should restrict yourself toapproximately twenty images and a maximum of five news items.

b. The filing department has only two copies of each image.

Our working method is as follows: you should choose the slides you want to use fromthe series of photos. Write down the numbers you want and you can come and getthem from the filing department. Just before the broadcast, you can exchange the pho-tos for the slides.

Please don't hesitate to contact us should you need more information,

Wishing you the best of success,

the Filing Department

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A N N E X I I

L I S T O F S L I D E S

1. Mosaic2. Anchor woman3. Globe4. Camera team in the Third World5. Shoeshine boy with Philips

advertisement6. Children hewing stones7. Women making dam8. Unemployment benefit9. African miner10. Battery hens11. Why do babies starve when there's

enough food?12. Pesticides13. Advertising hamburger restaurant14. Tree felling in the rain forest15. Dry soil16. Children playing in water17. Irrigation18. Washing car19. Burning oil20. Greenpeace action21. Plume of smoke industry22. Advertisement: Batida23. Trolleys full of coffee24. Advertisement: Coca Cola25. Seller on the beach26. Market place in the Third World27. Lonely woman28. Slums in Brussels29. Slums in the Third World30. Overfull bin31. Sorting out cans32. Fridges on dumping ground33. Black boy with guitar34. Nintendo

35. Kurt Cobain (rock star)36. Multicultural party37. Moroccan girl38. State police39. Graffitti40. Anti-Racism concert41. Parliament42. Drugs43. Political leaders (Clinton)44. Mandela45. Arafat and Co.46. Refugee camp47. Refugees at embassy48. Douane49. Children in asylum centre50. Football player51. Action by Amnesty International52. Demonstration in the Philipines53. UN troops in Yugoslavia54. F16 with bombs55. Guerilla56. Two dead soldiers57. Farms not arms58. Piled up grain bags59. Selling Third World products60. Women's meeting61. Family planning62. AIDS prevention63. Crowd of people64. Public transportation in the ThirdWorld65. Car exhibition66. Traffic jam67. Cyclists' action68. Young man with microphone

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A N N E X I I I

R E P O R T F O R M

Date : Place :Workshop leader :

1. Slides

group A:

group B:

group C:

2. Themes

group A:

group B:

group C:

3. Discussion round

General:

Discussion points:

Reactions:

Message:

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TA K E O N E S T E P F O R W A R D

SOURCE:Compass

THEMES:Cultural Diversity (Stereotypes; Xenophobia), Human Rights (Discrimination)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZE10-30

TIME60’

OVERVIEWA central theme relating to citizenship is “equality”. We are all equal, but someare more equal than others. In this activity participants experience what it islike to be someone else in their society. The issues addressed include:• Social inequality being often a source of discrimination and exclusion • Empathy and its limits.

OBJECTIVES_ To promote empathy with others who are different _ To raise awareness about the inequality of opportunities in society _ To foster an understanding of possible personal consequences of _ belonging to certain social minorities or cultural groups

MATERIALS_ Role cards _ An open space (a corridor, large room or outdoors) _ (Tape or CD player and soft/relaxing music)

PREPARATION_ Read the activity carefully. Review the list of "situations and events" andadapt it to the group that you are working with._ Make the role cards, one per participant. Copy the (adapted) sheet eitherby hand or on a photocopier, cut out the strips and fold them over

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Instructions 1. Create a calm atmosphere with some softbackground music. Alternatively, ask the par-ticipants for silence.2. Hand out the role cards at random, one toeach participant. Tell them to keep it to them-selves and not to show it to anyone else.3. Invite them to sit down (preferably on thefloor) and to read their role card.4. Now ask them to begin to get into role. Tohelp, read out some of the following ques-tions, pausing after each one, to give peopletime to reflect and build up a picture of them-selves and their lives:�What was your childhood like? What sort ofhouse did you live in? What kind of games didyou play? What sort of work did your parentsdo? �What is your everyday life like now? Wheredo you socialise? What do you do in the mor-ning, in the afternoon, in the evening? � What sort of lifestyle do you have? Wheredo you live? How much money do you earneach month? What do you do in your leisuretime? What you do in your holidays? � What excites you and what are you afraidof? 5. Now ask people to remain absolutely silentas they line up beside each other (like on astarting line) 6. Tell the participants that you are going toread out a list of situations or events. Everytime that they can answer "yes" to the state-ment, they should take a step forward.Otherwise, they should stay where they areand not move.7. Read out the situations one at a time.Pause for a while between each statement toallow people time to step forward and to lookaround to take note of their positions relativeto each other.8. At the end invite everyone to take note oftheir final positions. Then give them a coupleof minutes to come out of role before debrie-fing in plenary.

Debriefing and evaluation Start by asking participants about what hap-

pened and how they feel about the activityand then go on to talk about the issues raisedand what they learnt.1. How did people feel stepping forward - ornot? 2. For those who stepped forward often, atwhat point did they begin to notice that 3. others were not moving as fast as theywere? 4. Did anyone feel that there were momentswhen their basic human rights were beingignored? 5. Can people guess each other's roles? (Letpeople reveal their roles during this part of thediscussion) 6. How easy or difficult was it to play the diffe-rent roles? How did they imagine what theperson they were playing was like? 7. Does the exercise mirror society in someway? How? 8. Which human rights are at stake for each ofthe roles? Could anyone say that their 9. human rights were not being respected orthat they did not have access to them? 10. What first steps could be taken to addressthe inequalities in society?

Tips for facilitators If you do this activity outdoors, make sure thatthe participants can hear you, especially ifyou are doing it with a large group! You mayneed to use your co-facilitators to relay thestatements.

In the imagining phase at the beginning, it ispossible that some participants may say thatthey know little about the life of the personthey have to role-play. Tell them, this does notmatter especially, and that they should usetheir imagination and to do it as best they can.

The power of this activity lies in the impact ofactually seeing the distance increasing bet-ween the participants, especially at the endwhen there should be a big distance betweenthose that stepped forward often and thosewho did not. To enhance the impact,

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it is important that you adjust the roles toreflect the realities of the participants' ownlives.

As you do so, be sure you adapt the roles sothat only a minimum of people can take stepsforward (i.e. can answer "yes"). This alsoapplies if you have a large group and have todevise more roles.

During the debriefing and evaluation it isimportant to explore how participants knewabout the character whose role they had toplay. Was it through personal experience orthrough other sources of information (news,books, and jokes)? Are they sure the informa-tion and the images they have of the charac-ters are reliable? In this way you can intro-duce how stereotypes and prejudice work.This activity is particularly relevant to makinglinks between the different generations ofrights (civil/political and social/economic/cul-tural rights) and the access to them. The pro-blems of poverty and social exclusion are notonly a problem of formal rights - although thelatter also exists for refugees and asylum-seekers for example. The problem is veryoften a matter of effective access to thoserights.

Variations One way to get more ideas on the table andto deepen participants' understanding is towork first in small groups and then to get themto share their ideas in plenary. Having co-faci-litators is almost essential if you do this. Trythis method by taking the second part of thedebriefing - after each role has been revealed- in smaller groups. Ask people to explore whoin their society has fewer, and who has more,chances or opportunities, and what first stepscan and should be taken to address the ine-qualities. Alternatively, ask people to take oneof the characters and ask what could be done,i.e. what duties and responsibilities theythemselves, the community and the govern-ment have towards this person.

Suggestions for follow-up Depending on the social context you work in,you may want to invite representatives fromadvocacy groups for certain cultural or socialminorities to talk to the group. Find out fromthem what issues they are currently fightingfor and how you and young people can help.Such a face-to-face meeting would also be anopportunity to address or review some of theprejudices or stereotyping that came outduring the discussion.

Ideas for action Take up the ideas from the follow-up. Followthrough how you and young people can helpgroups and organisations working with cultu-ral or social minorities, and turn the ideas intopractice.

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You are an unemployed single mother.

HandoutsRole cards

You are an Arab Muslim girl living with yourparents who are devoutly religious people..

You are the daughter of the local bank manager.

You study economics at university.

You are a soldier in the army, doing compulsory military service.

You are a 17-year-old Roma (Gypsy) girlwho never finished primary school

You are an unemployed schoolteacher in acountry whose new official language you arenot fluent in.

You are an illegal immigrant from Mali.

You are the son of a Chinese immigrant whoruns a successful fast food business.

You are the owner of a successful import-export company.

You are the girlfriend of a young artist whois addicted to heroin.

You are a fashion model of African origin.You are a homeless young man, 27 years old

You are a 22-year-old lesbian.

You are a retired worker from a factory thatmakes shoes.

You are the daughter of the Americanambassador to the country where you arenow living.

You are the president of a party-politicalyouth organisation (whose "mother" party isnow in power).

You are a 24-year-old refugee fromAfghanistan.

You are an HIV positive, middle-aged prostitute.

You are a disabled young man who can onlymove in a wheelchair

You are the 19-year-old son of a farmer in aremote village in the mountains.

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Situations and events:

Read the following situations out aloud. Allowtime after reading out each situation for parti-cipants to step forward and also to look to seehow far they have moved relative to eachother.

� You have never encountered any seriousfinancial difficulty.� You have decent housing with a telephoneline and television.�You feel your language, religion and cultureare respected in the society where you live.�You feel that your opinion on social and poli-tical issues matters, and your views are liste-ned to.� Other people consult you about differentissues.� You are not afraid of being stopped by thepolice.�You know where to turn for advice and helpif you need it.� You have never felt discriminated againstbecause of your origin.�You have adequate social and medical pro-tection for your needs.� You can go away on holiday once a year.� You can invite friends for dinner at home.� You have an interesting life and you arepositive about your future.

� You feel you can study and follow the pro-fession of your choice.� You are not afraid of being harassed orattacked in the streets, or in the media.�You can vote in national and local elections.� You can celebrate the most important reli-gious festivals with your relatives and closefriends.�You can participate in an international semi-nar abroad.� You can go to the cinema or the theatre atleast once a week.�You are not afraid for the future of your chil-dren.� You can buy new clothes at least onceevery three months.� You can fall in love with the person of yourchoice.� You feel that your competence is apprecia-ted and respected in the society where youlive.� You can use and benefit from the Internet

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W H E E L R I G H T S

SOURCE:Adapted from Human Rights Education Workshop on Women's HumanRights and Gender Equality, presented by the Croatian NGO B.a.B.e,Sljeme, Croatia, March 1996

THEMES:Citizenship, Human Rights (Discrimination)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZE6+

TIME60’

OVERVIEWOne component of Citizenship is the ability to take action.This activity uses life experience as a basis for thinking about how we defendour own rights and the rights of others.

OBJECTIVESTo make participants aware that in our lives we have already defended ourrights and the rights of others, even if we did not use the language of "rights".

MATERIALSBlackboard / flip-chart / large piece of paper and pens.

PREPARATIONFigure out a way to divide participants in groups of 6 people.

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Instructions� This is an activity for groups of about sixpeople. With a large group, do the activity firstwith a small group (maybe during lunch).These participants can then act as the facili-tators of small groups. The activity asks forpersonal narratives so it works better by crea-ting a feeling of intimacy at the beginning. Itmight help to mention to participants ahead ofthe activity (i.e. at the end of the previousday/session) that they are going to contributea personal story concerning human rightinfringement/affirmation so that they have thetime to identify it and think about it in advance.� Divide participants into groups of about sixpeople, with a facilitator for each group.� The facilitator asks each person in thegroup to remember a time when they "stoodup" for their rights or the rights of other peo-ple. (For example, students might remembera time when they were unfairly accused ofsomething as a child.) If they wish, the mem-bers of the group can describe their memoryto a neighbour. At the end of five minutes,every person in the group should have the fol-lowing information ready (it helps to showthem on a flip-chart):1. A time when I "stood up" for rights2. What happened3. Where it happened4. The motive. Why I "stood up"5. Who or what were my sources of support �While they are thinking, the facilitator drawsa large wheel with spokes.� The facilitator of each group now asks eachmember of the group to tell their story, kee-ping closely to the five points listed above.� As each group member tells their story, thefacilitator writes where each incident happe-ned at the end of one of the spokes, and wri-tes the motive and the sources of supportalong the spoke (To make writing easier, thefacilitator can summarize what is said, if thegroup member agrees).� When everyone has told their story, thefacilitator can use the questions below to drawout the learning points.

Debriefing and evaluationUseful questions:� Were your experiences similar/different?For example, did they happen in public/pri-vate, at home/work? � Were certain places or persons both posi-tive and negative? � Did anyone mention the law or authoritiesas a source of support? Why? Why not? � How did you feel when you remembered"standing up"? � Were these positive experiences? Why?Why not? � Did many of us experience support or soli-darity from our friends/ colleagues/ family?Why do you think this sort of support is usefulwhen we stand up for human rights?

Tips for facilitatorsThis activity is very flexible. It can be used foranalyzing any sort of past experience withany age group. It is particularly useful for sho-wing that we share different experiences andsources of support.

Suggestions for follow-upParticipants can look at the human rightsdocuments to see which rights might havebeen relevant in their stories.It helps to have a copy of the simplified ver-sion of the Universal Declaration of HumanRights for participants to link their stories tospecific article(s) / family of rights.It helps to have a list of the organisations/ins-titutions/centres that provide support concer-ning the various infringements of humanrights in the country.

Ideas for actionAs a project, participants could monitor themedia and their own experiences over aweekend. How many examples can they findof people "standing up" for their rights?

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W H O A R E I

SOURCE:Compass

THEMES:Human Rights (Discrimination, Equality, Gender), Cultural Diversity(Xenophobia)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL1

GROUP SIZE8+

TIME25’

OVERVIEWLearning about citizenship involves reflection about identity issues.This activity involves buzz groups, brainstorming, drawing and group discus-sion to explore issues of identity

OBJECTIVESTo be aware of our own individuality and that of others To identify what we have in common with others To promote solidarity and respect

MATERIALSColoured pens and markers, if possible a different colour for each participant Enough paper for one sheet per person Flipchart paper and markers

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Instructions 1. To warm up, ask people to get into pairs to formbuzz groups. Ask them to pretend that they arestrangers and to introduce themselves to eachother.2. Now ask people to reflect what is interesting orimportant to know about someone else when youfirst meet, and brainstorm the general categoriesof information. For example, name, age, sex,nationality, family role, religion, age, gender, ethni-city, job/study, taste in music, hobbies, sports,general likes and dislikes and more.3. Now explain that participants are going to findout how much each of them has in common withothers in the group. Hand out the paper and pensand explain that the first step is for each of themto draw a representation of their identity. Theyshould think of themselves like stars; aspects oftheir identity radiate out into their society.

Ask people to consider the eight to ten mostimportant aspects of their identity and to drawtheir personal star.4. Tell people to go around and compare theirstars. When they find someone else with whomthey share a beam or ray, they should write thatperson's name near the beam. (For example, ifJan and Parvez both have a "rapper" beam, theyshould write each other's names along thatbeam). Allow 15 minutes for this.5. Now come back into plenary and ask people totalk about how individual each of them was. Youcould ask:

o Which aspects of identity do people have incommon and which are unique? o How similar and how different are people in thegroup? Do people have more in common witheach other than they have aspects that are diffe-rent? 6. Finally, do a group brainstorm of the aspects ofidentity that people choose and those that theyare born with. Write these up in two columns onthe flip chart.Debriefing and evaluation Now move on to discuss what people have disco-vered about themselves and about each otherand the implications for human rights.�What did people learn about themselves? Wasit hard to decide which were the most significantaspects of their identity?� What was the degree of freedom concerning

their “chosen” features?�Were people surprised at the results of compa-ring stars? Did they have more or less in commonthan they expected? � How did people feel about the diversity in thegroup? Did they feel it made the group more inte-resting to be in or does it make it more difficult towork together? �Were there any aspects of other people's iden-tity that participants felt strongly inclined to reactto and say, "I am not."? For example, I am not afootball fan, not a fan of techno music, not a doglover, not homosexual or not Christian.� How does identity develop? Which aspects aresocial constructs and which are inherent andfixed? � In relation to gender issues in particular, whichaspects are social constructs and which are inhe-rent and fixed? Did participants write "girl" or"boy"? What do people associate with the words"boy" and "girl"? Are the associations the same forboth sexes and for all boys and all girls? � How much are people judged by their individualidentity and how much by the group that theybelong to? � How do participants feel about having the free-dom to be able to choose their own identity? Whatare the implications for themselves and theirsociety, and especially for the human rights ofequality and respect?

Tips for facilitatorsThe name of this activity is not wrong! It is inten-ded to puzzle participants.It works well as a starter and it helps participantsto get in contact with each other.In the warm up you may want to give some parti-cipants a tip to get them thinking on the right lines.You could give yourself as an example or use animaginary person like: Olena, woman, Ukrainian,mother, wife, trainer, traveller, music lover.

The purpose of giving each participant a differentcolour is to give people the idea that everyone isunique and that the group is composed of a rain-bow of identities. (The analogy is with SouthAfrica, which calls itself the "rainbow nation", thatis a nation made up of people of all colours.) If youhave a large group and two or more people haveto share the same colour pen, ask them to use dif-ferent styles of writing.

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If you wish, you can make the activity a littlemore sophisticated by suggesting that peopledraw their personal stars with longer or shor-ter beams or rays according to how public orprivate they feel a particular aspect of theiridentity is. Longer beams reach further outinto society and are therefore more public.

Some of the following points could come up inthe final brainstorm (at step 6):� Aspects of identity I can choose: name,friend, job, membership of a political party,favourite music, style of clothes, the footballteam you support, where you live, � Aspects of identity I am born with: sex, age,height, eye/hair/skin colour, etc.� There will be some aspects of identity thatmay cause controversy, for example nationa-lity, gender and sexuality, religion, beingmember of a minority.

The discussion about how identity developsand which aspects of identity are socialconstructs and which are inherent and fixedwill also be controversial, especially thoserelating to religion and gender. It is worthasking participants to consider their own pro-cess of growing up and how certain aspectsof their identity have changed over the years,perhaps even those aspects of their identitythat they think are fixed.You may wish to draw some conclusions fromthe discussions, for example, that we are allhuman beings who have rights which cannotbe gifted or taken away regardless of race,colour, property, birth or other status.

Suggestions for follow-up This activity can serve as an opener for manyother discussions, for instance, questionsabout the universality of human rights, discri-mination and xenophobia, children's rights,and citizenship.

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CHAPTER 4:

SCHOOL ACTIVITIES

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C R I T I C A L Q U E S T I O N S A B O U T C O N S U M E R I S M

SOURCE:adapted from Teaching for a sustainable world: international editionGriffith University, Australia

THEMESCitizenship, Globalisation (Sustainability)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZEAny

TIME60’

OVERVIEWHow does our idea of citizenship relate to our lifestyle and patterns ofconsume?Participants are encouraged to develop critical thinking about consume-rism and to identify principles of ecological consumerism through dius-cussion activities within a 6 critical issues framework.

OBJECTIVESTo stimulate critical thinking and awareness of participants as consumersTo identify active citizenship issues concerning consumerism

MATERIALSPhotocopies of the two hand-outs for each participant.

PREPARATIONHave the photocopies ready.Power-point slides with the information in the completed Hand-out 'AnEcological Analysis of Consumerism' can help the final debriefing.

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INSTRUCTIONSDistribute to participants the blank Hand-out'An Ecological Analysis of Consumerism' (seeannex) Ask each participant (better in pairs) to selectan intersecting point on the hand-out (e.g.retailing - social justice) and to devise a gene-ric question, useable within the whole groupfor that point. (e.g. Are all employees in theretailing operation paid fair wages?). 15’When completed, ask (some) participants toshare their questions with the group.(15’)Then distribute to participants the completedHand-out 'An Ecological Analysis ofConsumerism' (see annex). Have participantscompare the hand-out's questions with theirquestions.(15’)Encourage participants to link the hand-outquestions with issues of active citizenship.(15’)

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATIONCritical issues can be clustered around 3 prin-ciples of ecological consumerism:Principles of Ecological Consumerism1. Environmental SustainabilityThis principle involves a belief that humanimpact on the non-human environmentshould be at the least level compatible withmeeting reasonable human wants. Ratherthan an anthropocentric belief that peopleshould exploit nature to the extent that we can'get away with it', there would be a belief inmaintaining the elements of the ecosystem asa 'good thing' intrinsically, and not just interms of human benefit.2. Individual Sustainabilitya) Individual physical health/wellbeingb) Individual mental wellbeing:∑ the maintenance of mental peace, dignityand self-respect∑ freedom from stressc) Acknowledgement of the relationships bet-

ween (a) and (b).3. Social SustainabilityThe maintenance of social cohesion, coope-ration, a sense of community, social peaceand justice at all scales from the local to theglobal.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORSVery often we don’t need to look for abstractexamples: it is enough to look at the clotheswe are wearing and the food we have beeneating.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPThis activity can be linked to the EcologicalFootprint activity to increase participants’awareness of their own lifestyle.

IDEAS FOR ACTIONLink to local November 23rd “No buy day” com-mittees.

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSIONIs It Really Sustainable If ...?1. The retailing practice involves danger tohuman life?2. The product is advertised in a way that por-trays men or women in unrealistic and chal-lengeable stereotypes?3. The product is made by exploited workers,including children, in other countries?4. The production involves cruelty to ani-mals?

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EnvironmentalDamage

Use ofResources

Use of energy Animal Welfare PhysicalWellbeing

MentalWellbeing

Material

Source

Processing

Transport

Storage

Advertising

Retailing

Consumption or Use

Waste Disposal

An Ecological Analysis of Consumerism

EnvironmentalDamage

Use ofResources

Use of energy Animal Welfare PhysicalWellbeing

MentalWellbeing

MaterialSource

Does the pro duction or extraction ofthe materials used damagethe environment?

Are non-rene wable resources used as asource, or inany of the stages of processing,transportation,storage,adverti-sing, or retailingof the product?

Is there anunwarranted use of energy in the produc-tion of thematerial or in itsprocessing?

Are animal pro-ducts involved?If so, are theanimals treatedwill in thevarious stagesof their puchase,holding and use? If animalsare killed, is suf-fering minimised?

Processing Does the pro-cessing, trans-portation or storage of theproduct pollutethe environ-ment?

Is there anyunnecessarywastage ofresources atany stage ofthe process?

Are animalsused in testingthe product? Ifso, how ethicalis their treat-ment?

Is there thedanger of physical harm or ill-health topeople in thevarious stagesof production?

Do the variousstages of pro-duction causestress, anxietyor loss of self-esteem to theworkers involved, or to anyother peopleaffected?

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EnvironmentalDamage

Use ofResources

Use of energy Animal Welfare PhysicalWellbeing

MentalWellbeing

Transport Is the producttransported orstored in waysthat use toomuch energy?

Is there a risk ofphysical dangerin the transpor-tation or storageof the product?

Storage

Advertising Is the productadvertised in away that dama-ges the environ-ment - for exam-ple by visual pol-lution?

Does the adver-tising of the pro-duct use toomuch energy?

Is the productadvertised in away that mightinduce feelingsof stress, anxietyor inadequacy inthose exposedto the adverti-sing?

Retailing Does the retai-ling processcause environ-mental damage?

In the retailing ofthe product, ismuch energyrequired - forexample, incontrolling tem-perature of storeor product, intravel by clients,in delivery ofgoods?

Is the physicalhealth of wor-kers safeguar-ded during theretailing pro-cess?

Are retail wor-kers subject tostressful ord e m e a n i n gconditions?

Consumptionor Use

Is the environ-ment damagedby the actual useof the product?

Does the use ofthe productnecessitate thefurther use ofother resources?

Is the product onthat requiresmuch energywhen it is used?

Are animal habi-tats threatenedby any stages inthe process?

Does the use ofthe productendanger thephyiscal healthof people

Does the use ofthe productcause an unne-cessary level ofstress?

Waste Disposal Does the pro-duct cause pro-blems of wastedisposal?

What provisionis there for reco-very, reuse orrecycling ofresources fromthe process?

Does the dispo-sal of wasterequire muchenergy?Can the mate-rials be recycledwithout undueenergy requi-red?

Are animal habi-tats threatenedby the location orprocess of wastedisposal?

Does the dispo-sal of wastepose any threatto the physicalhealth of people,either now or ingenerations tocome?

Can the processof waste dispo-sal causeanxiety in pro-cess?

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T H E I M A G I N A RY C O U N T RY

SOURCE:based on ideas from Ed O'Brien and Nancy Flowers

THEMESCitizenship, Human Rights (Discrimination)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL1

GROUP SIZEAny, starting from five participants

TIME75’

OVERVIEWThis (“entry”) activity encourages participants to relate the concept ofEuropean Citizenship to ideas concerning rights and needs, and familiarizesthem with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.It raises ideas of how we value rights, and it provides options for making alist of "classroom rights".

OBJECTIVES- Human Rights documents are based on our own inherent needs.- We value some rights more highly depending on our own situation, butevery right is important to someone.

MATERIALS- (Simplified) Version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

PREPARATION

Figure out a way to divide the class in small (4-5 people) groupsPrepare copies of the (simplified version) Universal Declaration of HumanRights

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Instructions� Divide the class into small groups of four-five people.� Read out the following scenario:� “Imagine that you have discovered a newcountry, where no one has lived before, andwhere there are no laws and no rules.You andthe other members of your group will be thesettlers in this new land.You do not know whatsocial position you will have in the new coun-try."

� Each student should individually list threerights which they think should be guaranteedfor everyone in this new country.� Now ask the students to share and discusstheir lists within the group, and select a list of6 rights which their whole group thinks areimportant.� Now ask each group to give their country aname and to write their 6 chosen rights on alarge piece of paper or a blackboard whereeveryone can see them.� Each group presents their list to the class.As they do this, make a "master list" whichshould include all of the different rights fromthe group lists. Some rights will be mentionedseveral times, write them on the "master list"once, and tick them each time they are repea-ted.� When all the groups have presented theirlists, identify rights on the "master" list whichoverlap or contradict one another. Can the listbe rationalized? Can some similar rights begrouped together? � When the "master" list is completed, com-pare the Simplified Version of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights. What are thedifferences/similarities between your list andthe UDHR? Use the debriefing questions to draw out thelearning points.The "Tips for facilitators" below give optionsfor extending the activity.

Debriefing and evaluationUseful questions:•∑ Did your ideas about which rights were

most important change during this activity? •∑ How would life be if we excluded some ofthese rights? •∑ Are there any rights which you now want toadd to the final list? •∑ Did anyone list a right themselves whichwas not included in any of the lists? •∑ Why is it useful for us to make such a list? Tips for facilitators� If you have time, ask students to put a marknext to the three rights on the "master" listwhich they personally think are most impor-tant, or which they think we could live without.(This could be done during a class break.) � This activity has been used in many diffe-rent countries. In countries were war is a pro-blem, students value the right to life mosthighly, while in those with economic problemsthe right to work comes first. You can explorethis issue with the students by asking ques-tion such as: "Do you think the situation in ourcountry has affected your choices of rights?Why? Why not?" � As a project this activity can be adapted sothat students make a list of "classroom rights"which they think would improve their schoolenvironment. For example, the right to work inpeace, the right to have your point of view res-pected, the right to privacy for your personalproperty, etc. Be open to their suggestions,but emphasize that all rights have correspon-ding responsibilities. This "living document"could be displayed in the classroom andupdated as necessary. Ask the class "Whatdo you think should happen if someone viola-tes these rights?"

Suggestions For Follow-Up AndActionAs an action, students and teachers couldagree a list of "Our school is..." which couldbe displayed in the schools entrance for all tosee. Some students who have done thischose to focus on the problem of violence intheir school. They wrote: "Our school is: aplace of safety, a place where we respecteach other's rights...".

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P R O B A B L E A N D P R E F E R A B L E F U T U R E S

SOURCE:adapted from David Hicks, Educating for the Future, WWF UK, 1994

THEMESCitizenship, Cultural Diversity (Identity), Globalisation (International institu-tions, Migrations, Sustainability)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZEAny

TIME60-90’ (flexible)

OVERVIEWAn initial framework in addressing issues of citizenship can be provided byexploring participants’ ideas about the future and their distinction betweenwhat is probable and what is preferable.Participants are introduced to the idea of creating a timeline and to imaginehow the line will develop into two scenarios: probable (likely) and preferable(desirable) futures.

OBJECTIVESTo explore and to get a clearer idea of how participants expect the future tobe both in their own lives and in the wider world.To identify citizenship challenges and potential personal and group citizens-hip commitments.

MATERIALSPaper and pens

PREPARATIONNone

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INSTRUCTIONSIntroduce the idea of a timeline (i.e. setting outevents along a specific timescale). Each linecan start with the participant’s year of birth andthen be marked off in 5-10 year intervals for ahundred year ahead (5’).Participants are invited to write on their linewhat they feel have been the most importantpersonal (an public) events in their lives so far(15’).

If time allows participants can create a visiongallery and display and exchange views on theirindividual timelines. (10’)Participants work in pairs to draw (each) theirown probable future, i.e. the events that theyfeel are likely to happen to them in their lives(not yet what they hope).This can be introducedby a short plenary or small group discussionabout key events that are likely to mark theirlives (key questions could be: When do theyexpect to be “grown up”? What age do theyexpect to live to? Do boys and girls have diffe-rent expectations?) (15’).Once each participant has illustrated her/histimeline, participants work in small groups andcompare similarities and differences (10’).Participants go back to work in pairs in order toproduce a second timeline on probable eventsand trends in the wider world.If time allows participants can create a visiongallery and display and exchange views on theirworld (probable) timelines.(10’)To round-up the exercise ask participants toproduce in pairs (or in small groups) preferableworld timelines, for example, they can do itunder the heading 'My Country in the World, theWorld in My Country (15’).In plenary ask participants to compare probableand preferable scenarios and to brainstorm andexchange views on how to narrow the gap bet-ween likely and desirable local and global out-comes (10’).

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATIONProbable futures are those which seem likely tocome about. They are often arrived at by theextrapolation of current trends and forecasts

(for instance in relation to GNP or populationgrowth, car ownership or global warming).Usually, when people think about the future it isoften their image of the probable future thatcomes to mind.Preferable futures concern what people feelshould come about. Desirable futures are basedon our hopes, aspirations and dreams. They area translation of our notions of what a betterworld should look like. Throughout history it hasbeen such visions which have inspired strug-gles for better working conditions, the right tofree speech and the right to vote.

We benefit today from what others fought for inthe past, inheriting crucial elements of their pre-ferable futures.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORSStudying alternative futures and drawing on thetools and techniques that futurists use cangreatly enhance any investigation of contempo-rary social, political, economic and technologi-cal issues. Emphasising the futures dimensionin education is essential as it paves the way foractive citizenship.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPSource: adapted from Teaching for a sustaina-ble world: international edition, GriffithUniversity, AustraliaParticipants work in small groups of 4-5. Eachparticipant has a copy of 'Futures Thinking:Some Examples' (see annex 1) or “SomeTrends for the Future” (see annex 2) which high-light some of the main elements of a futuresperspective and future scenario. The group thenselects examples of futures thinking and/or ofglobal trends to apply to either a particular issueor a specific curriculum area. Allow 30 minutes.Debriefing: How does each example of futuresthinking (or trend for the future) enhance thestudy of that issue or the particular curriculumarea in question? A spokesperson shouldreport back briefly from each group. Wholegroup discussion should then focus on thequestion: '”Why is a futures emphasis beneficialto the curriculum?”

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IDEAS FOR ACTION� What action is needed to bring their prefe-rable futures about?� What organisations are already workingtowards such futures?

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSION� What are the main similarities/differenceson probable futures?� What are the main similarities/differenceson preferable futures?�What are the main differences between thetwo?� How may the probable futures affect parti-cipants' personal lives?� How might such timelines vary dependingon age, gender, class and ethnicity?

Annex 1: “Futures Thinking: Some Examples”1. State of the Planet In the last decade ofthe 20th century the state of the planet conti-nues to give serious cause for concern.Issues to do with the environment, develop-ment, conflict and human rights, have a majorimpact both locally and globally. Participantsneed to know about the causes of global pro-blems, their likely impact on the future and theaction needed to help resolve them.2. Managing Change In periods of rapidsocial and technological change the past can-not provide an accurate guide to the future.Anticipation and adaptability, foresight andflexibility, innovation and intuition, becomeincreasingly essential tools for survival.Participants need to develop such skills inorder to become more adaptable and pro-active towards change.3. Hopes and Fears Hopes and fears for thefuture often influence decision making in thepresent. Fears can lead to the avoidance ofproblems rather than their resolution.Clarifying hopes for the future often enhancesmotivation in the present and thus positiveaction for change. Participants need toexplore their own hopes and fears for thefuture and learn to work creatively withthem.4. Views of the Future People's views of

the future may vary greatly depending, forexample, on status, age, gender and culture, aswell as their attitudes to change, to the environ-ment and technology. Participants need to beaware of how views of the future thus differ andthe ways in which this affects people's prioritiesin the present.5. Alternative Futures At any point in time arange of different futures is possible. It is usefulto distinguish between probable futures, thosewhich seem likely to come about, and prefera-ble futures, those we feel should come about.Participants need to explore and debate arange of probable and preferable futures, fromthe personal to the global.6. Past/Present/Future Interdependence existsacross both space and time. Past, present andfuture are inextricably connected. We aredirectly linked back in time by the oldest mem-bers of the community and forward nearly acentury by those born today. Participants needto explore these links and to gain a sense ofboth continuity and change as well as of res-ponsibility for the future.7. Visions for the Future The transition fromone century to another, and particularly fromone millennium to another, is often seen as aturning point for society. What needs to be leftbehind and what taken forward? Visions of abetter future can help to motivate active andresponsible citizenship in the present.Participants therefore need to develop their ownskills of envisioning and their use of creativeimagination.8. Future Generations Economists, philoso-phers and international lawyers increasinglyrecognise the rights of future generations. It hasbeen suggested that no generation should inhe-rit less human and natural wealth than the onethat preceded it. Participants need to discussthe rights of future generations and what theresponsibility to uphold them may involve.9. Sustainable Futures Current consumeristlifestyles on this planet are increasingly seen asunsustainable often causing more damage thanbenefit. Sustainable development, on the otherhand, prioritizes concern for the environment,the poorest members of the community, and theneeds of future generations. Participants needto understand how this applies to their everydaylives both personally and professionally.

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Annex 2: “Some Trends for the Future”

Cultural Diversity Whilst we are now all part ofone global system, it is ethnic, cultural and his-torical differences amongst peoples that willincreasingly influence national and globalaffairs in the future.The Pacific Rim The centre of world trade isnow shifting from the Atlantic to the Pacific Rim.Asian countries bordering the Pacific willbecome more important as they undergo thefastest period of economic expansion in history.Gender Equity Women are increasingly takingcommand of their own lives, both at work and athome. As gender relations become more equal,social priorities will change, and this will have asignificant impact on the way in which society isorganised and run.Biotechnology The new scientific frontier ofgenetic engineering is about to transform ourlives whether we like it or not. This includes boththe creation of new plant and animal breeds aswell as alteration of human genes.Religious Revival There are now clear signs ofa worldwide religious and spiritual revival, ran-ging from the growth of fundamentalist andevangelical groups to the spread of New Agebeliefs and a renaissance of more ancient tradi-tions.Environmental Concern Due to issues suchas global warming and ozone depletion there isnow an upsurge of popular interest in environ-mental issues. Increasingly, people are aware ofthe need to preserve and nurture the planetitself.Wealth and Poverty The nature of the worldeconomic system is such that the gap betweenthe countries of the rich North and the poorSouth will continue to increase. This growingdivision will create serious future problems.Changing World Views In the West there isnow a major value shift away from a predomi-nantly scientific and mechanistic view of theworld to a more holistic and ecological one. Thiscan now be seen internationally in many fieldsof enquiry.Trend X One of the most important trends in thelast decade of the twentieth century which willhave a major impact on the future is ..........(write own).

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R I G H T S B I N G O

SOURCE:Compass

THEMES:Citizenship, Human Rights (Discrimination)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL1

GROUP SIZE8+

TIME40’

OVERVIEWKnowledge of human rights issues can contribute to a better understan-ding of European Citizenship. This is a simple quiz and variation of thegame, Bingo!, in which people share their knowledge and experiences ofhuman rights

OBJECTIVES• To know that human rights are relevant for everyone everywhere • To develop listening skills • To encourage respect for other people and their opinions

MATERIALS• One copy of the quiz sheet and pencil per person • Flipchart paper and markers

PREPARATIONMake a copy of the quiz sheet on a large sheet of paper or flipchart paper.Familiarise yourself with the basic rights listed in the UDHR and theConvention on the Rights of the Child

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Instructions 1. Hand out the quiz sheets and pencils 2. Explain that people should find a partnerand ask them one of the questions on the sheet. The key words of the answer should benoted down in the relevant box.3. The pairs then split and find others to pairup with.4. The aim of the game is not only to get ananswer in each box but also to get a differentperson to answer each question.5. Whoever gets an answer in every box firstshouts out "Bingo!". They win.6. Move on to the discussion. Take the ques-tion in the first box and ask people in turn to share the answers they received. Listthe key words on the flipchart. Allow shortcomments at this stage 7. When the chart is complete, go back anddiscuss the answers in each box more fully.

Debriefing and evaluation • Were all the questions related to humanrights? Which rights? • Which questions were the hardest to ans-wer? Why? • Which questions were the most controver-sial? Why are rights controversial? • How did people know about human rightsand human rights violations? Do they trust thesources of the information?

Tips for facilitators Feel free to change any of the questions totailor the activity to the interests and level ofyour group.

When recording people's answers to eachquestion, only put down key words. The pointof the chart is to help with the discussion later.After each round, deal briefly with any ques-tions of clarification or differences in interpre-tation. Highlight any points that require morein-depth discussion and agree to return tothese at the end.It is likely that people will give examples that

you yourself may not know about, eitherbecause they are obscure or because theyare personal. This should not matter. No onecan be expected to know everything! You canask people how they know a certain piece ofinformation and discuss its authenticity andreliability. Indeed, it is a good opportunity toencourage people to think critically aboutinformation as a matter of principle.Some of the answers will be controversial. Forexample, someone might say that abortion isa denial of the right to life. Some people in thegroup may hold this view very strongly; othersmay disagree equally strongly. The first lear-ning point is that it is important to try tounderstand any issue from all perspectives:try to establish why people hold the view theydo. There are always conflicts of interests andrights (in this case between the interests andrights of the mother and the unborn child).Whatever the difference of opinion or interpre-tation of rights people should always treatothers whose opinion differs from their ownwith respect. They may disagree with theirpoint of view, but they should respect the per-son.

The second learning point is that we shouldknow about human rights because they arecontroversial. It is not clear-cut and decidedonce and for all how they should be interpre-ted and applied; they need to be reassessedand developed continually. It is therefore eve-ryone's responsibility to be part of the processof promoting and protecting human rights.

Suggestions for follow-up Take one or two of the answers that provokedcontroversy and discuss the real life dilem-mas that there are when trying to develop aculture of respect for human rights.Another way of exploring human rights isthrough images. Such activities can lead on tomany discussions, for instance, about stereo-types, how we build up our images of theworld and about discrimination

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Handout

Quiz sheet

The name of a document that proclaims human rightsA special right all children should have The sister organisation of the Red Cross

A right denied to some people in your countryA human right that has been denied to you personallyAn organisation that fights for human rights

A duty we all have in relation to our human rightsAn example of discrimination A right sometimes denied to women

Someone who fights for human rightsA violation of the right to life An example of how someone's right to privacy may be violated

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R I G H T S I N T H E N E W S

SOURCE:from an idea by Nancy Flowers

THEMES:Citizenship, Cultural Diversity (Media, Stereotypes), Human Rights(Discrimination)

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZE4+

TIME60’

OVERVIEWThis analysis and discussion activity is a good introduction to key issuesrelating to citizenship from the perspective of human rights. It is designedfor older students who might already have some mental picture of whathuman rights are. It helps them to recognize rights and to place a humanrights "framework" on everyday situations.

OBJECTIVESTo show that rights on paper relate to everyday situations.To make students aware that human rights issues are involved in manysituations covered by local, national and international news.

MATERIALS- Old newspapers and magazines of all kinds, enough for small groups tohave at least one each.- Blackboard / Flip-chart / large piece of paper, scissors, glue/tape andpens.

- Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Simplified Version of theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.

PREPARATIONSelect newspapers and magazines including articles relating to humanrights and citizenship issuesFigure out a way of dividing students into groups of 4

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Instructions� Read the following text to the class:"In our modern world we all have access tomore information than ever before. For mostof us, this information comes through themedia, and especially via the news. Everyday,TV screens and newspapers are filled withsituations and stories which are hopeful, tra-gic, happy, sad, simple or complex.

Usually, we look at the terrible news storiesand feel powerless. However, by lookingagain, using the ideas of human rights, wecan see patterns of success, where rights areprotected and acted upon, and patterns ofproblems, where rights are denied".� Ask the class to form small groups of four.� Distribute the newspapers and magazinesrandomly.� Using the whole of the blackboard/largepaper draw a large circle. On the circumfe-rence of the circle write the following threephrases in such a way that they are as faraway from each other as possible. (Thisallows lots of room for newspaper cuttings tobe stuck up later).

Three phrases: - Rights denied - Rights pro-tected - Rights in action� Ask the groups to look through their news-papers and magazines to find things whichillustrate each of the three phrases.Encourage the class to use all parts of themagazines and newspapers, including adver-tisements, classified adverts and other items.� If necessary, encourage the class with thefollowing examples:

- Rights denied:This could be an article complaining that amunicipal health clinic has been closedwithout consulting the local community. Thiswould illustrate the denial of the right to healthor even life!

- Rights protected:This could be a story about children who havebeen rescued from people who were mistrea-ting them.

- Rights in action:This could be a picture of a footballer scoringa goal, illustrating the rights to leisure, health,freedom of association, or even travel (if it isan international match!)

� When the class has completed the task(usually after about 10 minutes) ask them tolook at the Universal Declaration of HumanRights or its Simplified Version to find the arti-cle or articles which relate to the stories orpictures which they have found in the newspa-pers. Allow another 10 minutes for this part ofthe activity.� Now ask each group in turn to stick up thefindings on the blackboard/large paper. Asthey do this, they should explain why theychose that example and which specific UDHRarticles it illustrates.� Some of the selected examples will involvesituations where the same right or rights aredenied, protected, and in action all at thesame time! Use the questions below to helpthe class to analyze these situations.

Debriefing and evaluation/ Useful questions:� Was it easy to find examples to illustraterights denied, rights protected and rights inaction? ÿ Was one phrase more difficult to illustrate?Why? �Were there any newspaper articles or otherexamples where all three phrases could besaid to be relevant? Which? Why? � Were there any examples where one per-son or a group had their rights protected andthis resulted in someone else's rights beingdenied? Could the concept that "my rightsend where yours begin and vice versa" beuseful in such a situation? Would using thisconcept give a better result for all concerned?Why? Why not? � In which section (international politics,crime, culture, sport etc.) of the media werethe articles found? What is students’ usualrelationship to printed media? Is it a source ofinformation about citizenship and humanrights issues? Did the activity help them tolook at printed media in a different way?

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Tips for facilitators Although students need to know that rightsare denied, it is important for them to developknowledge of how they are protected as wellif they are to feel that the defence of humanrights is possible.Articles can happen to be illustrated by pictu-res. How are these pictures being used? Dothey convey positive or negative feelings /impression? Did they help students to selectthat particular article?

Suggestions For Follow-Up AndActionAs a project, students could examine interna-tional efforts to protect the rights of civilians inconflict situations, or the defence of the rightsof a vulnerable group in your local area. Inorder to encourage critical thinking they couldbe requested to identify different perspectivesto report about these population group(s) andtheir rights.

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TAKING THE HUMAN RIGHTS TEMPERATUREOF YOUR SCHOOL

SOURCEShiman, David. Teaching Human Rights. Denver, CO: Center for TeachingInternationalRelations, University of Denver, 1999. Written with Kristi Rudelius-Palmer,the University of Minnesota, Human Rights Resource Center

THEMESCitizenship, Human Rights (Discrimination), Intercultural Exchanges

COMPLEXITY LEVEL2

GROUP SIZEAny

TIMEVariable, at least 60’

OVERVIEWParticipants survey their school community to evaluate how human rightsare enjoyed and strategise how to address abuses they discover.

OBJECTIVESTo link human rights issues (and UDHR articles) to concrete school issues.To provide schools in different countries with opportunities to exchangeinformation about citizenship issues by using common surveys

MATERIALSHandout Taking the Human Rights Temperature of Your School

PREPARATIONPhotocopy handout for all participants

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INSTRUCTIONS1 . Ask students to evaluate their school’s humanrights climate (e.g., take its “temperature,” by com-pleting the Handout: Taking the Human RightsTemperature of Your School). Prior to completingthe survey (handout), students might conductresearch into school conditions, using the topicsin the survey as a guide. Each student in the classshould complete the survey individually.Students are asked to think about their school’sentire human rights climate. They may especiallythink about the school’s climate in relation toxenophobia and homophobia.2 . Collect the surveys and compute the averageresponse to each question. Post the responses ona chalkboard or newsprint version of the survey.

DEBRIEFING AND EVALUATION1. Discuss the findings from the survey:o What are your reactions to the results of the sur-vey?o How did your own evaluation compare to theclass averages?o What might account for any differences betweenindividual responses andclass averages?2. Draw on the following questions to move fromanalysis and evaluation to the developmentof an action plan:

Looking for patternso In which areas does your school appear to beadhering to or promoting human rightsprinciples?o In which areas do there seem to be humanrights problems?o Which of these are of particular concern to you?Elaborate on the areas of concern,providing examples and identifying patterns inhuman rights violations.

Looking for explanationso How do you explain the existence of such pro-blematic conditions?o Do they have race/ethnicity, class, gender, disa-bility, age, or sexual orientationdimensions?o Are the issues related to participation in deci-sion-making? Who is included and who isn’t?o Who benefits and who loses/suffers as a resultof the existing human rights violations?Looking at yourselfo Have you or any of your fellow community mem-bers contributed in any way to the constructionand perpetuation of the existing climate (e.g., by

acting or not acting incertain ways, by ignoring abuses or not reportingincidents)?Looking at otherso Were those completing the questionnaire repre-sentative of the population of the school?o Would you expect different results from a diffe-rent group of people?o In what ways might another group’s responsesdiffer and why?o Should these differences be of any concern toyou and to the school community?o When determining which human rightsconcerns need to be addressed and how toaddressthem, how can you be certain to take into accountthe perspectives and experiences ofd i fferent people?Looking aheado What needs to be done to improve the humanrights climate in your school?o What action(s) can you and your group take tocreate a more humane and justenvironment where human rights values are pro-moted and human rights behaviorspracticed?3. Review survey item #25, stressing the impor-tance of assuming responsibility and action. Then,as a group brainstorm possible actions that indivi-duals and groups might take to improve thehuman rights situation. The class should try todevelop a short list of options for action. Foreach action, students should identify goals, strate-gies, and responsibilities.

TIPS FOR FACILITATORSThis activity can be adapted in order to involve dif-ferent smallar or larger groups of participants. Ithelps to discuss and to organise in advance whattype of result presentation and format can be use-ful to stimulate communication, discussion, reflec-tion, chenge.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FOLLOW-UPThis activity provides an opportunity for schools indifferent countries to exchange information aboutcitizenship issues by using the “temperature” com-mon surveys and to compare and share informa-tion on critical topics.

IDEAS FOR ACTIONVisit the site:http://www.hrusa.org/hrmaterials/temperature/default.shtm

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and take the temperature on-line.This enables theschool to compare results with a wider (more glo-bal) community.

STATEMENTS FOR DISCUSSIONOn what items are views most polarised?Which items indicate the need to take action?Why?Are there examples from other schools that couldhelp us improving our present situation?What actions enabled our school to score positi-vely on certain items?

HANDOUTTAKING THE HUMAN RIGHTS TEM-PERATURE OF YOUR SCHOOL

IntroductionThe questions below are adapted from the UnitedNations Universal Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR). The relevant UDHR articles are includedparenthetically in each statement. Some of theseissues correlate more directly to the UDHR thanothers. All of these questions are related to thefundamental human right to education found inArticle 26 of the Universal Declaration:Everyone has the right to education... Educationshall be directed to the full development of thehuman personality and to the strengthening ofrespect for human rights and fundamental free-doms.When discrimination is mentioned in the question-naire below, it refers to a wide range of conditions:race, ethnicity/culture, sex, physical/intellectualcapacities, friendship associations, age, culture,disability, social class/financial status, physicalappearance , sexual orientation, life style choices,nationality, and living space. Although this is amuch more expansive list than that found in theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, it is morehelpful in assessing the human rights temperaturein your school community. The results should pro-vide a general sense of the school’s climate inlight of principles found in the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights.

DirectionsTake the human rights temperature of yourschool. Read each statement and assess howaccurately it describes your school community inthe blank next to it. Keep in mind all members of

your school (e.g., students, teachers, administra-tors, staff.) At the end, total up your score to deter-mine your overall assessment score for yourschool.

RATING SCALE

____ 1. My school is a place where students aresafe and secure. (Articles 3, 5)____ 2. All students receive equal information andencouragement about academic and careeropportunities. (Article 2)____ 3. Members of the school community are notdiscriminated against because of their life stylechoices, such as manner of dress, associationwith certain people, and non-school activities.(Articles 2, 16)____ 4. My school provides equal access, resour-ces, activities, and scheduling accommodationsfor all individuals. (Articles 2, 7)____ 5. Members of my school community willoppose discriminatory or demeaning actions,materials, or slurs in the school. (Articles 2, 3, 7,28, 29)____ 6. When someone demeans or violates therights of another person, the violator is helped tolearn how to change his/her behavior. (Article 26)____ 7. Members of my school community careabout my full human as well as academic develop-ment and try to help me when I am in need.(Articles 3, 22, 26, 29)

1 2 3 4 5No /

NeverRarely Often /

YesAlways Don’t

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____ 8. When conflicts arise, we try to resolvethem through non-violent ways. (Articles 3, 28)____ 9. Institutional policies and procedures areimplemented when complaints of harassment ordiscrimination are submitted. (Articles 3, 7)____ 10. In matters related to discipline (includingsuspension and expulsion), all persons are assu-red of fair, impartial treatment in the determinationof guilt and assignment of punishment. (Articles 6,7, 8, 9, 10)____ 11. No one in our school is subjected todegrading treatment or punishment. (Article 5)____ 12. Someone accused of wrong-doing ispresumed innocent until proven guilty. (Article 11 )____ 13. My personal space and possessions arerespected. (Articles 12, 17)____ 14. My school community welcomes stu-dents, teachers, administrators, and staff fromdiverse backgrounds and cultures, including peo-ple not born in the USA. (Articles 2, 6,13, 14, 15)____ 15. I have the liberty to express my beliefsand ideas (political, religious, cultural, or other)without fear of discrimination. (Article 19)____ 16. Members of my school can produceand disseminate publications without fear ofcensorship or punishment. (Article 19)____ 17. Diverse voices and perspectives(e.g., sexual orientation, gender, race/ethni-city, ideological) are represented in courses,textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and class-room instruction. (Articles 2, 19, 27)____ 18. I have the opportunity to express myculture through music, art, and writing.(Articles 19, 27, 28)____ 19. Members of my school have theopportunity to participate (individually andthrough associations) in democratic decisionmaking processes to develop school policiesand rules. (Articles 20, 21, 23)____ 20. Members of my school have theright to form associations within the school toadvocate for their rights or the rights of others.(Articles 19, 20, 23)____ 21. Members of my school encourageeach other to learn about societal and globalproblems related to justice, ecology, poverty,and peace. (Preamble & Articles 26, 29)

____ 22. Members of my school encourageeach other to organize and take action toaddress societal and global problems relatedto justice, ecology, poverty, and peace.(Preamble & Articles 20, 29)____ 23. Members of my school communityare able to take adequate rest/recess timeduring the school day and work reasonablehours under fair work conditions. (Articles 23,24)____ 24. Employees in my school are paidenough to have a standard of living adequatefor the health and well-being (including hou-sing, food, necessary social services andsecurity from unemployment, sickness andold age) of themselves and their families.(Articles 22, 25)____ 25. I take responsibility in my school toensure other individuals do not discriminateand that they behave in ways that promote thesafety and well being of my school commu-nity. (Articles 1, 29)

TEMPERATURE POSSIBLE = 100 HUMAN RIGHTS DEGREES

YOUR SCHOOL’S TEMPERATURE= _______________