Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and - Pakistan ...

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and

Alpine Regions of Hazara division, Northern Pakistan

BY

Sadaf Kayani

Department of Plant Sciences

Quaid-i-Azam University

Islamabad

Pakistan

2018

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and

Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

A Thesis Submitted to the Quaid-i-Azam University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In

Plant Sciences (Botany)

By

Sadaf Kayani

Department of Plant Sciences

Quaid-i-Azam University

Islamabad,

Pakistan

2018

ii

Dedicated This Humble Effort TO

My Affevtionate and loving Family

And My Respectable and caring

Uncle (Late)

Foregin Examiners 01 Dr. Pei Shengji

Professor, Ethnobotany Lab,

Kunming Institute of Botany, Chines

Academy of Sciences,

Kunming, Heilongtan, China

Fax: 86-871-4223236

Tel: 86-871-5223221

Email: [email protected]

02 Dr. Jerry Roberts

Professor

Institute/University: University of Plymouth

Department: Plant Sciences Division School of Biosciences

Postal address: Deputy Vice Chancellor Research and Enterprise office of

the Vice-Chancellor University of Plymouth 18 Portland Vilas Plymouth

PL4 8AA

Email address: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Titles Page No

CHAPTER:1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Ethnobotany: Concepts and Significance 01

1.2 Ethno-medicinal potential of wild flora at global level 02

1.3 Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in Pakistan 03

1.3.1 Ethnobotany of medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine

regions of Northern Pakistan 06

1.3.2 Ethnobotany of endemic medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and

Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan 07

1.3.3 Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders 10

among the inhabitants of Gallies-Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan

1.3.4 Medicinal flora from Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Palas

Valley Kohistan, Northern Pakistan 12

1.3.5 Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous plants of Kaghan valley

Northern, Pakistan 15

1.4 Biological activities of selected medicinal plants of Northern

Pakistan 17

1.4.1 Antibacterial assay 17

1.4.2 Cytotoxic activity 18

1.5 Background justification of present project 19

1.6 Objectives 21

CHAPTER: 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1 Introduction to study area 23

2.1.1 Northern Pakistan: Geographical perspective 24

2.1.2 Sub-alpine and Alpine ecosystems of Northern Pakistan 26

2.2 Location of Hazara Division 27

2.2.1 Physical features of Hazara Division 27

(i) Mountains 27

(ii) Hydrology 31

(iii) Geography and climate 33

(iv) Vegetation Types 35

(v) Population 37

(vi) Flora and Fauna 37

(vii) Protected areas 40

2.3 Taxonomic identification and authentication of Data 40

2.4 Field survey and Ethno-medicinal Data documentation 43

2.5 Demographic information of informants 45

2.6 Diseases categories 45

2.7 Quantitative analysis of ethno-medicinal data 45

2.7.1 Family importance value (FIV) and Relative frequency citation

(RFC) 46

2.7.2 Use value (UV) and use report (UR) 46

2.7.3 Fidelity level (FL) 46

2.7.4 Informant consensus factor (ICF) 47

2.7.5 Relative importance (RI) 47

2.7.6 Jaccard index (JI) 47

2.7.7 Consensus index (CI) 47

2.7.8 Cultural significance index (CSI) 48

2.8 Preparation of crude extract 48

2.9 Antimicrobial activities 51

2.9.1 Antibacterial Assays 51

2.9.2 Bacterial isolates 51

2.9.3 Preparation of Nutrient agar medium and bacterial culture 51

2.9.4 Sample Preparation 52

2.9.5 Inoculation 52

2.9.6 Reading Result 52

2.10 Cytotoxic assay (Mammalian Cell lines) 52

2.10.1 Cell lines (MCF-7, MDCK, NIH-3T3, HEK-293) 53

2.10.2 Sub-culturing of Cells 53

2.10.3 Preparation of stock solutions of extracts 53

2.10.4 Sample dilution 55

2.10.5 Inoculum 55

2.10.6 Fixing and Staining 56

ANNEXURE: Questionnaire

CHAPTER: 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3. Brief Summary of Project 58

3.1 Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Sub-

alpine and Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan 59

3.1.1 Demographic characteristics of study participants 59

3.1.2 Medicinal Plant Biodiversity 60

3.1.3 Disease categories and medicinal plants 76

3.1.4 Life forms of medicinal plants 77

3.1.5 Plant parts used 79

3.1.6 Modes of remedy preparation and routes of administration 80

3.1.7 Quantitative Data Analysis 83

3.1.7.1 Fidelity level (FL) 83

3.1.7.2 Informant’s consensus factor for therapeutic purposes 84

3.1.7.3 Relative frequency citation (RFC) and Use Value (UV) 85

3.1.8 Ethnomedicinal finds and their comparative analysis 86

3.2

Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of traditionally used

endemic medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine region of

Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

97

3.2.1 Diversity of traditional knowledge and endemic plant species 97

3.2.2 Demographic Information 98

3.2.3 Most dominant families and dominant disease categories 99

3.2.4 Part used and mode of administration 99

3.2.5 Mode of preparation 101

3.2.6 Quantitative analysis of ethno-medicinal information 122

3.2.6.1 Use Value (UV) and Use Report (UR) 122

3.2.6.2 Fidelity Level (FL) 123

3.2.6.3

Frequency of citation (FC) and Relative Frequency Citation

(RFC) 123

3.2.6.4 Family importance value (FIV) 124

3.2.6.5 Cultural Significance Index (CSI) 125

3.2.6.6 Relative Importance (RI) 125

3.2.6.7 Consensus index (CI) 127

3.2.6.8 Informant consensus factor (ICF) 127

3.2.7 Phytochemical constituents and Pharmacological evidence of

endemic medicinal plants 128

3.2.8 Ethno-medicinal evidence of endemic medicinal plants 130

3.2.9 Toxicity of endemic medicinal plants 132

3.2.10 Role of endemic species, threats, conservation and cultivation of

endemic medicinal plants. 133

3.2.11 Novelty and future influence 134

3.3 Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders

among the inhabitants of Gallies, Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan 140

3.3.1 Medicinal plants documentation and ethno-demography of the

inhabitants 140

3.3.2 Life form, parts used, preparations and respiratory disorders 141

3.3.3 Quantitative analysis of ethno-respiratory information 156

3.3.3.1 Family Importance value (FIV) 156

3.3.3.2 Relative Frequency citation (RFC) 157

3.3.3.3 Use value (UV) 160

3.3.3.4 Comparative analysis of ethno-respiratory information 162

3.3.4 Novelty and future impact of the study 167

3.4

Ethno-medicinal appraisal of the medicinal flora among the Sub-

alpine and Alpine indigenous communities of Palas Valley

Kohistan, Northern Pakistan

170

3.4.1 Demographics of study Participants 170

3.4.2 Medicinal plant diversity 170

3.4.3 Disease categories 173

3.4.4 Life forms 191

3.4.5 Plant parts used 191

3.4.6 Modes of preparation and routes of administration 193

3.4.7 Quantitative data analyses 194

3.4.7.1 Informant's Consensus Factor (ICF) 194

3.4.7.2 Fidelity Level (FL) 196

3.4.7.3 Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and use value (UV) 198

3.5

Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of medicinal plants in

Sub-alpine and Alpine indigenous communities of Hazara

Division, Northern Pakistan

203

3.5.1 Diversity of medicinal flora 203

3.5.2 Growth forms of medicinal plants 203

3.5.3 Demographic Information 204

3.5.4 Plant parts used for herbal preparations 205

3.5.5 Mode of administration 205

3.5.6 Quantitative analysis of ethno-medicinal information 224

3.5.6.1 Use Value (UV) and Use Report (UR) 224

3.5.6.2 Frequency of citation (FC) and Relative Frequency Citation

(RFC) 225

3.6 Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous Plants of Kaghan Valley

Western Himalayas Pakistan 232

3.6.1 Demographics information 232

3.6.2 Diversity of Medicinal Flora 233

3.6.3 Growth Forms of medicinal plants 244

3.6.4 Plant parts used as Herbal Medicine 244

3.6.5 Chemical constituents and ethno-toxic profile of poisonous 244

plants

3.7.

Ani-bacterial activity of selected medicinal plants from Sub-

alpine and Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan against different

bacterial strains

252

3.7.1 Impact of selected medicinal plants extract on bacterial strains

Bacillus subtilis 252


Escherichia coli 264


Enterococcus faecium 276


Staphylococcus aureus 288

3.7.5 Discussion 300

3.8

Anti-cancerous activity of selected plants from Sub-alpine and

Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan against four cancer cell lines

(HEK299, MCF-7, NIH313 and MCK)

317

3.8.1 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts on cancer cell line

(HEK -299) inhibition 317


(MCF-7) inhibition 330


(NIH3T3) inhibition 343


(MDCK) inhibition 356

3.8.5 Discussion 369

4. Conclusion 379

5. Recommendation 380

CHAPTER 5: REFERENCES 381

Thesis outcomes: Publications

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page

No

1. The Productive and Protection Forests in Pakistan 24

2. Population, annual growth rate and ratio 37

3. Ethno-botanical data collected from following localities of Sub-

alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

43

4. Number of informants from different sites of Sub-alpine and

Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

45

5. Sample Dilution for antibacterial activity 52

6. Sample dilution for anti-cancer activity 55

7. Demographic data of study participants of Sub-alpine and alpine

of Pakistan

60

8. Ethnomedicinal uses of plants in Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

Northern Pakistan

62

9. ICF of Plants and Diseases treated in the study area 85

10. Comparison of present study with previous studies at neighboring,

Regional and Global level

88

11.

Enumeration and quantitative analysis of endemic medicinal plants

used to treat various diseases in Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

Northern Pakistan

101

12. Disease categories and their ICF 128

13. Demographic Information of the participants 140

14. Medicinal plant species of Gallies, Abbottabad with its use values,

relative frequency citation and similarity ratio with previous records

143

15. Similarity and differences between study area and neighboring

regions.

166

16. Demographic features of study area 171

17.

Ethno-medicinal appraisal of the medicinal flora among the Sub-

alpine and Alpine indigenous communities of Palas Valley


174

18. Demographic data of participants in Alpine and Sub-alpine regions

of Pakistan

205

19.

Enumeration and quantitative analysis of traditional healing

practices among Sub-alpine and alpine indigenous communities of

Hazara Division, Northern, Pakistan

207

20. Demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level) of the

informants in the study area

232

21. Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous Plants of Kaghan Valley Western

Himalayas Pakistan

234

22. Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains Bacillus subtilis as

affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

252

23. Cell inhibition of bacterial strains Bacillus subtilis as affected by

various plant extract and their concentrations

260

24.

IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of bacterial strain Bacillus

subtilis as affected by various plant extract and their

concentrations

262

25. Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains Escherichia coli as


264

26. Cell inhibition of bacterial strains Escherichia coli as affected by

various plant extract and their concentrations

271

27.

IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of bacterial strain

Escherichia coli as affected by various plant extract and their

concentrations

273

28.

Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains Enterococcus

faecium as affected by various plant extracts and their

concentrations

275

29. Cell inhibition of bacterial strains Enterococcus faecium as 284

affected by various plant extract and their concentrations

30.


Enterococcus faecium as affected by various plant extract and their

concentrations

286

31.

Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains Staphylococcus

aureus as affected by various plant extracts and their

concentrations

288

32. Cell inhibition of bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus as

affected by various plant extract and their concentrations

296

33.


Staphylococcus aureus as affected by various plant extract and

their concentrations

298

34. Analyses of variance table for HEK-299 cancer cell lines as


317

35. Cell inhibition of HEK-299 cancer cell line as affected by various

plant extracts and their concentrations

326

36. IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of HEK-299 cancer cell

line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

328

37. Analyses of variance table for MCF-7 cancer cell lines as affected

by various plant extracts and their concentrations

330

38. Cell inhibition of MCF-7 cancer cell line as affected by various


339

39. IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of MCF-7 cancer cell line

as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

341

40. Analyses of variance table for NIH313 cancer cell lines as affected


343

41. Cell inhibition of NIH313 cancer cell line as affected by various


352

42. IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of NIH313 cancer cell line


354

43. Analyses of variance table for MDCK cancer cell lines as affected


356

44. Cell inhibition of MDCK cancer cell line as affected by various


365

45. IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of MDCK cancer cell line 367

.

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. Title Page No

Map-1 Index map of Pakistan 23

Map-2 Map describing the geographical location of the study area 29

1. Research plan followed in present project

2. Family Importance Value (FIV) of medicinal plants of study area 78

3. Percentage of life forms of medicinal plants of study area 81

4. Plant part used in treatment of various diseases in study area 81

5. Mode of Utilization of medicinal plants 82

6. Life forms percentage (%) of endemic medicinal plants 97

7. Demographic characteristics (Age, gender, educational level) of

the informants (n=197) in the study area

98

8. Percentage of endemic medicinal plant parts used in traditional

medicine

100

9. Percentage (%) of mode of administrations of endemic medicinal

plants used for various aliments

100

10. Categorization of mode of preparations for endemic medicinal

plants used in traditional medicine

101

11. Family importance value (FIV) of endemic medicinal plants in

study area

125

12 The medicinal plant diversity for treatment of respiratory disorders 142

13 Life forms of traditional plants against respiratory disorder 142

14 Plants parts used against respiratory disorders 154

15 Mode of utilizations reported to treat respiratory disorders 154

16 Number of disease categories in respiratory disorders (Disease

Therapy)

155


17 Family Importance value (FIV) for respiratory disorders 156

18 Relative frequency citations for medicinal plant species 159

19 Use values of medicinal plants used for respiratory ailment 161

20 Plant Biodiversity of study area 172

21 Most frequently families of study area 172

22 Percentage of plant life forms of study area 192

23 Percentage of plant parts used in study area 192

24 Percentage of herbal drug preparation in study area 194

25 Informant's Consensus Factor (ICF) value of medicinal plants used

for treatment of various diseases

195

26 Family importance value (FIV) for different disorders 197

27 Life forms percentage (%) of medicinal plants 204

28 Percentage of medicinal plant parts used in traditional medicine 206

29 Categorization of mode of utilization for medicinal plants among

indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern, Pakistan

206

30 Percentage of growth forms of poisonous plants used in study area 245

31 Percentage of poisonous plant parts used for medicinal application

in study area

245

32

Overall mean value of inhibition activity against bacterial strains

Bacillus subtilis as influenced by different concentrations of plant

extracts

253

33

Dose response curve for bacterial strains Bacillus subtilis fitted on

observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

254

34

Dose response curve for bacterial strains Escherichia coli fitted on


species

265

35


Escherichia coli as influenced by different concentrations of plant

extracts

266

36

Dose response curve for bacterial strains Enterococcus faecium

fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25

plant species

277

37 Overall mean value of inhibition activity against bacterial strains

Enterococcus faecium as influenced by different concentrations of

278

plant extracts

38

Dose response curve for bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus

fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25

plant species

289

39


Staphylococcus aureus as influenced by different concentrations of

plant extracts

230

40 Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line HEK-

293as influenced by different concentrations of plant extracts

318

41

Dose response curve for HEK-293 cancer cell line fitted on


species

319

42 Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line MCF-7

as influenced by different concentrations of plant extracts

331

43 Dose response curve for MCF-7 cancer cell line fitted on observed

data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species

332

44 Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line NIH313


344

45

Dose response curve for NIH313 cancer cell line fitted on


species

345

46 Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line MDCK


357

47 Dose response curve for MDCK cancer cell line fitted on observed

data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species

358

LIST OF Plates

Table No. Title Page No

1. Alpine pastures and River Kunhar emerging from Babusar

top, Kaghan Valley, Hazara Division

3

2. Sub-alpine pasture dominated by Leucanthemum vulgare at

Mukshpuri top Hazara Division

3

3. Panoramic view of Sub-alpine region of Northern Pakisatan 9

4. Panoramic view of alpine pastures and peaks covered with

snow Siran Valley, Northern Paksitan

9

5. Panoramic View of Gallies-Abbottabad, dominated by

Gymnosperms Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

11

6. Bird eye view of Sub-alpine forests at (Mukshpuri top)

Gallies-Abbottabad

11

7. Alpine peaks covered with snow at Palas Valley, Kohistan

District Northern Pakistan

14

8. Animals grazing at Sub-alpine pasture of Palas Valley,


14

9. Alpine pasture at Upper Kaghan Valley District Mansehra 16

10. Regenerated Juniper forest at Babusar, Upper Kaghan

Valley, Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

16

11. The three world famous ranges viz. Himalayas, Karakorum

and Hindukush found in Northern Pakistan

11

12. Alpine snow peaks of Hazara Kohistan Himalaya, Northern

Pakistan

11

13. Indicator plants species of Sub-alpine and Alpine zone of the


28

14. Babusar top covered with snow, Upper Kaghan Valle y,

Mansehra District, Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

30

15. Snow on the highest peaks in the study area (Basel Upper

Kaghan Valley Mansehra)

30

16. Major waterbodies in the study area: Lake Saiful Muluk

covered with snow, Upper Kaghan Valley

32

17. Major waterbodies in the study area: Lake Saiful Muluk

Upper Kaghan Valley during summer season

32

18. Major water bodies in the study area: Lake Dodipat Sar

Upper Kaghan

34

19. Major waterbodies in the study area: Sapt Nala in Jalkot,

Kohistan District Hazara Division, Northern Pakisatn

34

20. Ranunculaceous dominant flora at Payya Kaghan Valley

District Mansehra

36

21. Pinus wallichiana forest at Upper Siran Valley, District

Mansehra

36

22. Rich floristic diversity of medicinal plants in study area

dominatedby Impatiens spp

38

23. Rich floristic diversity of medicinal plants in study area

dominated by Leucanthemum vulgare Lam

38

24. Animals are grazing at Subalpine pasture of Kaghan Valley,

Northern Pakistan

39

25. Animals are grazing at Alpine pasture of Kohistan Valley,


39

26.

The author is collecting medicinal plants in various localities

of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,

Northern Pakistan

(a) Miranjani top, (b) Galliyar, (c) Kaghan Valley, (d)

Machisyer, (e) Moro, (f) Chailsar

41

27.

Collection and identification of medicinal plants during field

visits with the help of taxonomists (a), (b), (c),

(d) Poisoning of Plants, (e) Pressing of Plants

(f) Mounting of Plant on herbarium sheet

42

28.

The author is documenting ethnomedicinal data by group

conservation and interviews from various localities of Sub-

alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern

Pakistan. (a) Manoor Valley, (b) Miranjani, (c) Ganga, (d)

Kaghan Valley, (e) Mukshpuri, (f) Siran Valley

44

29.

Preparation of medicinal plant powder from different parts of

medicinal plants.

(a)) Drying of Whole plant, (b) Drying of flowers, leaves (c)

Drying of root, (d) drying of fruits, (e) Grinding of medicinal

plant parts, (f) Medicinal plants powder

49

30.

Extraction procedure of crude extract (a) Filtration, (b), (c)

and (d) Evaporation of solvent using Rotary evaporator (e)

Extract, (f) Further dring of extract by vacuum desiccator

50

31.

DME’Medium preparation and sterility test, (a), (b) and (c),

(d) Bacterial activity, (e) Filter sterilization of medium and

serum, (f) Cultures thawed in fume hood

54

32. Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of


90



91



92



93



94



95



96

39. Endemic Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions

of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

136



137



138



139

43. Medicinal Plant used for Respiratory Disorders Gallies

Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan

168

44. Medicinal Plant used for Respiratory Disorders Gallies

Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan

169

45.

Medicinal Plant used among the Sub-alpine and Alpine

indigenous communities of Palas Valley Kohistan, Northern

Pakistan

199

46.



Pakistan

200

47.



Pakistan

201

48.



Pakistan

202

49. Medicinal Plants used by indigenous community of Sub

alpine and Alpine Regions of Northern Pakistan

226



227



228



229



230



231

55. Poisonous plants from Kaghan Valley Western Himalayas

Pakistan

248


Pakistan

249


Pakistan

250


Pakistan

251

59. Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-bacterial activity

from Hazara Davison, Northern Pakistan

315

60. Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-bacterial activity

from Hazara Davison, Northern Pakistan

316

61. Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-cancerous activity

from Hazara Davison,

376

xv

Northern Pakistan

62.

(a) Culture thawed in fume hood, (b) Cold room -4 °C, (c)

Cytotoxic activities, (d) & (e) The bio-assayed 96 well plate

incubated at 37 °C with CO2 for required length of time (f)

Fixing of bio-assayed 96 well plate, (g) Measurement of OD

at 562 nm in 96 well plate reader (Photometer, SPECTRA

max PLUS Instrument), (h) Staining of bio-assayed 96 well

plate,

377

63.

The result of preliminary screening showed that some plant

extracts gave remarkable cytotoxic effect against cell lines

(MDCK, MCF-7, NIH3T3 and HEK-293) whereas, the

cytotoxicity of the other plant extract ranged from moderate

to weak effects.

378

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Allah Almighty is the one and only who does not need help or assistance from

anyone. As human being may need someone for help at some stage of his/her life, I also

have the honor to have been helped by many people. I certainly feel elated and privileged

to express my gratitude to all of them.

My deepest sense of gratitude to the greatest, the gracious, “Almighty Allah” the most

compassionate and most merciful, whose innumerable blessings, Spiritual guidance and

giving courage to face all the challenges and adversities throughout the course of this study. I

also pay all the tributes to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H), the most perfect and

exalted among and of ever born on the surface of the earth for enlightening our conscience.

It gives me an immense pleasure to express my deep sense of ever lasting gratitude,

respect and indebtedness to my honorable supervisor Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad, for his scholastic

supervision, constant guidance, intellectual support, constructive suggestion, encouragement

and timely correction of the present manuscript helped me a lot towards the successful

completion of the work.

I offer my profound thanks to Dr. Abdul Samad Mumtaz Chairperson Department of

Plant Sciences for providing the facilities and constant unconditional support. I am extremely

grateful and wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr.W.Thomas Shier, Professor

Department of Medicinal chemistry, College of Pharmacy University of Minnesota, USA for

providing me the opportunity to work under his kind guidance, marvelous and ongoing

support as well as for his help in anticancer activity and facilities provided during the course

of investigation. I would like to extend my sincere thanks for beloved wife (Sadaf Rauf) of

Dr. Shier for her hospitality and co-operation during my stay in USA.

Words are shallow measure for my gratitude and indebtedness to inspiring

outstanding personality Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan for their unflagging interest, enlightening

discussions on my topic and encouragement throughout this study as joint guides, I pray to

Allah for his good health. I feel utmost pride in expressing my gratitude and respect to Prof

Dr. Manzoor Hussain Dean Faculty of Sciences Hazara University Mansehra Pakistan for

manifold assistance in ethnomedicinal data and medicinal plants collection in harsh and rough

mountains of Himalaya Northern Pakistan and specimen’s identification. His plausible,

valuable guidance, motivation urge instilled in me immense confidence to continue my search

right from the stage of identifying problem to the accomplishment of goals.

I take this opportunity to express my special thanks to Dr. Shazia Sultana for her

moral encouragement and affection, I specially thanks to Dr. Muhammad Zafar, Assistant

Professor Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad whose guidance, critical comments and

valuable suggestion, supportive behavior during the course of this work.

I am extremely indebted to all other faculty members and supporting staff of

Department of Plant sciences Quaidi-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan and University

of Minnesota, USA for their speedy assistance in official matters, for providing me every

possible benefit, friendly and knowledgeable conversation during my stay at University of

Minnesota.

With great reverence, I owe my heartfelt debt of gratitude to all the informants who

spared their valuable time, hospitality and provided information in the field without which the

work would not have been fulfilled.

I wish to express my warm and sincere thanks to my research fellows, Dr. Pukhtoon

Zada Khan, Dr. Ghulam Yaseen, Dr. Zain ul Abidin, Dr. Sidra, Dr Sofia, Dr. Abida, Dr.

Saira, Dr. Mehwish, Haleema, Anam, Dr Khafza and other lab colleagues for their friendship,

care and support. I record my profound sense of gratitude Zahid bhai for help me in plants

identification.

I really acknowledge and offer my sincere and heartiest gratitude to my lovely and

amazing friends Sadia, Samina, Shumaila, Aneela for their loving companionship, well

wishes and prayers. I am glade to convey my most earnest thanks to my friend, lab fellow as

well as my roommate in hostel Marium Akram for her ever willing cooperation, pleasant

company, all the way through this long journey and proven to be outstanding companion and

a good friend.

No formal words could suffice the ever-replenishing moral support and diehard

inspiration by Peter Larson for his sympathetic attitude and wonderful nice company

throughout my stay in Minnesota, USA. I take this opportunity to pay my sublime regards

with deep sense of gratitude for his help during column chromatographic studies as well as in

nmr technique along with supportive and kind attitude. I utterly enjoyed all that we have done

together and I am privileged to call them dear friends, May Allah crown them with peace,

prosperity and success in this world and hereafter.

This thesis has been fulfillment of the hopes of my parents and relatives, I extend my

gratitude to my affectionate, sympathetic and respectable parents, who supported me

throughout my life. I owe quite a debt to my simple mother who bestowed her unfailing love

on me in prayers. My Taya Abu Jee (Raja Jan-e-Alam) has always been a great source of

guidance and inspiration for me. I am highly thankful to him for his active participation

during field trips, and his guidance in every aspect of my study. I pray to Almighty for his

healthy life.

I remain ever grateful to my elder sincere sister Atiqa Kayani whose financial support

enabled me to complete my research work. I am also thankful to my kind sister Sehrish

Kayani, respectful and friendly Sajid bhai (brother in law) for their support, pleasant smiling

face of my niece(Abeha, Aleha, Janeat), supportive and loving younger brothers, Awais,

Sohail (generating map), Bilal, Ibrahim, Ismail and cousins Tehreem Kayani, Touseef,

Abduallah who helped me in data and plants collection. Even in harsh rainy weather they

accompanied me to Mukeshpuri and Miranjani Hill Nathiagali. My sincere thanks to all my

family members for their love, prayers, patience and allowing me to spend most of the time to

complete this project. I am proud to have such a loving and enlightened family, friends and

teachers.

This thesis is very much the product of my personal efforts and Higher Education

Commission (HEC) Pakistan for their financial assistance for my PhD studies and supporting

me through IRSIP which highly acknowledged and appreciated.

I am thankful to all those, whom I cannot mention individually but their direct or

indirect help during my research work is highly appreciated. May Allah shower His

blessings upon everyone who assisted me at any stage during my work (AMIN).

Sadaf Kayani

xviii

CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction Chapter 1

1.1. Ethnobotany: Concepts and Significance

Plants are being used by man for the betterment of his life from the first day of his

emergence on the earth. Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships between

people and plants. The term "Ethnobotany" was coined in 1896 by the United States botanist

John Harshberger, though the history of ethnobotany began long before that. The term

ethnobotany thus deals with the dynamic relationships and interactions among human beings,

their cultural values, and plants. Human interactions with plants vary due to their uses,

relative importance and varying social, cultural and ethnic factors (Pahnwar and Abro, 2007).

The relationship is obligating that it existed long before the civilization of man. However, the

interaction of plants with human society varies due to their uses, relative importance, varying

social, cultural and ethnic factors. Since1895, the term ethnobotany has been practiced,

however the definitions and range has reformed. Current definitions still fluctuate

prominently, but in conclusion, it is about the study of native people's understanding and

associations with plants (FAO, 2001; Martin, 2004). The history of medicine and surgery

dates back perhaps to the origin of the human race.

Use of plants as a source of medicine has been inherited and is an important

component of the health care system in different countries of the world. In the human

civilization plants, have played a vital role. The use of plants for medicinal purposes is as old

as human civilization (Hill, 1952). Ethnobotanical studies generally identify locally important

plant species, especially for the discovery of crude drugs. Ethnobotanical documentation of

traditional knowledge has identified many important plant sources of modern-day drugs.

Medicinal plants are also important for the livelihoods of poor communities all over the

world. Ethnobotany plays an important role in understanding the dynamic relationships

between biological diversity and social and cultural systems. Ethnobotanical approaches are

significant in emphasizing locally important plant species, particularly for new crude drugs.

Many important vital modern drugs achieved by the documentation of indigenous knowledge,

in particular the medicinal values of plant species. Plant resources provide materials for

survival, medicinal, forage values, but also possess and preserve cultural heritages, biological

information and indigenous knowledge. The vital environmental resources and diverse human

culture are rapidly degrading. Among the remaining 7000 languages, 50% will be lost the

next 50 years which is the loss of cultural heritage because each of these has a distinct

philosophical and rational way of representing the life (Kaua'I Declaration, 2007).

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

1


To save these bio cultural assets, a separate research field called ethnobotany is

devoted, as it collects and extrapolates empirical wisdom which came into being after

interaction with nature from prehistoric times to exploit nature in a sustainable way (Kaua'I

Declaration, 2007). From its origin till the date, it is in an evolutionary state changing from

classical and descriptive to measurable discipline as it acquires approaches from allied fields

for best performances. It crossed the boundaries of social and biological sciences and gained

recognition as a separate field. The word ethno has been started to use for viewing nature in a

cooperative and distinct way (Martin, 2001). As ethno botanists have to perform a vital role

in resource management which makes it essential that their recommendations should be best

in avoiding overharvesting (Cunningham, 1996) for which quantifiable techniques are

essential in the provision of best management.

1.2. Ethno-medicinal potential of wild flora at global level

Medicinal plants have been used throughout the world by human beings as a drug and

remedies for various diseases since time immemorial and these are a good source of income

as well. About 259,000 plant species of higher plants have been reported worldwide and from

these about 53,000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes, because they are

conveniently available and have fewer side effects than other pharmaceuticals. Globally the

medicinal and aromatic plants worth was $62 billion in the year 2002 and if the situation will

go on as it is today, it is worth will reach $5 trillion by 2050. It has been reported that

approximately 10,000 medicinal plants worldwide are currently under sever threat due to

deforestation, over grazing etc. Medicinal plants still provide health security to people living

in the rural areas of under developed and poor countries of Africa, Asia and South America.

According to W.H.O., more than 80% of the developing countries population still depends on

traditional medicines for their primary health care.

Ethno-botanical surveys have developed focus on the relationship between the uses of

plants and indigenous communities (Pieroni et al., 2002; Verpoorte et al., 2005). These

investigations are imperative in enlightening significant indigenous plant species, primarily

for finding new crude drugs (Leonti et al., 2002). Besides, ethno-medicinal surveys also have

important role in conservation of natural sources, culture particularly biodiversity of

medicinal plants (Leonti, 2011).

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan 2


The medicinal plants occupy distinct position right from the primitive past to present

at global level. In developing countries they provide a real alternative for primary health care

while in many underdeveloped communities traditional medicines are still recog-nized as the

primary health care system (Svarstad and Dhillion, 2000) due to their effectiveness, lack of

modern medical alternatives and cultural pre-ferences (Taylor et al., 1995; Tabuti et al., 2003;

Taylor and Van Staden, 2001; Leonti et al., 2003).

According to an estimate 35,000–70,000 plant species are used in folk medicine

worldwide (Lewington, 1990). Medicinal plants have been harvested from wild since ancient

times (Sheldon et al., 2000; Dhillion et al., 2002) and used by indigenous communities in

different regions of world (Matu and Staden, 2003). Many rural people possess traditional

knowledge of medicinal plants (Comerford, 1996; Johnston and Colquhoun, 1996; Milliken

and Albert, 1996; Joshi and Joshi, 2000) and such knowledge survives because it is

transferred from one generation to another (Jain and Saklani, 1991; Tabuti et al., 2003).

Exposure to modern culture (Manandhar, 1990a; Caniago and Siebert, 1998), rapid land

degradation (Caniago and Siebert, 1998; Joshi and Joshi, 2000), access to modern facilities

(Plotkin, 1988) and urban developmental processes altering the distribution of communities

are affecting transformation of such knowledge (Figueiredo et al., 1993).

There is strong dire need of conservation of this valuable knowledge in world

especially in those countries in which there is high risk of loss of this practice either due to

after effects of wars resulting in migrations or deforestation and other environmental factors.

Among such countries, Pakistan is one of them where such indigenous knowledge loss is

increasing day by day due to above mentioned reasons and factors.

1.3. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in Pakistan

Pakistan occupies a unique position among developing countries. It has good potential

of a variety of medicinal and aromatic plants due to its varied climate and eco-systems, which

reflect biodiversity and valuable plant heritage. More than 6000 species of flowering plants

have been reported to occur in Pakistan including Azad Kashmir. A large number is found in

northern and northwestern parts of the country. Out of these, 600 to700 plant species are used

for medicinal purpose and 1012 plant species have been recognized for phytochemical

properties; whereas, 350–400 plant species are traded in different drug markets of the country

and are used by 28 leading manufacturing units of Greco-Arabic, Ayurvedic and


3

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Homeopathic medicines. A large number of unregistered practitioners scattered in rural and

remote hilly areas utilizing more than 200 drug plants in traditional and folk medicines as

household remedies against several diseases in primary health care.

Major research activities on medicinal plant research in Pakistan are on the documenting

level. The research is being conducted mainly in universities and that too as ethnobotanical listing

of resources. The local communities of different regions of Pakistan have centuries old

knowledge about traditional uses of the plants occurring in their areas. This indigenous

knowledge of plants has been transferred from generation to generation. These plants are used to

treat almost any kind of disease from headache to stomachic to cut and wound (Bhardwaj and

Gakhar, 2005). Some of the important plants are commercially harvested for extraction of various

types of active ingredients. Though different systems of Unani, Ayurvedic are largely based on

the medicinal properties of plants, yet the precious wealth of indigenous knowledge is in danger

of being lost. The use of traditional knowledge also reflects the values embedded in the traditions

upheld by elders, especially with regard to medicine.

Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the ethnobotanical aspects of

plants as only hakims are associated with medicinal plants. It is a common practice that was

started from the earliest times of mankind’s history to use plants for cure diseases and

ailments. After1980s, there had been an increased focus on ethnobotanical studies in Pakistan

with main focus on medicinal plants with some other aspects but on documentation level and

conducted mainly in the universities only which continued until 2000 but couldn’t cope with

their cent advancement in this field which results in avoiding its importance in recent research

activities. The local communities of different regions and ethnic groups have century’s old

knowledge about traditional uses of plant so curing in their area and such knowledge is based

on different medical systems. In some area different medicinal systems including modern

medicines, are prevailing at the same time which leads the locals to choose the best items

from all. The same pattern of using different medicinal systems in one community was

observed in present research area.

In the beginning the ethnobotanical studies carried out in Pakistan were mostly

observational and most of the information was carried out by interviewing the local inhabitants.

In this prospect Shinwari and Khan, (2000) conducted ethnobotanical studies in Margalla Hill

National Park. They reported that the local inhabitants in and around the National Park are

dependent on herbal plants since time immemorial. Many plant species were reported which were

used by the local inhabitant for different ailments. A similar approach was used by Shah


4


and Khan, (2001) and documented the ethnomedicinal folk recipes that were used to cure

different disorders in their study area. They approached the knowledgeable people including

Hakims, old women and old men who were considered the primary user of medicinal plants.

Their work was systematic and helpful in terms of exploration of different plant species used

in folk recipes.

Addition was made by Rahman et al., (2002) by summarizing the available literature

on antidiabetic activities of 343 plant species and they described the pharmacological

activities of some extracts. Irshad and Buth, (2002) conducted a detailed study of an ancient

medical system of the world while Shinwari and Gilani, (2003) focused on plant resources for

their conventional use under in-situ and ex-situ conservation, training of the community

regarding collection of medicinal plants and their marketing. They highlighted the

ethnobotanical uses of 33 plant species which were being used by the local communities for

various diseases. Their study also exposed the suitability of Ephedra gerardiana and Bunium

persicum for cultivation in vitro in order to obtain immediate profits in future.

The extreme north area of the country has rich flora and cultural diversity. However, the

ethnobotanical information’s regarding these floras in these areas are scanty. Though some

fragmentary information’s are available like Qureshi et al., (2005) presented the ethnobotanical

uses of different medicinal plants of District Gilgit and adjacent areas, Saqib and Sultan, (2005)

conducted a detail ethnobotanical survey in Palas Valley, and attempted to sum up the preexisting

ethnobotanical information. They collected 139 ethnobotanically important plant species

belonging to 72 families. Similarly, Abid et al., (2005) worked on medicinal plants that

constituted an excellent source of traditional and modern medicines. Muhammad and Mushtaq,

(2005) worked out on ethnobotanical studies of Galliyat area and gathered information about the

indigenous ethnobotanical data of 40 plant species belonging to 37 genera of 26 families.

Furthermore, Iqbal and Hamayun, (2005) and Hamayun et al., (2005) focused on the

ethnobotanical studies of Malam Jabba, Utror and Gabral areas that are located in Pakistan

Hindukush region. The main aims of this work were to explore the area ethno-botanically.

These workers reported 187 plant species belonging to 75 families from Malam Jabba and

176 species from Utror and Gabral respectively. It is worth to mention that this area is gifted

with diverse and unique flora due to proximity of great Himalayas and Karakorum. The local

inhabitants in this area are mostly poor, illiterate and depend upon plant resources for their

domestic needs. An addition was also made by Hamayun (2005) by exploring the Swat

Kohistan which is near station to the above-mentioned areas.


5


Ali and Qaiser (2009) documented information regarding the indigenous uses of 83

medicinal plants in Chitral Valley. Their results disclosed that root and fleshy parts are

important for recipes. They suggested that initiative should be taken for conservation of plant

resources especially of medicinal plants in Chitral. Jan et al., (2009) added the ethnobotanical

information of 04 families of gymnosperms with 11 plant species from Dir Valleys. Gilani

and Tariq, (2009) collected information related to the flora of Northern region and a bit

documented record of the important plants. Jan et al., (2009) worked on the local uses,

medicinal uses of 25 species belonging to 21 genera of Asteraceae.

Mohammad et al., (2010) studied the traditional uses of economically important medicinal

plants of Musa khel and Abbottabad District respectively. They collected a first-hand information

on various aspects of ethnobotany like wounds healing etc. of various plants species from tribal

communities. Ashraf et al., (2010) focused on the ecological conditions and ethnobotanical

importance of genus Artemisia from northern areas of Pakistan. Hazrat et al., (2012) worked on

the ethnobotanical uses of some important species of Ushai Valley, Similarly Jan et al., (2010)

focused on the traditional medicinal uses of weeds from Dir Upper.

Khan et al., (2013) discussed the ethnobotanical uses of 31 herbs, shrubs and trees

species from Gole National Park Chitral. They reported that Artemisia brevifolia, Rosa

webbiana and Artemisia maritima are pre-dominated species and suitable for harvesting while

Ferula anthrax and Ephedra gerardiana are vulnerable to harvesting.

1.3.1 Ethnobotany of medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

Northern Pakistan

Pakistan is a hub of unique biodiversity comprising different climatic zones with a wide

range of plant species. Its identified flora comprised about 6000 species of wild flowering plants

of which 400–600 are considered to be medicinally important (Hamayun et al., 2003; Ali, 2008).

Most of this unique biodiversity exists in Sub-alpines and Alpines areas of Pakistan having three

mountain ranges of Himalayas, Karakorum and Hindu Kush merge. In these areas at least 70% of

the medicinal plants consist of wild species and 70–80% of the population in this region depends

on traditional medicines for health care (Pie and Manadhar, 1987).

The diverse flora of these regions is in continuous pressure by locals, after effects of

terrorist activities, migrants, tourists, over grazing, smuggling of timber wood and

deforestation. Ethno-botanical field survey may be an alternate to documents and conserve

this imperative knowledge before it disappears at all.


6





To best of our knowledge this is first quantitative ethno-botanical survey from Sub-

alpines and Alpines of Western Himalaya of Pakistan. The ethno-botanical assessment and

documentation of ancestral knowledge of indigenous people on medicinal plants may fill the

gap in associated knowledge for future drug discovery (Heinrich et al., 2006).

1.3.2 Ethnobotany of endemic medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine and region


Pakistan has unique floristic diversity. Along with the rich floristic diversity of

medicinal plant most endemics are Sino-Himalayan and Irano-Turanian. In Irano-Turanian

and Saharo-sindian flora 24% of endemic species were reported from Iran (Akhani, 2006).

Particularly the Himalayan region of Kashmir has been identified as a center of medicinal and

endemic plant diversity (Shah and Awan 2002). Four monotypic genera (Spiroseris, Douepia,

Wendelboa and Suleimania) and about 400 species of plants are endemic to Pakistan and

most of these plants are confined to the western and northern mountains of Pakistan and

Kashmir (Ali, 2008).


7



Plate 1: Alpine pastures and River Kunhar emerging from Babusar top,

Kaghan Valley, Hazara Division

Plate 2: Sub-alpine pasture dominated by Leucanthemum vulgare at Mukshpuri top Hazara Division


8


Plate 3: Panoramic view of Sub-alpine region of Northern Pakisatan

Plate 4: Panoramic view of alpine pastures and peaks covered with snow Siran

Valley, Northern Paksitan


9


Although many studies have been carried out to collect traditional knowledge about

the usage of medicinal plants from many areas of Pakistan (Ahmad et., 2013; Malik et al.,

2011), however, in these previous studies there is insufficient statistical data and limited

scientific information for evaluating the beneficial aspects of endemic plants. Recently, 87

taxa of endemic plants from Mauritius have been documented by Rummun et al., (2018)

these studies aimed to evaluate the medicinal uses of endemic plants, but detailed scientific

studies have been lacking. The only existing data from Pakistan which is based on traditional

uses of endemic medicinal plants was collected from Baluchistan (Bibi et al., 2015).

Baluchistan is included in Western Irano-Turanian phyto-geographical region while present

study deals with Sino-Himalayan phytogeographical region. There is still a gap in the study

of medicinal uses of endemic plants, also to date no study has been designed to explore the

therapeutic uses of endemic plants from alpine and subalpine regions of northern Pakistan

Present study can be considered as first step dealing with quantitative ethno-medicinal

study of endemic flora of Sub-alpine and Alpine and regions of northern Pakistan. The high

altitude alpine and subalpine areas due to harsh climatic conditions are not easily accessible

to the scientists, thus endemic flora has a chance of extinction as well as the traditional

knowledge related to these endemic plant species will automatically disappear. Keeping in

view this objective there is a dire need to conserve the endemic plant species along with the

ethnobotanical knowledge related to these endemic floras of Sub-alpine Alpine and area of

northern Pakistan before its extinction. This study therefore, aimed to document and conserve

the indigenous knowledge of endemic medicinal flora from Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

northern Pakistan. It also analyzed the documented ethnobotanical data using quantitative

indices.

1.3.3 Ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the

inhabitants of Gallies-Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan

Herbal remedies for the treatment of respiratory disorders are common practice in

many parts of the world. Similarly, respiratory disorders are common in the study area due to

its remoteness, cold and harsh climatic conditions as well as limited health care facilities. The

people of the area depend on the indigenous plant resources to treat various respiratory

diseases like lungs disorders, pleural cavity, bronchial tubes, trachea, and upper respiratory

tract and of the nerves and muscles to breathe, asthma, bronchitis, common cold, cough and


10


Plate 5: Panoramic View of Gallies-Abbottabad, dominated by Gymnosperms


Plate 6: Bird eye view of Sub-alpine forests at (Mukshpuri top) Gallies-Abbottabad


11


whooping cough. Numbers of plants with medicinal importance are used to treat respiratory

disorders in the area from generations to generations especially by rural population and forest

ethnic communities.

During the previous few decades there has been a growing curiosity in the study of

remedial plants and their folk usage in various parts of Pakistan. In the recent years numbers

of information are documented on the use of plants in indigenous healing system either by

ethnic people or rural communities around the world and Pakistan is increasing (York et al.,

2011, 2012; Nunkoo and Mahomoodally, 2012; Shrivastava and Kanungo, 2013). However,

all these studies were conducted qualitatively with a gap in quantitative ethnobotanical data

analysis. The contemporary survey is commenced with an aim to document the information

regarding traditional herbal remedies use for the treatment of respiratory disorders, to

preserve valuable as well as fast disappearing indigenous knowledge of the local

communities of Gallies, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. In addition to this, we

applied some quantitative approaches to analyzed ethno-medicinal knowledge for the

exploitation of frequently used medicinal plants of the area for global circulation.

1.3.4 Medicinal flora from Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Palas Valley


Different plant species and their usage as medicine are well-known to indigenous

people in many parts of Pakistan. Local communities of Pakistan particularly in Himalayas

including Palas valley have traditional practices of plants available in their region. It has been

reported that more than 10% of Pakistani flora (600–700 plant species) is used to make herbal

medicine (Shinwari et al., 2010). Palas contains Pakistan’s most important remaining tract of

the natural west Himalayan Forest, recognized as a global priority for biodiversity

conservation. Despite a few areas having been extensively logged, and despite the removal of

a small percentage of forest for the creation of agricultural land, the Valley remains rather or

fairly intact wild habitat. About 548 identified plant species occur in the Valley. In Palas

valley due to the presence of diverse plant resources people rely on biological sources for

their survival (Abbasi et al., 2011; Kayani et al., 2014, 2015).

For speciation and evolution, emergence of new species while the extinction of others is

essential, however, now a day’s extinction rates are much higher and this loss is due to

anthropogenic activities (Ehrlich, 1995). On the other hand, across the world demand of plant-

based drugs has been a gradual rise in recent year resulting in the exploitation of medicinal


12

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species to meet this demand of medicinal plants species Malik et al., (2011). Extinction of

more than 150 plant species from wild flora have been reported due to over exploitation,

habitat degradation and unscientific harvesting (Singh and Rawat, 2011). In the herbal

industries more than 90% plant species comes from Sub-alpine and Alpine and regions of the

Himalaya (Singh and Day, 2005).


13


Plate 7: Alpine peaks covered with snow at Palas Valley, Kohistan District Northern Pakistan

Plate 8: Animals grazing at Sub-alpine pasture of Palas Valley, Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan


14


This study therefore, aimed to document and conserve the indigenous knowledge of

medicinal flora from Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Pallas Valley, Northern Pakistan. It

also analyzed the documented ethnobotanical data using quantitative indices.

1.3.5 Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous plants of Kaghan valley Northern, Pakistan

Kaghan Valley is located in District Mansehra of Khyber Pakhtunkhawa Province (KPK),

Northern Pakistan. The Kunhar river catchments area is commonly known as, “Kaghan Valley,

The Gujars, Swatis and Syeds are the major ethnic groups of the area. Gujars communities are the

most traditional ethnic group and mostly nomads. The people of Kaghan Valley are mostly

poverty stricken and depend on forest resources for fuel wood, fodder, timber and medicinal

plants. Pakistan is equally rich in population of poisonous plants but official record shows very

less and unsatisfactory records about the use of these plants to poison animals or insects. Other

plants poisonous to humans and livestock are not given due attention.

Valuable but scattered information on a number of poisonous plants has been

mentioned in several historical and mythological literatures (Saini, 2004). In Pakistan, very

little attention has been given towards the research on poisonous plants viz: (Alam et al.,

2011; Khan et al., 2012). But no considerable work has been done in the field of ethnobotany

of poisonous plants.

There is an urgent need to take advantage of the extensive knowledge of different

ethnic groups on poisonous plants for scientific scrutiny and adoption for posterity. Keeping

this view in mind, the authors have made an attempt to survey Kaghan Valley, with an aim to

study the poisonous plant resources being utilized by various tribes in multiple purposes for

the preparation of herbal products.


15


Plate 9: Alpine pasture at Upper Kaghan Valley District Mansehra

Plate 10: Regenerated Juniper forest at Babusar, Upper Kaghan Valley, Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan


16


1.4 Biological activities of selected medicinal plants of Northern Pakistan

Infectious diseases are one of the major problems in developing as well as developed

countries. Traditional medicinal plants are widely used (Hemalatha et al., 2013). Long before

mankind discovered the existence of microbes, the idea that certain plants had healing

potential, indeed, that they contained what we would currently characterize as antimicrobial

principles, was well accepted. Since antiquity, man has used plants to treat common

infectious diseases and some of these traditional medicines are still included as part of the

habitual treatment of various maladies (Rios & Recio 2005). The drugs already in use to treat

infectious disease are of concern because drug safety remains an enormous global issue. Most of the synthetic drugs cause side

effects and also most of the microbes developed resistant against the synthetic drugs (Chanda

et al., 2011).

Plant based antimicrobials represent a vast untapped source of medicines and further

exploration of plant antimicrobials is the need of the hour. Antimicrobials of plant origin

have enormous therapeutic potential. Plant derived antimicrobials have a long history of

providing the much-needed novel therapeutics (Silva et al., 2012). In the era of

modernization and changed environmental conditions man frequently encounters pathogenic

microorganisms causing infectious diseases. The indiscriminate use of commercially

available antibiotics for the treatment of infectious diseases developed multiple drug

resistance in the microorganisms, putting new challenge before the drug industries for

identification of new efficient antimicrobial compounds. Herbal drugs therapy is regarded as

an important alternate, leading the researchers to focus and evaluate the traditionally

recommended medicinal plants for their efficacy in various disease conditions (Gahlaut et al.,

2012). Several reports on the antibacterial activities of medicinal plants against pathogenic

organisms abound in literatures (Kaushik et al., 2009; Yasutan et al., 2009).

1.4.1 Antibacterial assay

In Pakistan the antimicrobial activity is still at pioneer stage therefore, a constant need

for new and useful therapeutic agents and also achievable antimicrobial activities, for this

purpose mostly by using crude aqueous or alcohol extracts. In this connection, Ahmad et al.,

(2009) study the antimicrobial activities of some species of Boraginaceae of hilly area of


17


Malakand University. The primary healthcare products that are socially acceptable and

scientifically valuable, for all human being are studied by (Shandesh et al., 2009).

Similarly the work of Abdul et al., (2005) also emphasized upon the sensitivity of the

crude extracts of Clerodendrum inerme against some of the human pathogenic bacteria. Taous

et al., (2005) carried out the methanolic extract derived from the whole plants of Paeonia

emodi for various in vitro biological activities including antifungal, antibacterial and

insecticidal. The anti-parasitic activity of Nigella sativa was reported by (Ayaz et al., 2007).

Some novel work was presented by Noor et al., (2010) studied the methanolic extracts of various medicinal plants

like Thuja occidentalis, Vernonia anthelmintica, Dryopteris chrysocom and Trachyspermum

ammi all were tested in vitro for their antibacterial and antifungal activities and indicated that

has potent activity against all microorganisms. Abalaka et al., (2010) studied the

antimicrobial effects of ethanolic extracts of leaves of two species of genus Ziziphus jujuba,

Ziziphus nummularia against six bacteria and fungi and show strong inhibitory concentration.

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobial drugs in the treatment of infectious diseases

caused by pathogenic microorganisms has developed resistance in many bacteria and fungi

against a wide range of antibiotics (Cowan, 1999). So it is necessitated that novel

unconventional sources of antibiotics should be discovered or older antibiotics should be

modified to overcome this health hazard (Tollefson and Miller, 2000). Substances those are

toxic to the pathogenic microorganism but do no harm to the host cells are strong candidates

for the development of antibiotics. Medicinal plants represent a rich source of antimicrobial

agents as they contain secondary metabolites which have been found inhibitory to

microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites, in a number of ways. There is a

continuous and vital need to discover new antimicrobial drugs with diverse chemical

composition and new mechanisms of action for new and re-emerging infectious diseases

(Rojas et al., 2003). Therefore, researchers are keenly interested in herbal medicine to develop

better drugs against microbial infections (Srinivasan et al., 2001; Benkeblia, 2004).

1.4.2 Cytotoxic activity

Cancer is one of the most severe health problems in both developing and developed

countries. It is a general term applied to malignant diseases characterized by rapid and

uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal cells which may mass together to form a solid tumor

or proliferate throughout the body, and when progress it causes death. Cancer cells are able to


18


grow, invade neighboring tissues and may also affect other organs through the lymphatic

system or bloodstream. Carcinogens such as viruses, some chemicals, tobacco use and

radiation cause aberration of the genetic material of cells. This leads to the up-regulation of

oncogenes which promote cell growth and/or the down-regulation of tumor suppressor genes

which inhibit cell division. Changes in many genes are required to transform a normal cell

into a cancer cell (Knudson, 2001).

Cancer or malignant disease is one of the major causes of death in humans. WHO

(2002) reported that malignant neoplasm is the third (12.4%) leading cause of death

worldwide after cardiovascular disease (30%) and infectious diseases (18.8%), which include

HIV/AIDS (Mathers et al., 2001). There are many types of cancer and each type is named

according to the tissue or organ in which it was originated.

Cancer chemotherapy plays a significant role in the treatment of many malignancies

and the objective of cancer chemotherapy is to kill cancer cells with as little damage as

possible to normal cells (Halliwell & Gutteridge, 1988). So, discovery of any new anticancer

drug must be related to novel molecular targets; i.e. they should be effective against specific

types of cancer cells but less toxic to normal cells or have a unique mechanism of action for

specific types of cancer (Pezzuto, 1997). Plants have a long history of use in the treatment of

cancer (Hartwell, 1982). Natural products are important templates for chemotherapeutic

agents. Studies on tumor inhibiting compounds originating from plants have yielded a

remarkable collection of novel structures. The study of bioactive compounds from plants has

required the development of bioassay techniques, especially in vitro methods which allow a

large number of plant extracts to be screened for activity, especially cytotoxicity, against

many types of cancer cell lines.

1.5. Background justification of present project

World Health Organization (WHO) in its report mentioned that about 65–80% of the

world's populace in emerging nations depends principally on plants for their primary

healthcare due to poverty and lack of access to modern medical facilities (Calixto, 2005). In

recent years, use of ethnobotanical knowledge regarding medicinal plant usage and research

has gained substantial consideration among the scientific communities (Heinrich, 2000). It

has also being observed that the rising costs of synthetic drugs for personal health and

wellbeing, and exploration of new plant derived drugs had fueled the interest in medicinal

plants documentation and usage as a re-emerging health aid (Hoareau and DaSilva, 1999).


19


However, plants contribute a lot to our lives mainly due to their extra ordinary array

of diverse classes of biochemical with a variety of biological activities. The plant kingdom

had immensely contributed to the health needs of man when no synthetic medicines were

available and when no concept of surgical management existed. Even today almost 25% of all

prescribed medicines in the developed world contain ingredients derived from medicinal

plants (Sher et al., 2000). Plants are essential ingredients of healthier life because they

provide us medicines, which are both effective and safe, without any side effect. Plants play a

vital role in our lives more than animals mainly due to their extraordinary array of diverse

class of biochemical with a variety of biological activities (Cotton, 1996). Ethnobotanical

information on medicinal plants and their uses by indigenous cultures is useful not only in the

conservation of traditional cultures and biodiversity, but also for community health care and

drug development. This information is utilized as a guide for drug development under the

assumption that a plant which has been used by indigenous people over a long period of time

may have an allopathic application (Farnsworth, 1993).

According to an estimate in Pakistan up to 84% people depend upon traditional

medicine for almost all kinds of medicine need (Hocking, 1958). All the systems of

traditional medicine have their roots in the house remedies and this knowledge is transferred

from one generation to other generation with the passage of time (Shinwari, 1996). It is the

fact that all the indigenous herbal or eastern system of medicine is entirely based on the

properties of these plants. The importance of the herbal medicine can be well understood by

the saying of Hippocrates “Let medicine be your food and food your medicine.

Generally, the local communities of Pakistan living in various rural areas frequently

practiced herbal remedies due to inaccessibility of modern healthcare facilities. Among such

areas, medicinal plants seem to be the most appropriate solution for many of the health issues

(Jamal et al., 2012). Traditionally all herbal preparations were derived from plants, either as

simple form of plant parts or complex form of crude extracts, blends, etc. The primary

paybacks of using plant-derived medicines are considered to be relatively harmless than

synthetic substitutes, offering profound therapeutic benefits.

The rural communities exploit plants for local use as well as sale outside their area

(Hussain, 2010). About 80% population of Pakistan is rural households where medicinal

plants are easily available. While the lower financial conditions and unavailability of modern


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health facilities in rural areas limits the access of local people to synthetic medicines.

Meantime the people are generally aware about the harmful effects of synthetic products and

are realizing the importance of a more natural way of life (Said and Saeed, 1996).

Knowledge of indigenous medicinal plant resources needs urgent scientific

investigation and documentation before it is irretrievably lost to future generations. In

Pakistan prior to this project no attention has been given on the documentation of traditional

knowledge of medicinal flora and assessment of antibacterial and anti-cancerous potential of

medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan.

Present project will provide key information for the careful utilization of these natural

resources. This project contribute to the diffusion of results from the study on the Sub-alpine

and Alpine areas of Northern Pakistan to the scientific community, keeping in mind to open a

door for researches on other disciplines and other works. This project not only document the

traditional uses of medicinal plants also include the endemic medicinal and poisonous plants

of study area as well as to analyze the selected highly medicinal taxa for various biological

activities. This research project will generate a significant baseline information that can be

used as a basis for future studies on medicinal and endemic species in the fields of folk

knowledge conservation, exploration of phytochemical constituents, pharmacology, and

biological activities including toxicology as well as clinical practices.

1.6. Objectives

The project is aimed to accomplish the following objectives:

• To investigate and assess the indigenous folklore knowledge of local inhabitants and

identify unexplored sacred groves of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara

Division, Northern Pakistan for treatment of various ailments.

• In specific, it aims to perform quantitative assessment of the documented data using

quantitative ethno-botanical indices such as Relative frequency of citation (RFC), use

value (UV), Relative Importance (RI), Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), and

Fidelity Level (FL) and comparing with studies from other regional and global

territories using Jaccard index (JI)

• To conserve the ethnobotanical knowledge related to endemic flora and poisonous plant

resources of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan.


21


• To document the information regarding traditional herbal remedies use for the treatment

of respiratory disorders also to preserve valuable as well as fast disappearing indigenous

knowledge of the local communities of Palas valley of Kohistan, Northern Pakistan.

• To identify most important plants used for various diseases, improvement of humane

health care and for future drug discovery based on their biological screening viz.

Antibacterial and Cytotoxic assays.


CHAPTER: 2

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials and Methods Chapter 2

2.1. Introduction to study area

Pakistan is a subtropical country, situated between 240-37' north latitudes and 610-5'

east longitudes (see Map-1). Its maximum distance from north to south is over 1,660km and

from east to west it is about 913km. Total area of the country is 8, 03,950sqkm and

population over 200 million, being the sixth largest nation of the world. It is rich in

landscapes and cultural traditions. Half of a dozen civilizations have flourished here and left

their imprints. Historically, this is one of the most ancient lands known to man. Its cities

flourished before Babylon was built, its people practiced the art of good living and citizenship

before the celebrated ancient Greeks (Pak. online Encyclopedia; 2004, Anon., 2012).

Map 1: Index map of Pakistan (B-7 Study area)

Pakistan has only 5.2% of its total land area under forests (4.58 million hectares). This


23


is because more than 75% of the area falls under arid and semi-arid zones. Of the total forest

area 3.311 million hectares (72.4%) are maintained and managed for their protection while

the remaning1.266 million hectares (27.6%) are managed primarily for the production of

wood as commercial forests (Sheikh, 1987). The area of these forests on the basis of

production and protection is shown in Table 1. A major portion of the coniferous forests lies

in N.W.F.P. especially in northern parts (Hussain, et al., 1991).

Table 1: The Productive and Protection Forests in Pakistan

S.No Forest Type Area (000) Hectare

Production Protection Total %

Forests Forests

1 Coniferous Forests 867 1092 1959 42.75 2 Scrub Forests 158 1568 1726 37.65

3 Riverian Forests 158 138 296 6.50

4 Mangrove Forests --- 347 347 7.60

5 Irrigated Plantation 83 151 234 5.10

6 Linear Plantation --- 17 17 0.40

Total Area (Hectares) 1266 3313 4579

Area % 27.6 72.4 100 (Sheikh, 1987)

2.1.1 Northern Pakistan: Geographical perspective

Northern Pakistan occupies a unique biogeographic position at the summit of the

planet’s three highest mountain ranges i.e. Himalaya, Hindukush and Karakorum (Plate 11).

Northern part of Pakistan is endowed by nature with lofty high mountains, gigantic glaciers,

glorious rivers and wonderful valleys. Several of the earth’s tallest peaks over 7000m arise

here, including the 2nd

highest K-2 (8611m), Gasherbrum-I (8,068m), Broad Peak (8,047m)

and Gasherbrum-II (8,035m) in the Karakorum ranges, and Nanga Parbat (8,126m) at the

Northern corner of Himalaya, and Thirch Mir (7690m) high in the Hindukush range. The

occurrence of several longest glaciers outside Polar region like Siachen, Batura, Baltoro,

Hispar and Biafo having lengths of 72 km, 64km, 62km, 61km, and 60km respectively, is a

unique feature of the region. These ranges contain the hot spots of floral and faunal diversity

with high proportions of endemic and rare species. The climatic conditions are extremely

harsh and the growing season is just 3-4 months. The temperature reaches down to -20℃ in

winter months with heavy snow fall sometimes up to 20 feet or more in thickness. All the

major rivers in Pakistan originate from the Himalayas. Thus, the Himalayan watershed in

Pakistan forms the lifeline of the country’s irrigation system (Shah and Awan, 2002).


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Plate 11: The three world famous ranges viz. Himalayas, Karakorum and Hindukush found in

Northern Pakistan

Plate 12 : Alpine snow peaks of Hazara Kohistan Himalaya, Northern Pakistan


25


2.1.2 Sub-alpine and Alpine ecosystems of Northern Pakistan

Sub-alpines and Alpine regions are one of the nine ecological zones of Pakistan based

upon moisture availability, temperature, elevation and soil conditions. These zones like

others offer specific environmental, topographic and climatic conditions required to support

particular plant species. These regions are found at very high elevations in the mountainous

regions of Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindukush. Floristically, these valleys have been

recognized as an important part of the Western Himalaya while climatically, these have dry

temperate climates with distinct seasonal variations. The timberline or elevation limit of tree

growth is high in these mountains, rising up to 4000m above sea level. These high-altitude

pastures are found mostly in the northern districts of Gilgit, Diamer, Chitral and Skardu.

Moist temperate areas of these regions are concentrated in the northern hills of Muree, Galiat,

Kaghan, Allai, Siran and Swat valleys and these districts are specified in geography and

climate, with pine forests, crystal clear lakes, cool mountain streams and meadows

dominating the landscape below peaks that reach over 5180m. Temperature ranges from 3℃

(in December) to 11℃ in June and July.

The term alpine is derived from the Latin name Alpes, primarily used for the snowy

mountain of northern Italy, is presently employed to any snow-covered high mountain in the

world (Ives and Barry, 1974). The alpine regions start beyond the tree line and extend upward

to the permanent snow line (Byers, 2005). In mountains of Northern Pakistan, the alpine zone

usually starts from 3000m and extends up to 4,500m or more in elevation. These ecosystems

are found in Baltistan, Hunza, Nagar, Ghizer, Astore, Naran, Swat, Dir and Chitral. The

alpines exhibit highly windy, cold, snowy features with high intensity of solar radiation, less

productivity (Nautiyal et al., 2004) and short growing seasons coupled with low temperatures

(Billings, 1974; Körner, 2003; Pickering, 1997). Often such ecosystems are rich in endemic

species, which are usually the result of a recent speciation and geographic isolation. Roughly

80% of the plants endemic to Pakistan have their distribution confined to these northern or

north-western mountains (Ali and Qaiser, 1986). The vegetation of this hostile environment

brings about many morpho-physiological and ecological adaptations and is often dwarfed and

stunted, or spiny and patches forming. Common plants of these ecosystems include species of

Aconitum, Potentilla, Sibbaldia, Trollius, Anemone, Primula, Rhodiola, Euphrasia,

Gentianodes, Swertia, Iris, Artemisia, grasses and sedges like Carex, Kobresia, Poa, Festuca,

Elymus, Juncus and Luzula etc.


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At relatively lower heights sub-alpine shrub-lands and cushion heath-lands are found.

This region in addition to the perennial herbaceous flora, also have few shrubby species 1-2m

tall, including Salix, Berberis, Juniperus, Lonicera, Rosa, Rhododendron (Plate 13) etc. In

the moist temperate zones in the Hindukush, and western Himalayas in Chitral, Swat, Dir and

Hazara, the tree-line is formed by silver oak (Quercus semicarpifolia). Usually, the alpine

meadows, dominated by grasses and a variety of herbs, are heavily utilized during two

months as summer pastures by nomads and the pastoral people.

2.2. Location of Hazara Division

Hazara Division is located between the 33º-44' and 35º-35' north latitude and 72º 45' and

73º-75' east longitude. Administratively, the area is divided into seven districts i.e. Abbottabad,

Batagram, Haripur, upper Kohistan, lower Kohistan, Mansehra and newly established Tor Ghar

Districts (Map 2). Hazara therefore covers a huge array of altitude, soil, climate and associated

vegetation along with fauna and flora. From south north it has the plain of Haripur District,

subtropical chir pine zone at the lower reaches of Abbottabad, Mansehra and Batagram, broad

leaves forests of dry oak and moist temperate forests of Galiat, Kaghan and Batagram and alpine

pastures of upper Kaghan, Allai and Kohistan. The area represents the western most limits of

Himalaya, located near the junction of world famous mountain ranges the Himalaya, Hindukush

and Karakoram. (Fuchs, 1970; Tahirkheli, 1979).

2.2.1 Physical features of Hazara Division

(i) Mountains

Mansehra has some of the highest mountain ranges toward the north east in Kaghan

Valley. The spur moving towards the east of Kunhar River from Ghari Habibullah to Gittidas

separates the area from adjoining Kashmir area. Towards the north of Mansehra low lying

Tanawal hills are situated. Allai Tehsil of Batagram has high ranges of mountains separating

it from Kaghan and Kohistan Valleys. The highest peak of Kohistan is Lash Glash (4500m)

followed by mountain ranges along Kohistan (Shams, 1961; Rafiq, 1996a). Special feature of

the area are mountain ranges spreading north-east to south-west creating natural barriers and

microclimates responsible for speciation and endemism. Toward the east at the left bank of

Kunhar River, main chain moves north to south separating Hazara from Kashmir ultimately


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c. Salix denticulata d. Rhododendron arboretum

b. Betula utilis a. Ephedra gerardiana

Plate 13: Indicator plants species of Sub-alpine and Alpine zone of the Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan


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terminating at Khanpur area of Haripur District. The range may attain a height of 4546m with an

average height of 2133 to 3048m at Galiat while declining toward the south reaching at 1712m at

Siribang of Khanpur range. At the southern edge, different ribs arise making a network of valleys

in the lower part of Hazara. Towards extreme north these maintain few glaciers while at the south

height decreases gradually with Thandiayni having 2425m and Nathiagali 2122m.

Toward the left bank of Kunhar, several long spurs extend toward west which makes

the watershed between Siran and Kunhar Rivers, famous one is Musa Ka Mussala (4500m).

Map 2: Describing the geographical location of the study area (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics

Census Data 2017)

Towards the north west of Musa Ka Mussala several large spurs arise spreading

towards Batagram and Kohistan districts. The Indus separates Himalayas from Hindu Kush.

The highest peak of Kohistan is known as Lash Galash (5200m). Toward the right bank of

Indus, there are several valleys making the water shed of Indus. Famous among those are

Dubair, Kandia, Tangir and Darial all joining Swat District of adjoining Malakand Division.


29


Plate 14: Babusar top covered with snow, Upper Kaghan Valle y, Mansehra

District, Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

Plate 15: Snow on the highest peaks in the study area (Basel Upper Kaghan

Valley Mansehra)



Towards the left bank, Palas and Jalkot Valleys are located which open in Kaghan

Valley towards the east (Hussain and Ilahi, 1991). Separating from the above range, another

chain flanks on the extreme northern side on the left bank of Kunhar and forms part of the

boundary between Hazara and Kashmir. It contains the highest peak in the area namely

Malka Parbat which towers above 5152m. Shortly before the junction of Kunhar and Jehlam

it passes completely into Kashmir.

Towards the western side, a chain leads to Agror Valley while another forms the

Black Mountain with a maximum height of 2420m. This arc divides into numerous spurs and

offshoots making the maze of Tanawal hills. Bhingra (2576m) and Billiana (1876m) are high

peaks of this range. Siran River forces through these ranges and joins the Indus. The range

ends at Gandegar Hills of Haripur District lying along the Indus with an elevation of 1200m.

The Tanwal Hills covers the western parts of the area between Indus River and Himalayan

mountains. Several inter mountain basins are present in the Tanawal Hills and Himalayan

mountain belt. There are peaks of relatively plain land encircled by high mountains. Some of

the prominent basins are Pakhli, Mangal, Rash, Haripur and Khanpur. The Pakhli plain is

located over 910m and wider than the Mangal tract which lies to the southern edge of Pakhli.

Mangal and Rash have an elevation of 1212m.

(ii) Hydrology

Hazara is rich with respect to water bodies as two of the big rivers Indus and Jhelum

passing through the area. Other important rivers are Dor, Kunhar, Siran, Mangal, Mushagah,

Sapat Nala and Nandiar Khawar with many streams emerging from lakes or glaciers. The Indus

River flows on the western boundary through Kohistan, Batagram, Tor Ghar and Haripur

Districts. Jehlam River passes on the east for about 40km along the boundary of Abbottabad

District. The Siran River rises in the north of Pakhli plain then dips into Tanawal hills flowing

through the Phulra and emerges in the Haripur area. It then turns North West to join Indus at

Tarbella. Siran River irrigates parts of Mansehra, Abbottabad and Haripur with a course of about 113-119km. Dor has much shorter path and contains less water compared to

Siran. It originates at the northern end of Dunga Gali and flows through the Haripur plain and

ultimately joins Siran near the northeast end of the Gandgar range, slightly before Tarbella

with a total length of about 65km where it irrigates parts of Abbottabad and Haripur. Harno

originates from Galiat joins Khanpur dam irrigating the parts of Haripur. The



Plate 16: Major waterbodies in the study area: Lake Saiful Muluk covered with snow, Upper Kaghan Valley

Plate 17: Major waterbodies in the study area: Lake Saiful Muluk Upper Kaghan

Valley during summer season.


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Kunhar River rises from Lake Lulusar at the end of Kaghan Valley. After a very troublesome

and complicated course of 177km it joins the Jehlam. It traverses deep mountain gorges from

its source Balakot where it enters the plain and flows down to Ghari Habibullah. Numerous

tributaries join these rivers with perennial and semi dry streams abundantly found in the

mountainous tract with stony, gravelly beds. (Hussain, 2004).

Nandiar Khawar rises from the eastern mountain ranges of Batagram District with a

course of 30 km before joining Indus at Thakot. Its water is mainly used for irrigation purpose in

rice paddies. While Mushagah is flowing along 70km long Palas Valley emerging from eastern

mountains of Koshistan and Batagram Districts. The river joins Indus above Pattan.

Lakes are confined to the upper mountainous regions in the Kaghan and Kohistan.

The three famous lakes are Lulusar, Dudipat Sar and Saiful Muluk. Lulusar is an irregular

crescent shaped lake about 2.5km long and 274 meters wide, located west of the Babusar pass

at an elevation of 3384m. Dudipat Sar is circular, about half a kilometer in distance at an

elevation of 3636m. Saiful Muluk Lake is located 10 km east of Naran is about half km long

and 457 m broad at an altitude of 3248 m. Sapatsar Lake is located at high pasture of

Kohistan District called as Sapat.

(iii) Geography and climate

Hazara is bounded on the north and east by the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. To the

south are the Islamabad Capital Territory and the province of Punjab, whilst to the west lies the

rest of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The river Indus runs through the division in a north-south line,

forming much of the western border of the division. The total area of Hazara is 18,013km².

Because it lies immediately south of the main Himalaya Range, and is exposed to

moist winds from the Arabian Sea, Hazara is the wettest part of Pakistan. At Abbottabad,

annual rainfall averages around 1,200 millimeters but has been as high as 1,800 millimeters,

whilst in parts of Mansehra District such as Balakot the mean annual rainfall is as high as

1,750 millimeters. Due to its location on the boundary between the monsoonal summer

rainfall regime of East Asia and the winter-dominant Mediterranean climate of West Asia,

Hazara has an unusual bimodal rainfall regime, with one peak in February or March

associated with frontal southwest cloud bands and another monsoonal peak in July and


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Plate 18: Major water bodies in the study area: Lake Dodipat Sar Upper Kaghan

Plate 19: Major waterbodies in the study area: Sapt Nala in Jalkot, Kohistan District Hazara Division, Northern Pakisatn



August. The driest months are October to December, though in the wettest parts even these

months average around 40 millimeters.

Due to the high altitude, temperatures in Hazara are cooler than on the plains, though

Abbottabad at 1,200m (3,900ft) still has maxima around 32°C (90°F) with high humidity in

June and July. Further up, temperatures are cooler, often cooler than the Northern areas

valleys due to the cloudiness. In winter, temperatures are cold, with minima in January

around 0°C (32°F) and much lower in the high mountains. Snowfalls are not uncommon even

at lower levels. Hazara lies close to the crossroads formed by the river Indus and the Grand

Trunk Road. The Karakoram Highway begins at the town of Havelian and goes north through

the division towards China via the Northern Areas.

(iv) Vegetation Types

Sub montane zone including northern sub humid and sub montane strip extending

attitudinally foothill to a height of 1000m with two sub zones, along with four sub habitats

i.e. Based on climate, physiognomy and altitude, following vegetation zones can be

recognized in study area. (Naqvi, 1976; Hussain and Ilahi, 1991).

Acacia-Zizyphus subzone, dominated by Acacia modesta and Ziziphus mauritiana

extending upto 700m. It is typical of northern part of Indus plains, Potohar plateau, Acacia-

Olea subzone lying above the foot hills with Acacia modesta and Olea ferruginea sub zone

later having dominance at the upper limits of this range and stream bed habitats characterized

by the occurrence of Nerium indicum all along the water courses and degraded habitats

composed of Maytenus royleana, Periploca aphylla and Rhamnus pentapomica resulting due

to degradation of the land. Pinus roxburghii is the dominating characteristic species in the

montane zone extending between 1000-2000 m and may extend on warmer aspect upto

2200m.

Sub alpine Zone extending between 2000-3000m in the outer parts but and ascends

slightly higher in the inner dry valleys. They are predominantly coniferous in nature. The

associations recognized can Pinus-Quercus. Association consisting of Pinus wallichiana,

Quercus incana and Q. dilatata found between 1800-2200m, Pinus-Abies association found

in the middle and sub alpine zone usually above the Pinus-Quercus association upto 2600m

with Pinus wallichiana and Abies pindrow as characteristics species.



Plate 20: Ranunculaceous dominant flora at Payya Kaghan Valley District Mansehra

Plate 21: Pinus wallichiana forest at Upper Siran Valley, District Mansehra



Mixed coniferous-hardwood association representing a mixture of hard wood and

conifer species within the same zone, especially confined to the gentle slopes and more or

less plain areas, Pinus-Abies-Picea association occurring in the upper portion of the sub

alpine regions in the outer parts.

Sub-alpine zone up to the timber line which lies between 3200-4000m with Betula

and Salix as indicator species and alpine zone around 4000m with two broad habitats alpine

scrub composed entirely of deciduous shrubs reaching 2-meter height with some evergreen

Juniper, Rhododendron and Ephedra and alpine meadow and pastures with grasses and forbs

and they may be natural or a result of overgrazing. All the plants are herbaceous.

(v) Population

Majority of the population is rural. Mansehra has the largest, population, followed by

Abbottabad and Haripur Districts. Kohistan and Batagram with smaller population sizes (Table

2). The rural population is mostly dependent on natural resources especially forest products

including timber wood, fuel wood, food, fodder and medicinal plant species (Khan, 2012).

Table 2: Population, annual growth rate and ratio

District Area (Km2)

Population Annual Urban Rural (persons) Growth rate

Abbottabad 1967 1,332,912 2.20 293,137 1,039,77

Batagram 1301 476,612 2.33 0 476,612

Haripur 1725 1,003,031 1.97 126,577 876,454

Kohistan 7492 784,711 2.70 0 784,711

Mansehra 4579 1,556,460 2.47 144,855 1,411,605

Tor Ghar 454 171,395 -0.10 0 171,395 Source: Federal Bauru of Statistics, Govt of Pakistan, 2017

(vi) Flora and Fauna

The area has been recognized as among the richest area with respect to biodiversity. Ali

and Qaiser (1986) recognize the area and adjacent Kashmir Valley as center of radiation. Stewart,

(1982) described that more than 2000 vascular plant species are native to the area with at least

eighty species endemic to North West Himalayas. He also reported some 200 species


37


Plate 22: Rich floristic diversity of medicinal plants in study area dominated

by Impatiens spp

Plate 23: Rich floristic diversity of medicinal plants in study area dominated

by Leucanthemum vulgare Lam



Plate 24: Animals are grazing at Subalpine pasture of Kaghan Valley, Northern Pakistan

Plate 25: Animals are grazing at Alpine pasture of Kohistan Valley, Hazara



39


of Pteridophytes and mentioned that a large number of Fungi, Algae and Lichen species

were expected from the area (Stewart, 1982).

The area has also seen importance due to its faunal diversity. Lion, wild cats, marmot,

black and brown bear and markhor species are among important mammals. A large number

of resident and migratory birds including Western Tragopon represent the bird diversity

(Roberts and Bernhard, 1977; Saqib et al., 2013).

(vii) Protected areas

Three National parks, 8 wildlife sanctuaries and 10 game reserves are distributed in

the study area. In each district wildlife department is responsible for management of

protected areas. However only Ayubia National Park can be considered as well managed up

to some extent. The other two national parks are poor representative of a protected area. All

the protected areas are aiming at the conservation of large mammals and birds and there is no

area specified for protection of a plant species. (GOP, 2015).

Extensive studies were carried out from 2012 to 2016. The area was frequently visited

for collection of data pertaining to vascular plants diversity, ethnobotany of medicinal flora

of sub alpine and alpine areas of Hazara Division Northern Pakistan. The data for the

research project was obtained in two phases. Phase-1 includes field work to collect the

requisite information and in phase-2, analysis and documentation of the obtained data from

the research area was completed.

2.3. Taxonomic identification and authentication of Data

This field work was undertaken on total of 200 communities of Alpines and Sub-

alpines regions of Hazara, Western Himalaya, Pakistan during 2012–2016 in all the four

seasons by following the methods of Heinrich et al., (2009). Equipment used for field

collection were pruning knife, digger, field note books, polythene bags, plant presser and

folders, GPS, etc. Plants specimens were collected either in flowering or fruiting stage in

triplicate. The collected plant specimens were dried and preserved processed using standard

Herbarium techniques recommended by Jain and Rao (1977). Voucher specimen numbers were assigned,

identified subsequently with the help of taxonomic key and verified using Catalog of vascular

plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir (Stewart 1972), Flora of Pakistan (Ali and Nasir 1970–



Plate 26: The author is collecting medicinal plants in various localities of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan (a) Miranjani top, (b) Galliyar, (c) Kaghan Valley, (d) Machisyer, (e) Moro, (f) Chailsar


41


Plate 27: (a), (b), (c) Collection and identification of medicinal plants during field

visits with the help of taxonomists, (d) Poisoning of Plants, (e) Pressing of Plants

(f) Mounting of Plant on herbarium sheet



2015), International Plant Names Index (IPNI), Flora of China, Google scholar Scopus, Flora

Iranica and Web of Science. The future references specimens were deposited in Herbarium of

Pakistan (ISL), Department of Plant sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.

2.4. Field survey and Ethno-medicinal data documentation

Ethno-medicinal data specifically for the treatment of various diseases was collected

from different localities of Sub-alpine and Alpine and regions of Hazara Division, Northern

Pakistan (Table 3). This survey was carried out from March 2012 to March 2016.

Table 3: Ethno-botanical data documented from following localities of Sub-alpine and

Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan.

S.nob District Localities

1. Abbottabad Gallies, Thandiani, Mallach , Bagnotar, Thandiani, Mukshpuri, Mirajani upto Murree,

Samandur Khata, Lalazar, Nathiagali, Baragali,

and Manoor

2. Mansehra Oghi, Battal, Kaghan Valley and Siran Valley

3. Battagram Chailsar, Ramosysar, Balega, Ganja top, Alishera,

Malkaisar

4. Torghar Machisyer

5. Kohistan Palas Valley, Ganga, Moro.

Ethno-botanical data were collected through free listing open ended and semi-

structured interviews (Alexiades,1996; Bruni et al.,1997; Martins, 1995). The questionnaires

were developed using methods of Edwards et al., (2005) and used to compile indigenous

knowledge from informants compris in local name, source, part(s) used, mode of traditional

preparation, mode of administration, therapeutic uses, and voucher specimen number,

ethnographical information of the informants such as age, class, gender, educational

background and experience also with respect to the use of plants as a source of traditional

remedies for various ailments were recorded in group discussion and personal field observation from the inhabitants of the study area (Martin, 1995a, 1995b; Cotton, 1996). Besides

above, scientific names, family names, habit, habitat, nature and relative abundance were also

documented. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) approach was used for data collection by

interviewing the people having sufficient indigenous knowledge, specifically poisonous and



Plate 28: The author is documenting ethnomedicinal data by group conservation and

interviews from various localities of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,

Northern Pakistan. (a) Manoor Valley, (b) Miranjani, (c) Ganga, (d) Kaghan Valley, (e) Mukshpuri, (f) Siran Valley


44


endemic medicinal plants by local communities and herbal specialists of research area. Each

time plant with one or more than single use record’ was mentioned and then classified by use

categories (Almiguet et al., 2005; Cook, 1995).

2.5. Demographic information of informents

Demographic characteristics of the informants (Table 4) were determined and

documented through face-to face conversations. Male informants were interviewed in the

field; Hujras (male meeting places) while women informants were interviewed at their

houses. Few herbalists (local healers) were also interviewed to assert the current status of folk

knowledge in the study area.

Table 4: Number of informants from different sites of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan.

S.no Study area sites Number of informants

1. Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of 290 (278 Male, 12 Female) Northern Pakistan

2. Gallies Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan 173 (61.85% Male, 38.15%

Female)

3. Kaghan Valley Western Himalayas 243 (137 Male, 87 Female and 19

Northern Pakistan herbalist )

4. Sub-alpine and Alpine regions and 197 (129 Male, 68 Female)

Hazara division, Northern Pakistan

5. Palas Valley Kohisatn, Northern 243 (152 male, 91 females)

Pakistan

2.6. Diseases categories

All the human diseases were grouped into various categories. These diseases were

categorized as described by the informants according to the symptoms they cause, the organs

they affect and for some of them they have a local name which were an exact alternative of

its English/medical name which were later reconfirmed from the regional doctors having

familiarity which such local medical terms.

2.7. Quantitative analysis of ethno-medicinal data

The reliability of collected ethno-medicinal data was evaluated and analyzed with

quantitative indices and summarized by Microsoft Excel.


45

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2.7.1. Family importance value (FIV) and Relative frequency citation (RFC)

Family importance value (FIV) and relative frequency citation (RFC) were designed

to evaluate consensus between informants on cited families and medicinal plant species were

calculated by using the following formula.

RFC = FC/N (0 < RFC < 1)

This index was obtained by dividing the number of informants mentioning medicinal

species (or family) FC or frequency of citation by the total number of informants in the survey (N). The value of RFC varies from 0 (when no person refers to a plant as a useful one) to 1

(when all the informants mention it as useful) and relies on the citing proportion of

informants for that specific species without considering the use categories (Ugulu et al.,

2009; Kayani et al., 2015; Tardio and Pardo-de-Santayana, 2008).

2.7.2 Use value (UV) and use report (UR)

The use value (UV) demonstrates the relative importance of plants known locally and

calculated using the formula (Trotter and Logan, 1986; Yaseen et al., 2014).

UV = ΣUi / N

Where UV is the use value of species, ‘Ui’ is the number of use reports by each

informer for specific plant species i, ‘N’ is the total number of informer interviewed for

specific plant species, while use report (UR) is the use recorded for every species.

2.7.3 Fidelity level (FL)

To determine the most preferred species used for the same major purpose fidelity

level (FL) index is used as described by (Alexiades, 1996) and was calculated to the

following formula:

FL = Np/ Nu ×100

‘Np’ is the number of informants who independently suggested the use of a plant

species for a particular disease and ‘Nu’ is the total number of informants who citing the

same species for any disease (Musa et al., 2011).


46


2.7.4 Informant consensus factor (ICF)

Informant consensus factor (ICF) was designed for aliments to identify the

agreements of the informants about the reported remedies for the use of plants to treat the

diseases of different systems and was calculated (Heinrich et al., 1998; Tabuti et al., 2003;

Teklehaymanot, 2009; Khan et al., 2015) using the following formula:

ICF= (Nur-Nt) / (Nur -1)

Where “Nur” number of use reports for the use category and “Nt” is the number of

taxa used for a particular category.

2.7.5 Relative importance (RI)

Relative importance (RI) describes the versatility of each species and was calculated

by using the following formula:

RI = (Rel PH + Rel BS) × 100/2

Rel PH is the relative number of pharmacological properties and divided by the

species with the maximum pharmacological properties. Rel BS is the relative number of body

systems treated and was calculated by dividing the number of body systems treated with

given plant by the maximum BS of all reported species (Bennett and Prance, 2000;

Albuquerque et al., 2006; Khan et al., 2015).

2.7.6 Jaccard index (JI)

Jaccard index (JI) is calculated by comparison of previously published studies from

aligned, regional and at global countries by analyzing the percentages of quoted species and

their medicinal uses by using the following formula:

JI= c×100/a+b-c

where “a” is the number of species of the area A, “b” is the number of species of the area B,

and “c” is the number of species common to A and B (Gonza et al., 2008).

2.7.7 Consensus index (CI)

Consensus index (CI) is the percentage of informant eloquent knowledge about the

use of medicinal plants for different diseases and calculated as:

CI = n/N × 100


47


Where ‘n’ is the number of informant citing medicinal species, while ‘N’ refers to

total number of informants (Khan et al., 2015).

2.7.8 Cultural significance index (CSI)

The cultural significance index (CSI), an anthropological approach presented by

Turner (1988) and modified by Stoffle et al., (1990) and Silva et al., (2006). Designed to

combine elements from former indices with consensus methodology and binary use classes to

reduce subjectivity and followed by following formula. CSI= ∑ = ( ∗ ∗ ) ∗

i = Species managed, e = Use Preference, c = Use frequency, CF = Correction factor

[number of citations for a given species divided by the number of citations for the most –

mentioned species.

2.8. Preparation of crude extract

Different part of the medicinal plant root, stem, leaf and flower were collected based on the information received from herbalists and dried in shade (Table part used). The part taken was subsequently ground to fine powder with the help of grinder. 200 of ground of each sample was soaked in commercial/analytical HPLC grade aqueous methanol (3x 1L) for 48hrs at 34℃/room temperature under continuous shaking for 24h, for maximum extraction.

After 48 hrs samples soaked in methanol were filtered through double layer Whatman

filter paper (No. 3 and No. 1 with nylon cloths with fine pores for the removal of the debris

and isolation of extract. This filtration was further repeated by using single sheet of Whatman

No. 1 filter paper to obtain the best particles of the extract. The filtrate obtained from each

sample was further processed using to vacuum evaporator for further concentration of the

filtrate at 30 to 35°C-40℃ using a Buichi rotary evaporator to remove the solvent the extract

was concentrated and transferred to glass vials with a screw cap then labeled accordingly and

stored in a refrigerator till further use. The samples were stored at low temperature because

storage at high temperature may cause decomposition of phytochemicals and decline in

biological activity (Perez-Jimenez et al., 2008).


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Plate 29: Preparation of medicinal plant powder from different parts of medicinal plants. (a)) Drying of Whole plant, (b) Drying of flowers, leaves (c) Drying of root, (d) drying of fruits, (e) Grinding of medicinal plant parts, (f) Medicinal plants powder


49


Plate 30: Extraction procedure of crude extract (a) Filtration, (b), (c) and (d) Evaporation

of solvent using Rotary evaporator (e) Extract, (f) Further drying of extract by vacuum desiccator


50


2.9. Antimicrobial activities

Pathogenic bacteria increasing resistance to existing antibiotics. Therefore, there is

persistent need to develop new antimicrobial drugs. Plants contain potential antimicrobial

components that may be useful for development of better and safer drugs, for this purpose

some plants (25) with possible antimicrobial activity were tested against some microbes to

conform the activity.

2.9.1 Antibacterial Assays

Antimicrobial activities including antibacterial assay were determined as minimum

inhibitory concentration values using the serial dilution method for screening of extract.

2.9.2 Bacterial isolates

Clinical isolates of bacterial species used for evaluation of antibacterial activity of

crude plant extract were Gram positive cocci: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

(MRSA), Methicillin- sensitive S. aureus (MSSA), Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus

faecium (VRE), and Vancomycin-sensitive E. faecium (VRE), Bacillus subtilis.

Gramnegative rods: Ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli (Amp R), Ampicillin-sensitive

Escherichia coli (Amp S), were obtained from Prof W. Thomas Shier Laboratory Department

of Medicinal chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minnesota, USA.

Other required materials were Nutrient Agar, Muller-Hinton broth, Dimethyl sulphoxide

(DMSO), Sterile metallic borer (loop), Petri dishes, 96-well plate, Multi-channel Micropipette

(4-200µl), Incubator, Standard Antibiotic (Streptomycin) and Test sample (Crude extract).

2.9.3 Preparation of Nutrient agar medium and bacterial culture

For the preparation of nutrient agar, 28g of nutrients were dissolved in distilled water, bring to boil to dissolve completely, sterilized by autoclaved at 121°C for 15min. The agar media was added in glass petri plates 6 and 12 inches, approximately 15ml and 25 ml respectively, cooled to 45-50℃ and than poured into pre sterilized 6inches petri plates respectively. The agar media formed a firm gel which on cooling gave a layer of 2-3mm


51


thickness in each plate. Bacterial cultures are carried by sub-culturing on nutrient agar plates.

The day before assay to be done a flask culture of 20ml Mueller-Hinton broth was inoculated

with a loop of bacteria a plate. Incubate overnight at 37℃ (Abbas et al., 1995).

2.9.4 Sample Preparation

Dissolve dried plant extract in DMSO at 40mg/ml. Dilute 20µl of DMSO solution into

2ml of Muller-Hinton broth to give sample stock (400µg/ml in 1% DMSO v/v), prepare

dilutions

in triplicate in columns 1-3 of a 96 well tray as shown in the table 5 below. DMSO and standard

antibacterial drug serving as positive and negative control (Abbas et al., 1995).

Table 5: Sample Dilution for antibacterial activity

Well

Final Conc. Mueller Hinton Broth Diluted Sample Stock

(µg/ml) (µl)

A 400 ...... 200 µl of 400 µg/ml

B 200 100 100 µl of 400 µg/ml

C 100 150 50 µl of 400 µg/ml

D 40 180 20 µl of 400 µg/ml

E 20 190 10 µl of 400 µg/ml

F 10 195 5 µl of 400 µg/ml

G 4 198 2 µl of 400 µg/ml

H 0 200 ........

2.9.5 Inoculation: Inoculate each well by adding 20µl of an actively growing culture of one bacterium to each well. Incubate overnight at 37℃.

2.9.6 Reading Result: Bacterial growth is quantified by reading turbidity at OD562 in a micro-plate reader.

The IC50 values (Concentration giving a 50% inhibition of bacterial growth) are calculated by

interpolating from plots of turbidity versus log concentration or curve fitting. Any sample found to be active at less than 4µg/ml will be re-assayed a lower concentration range.

2.10. Cytotoxic assay (Mammalian Cell lines)

The cytotoxicity of selected crude extracts (25 in number) was determined in a series

of mammalian cell lines in a 96-well plate to characterize any activity that may be present.



2.10.1 Cell lines (MCF-7, MDCK, NIH3T3, HEK-293)

Cultures were thawed for MCF-7(Breast Cancer), MDCK (Madin-Darby canine

kidney Epithelial cells), NIH3T3 (Swiss mouse embryo fibroblast), HEK-293 (Human

embryonic kidney cells 293) cell lines and passaged them in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s

medium (DMEM) in 10% (v/v) calf serum and incubated at 37℃ with CO2. These cells were

cultured and cytotoxicity assay were conducted as described by (Abbas et al., 1995).

2.10.2 Sub-culturing of Cells

After the viability and general health of the culture was established the cells were sub

cultured. HEK-293 cell line was weekly attached cells and removed from the substratum

simply by flushing with medium. NIH3T3 was more firmly attached but these were removed

with trypsin treatment. Firstly, serum containing medium draw off the cell and replace it by

sterile trypsin in medium. The length of trypsinization period varies with the cell lines.

When the cells begin to detach, gently draw off the trypsin solution and replace it with

medium plus serum. MDCK and MCF-7 was not removed from the substratum by sample

trypsinization, but require treatment with EDTA or both EDTA and trypsin. The medium was

removed and the cell layer were tripsinised with 1ml of sterile 0.25 % trypsin-EDTA solution

to remove all traces of medium and leave for 3-5minutes (depending upon cell lines) to

ensure complete detachment of cells. After removing trypsin solution, the petri dish with cells

was supplemented with media with serum. Cell suspension in DMEM plus 10% calf serum

was transferred into new labeled petri dish by vigorous pipetting and incubated at 37℃ with

CO2. The culture was incubated the required length of time. The medium was changed when

necessary usually 2-3 days (Shah et al., 2014).

2.10.3 Preparation of stock solutions of extracts

For each cell line, 5mg of each sample was weighed into a labeled sterile tube and

dissolved in 62.5µl of 100% (v/v) ethanol then 62.5µl of water was added (concentration = 40

mg/ml). Dilute the stock into sterile DMEM in a sterile vial by diluting 20 of stock into 2ml

DMEM (concentration = 400µg/ml in DMEM with 0.5% v/v ethanol).


53


Plate 31: (a), (b) and (c) DME’Medium preparation and sterility test, (d) Bacterial

activity, (e) Filter sterilization of medium and serum, (f) Cultures thawed in fume hood


54


2.10.4 Sample dilution

The following dilutions were prepared in triplicate in the wells of a 96-well tray in

sterile DMEM. The table 6 represents columns 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 for four extracts per

tray. The tray was checked to make sure that there is the same amount of medium (color) in

each well.

Table 6: Sample dilution for anti-cancer activity

Row

Final Conc. Medium Sample

(µg/ml) (µl)

A 200 ….. 100 µl of 400ug/ml sub stock

B 100 50 50 µl of 400ug/ml sub stock

C 50 75 25 µl of 400ug/ml sub stock

D 20 90 10 µl of 400ug/ml sub stock

E 10 171 9 µl of 400ug/ml sub stock

F 5 50 50 µl of E

G 2 80 20 µl of E

H 1 90 10 µl of E

2.10.5 Inoculum

Cell lines cells (Trypsin in 10% (v/v) calf serum in DMEM for NIH3T3, MCF-7 and

MDCK,

Trypsin in EDTA in Puck’s saline, HEK-293 attached weakly no need Trypsin or EDTA) were

suspended with trypsin or EDTA in 10%(v/v) calf serum in DMEM by washing the cultures

with

sterile medium, covering with sterile EDTA in Puck’s saline or trypsin, drawing off the

releasing solution, suspending the cells in 10% (v/v) calf serum in DMEM by vigorous pipetting

and

count cells on a hemocytometer. Place the heavy glass slide over the scaled area on the

hemocytometer. Then added a drop off cell suspension so it flows under the glass cover by

capillary action, and count the number of cells under the microscope. The central,

completely cross-hatched area contains 10-4

ml. Therefore, if 52 cells were counted, the

concentration of the cell suspension was 52×104 cells/m. Inoculums were diluted as needed

and added 100 µl of 2×104 cells/ml, to each well and cultures until control wells are confluent

(Abbas et al., 1995).


55


2.10.6 Fixing and Staining

Wells were filled with formal saline (3.7% (v/v) formaldehyde in saline or 10%

vol/vol formalin) added gently by allowing it to flow into the wells and fixed for 30minutes

then washed the trays under tap water. Stained with 0.5% (v/v) crystal violet in 20% (v/v)

aqueous methanol and after 2-5 minutes, washed again under tap water to remove unbound

stain. After drying, 100µl of DMSO was added to each well, rocked to mix and measured the

OD at 562 nm in a 96-well plate reader using a microplate photometer (SPECTRA max

PLUS Instrument).

The IC50 (median inhibition concentration) was determined by nonlinear regression

analysis of the corresponding dose response curve utilizing the analytical software package.

IC50 (50% inhibition of cell growth) was calculated by using Probit analysis software (R-

statistical software).


56


Annexure

Questionnaire for Collecting Ethnobotanical Data

Informant’s Consent for Participation in the Study I……………………………………….. (Name of informant)

Date 11-05-2015 (Signature/Thumb impression of Informant)

Informant’s Details

Name ………………………………………..

Gender ………………………………………..

Age ………………………………………..

Occupation ………………………………………..

Education ………………………………………..

Location/Residence ………………………………………..

Locality R / U ………………………………………..

Description of Locality/GPS ………………………………………..

Information about Plant and its Uses

Plant (Local name) ………………………………………..

Habit (Tree/ Herb/ Shrub/Climber) ………………………………………..

Plant part used ………………………………………..

Plant Value (Medicinal/Food/Fuel wood)/Miscellaneous ………………………………………..

Name of disease(s) treated ………………………………………..

Specific Disease ………………………………………..

Substitution Plant ………………………………………..

Method of crude drug preparation: ………………………………………..

Mode of administration ………………………………………..

Dosage ………………………………………..

Plant Management: ………………………………………..

Plant Preference ……………………………………………………… Plant Use Frequency …………………………………………………

Market of Plant ………………………………………………………

Plant identified as (Botanical Name and Family) ………………………………………..

Signature of Researcher


57

CHAPTER: 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results and Discussion Chapter 3

3. Brief Summary of Project

In the current research project, Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division,

Northern Pakistan were explored first time ethno-medicinally. Previously, fragmented work

was conducted but present research work is comprehensive one and comprised on

ethnomedicinal study of about 424 species belonging to 254 genera and 93 families.

Ethnomedicinal data of various medicinal plants were documented in the present

research project. Research study was carried out in the selected districts i.e. Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Kohistan, Tor Ghar and Battagram). Northern Pakistan has bestowed with rich

floral diversity, medicinal and endemic flowering plants of the country are mostly restricted

to these areas. Present floristic study contributes to the documentation of indigenous

knowledge of local inhabitants about the medicinal uses of local flora. The locals have novel

traditional knowledge about the medicinal uses of plants and they actively use plants in their

daily health care. Our findings revealed that due to limited modern health facilities the local

people of this region rely on herbal drugs. Furthermore, literacy rate of these areas is

comparatively low due to lack of communication and shyness women mainly prefer herbal

drugs. Children are mostly affected by different infectious diseases. Major cause of diseases

is dirty, unhealthy and unhygienic environment which is favorable place for parasites

(mosquitoes and worm) and also infectious agents (virus, bacteria and fungi).

Keeping in view the use of medicinal plants by local inhabitants for different diseases

the results are compiled and presented separately on the following sections.

1. Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Alpine and Sub-

alpine regions of Pakistan.

2. Quantitative Ethno-botanical analysis of traditionally used endemic medicinal

plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan.

3. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among the

inhabitants of Gallies, Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan

4. Ethnomedicinal appraisal of the medicinal flora among indigenous communities

of Palas Valley Kohistan, Northern Pakistan

5. Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of medicinal plants in Sub-alpine and

Alpine indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

6. Ethnotoxic Profile of Poisonous plants of Kaghan Valley, Northern Pakistan

7. Bacterial activity on selected medicinal plants

8. Cytotoxic assays on human cell lines


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The current study recommends future studies on plant origin medicines for

identification of bioactive compounds through pharmacological and phytochemical studies.

The data documented in this research will provide a baseline information for such studies. It

is expected that findins will provoke interest in advance field of research for medicinal plants.

Furthermore, herbal drugs development will be enhanced which result in drugs that would be

cheap and with fewer side effects. Our finding is to enlist the traditional indigenous

knowledge of medicinal flora of Northern Pakistan.

SECTION 1

“Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities

of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Pakistan”


3.1 Ethnobotany of medicinal plants among the communities of Sub-alpine and Alpine

regions of Northern Pakistan

Quantitative ethno-pharmacological study was conducted in Sub-alpine and Alpine

regions of Hazara, Northern Pakistan to access ethno-medicinal approach of the inhabitants of

the area.

3.1.1 Demographic characteristics of study participants

Demographic characteristics of the respondent’s (Table 7) were determined and

recorded during face-to-face meetings and discussions. Total of (290) informants (12 female

and 278 male individuals) were interviewed. Of these, 14 respondents (Aged between 58 and

75 years) were traditional plant practitioners (THPs). They have traditional information on

the medicinal use of the plants and whose practice of healing methodologies are respected

and trustworthy in the local races and play manifold roles as spiritual escorts, counselors and

healers. Although the facts and figures about the use of plants were noted using repeated field

visits, THPs considered their herbal knowledge to be traditional confidences and believe that

the medicines would lose their potency if revealed. The majority of informants were male

(96%) as in tribal areas of Pakistan there is restricted on movement of women outside of their

homes. Females are not allowed to go to marketplaces, cities or any other ceremonial places.

In age wise, it was evaluated that older people have more skills and awareness regarding

ethno-medicines. Besides, this experience and knowhow also declines with upsurge in

education. People having higher education, are not attentive in folk use of plants. Nearly 90%

of informants stated that vertical transfer of medicinal plant knowledge is not taking place

efficiently due to lack of interest in younger generation to learn and practice it mainly due to

acculturation.


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It was also noted and observed that some informants have ceased to practice

traditional medicine due to accumulative convenience of allopathic medicines. Large number

of informants reported that most illnesses are cured at a domestic level. On average,

significantly higher number of medicinal plants was claimed by illiterate village people (96

men) but people, when found necessary, could consult other knowledgeable people in their

respective local community with little or no charge. Some of the interviewees responded that

they kept their medicinal plant knowledge secret because transfer of knowledge to people

outside the family circle took place in a substantial payment. Most informants reported that

knowledge was formally transferred along the family line and mainly through sons. Remedy

preparations often involved some sort of spiritual or ritual procedures.

Table 7: Demographic data of study participants of Sub-alpine and Alpines of Pakistan

S.No Variable Categories No. of Persons Percentage

1. Informant category Traditional health practitioners 14 4.82 Indigenous people 276 95.17

2. Gender Female 12 4.13 Male 278 95.86

3. Age Less than 20 years 19 6.55 20–30 years 17 5.86 30–40 years 72 24.86

40–50 years 76 26.20

50–60 years 84 28.96

More than 60 years 62 21.37

4. Educational background Illiterate 96 33.10 Completed five years education 86 29.65 Completed eight years education 53 18.27

Completed 10 years education 27 33.10

Completed 12 years education 13 4.48

Some under r grade degree (16 years 11 3.79

education)

Graduate (higher education) 4 1.37

5. Experience of the traditional Less than 2 years 1 7.14

health practitioners 2–5 years 6 42.85 5–10 years 3 21.42 10–20 years 2 14.28

More than 20 years 2 14.28

3.1.2 Medicinal Plant Biodiversity

The results of the field examinations and the plants used for medicinal purposes in the

region are presented in Table 8, arranged in alphabetical order of their botanical names, with the

family and relevant information. It is found that 125 species (belonging to 41 plant families) are

employed in the traditional medicine of the area. These include 7 gymnosperms and 118

angiosperms (116 dicotyledonous and 2 monocotyledons). As the most common medicinal


60


plant families such as Ranunculaceae (20 species), Rosaceae (14 Species), Papilionaceae (09

species) and Asteraceae (8 species) were represented by the highest numbers of species.

These same three “top” families were found to be also predominant among the wild medicinal

taxa used in the folk medicine of the elsewhere in the world (Mustafa et al., 2011; Pieroni et

al., 2005; Pieroni2008; Pieroni 2010; Menković et al., 2011).


61

Table 8: Ethno-medicinal uses of plants in Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan

S. Taxonomic Name Local Life Part Mode of Diseases Treated***

FL* UR* U.V FC RFC Previous uses **

No Voucher specimen no Name For Used Utilizatio * * *

m n

1. Achellia millefolium L. Brinjasif Herb Leaves Decoction Gastrointestinal disorders1, 100 5 0.14 35 0.12 1▲, 2▲, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆,

KV 91 Gandana , Powder Stomachache, Headache, Wounds, 7∆, 8∆, 9▲, 10●, 11▲,

Asteraceae Fever 12▲, 13●, 14▲, 15∆, 16▲,

17▲, 18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21●,

22∆,

2. Aconitum chasmanthum Mohri Herb Rhizom Powder Body tonic ---- 3 0.13 22 0.07 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Stapf ex Holmes e 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 95 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Ranunculaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

3. Aconitum Patris Herb Roots, Powder Fever, Joints pain, Diarrhea, 76 6 0.15 38 0.13 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6▲,

heterophyllum Wall.ex Leaves Cough, Stomachache, Snake bite 7▲, 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

Royle KV 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

92 18∆, 19∆, 20▲, 21▲, 22∆,

Ranunculaceae

4. Aconitum rotundifolium Zahr Herb Whole Juice, Joints pain, Liver disorder, 80 4 0.16 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Kar. & Kir Booti plant Powder Jaundice, Headache 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 94 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,


5. Aconitum violaceum Booma, Herb Roots Decoction Snake bite and Scorpion sting, 86.3 6 0.24 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Jacq.ex Stapf Mohri , Powder Infections, Cough, Cold, Fever 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 93 14∆, 15●, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Ranunculaceae 19▲, 20∆, 21▲, 22∆

6. Actea spicata L Hadai Herb Roots, Powder, Snakebites, 60.6 6 0.18 33 0.11 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 96 Berries Extract Nervous disorders, Goiter, 0 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,13∆,

Ranunculaceae Asthma, Joints pain, Fever 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

7. Adonis aestivalis L. Banragha Herb Flowers Decoction Cardiac tonic, Urinary problems, 72 4 0.16 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 97 i , Leaves Stop bleeding 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18▲,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

8. Anaphalis Chitti Herb Whole Poultice, Diarrhea, Pulmonary infections, 88.2 6 0.35 17 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7●,

margaritacea (L.) Booti plant Infusion Burns, Sores, Ulcers, Headaches 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Benth. & Hook.f., 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

GS 51 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Asteraceae

9. Androsace rotundifolia Phulri Herb Leaves Extract Stomach disorders, Skin diseases, 97.1 3 0.08 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Hardwicke Menstrual problems 4 8∆, 9∆, 10∆,11∆, 12∆,

GS 52 13∆,14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

Primulaceae 18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

10. Androsace Marcholl Herb Whole Decoction Venereal diseases ----- 2 0.12 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

semipervivoides a plant 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Jacqq.ex Duby 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

GS 53 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Primulaceae

11. Anemone obtusiloba Hadai Herb Roots Juice Induce vomiting, Eye diseases, 67.8 3 0.10 28 0.09 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆,7●,

D.Don KV 98 Skin spots 5 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

12. Anemone rupicola Herb Seeds, Juice, Earache, Liver disorder, Fever 80 3 0.12 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5●, 6∆, 7∆,

Camb. KV 99 Leaves Powder, 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

13. Anemone tetrasepala Herb Seeds Powder Induce vomiting, Constipation 86.6 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Royle KV 100 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22●

14. Aquilega pubiflora Domba Herb Dried Powder Eye diseases, Toothache 82.6 2 0.08 23 0.07 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall.ex Royle Roots 0 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12▲, 13∆,

KV 101 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,


15. Aquilegia fragrans Ghamuk Herb Whole Paste, Pneumonia, Headache, Jaundice 90 3 0.15 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6▲, 7∆,

Benth. KV 102 Phoonar plant Decoction 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

16. Aquilegia nivalis Falc. Herb Flowers Extract Tonic, Fever, Chest diseases 82.6 3 0.13 23 0.07 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

ex Baker , 0 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 103 Rhizom 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Ranunculaceae e 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

17. Arisaema jacquemontii Sapmaka Herb Fruits, Paste, Muscular strength, Skin problems, 80 3 0.08 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5●, 6∆, 7●,

Blume i Rhizom Powder Body pain 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 54 e 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Araceae 19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22∆

18. Astragalus Kainthi Shru Young Decoction Throat diseases, --- 3 0.13 33 0.11 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

grahamianus Royle ex b twigs, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Benth. KV Leaves 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

104 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Papilionaceae

19. Berberis Sumbal Shru Leaves, Powder, Indigestion, Typhoid, Muscular 76.6 5 0.16 30 0.10 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

pseudumbellata Parker. b Fruits, Extract pains, Jaundice, Urinary problems 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 105 Roots 14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Berberidaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21●, 22∆

20. Berberis vulgaris L. Shuturu Shru Fruits Juice Gastrointestinal Pain, Sore throat 73.6 2 0.05 38 0.13 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6●, 7∆,

KV 106 m b 8 8∆, 9●, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Berberidaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

21. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) But Herb Rhizom Juice, Fever, Diarrhea, Cough, Cold, 100 9 0.3 30 0.10 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲,

Sternb Pehwa e, Bark Powder Asthma, Wound, Dysentery, 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 55 Urinary troubles, Earaches 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Saxifragaceae 19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22▲

22. Bergenia stracheyi Khichlay Herb Leaves, Infusion, Urinary problems, Tonic, Kidney 71.4 6 0.21 28 0.09 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆,

(Hook.f.&Thoms) Zakhm e Roots Powder, stones, Wounds, Cardiac tonic, 2 7∆, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12▲,

KV 107 Hayat Paste Stomachache 13∆, 14∆, 15∆,16∆, 17∆,

Saxifragaceae 18∆,19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

23. Bistort aamplexicaulis Masloon Herb Rhizom Decoction Urinary problems, Expel mucus 70.5 3 0.08 34 0.11 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲,

(D. Don) Green d e, from chest, Stomach disorders 8 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 56 Leaves 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Polygonaceae 19●, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

24. Bupleurum longicaule Gillo Herb Whole Powder Liver troubles, Abdominal 68.9 4 0.13 29 0.1 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall. ex DC. plant inflammation, Fever, Malaria 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 57/ 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Apiaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22●,

25. Caltha alba Camb. Pilling Herb Roots, Paste, Muscular pain, Skin problem, 82.3 4 0.23 17 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 108 Leaves Extract Fever, Toothache 5 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

26. Ceratium pulsillum Ser. Herb Whole Decoction Cough --- 3 0.13 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

GS 58 plant 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Caryophyllaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

27. Chenopodium album L. Bathwa Herb Leaves Infusion, Swollen feet, Digestive problem, 80 4 0.16 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4▲, 5▲, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 75 Poultice, Sunstroke, Joints pain 8▲, 9●, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Chenopodiaceae Decoction 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17●, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22●

28. Chenopodium botrys L. Khama Herb Whole Infusion Headache, Stomach troubles, 79 4 0.16 24 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 76 plant Diuretic, Liver complaints 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Chenopodiaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆

29. Corydalis govaniana Cheri Herb Roots, Leaves Eyes irritation, Mythological 88.2 2 0.05 34 0.11 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4●, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wallich SV 77 pawa Leaves Juice 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Fumeraceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

30. Corydalis stewartii Mamera Herb Leaves, Extract Eye diseases --- 3 0.13 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Fedde SV 78 Floral 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11 ∆, 12▲,

Fumeraceae shoots 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

31. Cotoneaster Luni Shru Stolen Juice, Stop bleeding --- 3 0.13 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

acuminatus Lindley b Extract 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 109 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rosaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

32. Cotoneaster Luni or Shru Whole Extract Lungs disorder, Stomachic 82.6 2 0.08 23 0.07 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7●,

microphylla Wall. ex Kharawa b plant 0 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Lindley 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

KV 110 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Rosaceae

33. Cynoglossum Lainda Herb Whole Juice Eye diseases --- 0.2 0.05 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7●,

lanceolatum Forssk. plant 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 79 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Boraginaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

34. Delphinium Herb Seeds Powder Induces vomiting , Urinary 78.9 3 0.11 27 0.09 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

nordhagenii Wendelbo problems, Kills intestinal worms 4 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 112 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,


35. Delphinium vestitum Mohri Herb Leaves Crude Menstrual problems --- 1 0.02 39 0.13 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7●,

Wall KV 111 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

36. Draba nemorosa L. Herb Whole Extract, Remove scurvy --- 2 0.10 19 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 80 plant Decoction 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Brassicaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

37. Ephedra gerardiana Asmani Shru Leaves, Extract, Mouth diseases, Stomach pain, 100 11 0.2 55 0.18 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5▲, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall.ex Stapf Booti b Roots, Decoction Sun burn, Wounds, Cold, Cough, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 113 Stem Skin problem, Blood purifier, 14∆, 15▲,16∆, 17∆, 18 ∆,

Ephedraceae Tonic 19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

38. Epilobium laxum Royle Herb Whole Decoction Stop bleeding, Cause convulsion 83.3 2 0.08 24 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

GS 59 plant , Juice, 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Onograceaeae Infusion 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆, 23∆

39. Erodium cicutarium Saidan Herb Whole Extract Dysentery, internal Illness 83.3 2 0.11 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(L.) L’Herit, ex Aiton dan plant 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 60 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18●,

Geraniaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 21∆

40. Euphorbia wallichii Harvi, Herb Latex Latex Skin diseases, Wounds 82.7 2 0.06 29 0.1 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Hook.f. GS 61 Dodal 5 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Euphorbiaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

41. Ficus foveolata Wall. Bat Shru Latex Latex Skin diseases --- 1 0.02 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Ex Miq SV 81 Phagwar b 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Moraceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

42. Fragaria nubicola Panjakha Herb Whole Juice Stomach ulcers, Antiseptic, 75 3 0.06 48 0.16 1∆, 2▲, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6●, 7●,

Lindle. Ex Lacaita. , plant Diarrhea 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

GS 62 Budimev 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rosaceae a 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

43. Gentiana kurroo Royle Neel Herb Roots Decoction Liver diseases, Body vigor 93.3 2 0.04 45 0.15 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 114 Kanth 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12●, 13∆,

Gentianaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21●, 22∆

44. Geranium nepalense Ratanjot, Herb Roots Poultice Diarrhea, Cholera 83.3 2 0.11 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Sweet KV 115 Geraben 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Geraniaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19●, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

45. Geranium Ratanjot Herb Dried, Paste, Toothache, Jaundice, 95.1 6 0.09 62 0.21 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6▲, 7●,

wallichianum D. Don Leaves, Juice, Joint pains, Diarrhea, Cholera, 6 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Roots Powder Body vigor

http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=242426427

ex Sweet

GS 63

Geraniaceae

46. Geum elatum Wallich. Shoonkar Herb Roots Decoction Diarrhea, Dysentery

SV 82

Rosaceae

47. Heracleum candicans Gandiray Herb Roots, Decoction Snake bites, Skin diseases

Wall. Ex DC. Leaves,

GS 64 Flowers

Apiaceae

48. Hyoscyamus niger L. Ajwain- Herb Seeds Paste, Gastric cramps, Diarrhea, Cough,

KV 116 e- Leaves Poultice, Asthma , Skin inflammation,

Solanaceae Khurasan Extract Depression, Eye troubles

i

49. Impatiens edgeworthii Ban Til Herb Whole Powder, Joint pain, Kidney stones,

Hook.F plant Extract Hyperacidity

GS 65

Balsaminaceae

50. Impatiens glandulifera Ban Til Herb Roots, Decoction Depressions, Snake bite, Provide

Royle GS 66 Leaves, , Powder cooling effect, Sleep-enhancing

Balsaminaceae Flowers

51. Impatiens lemanni Herb Whole Infusion Pain relief

Hook.f.& Thoms. plant

GS 67

Balsaminaceae

52. Indigofera heterantha Kainthi Shru Whole Decoction Skin allergy, Dysentery Wall. ex Brandis b plant disorders, Warts, Leprosy,

SV 83 Anti-cancerous

Papilionaceae

53. Iris hookeriana Foster Chalundr Herb Roots Powder Diarrhea, Urinary problems,

KV 117 i Small sores, Pimples, Fever

Iridaceae

54. Juniperus communis L. Bhentri Shru Berries Infusion Joint pain, Skin diseases,

var.saxatilis Pallas. b Tuberculosis, Diabetes, Asthma,

KV 119 Chronic, Bronchitis, Liver and

Cupressaceae Spleen diseases

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆

86.6 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

93.7 2 0.12 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

5 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19●, 20∆, 21▲, 22∆

97.1 7 0.2 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4▲, 5▲, 6∆, 7∆,

4 8∆, 9●, 10∆, 11●, 13∆, 14∆,

15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆, 19∆,

20∆, 21∆, 22∆

80 3 0.1 30 0.10 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

84.6 4 0.15 26 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

1 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

--- 1 0.03 28 0.09 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆, 23∆

88.8 5 0.11 45 0.15 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲, 8 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22∆

91.4 5 0.14 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

2 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

97.9 9 0.18 49 0.16 1▲, 2▲, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆,

5 7∆, 8∆, 9∆, 10▲, 11∆, 12∆,

13∆, 14●, 15▲, 16▲, 17●,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆,

55. Juniperus excels Chalai Shru Fruits Juice Joints pain, Remove kidney 92.5 10 0.37 27 0.09 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

M.Bieb KV 120 b stone, Stomach cramps, Diuretic, 9 8∆, 9●, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Cupressaceae Asthma, Dropsy, Gonorrhea, 14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18▲,

Leucorrhoea, Skin diseases 19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

56. Juniperus squamata Chalai Bush Young Infusion Urinary problem, Stomach 75 4 0.2 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5▲, 6∆, 7∆,

Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don twigs, cramps, Asthma, Kidney diseases 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 121 Berries 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Cupressaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

57. Lathyrus emodi (Wall. Jangli Herb Seeds, Powder Constipation --- 1 0.07 14 0.04 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆,

Ex Frisch) Ali matter Flowers 7∆, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

SV 84 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

Papilionaceae 18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

58. Lathyrus humilis (Ser.) Kisari Herb Oil Oil Induces vomiting, Constipation 80 1 0.06 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Fisch ex Sprengel 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 85 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Papilionaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

59. Lathyrus pratensis L Ziara Herb Shoots, Powder Reduce sprain 83.3 1 0.05 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 86 Chilo Leaves 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆, Papilionaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

60. Lonicera caucasica Phut Shru Leaves, Powder Venereal diseases, Colic for 60 2 0.08 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Pallas KV 122 b Flowers horses 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Caprifoliaceae , Seeds 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

61. Lonicera obovata Phut Shru Leaves Extract GIT worms --- 1 0.05 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Royle KV 123 b 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Caprifoliaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

62. Lonicera purpurascens Phut Shru Leaves GIT worms, Digestive, Stomach 66.6 3 0.2 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(Dene) Walp b tonic 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 124 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Caprifoliaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

63. Malva neglecta wallr. Suchhal Herb Leaves , Decoction Constipation, Skin Rashes, 72 4 0.16 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 87 Roots , Powder Coughs, Reduce inflammation in 8∆, 9▲, 10∆, 11▲, 12∆,

Malvaceae respiratory track 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18●, 19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆,

23∆,

64. Matricaria recutita L. Her Flowers Infusion Diarrhea, Sleep-enhancing, Fevers, 100 8 0.53 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

GS 69 b Colds, Stomach ailments, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13▲,

Asteraceae Toothache, Infection 13∆, 14●, 15∆, 16▲, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

65. Nepeta clerkei Hook.f. Herb Whole Extract Fever, Cough, Cold, Dysentery 78.9 4 0.10 38 0.13 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

GS 70 plant, 4 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Lamiaceae Seeds 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

66. Nepeta govaniana Herb Whole Decoction Sore throat, Cardiac tonic, 75 3 0.15 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(Wall. ex Benth.) plant , Crude Toothache 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Benth. GS form 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

71 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Lamiaceae

67. Onosma hispida Wall. Gao Herb Leaves, Juice, Lungs disorders, Asthma, Heart 83.3 3 0.1 30 0.10 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

ex G. Don zaban Flowers Decoction disorders 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 88 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Boraginaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

68. Origanum v ulgare L. Banjawai Herb Whole Extract, Digestive, Asthma, Respiratory 72 9 0.36 25 0.08 1▲, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲,

GS 72 n plant Decoction systems, Colic, Diarrhea, Urinary 8▲, 9▲, 10▲, 11∆, 12∆,

Lamiaceae , Paste problems, Menstruation, 13∆, 14▲, 15∆, 16▲, 17▲,

Muscular pain, Skin disease 18∆, 19∆, 20▲, 21●, 22∆

69. Oxalis acetosella L. Chhushin Herb Whole Powder, Diuretic, Refrigerant, Urinary 85.7 4 0.11 35 0.12 1●, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆,

GS 73 Darm Plant Extract problems, Fever 1 7∆,8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

Oxalidaceae 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21▲, 22∆

70. Oxalis corniculata L. Khut Herb Whole Juice, Fever, Constipation, Tonic, Joints 91.1 9 0.2 45 0.15 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6●, 7∆,

GS 74 korla Plant Poultice, pain, Skin diseases, 1 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Oxalidaceae Extract Piles, Bleeding from lungs, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Inflammations, Swellings 19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22●

71. Oxytropis lapponica Chhushin Herb Whole Decoction Joint pains 55.5 1 0.05 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(Wahl.) Gay plant 5 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 125 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Papilionaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

72. Paeonia emodi Wall ex Mamekh Herb Roots, Infusion Urinary problems, Nervous 100 6 0.09 62 0.21 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲,

Royle KV 126 Rhizom diseases, Colic, Blood purifier, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Paeoniaceae e, Headache, Body vigor 14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Tuber, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Flowers

73. Pedicularis puctata. L Spanthin Herb Flowers Powder Skeletal muscle relaxant,

KV 127 g Gastrointestinal , Fever

Scrophuliaraceae

74. Persicaria capitata Tree Inflores Powder Ant bites

(Buch.-Ham. ex D. cence

Don) H. Gross SV 89

Polygonaceae

75. Picea smithiana (Wall) Kachhal Tree Wood Powder, Joint pain, Stomach pain

Boiss. GS 75 Decoction

Pinaceae

76. Pinus gerardiana Naiza Tree Seeds, Extract, Wounds, Ulcers,

Wall.ex. Lamb Oil Kernel Stimulant, body and brain tonic

PV 11 from seed

Pinaceae

77. Pinus wallichiana A.B. Kail Herb Resin, Infusion, Cough, Scorpion and snake bite,

Jackson. Bark, Powder Fever, Asthma

GS 76 Leaves,

Pinaceae Seeds

78. Plantago lanceolata L Sman Herb Flowers Decoction Diarrhea, Breathing problem,

GS 78 hrswa , Leaves , Infusion Bronchitis, Asthma,

Plantaginaceae Stomach disorder, Dysentery

79. Plantago major L. Chamchi Herb Seeds, Crude Diarrhea, Ulcers, Bronchitis,

GS 77 Patar Leaves form Asthma, Hay fever, Skin

Plantaginaceae inflammations

80. Podophyllum Ban Herb Roots Extract Colds, Constipation, Septic

hexandrum Royle kakhri conditions, Wounds, Burning

GS 79 sensation, Nervous disorders,

Podophyllaceae Joints pain, Skin allergic,

Inflammatory conditions of the

skin, Cancer of the Brain and Lung

81. Polygonum Masloon Leaves, Powder Cold, Fever

amplexicaule L GS Herb Roots

80

Polygonaceae

75 3 0.15 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12▲, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

--- 1 0.06 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

96 2 0.04 50 0.17 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15●, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

100 4 0.11 35 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15●, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

90 5 0.12 40 0.13 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

5 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

100 6 0.16 36 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9▲, 10●, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

13●, 14▲, 16▲, 17●, 18●,

19▲, 20▲, 21▲, 22∆

88.8 6 0.09 65 0.22 1▲, 2∆, 3●, 4▲, 5▲, 6∆,

8 7∆, 8∆, 9▲, 10●, 11●, 12∆,

13●, 14 ∆, 15∆, 16▲, 17●,

18∆, 19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22▲

98.2 11 0.19 56 0.19 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆,

1 7▲, 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

13∆, 14▲, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20▲, 21●, 22∆

85.7 2 0.05 35 0.12 1▲, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

1 8∆, 9●, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14●, 15∆, 16●, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆

82. Polygonum aviculare L Sathing Herb Whole Decoction Diuretic, Coughs, Pulmonary 75 7 0.35 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 90 plant , Poultice, complaints, Wounds, Diarrhea, 8∆, 9▲, 10∆, 11 ∆, 12▲,

Polygonaceae Juice Piles 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17●,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

83. Potentill aastroguinea Herb Leaves, Paste Wounds, Pain killer, Toothache 80 3 0.23 13 0.04 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆,

Lodd KV 128 Roots 7∆,8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

Rosaceae 13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

84. Potentilla curviseta Herb Leaves Infusion Stop bleeding, Snake and 76.9 3 0.15 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Hook.f. KV 129 Centipede bite 2 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

85. Potentilla grisae Juz Herb Whole Extract Inflammation of the mouth and 85 2 0.12 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆, KV 131 plant throat, Diarrhea 5 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

86. Potentilla kashmirica Herb Whole Decoction Stop hemorrhage, Tonic 70.5 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Hook. f SV 91 plant 8 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

87. Potentilla monanthes Herb Roots, Powder Fever, Diarrhea, Tonic 87.5 3 0.17 17 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Lindle. Ex Lehm. Whole 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 130 plant 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rosaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

88. Potentilla nepalensis Ratten Herb Roots Ashes, Burns, Looseness of bowel 77.7 2 0.11 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Hook.f. KV 132 jot Extract 7 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21●, 22∆

89. Primula denticulata Raam Herb Flowers Powder, Coughs, Sleep enhancing, 100 4 0.16 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4●, 5∆, 6∆, 7●,

Smith GS 81 Totia , Juice Bronchitis, Eye diseases 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Primulaceae Leaves, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rhizom 19●, 20 ∆, 21●, 22∆

es

90. Prunella vulgaris L. Harswa Tree Leaves Stomach pain, Urinary problems, 70 4 0.2 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

GS 82 Decoction Tonic, Sore throat 8∆, 9●, 10●, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Lamiaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21●, 22∆

91. Quercus semecarpifolia Banguar, Herb Galls, Juice Chronic, Diarrhea, Dysentery, 91.6 5 0.20 24 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Sm. KV 133 Kori Bark Muscular pains, Stop bleeding 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-diarrhea

Fagaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

92. Ranunculus stewartii Jashagha Herb Whole Decoction Asthma, Fever 70 2 0.1 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

H. Riedl i plant 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13

KV 134 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Ranunculaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22●

93. Ranunculus hirtellus Makhan Herb Roots Paste Kill and expel intestinal worms, 66.6 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6●, 7●,

Royle KV 135 Booti Cooling agent 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

94. Ranunculus laetus Chumbl Herb Leaves, Paste Eye diseases, Skin infection 76.4 2 0.11 17 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall. Ex Hook.f. & bootie Flowers 7 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Thoms. KV 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

136 19∆, 20∆, 21▲, 22∆

Ranunculaceae

95. Rheum australe D. Don Chotial Shru Rhizom Powder Constipation, Stop bleeding, 90.9 4 0.12 33 0.11 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4▲, 5●, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 137 b e, Roots Ulcers, Wounds 0 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Polygonaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21●, 22∆

96. Rhodendron arboretum Rantol Shru Leaves, Powder Headache, Skin diseases 100 2 0.09 22 0.07 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7▲,

Sm. SV 92 b Flowers 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ericaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22●

97. Ribes alpestre Dene ex Kag Shru Fruits, Powder Backache, Joint pain, Jaundice, 100 4 0.2 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Jacq. KV 138 Dakh b Roots Induces vomiting 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Grossulariaceae 14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

98. Ribes glaciale Wall. Jangli Shru Leaves, Powder Urinary problems, Constipation, 80 3 0.2 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 139 Angoor b Fruits Cooling agent 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Grossulariaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

99. Rosa brunonii Lindl. Kuruch, Shru Flowers Decoction Abdominal pain 73.3 4 0.13 30 0.10 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

KV 14O Shangari b Constipation, Gastric problems, 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae Intestinal ulcer 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19●, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

100. Rosa nanothamnus Phool Shru Flowers Juice Liver disorder --- 1 0.05 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Boulenger. b 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 141 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rosaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

101. Rosa webbiana Wall. Phool, Shru Flowers Digestive problems, heart 100 2 0.03 64 0.22 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Ex Royle. Shingari b , Fruits, diseases 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 142 Seeds 14∆, 15●, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Rosaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

102. Salix flabellaris Bens Herb Whole Decoction Blood purifier, Headache, Cold 87.5 3 0.18 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Andersson KV 143 plant 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Salicaceae 14∆, 15▲, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

103. Sambucus wightiana Kanula, Herb Roots, Decoction Dropsy, Fever, internal pains, Flu 77.7 1 0.05 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Ganoola Berries, 7 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 144 Leaves 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Sambucaceae 19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22∆

104. Saussurea costus Kuth Herb Roots, Powder, Cough, Asthma, Bronchial, Joints 96 5 0.1 50 0.17 1∆, 2●,3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(Falc.) Lipsch Oil Extract pain, Throat infection 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

KV 145 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Asteraceae 19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆

105. Senecio Apimind Shru Leaves, Decoction Joints pain, Wounds 66.6 2 0.11 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

chrysanthemodies DC. oq b Flowers , Poultice, 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 94 , Roots Powder 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Asteraceae 19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

106. Senecio Phand Herb Roots Poultice Boils or swelling for quick relief 83.3 1 0.06 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

jacquemontianus 3 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

(Decne.) Benth. ex 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Hook.f SV 93 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

Asteraceae

107. Sibbaldia procumbens Herb Leaves Decoction Stomach pain --- 1 0.06 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

L KV 146 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Rosaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

108. Silene gonosperma Herb Whole Juice Eye trouble, Skin problem 65 2 0.1 20 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

(Rohrb.) Bocquet plant 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 95 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Caryophyllaceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

109. Silene morcrooftiana Herb Whole Extract Skin problem, Eye trouble 86.6 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Wall SV 96 plant 6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Caryophyllaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

110. Silene vulgaris Bajomin Shru Leaves Juice Stomachache, Skin problem

(Moench) Garcke dq b

SV 98

Caryophyllaceae

111. Silenein edgeworthii Bgulmin Herb Roots Decoction Dysentery

(Bocquet) Y. Nasir dq

SV 97

Caryophyllaceae

112. Skimmia laureola (DC.) Neir Shru Leaves, Paste, Chicken pox, Measles, Stomach,

Sieb & Zucc. Ex Walp. b Roots Smoke Liver problems, Fever, Cold,

GS 83 Headache, Snake and scorpion bite

Rutaceae

113. Sophora mollis Graham Khakhul Herb Seeds Paste Hepatitis

KV 147

Papilionaceae

114. Stellaria media (L.) Bin Herb Whole Poultices, Obesity, Blood purifier, Skin

Vill SV 99 batori plant Decoction irritations, Itching, Kidney

Caryophyllaceae complaints, Joints pains, Ulcers,

Constipation, Asthma, Bronchitis

115. Swertia cordata Chairta Shru Whole Decoction Fever, Jaundice, Indigestion,

(G.Don) Clarke karita b plant , Juice Cough, Cold, Gall bladder,

KV 148 Typhoid

Gentianaceae

116. Tamarica riaelegans Phapaki Herb Flowers Paste Backache

(Royle) Qaiser & Ali

SV 100

Scrophuliaraceae

117. Taraxacum officinale Hundh , Herb Leaves, Jaundice, Kidney complaints,

Weber SV 101 Dudhal Roots Liver disorders, Leprosy

118. Thalictrum cultratum Herb Roots Juice, Stomach ache, Dysentery

Wall KV 149 Extract

Ranunculaceae

119. Thalictrum Herb Leaves, Infusion, Fever, Tonic, Urinary problems,

pedunculatum Edgew Roots Decoction Stomach disorder

KV 150

75 2 0.11 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10●, 11∆, 12▲, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17●, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

--- 1 0.06 16 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12▲,

13∆, 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

91.6 9 0.15 60 0.20 1∆, 2∆, 3●, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆

--- 1 0.07 14 0.04 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

96.2 10 0.18 53 0.18 1∆, 2∆, 3▲, 4∆, 5∆, 6▲, 7∆,

2 8∆, 9∆, 10●, 11●, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17●, 18∆,

19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22∆

100 7 0.28 25 0.08 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12▲, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

--- 1 0.05 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

90.9 4 0.09 44 0.15 1●, 2∆, 3∆, 4▲, 5▲, 6∆,

0 7▲, 8∆, 9∆, 10●, 11∆, 12∆,

13∆, 14●, 15 ∆, 16∆, 17●,

18∆, 19∆, 20●, 21∆, 22∆

66.6 2 0.13 15 0.05 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

66.6 4 0.22 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

6 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Ranunculaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

120. Thymus linearis Benth Banajwai Herb Whole Infusion, Cough, Cold, Bronchial 100 4 0.07 55 0.18 1∆, 2▲, 3∆, 4∆, 5▲, 6∆,

KV 151 n plant Juice disorders, Gastro-intestinal 7∆, 8▲, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆,

Lamiaceae disorder 13∆,14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆,

18∆, 19▲, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

121. Tricholepis stewartii Herb Whole Decoction Cough, Skin disease, Increase 77.7 3 0.16 18 0.06 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

C.B. Clark ex Hook.f. plant , Extract sexual desire 7 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

SV 102 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

Asteraceae 19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

122. Trifolium repens L. Shtal Herb Whole Infusion, Abdominal pain, Joint disorder, 75.6 6 0.16 37 0.12 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 103 plant Leaf Coughs, Colds, Fever, Eye wash 7 8●, 9▲, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Papilionaceae tincture 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

123. Valeriana jatamansii Mushk Herb Roots Juice, Painful menstruation, Headache, 94.2 5 0.14 35 0.12 1∆, 2●, 3∆, 4▲, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

Jones GS 84 Bala Paste Hypertension, Sleep-enhancing, 8 8●, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Valerianaceae Brain disorders 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20●, 21●, 22▲

124. Vicia bakeri Ali Herb Whole Paste, Bronchitis, Asthma 100 2 0.14 23 0.07 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5∆, 6∆, 7∆,

SV 104 plant Extract 8∆, 9∆, 10∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13∆,

Papilionaceae 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20∆, 21∆, 22∆

125. Viola biflora L. Banafsha Herb Whole Paste, Cancer, Fever, Wounds, Fractured 98 6 0.15 50 0.17 1∆, 2∆, 3∆, 4∆, 5●, 6▲, 7∆,

GS 85 plant Crude bone, Cold, Cough 8▲, 9∆, 11∆, 12∆, 13 ∆,

Violaceae flower 14∆, 15∆, 16∆, 17∆, 18∆,

19∆, 20▲, 21∆, 22∆


Since the presence of active secondary metabolites is a crucial point, it is not surprising that these

families have the characteristic of including a high number of species with noteworthy

pharmacological and organoleptic properties (Gottlieb, 1982; Milliken and Albert, 1999) and

should be the dominant families in high mountainous areas. Moreover, Moerman (1998) has

suggested that Asteraceae dominate traditional pharmacopoeias as medicinal resources because

their tendency to grow in disturbed habitats near residential areas makes it easier to obtain

information about them. The most important families in terms of species richness (Correa, 1998)

and Family Importance Value (FIV) are represented in Figure 4, thus revealing a possible

correlation between regional flora and the ethnobotanical selection of plant families.

3.1.3 Disease categories and Medicinal Plants

In total, 480 plant therapy use reports were documented in study area. The category of

gastrointestinal tract (GIT) diseases had the highest proportion (27.5%) followed by

respiratory system diseases (20%) in the mountain community (Table 8). Accordingly, the

numbers of species were also highest for both abdominal tract diseases (68%)as well as for

respiratory system diseases (31%).It has been unwavering that local people are interested to

use herbal therapies pre-dominantly for the management of gastro-intestinal complaints and

respiratory tract diseases (cold, flu, bronchitis and asthma). It has indicated that precious plant

species of these areas have versatile therapeutic uses against these diseases. Gastro intestinal

diseases may be caused by bacterial, viral or parasitic infections and globally accounts for 2.2

million deaths each year (World Health Organization, 2011). Earlier ethnobotanical studies in

elsewhere in different regions also reported frequent usage of medicinal plants against

gastrointestinal diseases (Roersch, 1994; Frei et al., 1998; Hammond et al., 1998; Bennett and

Prance, 2000; Macia et al., 2005; de-la-Cruz et al., 2007). In contemporary study, the most

commonly cited illnesses among the respiratory diseases were cough and cold, both of which

were predominant in the mountain community, due to the colder temperatures and harsh

winds. Other common complaints included bronchitis and influenza (which ensue with

similar incidences in both localities) and lung problems. Local societies habitually thought

that the complaints are due to change in body temperature as a result of bath in the cold river

or taking cold drinks or ice cream on hot sunny days, changes of the weather or the season, as

well as air pollution (dust from the unpaved roads). The most conspicuous differences concern with sexual diseases which accounted for only

1.5% of uses reports with 5% cited species in the valleys of alpine and sub-alpines. This may



reveal the lesser exposure of these diseases and higher gratification rate concerning sexual

disorders problems. Other most noticeable diseases cured by medicinal plants in the area were

Muscles and skeletal diseases (8%) fallowed by urinary disorders. Main reason for apparent

use reports for muscles and skeletal diseases was found to be walking and journeys in high

altitudes without any transportation facility. Most of the citations in urinary ailments

mentioned kidney problems such as kidney pain, inflammation, infection, and kidney stones,

but also to urinary tract, prostate, or bladder inflammations and male genital infections. Local

people face hard agricultural work as the main reason for kidney problems.

To best of our observations in current work, Number of disorders treated by the precious

flora could be due to lack of accessibility of human to other well facilitated areas because the

region is only linked by small air strip and lacks roads for vehicles, which are chief means of

transport and affect the facility of these communities to reach the neighboring areas.


50 45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Families

Figure 2: Family Importance Value (FIV) of medicinal plants of study area


3.1.4 Life forms of Medicinal plants

Herbs were the primary source (Figure 3) of medicine (78%), followed by shrubs (19%)

and trees only (3%). Less percentage of trees is totally due to high altitude alpine and sub-alpine

where tree growth is hindered due to high rate of wind velocity and other related factors. The

reason for dominance of herbs is may be handiness of these species. It is genuine point that herbs

can grow ubiquitously (roadsides, home garden, farmland and in wild habitats) while local

community people of any geographic area use herbs for phytotherapy due to their ease of

availability in habitats (Sanz-Biset et al., 2009). Besides, herbs can be collected with ease, put in

storage, and used in A normal way and there is easiness in herbal preparation methods with which

bioactive compounds can be extracted (Shreshtha and Dhillion, 2003). Specifically, the leading

reports of herbs might be due to high rate of use of herbs for diseases cure as the more prevailing

fraction of herbs is geographic character of alpine and sub-alpines. Besides above, similar

conclusions are drawn from other studies on medicinal plants carried out in central Nepal

(Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003; Uprety et al., 2010) and west Nepal (Kunwar et al., 2006). The fact

that the most medicinal plants are herbaceous could be because the study sites are located in high

elevation ranges where the diversity of shorter plants such as herbs or shrubs is higher than that of

trees.

3.1.5 Plant parts used

In the current investigations, different parts of these plants are used as herbal

medicine. The plant parts used for medical preparations were bark, flowers, fruits, leaves,

rhizomes, roots, sap, seeds, stems, and young shoots (Figure 4). The most commonly used

plant part were leaves (44 reports) followed by underground part, the roots (37 reports). Of

the above ground plant parts, leaf is used in the preponderance in many cases. It is thought

that leaves contain more easily extracted phytochemicals, herbal crude drugs and many other

mixtures which may be prove valuable regarding drug discovery and medicines management.

This fact is lines in the majority of studies conducted elsewhere in different regions (Ahmad

et al., 2014, Bano et al., 2014).

The whole plant is also reported in different ailments treated mostly in the case of

herbs. The whole plants (36 reports) were more frequently corresponding to the higher usage

of herbaceous species in this locality. Besides leaves, roots including rhizomes are the most

favored parts in many cases possibly because they contain higher concentration of bioactive



compounds than other parts (Srithi et al., 2009, Robinson, 1974; Moore, 1994; Basualdo et

al., 1995). It is imperative to note that the confiscation of roots can have noteworthy harmful

effects on plant existence and regeneration (Dhillion and Amundsen, 2000). So it should be

abridged as much as conceivable in the cases where some threatened or rare plant species are

used. Leaves are the most chosen part as the removal of the whole plant or roots or excessive

use of fruits or seeds as medicines has a destructive effect on plant population growth,

possibly leading to a strong decline of many medicinal plant populations in nature (Ghimire

et al., 2008; Giday et al., 2003).

3.1.6 Modes of remedy preparation and routes of administration

There are various methods of preparation and application plant species having curing

potential against ailments. There are various preparation forms like infusion, decoction, powder,

paste, poultice, Ash, smoke, crude form, latex and resin form (Figure 5) have been observed. Out

of total 177 preparations, the most frequently used forms of preparations were hot water

decoction (38 reports) followed by powder (37). The predominance of decoctions might be due to

effectiveness of herbal drugs after heating as it is common observation on heat various biological

reactions are accelerated. These may resulted into active herbal drugs against ailments. This

thought may also be of high importance as majority of allopathic drugs extraction are based on

these same principals. The predominance of decoction in our study is the line with studies

conducted elsewhere in local communities. Besides, in high altitudes, during winter instead of

using hot water in medications, dried powder is preferred possibly due to cold dry, snowy season.

To best of our view, local communities use decoction as well as powder according to diseases

treated and the condition of the patient.


80


Percentage of life form Trees

Shrubs 3%

19%

Herbs

78%

Figure 3: Percentage of life forms of medicinal plants in the study area

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

5

0

Medicinal plant part used

Figure 4: Plant part used in treatment of various diseases in the study area



Routes of administration for medicinal plants were about70% in oral of all cases

followed by external or topical application (30%). Externally plant remedies were applied

topically, as washings, paste or for rubbing on the affected body part with plant material. This

corresponds to the results of previous work in similar regions (Roersch, 1994; Hammond

etal.,1998; de-la-Cruz et al.,2007). Less frequent application forms included smoke, Ash,

latex and resins. As latex some time (when used in excess) may be poisonous. So local

people use these latex and resins in small amounts. The herbal medications are based on

many kinds of preparations ranging from made out of a single plant for a single illness to use

of plants in amalgamation and sometimes other ingredients based on availability of plant

species. Bee honey was often added to infusions or decoctions, salt was added to washings,

oil was used for paste, and sugar cane spirit for topical applications. These adjuvant may

activate some molecules so plant based medication may work properly against illness.

Per

cen

tage

of

mod

e of

uti

liza

tion

40 35 30 25 20 15 10

5

0

Mode Of Utilization

Figure 5: Mode of Utilization of medicinal plants


82


These preparations were mostly managed using locally made mortar or pestle. There

is versatile medicinal plant diversity and their wide uses in study area. Therefore as per

information of respondents, the exact doses used for each medicine have not been included in

the present study. One specific reason was enlisted that plant material used for preparation of

herbal remedies was difficult to compute but was indicated roughly 40–50 g fresh plant

material or 20–25 g of powdered plant material in 300 ml may be taken daily. Doses were

mainly taken twice a day because people are present at home on the morning and evening.

The dosage depends on the age and physical appearance of the individual and children’s are

given less than adults with approximate 32 years.

3.1.7 Quantitative Data Analysis

3.1.7.1 Fidelity level

The fidelity value of a plant species for a specific disease in the study area varied between

60 and 100%. We found 16 plant species for treating different ailment categories have maximum

100 FL% that are: Achellia millefolium (stomach-ache), Aconitum chasmanthum (Body tonic),

Bergenia ciliata (Urinary disorders), Ephedra gerardiana (Cold cough), Matricaria recutita

(Tooth infections), Paeonia emodi (Body vigour), Pinus gerardiana (Body and brain tonic),

Plantago lanceolata (Diarrhoea), Primula denticulata (Sleep enhancing), Rhodendron arboretum

(Skin diseases), Ribes alpestre (Joint pain), Rosa webbiana (Heart diseases), Sophora mollis

(Hepatitis), Swertia cordata (Typhoid fever), Thymus linearis (Bronchail disorders), Vicia bakeri

( Bronchitis). These species may be proved as important medicinal plants of area on further

evaluation through phytochemical, Pharmaceutical and biological activities. We have recognized

plants as more important have 80 FL% or more. In table 7, there are 10 plant species highly cited

for gastrointestinal tract disorders, 8 for respiratory disorders, 6 for urinary disorders, 5 for liver

and related disorders, 2 for brain tonic and 2 for heart related diseases. There are 6 plant species

that are highly cited for eyes infections and related conditions showing a correspondence to high

ICF of eye related diseases.

Though plants with high FL or UV are the most favored species in study sites (Tables

8), plants with low FL% should not be abandoned as a future generation could increase the

risk of gradual disappearance of the knowledge (Chaudhary et al., 2006).The 100% FL may

be due to the fact that these species are predominantly chosen for the particular ailment while

other entries might have some other therapeutic uses (Islam et al., 2014). These plants with

100% FL should be screened for their further drug discovery.



3.1.7.2 Informant’s consensus factor for therapeutic purposes

The medicinal plants reported for treating different ailments were quantitatively analysed

using ICF relations. For these diseases treated were grouped into 13 categories. In present study,

ICF value ranges from 0.68 to 0.06 (Body energizers). The highest informant’s consensus factor

value (0.68) was found for ear, Nose and eye followed by respiratory disorders (0.46) as in Table

9. The high occurring records of these illnesses in regions as compared to other areas might be

due to the high speed air containing many germs; dust particles as well as spores particularly of

herbs are much more frequent in the mountain community. The other more noticeable ICF was

found (0.33) for gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) ailments. This ICF for GIT possibly show common

disorders in the study area are due to meager hygiene in the region and there is a better

communication recognized between informants for treating this ailment category. Accordingly,

local people perceive water contamination as a general cause for diseases. This high ICF

indicated reasonable reliability of informant knowledge in the use of these medicinal plant

species, while the low ICF value of body energizers, urinary disorders, infectious diseases such

chicken pox, measles and dengue fever indicated the less uniformity of the informant knowledge

in the plants used for management of diseases.

Further, high ICF is always allied with a few specific plants with high use citations for

treating single disease category. On the other hand, low ICF is always associated with many

plants with an almost equal high use citation suggesting the lesser level of agreement among

the informants on use of plant species to treat a particular disease category. Besides, the low

ICF value seen in our study could be due to a lack of communication among people in

different areas of the multicultural study region.



Table 9: ICF of Plants and Diseases treated in the study area

Category of Diseases Number % age of Number of % age of taxa ICF

of use use reports taxa used

reports

GIT diseases 127 26.45833 85 68 0.33

Respiratory diseases 94 19.58333 51 40.8 0.46

Muscles and Skeletal disorders 35 7.291667 31 24.8 0.11

Urinary disorders 28 5.833333 26 20.8 0.07

Sexual diseases 7 1.458333 6 4.8 0.16

Glandular disorders 20 4.166667 16 12.8 0.21

Ear, Nose, Eyes diseases 33 6.875 11 8.8 0.68

Nail, Skin and Hair disorders 42 8.75 35 28 0.17

Nervous disorders 22 4.583333 16 12.8 0.28

Cardiovascular disorders 17 3.541667 16 12.8 0.06

Antidote 16 3.333333 12 9.6 0.26

Body energizers 17 3.541667 16 12.8 0.06

Infectious diseases 22 4.583333 20 16 0.09

3.1.7.3 RFC and UV

The most frequently used plant species in the traditional medicine in the Alpine and

sub alpine should be prioritized for conservation as their preference increases the level of

harvesting causing threat to population. They could also be subjected to ethno-

pharmacological studies to prove their authenticity and see if any important compounds are

available in those plants. RFC displays the local eminence of every species with reference to

informants who cited that plant species. It always ranges between 0 and 1. Like UV it does

not depend upon number of use reports of that plant species but it is dependent on frequency

of citation (FC) and total number of informants. Highest RFC of a plant species represents

that species is more commonly known by local people of the area studied. In our present

work, RFC ranged from 0.23 to 0.04 (Table 8). The plants having high RFC are those which

are predominantly used for these specific disorders by the local people. Reason for the high

RFC may wide distribution and use of plant species for treating various ailments and these

citations are one of the most important and used tool for linking and evaluating research in

academic publishing.

UV determines the relative prominence of species known locally in the study area. In

current work it ranges from 0.53 to 0.03 (Table 8). The highest UV represents the high use of that

species. It was found that those plants which are frequently used in study are having high citing

report as well as author citing percentage on opposite they have low use value. On the other



side the plants having high UV have low frequency of citation as well as author citing

percentage.

The above discussion it is observed that plants which are used in some repetitive

manner are more likely to be biologically active (Trotter and Logan, 1986). Hence, the plants

having the highest RFC and UV values might be an indication of their good healing potential

for a specific ailment.

3.1.8 Reliability of reported uses and Comparison with other studies

The resemblances and variances seem to point out complex patterns of use, where

historical (Moerman et al., 1999), ecological (Ladio et al., 2007), phytochemical and

organoleptic (Leonti et al., 2003) factors interact in the selection of medicinal species. The

uses of plants gathered and arranged in our study were compared with published information

from other parts of neighboring countries, regional countries and global world countries. We

selected 22 studies which encounter the principles of a scientific ethno-botanic study were

exploited. Although the research areas do not have the same extents and the research methods

differ. Table 10 elucidates the similarity between medicinal plants and their uses recorded in

the current study and those recorded in previously conducted studies in neighboring

countries, regional and global world countries. The similarity percentage ranges from 1.69 % to 19.52 %. A review of literature indicated that out

of 125 reported plant species (Table 9) dissimilar uses varies 20 % (Akhtar et al., 2013) to 0 %

(Khan and Khatoon, 2007). The two studies, which are most different from each other having

highest degree of similarity for quoted plant species are studies of Akhtar et al.(2013) with JI

19.52 and Bano et al.(2014) with JI (17.39). Other more observable similar studies are Malik et

al., 2011; Thakur et al., 2014 while the lowest indices of similarity was found in the studies of

Pieroni and Quave, (2005), Sargın et al. (2003); Altundag and Ozturk, (2011), Gairola et al.

(2014). Difference between study area and neighboring region increases when the number of

medicinal uses for quoted plant species was used in the comparison. The most similarity was with

the nearest research area. This comparison having high similarity indexes showed that there exist

considerable similarity with respect to plant use and modes of application. This occurrence may

in a part be due to the sharing of a similar flora and to the cross-cultural exchange of medicinal

plant knowledge in the past. This also indicates a similar ethno-genesis of people of these

countries. On the other hand, it could be seen that there are some specificity relating to individual

regions. Houghton and Manby (1985) and Mosbach (1992) stated that


86


these similarities could be a reflection of environmental or methodological differences

between the communities under study. Besides above, these similarities could be because of

the similarities between the haitats and flora as well as the populations. The less similarities

found in quoted studies are probably the result of a remarkable cultural adaption that

importantly indicative of current widespread change in population and habitat structure

(Leonti et al., 2009) as similarity indices are very sensitive to variation in population sizes

(Wolda, 1981). This could reflect a cultural loss in the ethnobotanical and medical knowledge

in the compared areas. Besides, low similarity here may be due to minimal cultural exchange

between the countries, as they are disconnected from one another by a mountain range, and

stronger cultural exchange with adjacent groups through dependency of trade medicinal uses

are shared mainly with perhaps due to proximity and easier communication compared to

other regions, allowing cross-pollination of knowledge.


Table 10: Comparison of present study with previous studies at Neighboring, Regional and Global level

S. Study Area Stud Numbe Plants Plants Total % of Species Species % of % of % of J.I Citation

# y r of with with species plant enlisted enlisted species Plant dissimilar

Yea recorde similar dissim commo species only in only in enlisted with uses

r d plant uses ilar n in common aligned study only in similar

species uses both in both areas area Study uses

area areas

1. Albanian Alps in 2012 98 5 2 7 7.14 91 118 94.4 5.10 2.04 3.57 Mustafa et al.,2012

Kosovo

2. Astore Northern 2003 33 4 6 10 30.31 23 115 92 12.12 18.18 7.81 Shinwari and

Pakistan Gilani, 2003

3. Swat, North 2013 106 7 21 28 26.42 78 97 77.6 6.60 19.81 19.5 Akhtar et al., 2013

Pakistan 2

4. Ladakh India 2014 948 16 2 18 1.89 930 107 85.6 1.69 0.21 1.77 Gairola et al.,

2014

5. Upper Mustang, 2006 74 7 4 11 14.87 63 114 91.2 9.46 5.41 6.63 Pandey 2006

Nepal

6. Himachal 2013 30 5 4 9 30 21 116 92.8 16.67 13.33 7.03 Rani et al., 2013

Pradesh

7. Garhwal 2013 152 9 10 19 12.5 133 106 84.8 5.92 6.57 8.63 Bhat et al., 2013

Himalaya, India

8. Western 2010 161 11 11 22 13.67 139 103 82.4 6.83 6.83 10 Rokaya et al., 2010

Nepal

9. Anatolia, 2011 444 7 6 13 2.92 431 112 89.6 1.58 1.35 2.45 Altundag and

Turkey Ozturk, 2011

10. North-Western 2014 199 2 7 9 4.52 190 116 92.8 1.01 3.51 3.03 Cornara et al.,

Ligurian Alps 2013

Italy

11. Alaşehir in 2013 137 2 3 5 3.65 132 120 96 1.46 2.18 2.02 Sargın et al., 2003

Turkey

12. Gilgit Baltistan, 2014 50 9 1 10 20 40 115 92 18 2 6.89 Bano et al., 2014

Pakistan

13. Southern Italy 2005 123 1 3 4 3.25 119 121 96.8 0.81 2.44 1.69 Pieroni and Quave,

2005

14. Prokletije 2011 94 4 4 8 8.51 86 117 93.6 4.25 4.26 4.10 Menkovi et al.,

Mountains 2011

Serbia

15. Gilgit Northern 2007 48 8 0 8 16.67 40 117 93.6 16.67 0 5.36 Khan and Khatoon,

area of Pakistan 2007

16. Central Serbia 2007 83 6 1 7 8.43 76 118 94.4 7.23 1.21 3.74 Jaric et al., 2007

17. Barcelona, 2011 51 2 8 10 19.61 41 115 92 3.92 15.67 6.84 Rigat et al., 2011

Catalonia

18. South East of 2012 92 2 3 5 5.43 87 120 96 2.17 3.26 2.47 Rajaei and

Iran Mohamadi, 2012

19. Karakoram- 2014 50 15 5 20 40 30 105 84 30 10 17.3 Bano et al., 2014

himalayan range, 9

Pakistan

20. North Kashmir 2011 80 12 7 19 23.75 71 106 84.8 15 8.75 12.0 Malik et al., 2011

Himalayas India 2

21. Himachal 2014 54 6 10 16 29.63 38 109 87.2 11.11 18.52 12.2 Thakur et al., 2014

Pradesh, India 1

22. Gulmi District 2012 161 3 6 9 5.59 152 116 92.8 1.86 3.73 3.47 Acharya ,2012

Nepal

Average 148.54 6.5 5.63 12.13 14.94 136.86 112.86 90.29 8.14 6.78 6.75


Plate 32: Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern

Pakistan




Pakistan


91



Pakistan




Pakistan


95



Pakistan



SECTION 2

“Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of traditionally

used endemic medicinal plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine

region of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan”

3.2. Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of traditionally used endemic medicinal

plants of Alpine and Sub-alpine region of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

Comprehensive study of traditional knowledge (both qualitative and quantitative) on

endemic medicinal plants from alpine and sub-alpine regions of Hazara division, Northern

Pakistan was carried as these regions are the hot spot for medicinal plants

3.2.1 Diversity of Traditional knowledge and Endemic plant species

In this study, 69 endemic medicinal plants belonging to 49 genera and 29 families

were recorded to be employed by inhabitants to treat 17 specific disease categories. Out of

total of 69 endemic species studied ethno-botanically perennial herbs were dominant

(63.77%) followed by annual herbs (14.49%) and shrubs (11.59%). No endemic tree was

reported in the present study (Figure 6). The information recorded for medicinal remedies

was compared with previously published ethnobotanical surveys. The current study is the

first attempt to qualify and quantify the usage of endemic plants among the people of alpine

and sub alpine regions of northern Pakistan with new therapeutic uses are reported as

compared to previous ethnobotanical studies.

Percentage of life forms

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00 1

Shrub

Biennial herb

Annual herb

Perennial herb

Perennial herb

Annual herb

Biennial herb

Shrub

Figure 6: Life forms percentage (%) of endemic medicinal plants



3.2.2 Demographic Information

A total of 197 Informants (129 males and 68 females) were interviewed from 50 sites

i.e. villages and nomadic huts in alpine and subalpine areas of Hazara Division, Chitral,

Gilgit and Skardu. These included 65.48% male and 34.52% female. Informants that

mentioned the most plants against various ailments were mostly above 55 years of age

(49.74%) followed by 36-55 (33.50%) and 15-35 (16.75%). Forty-seven percent of

informants were illiterate, 34% had received some primary education followed by secondary

school level 12.18% and 6% some higher technical education. During the interviews it was

found that informants of urban areas had knowledge of medicinal plants, but they depended

on allopathic system of medicine because of hectic life, deforestation and easy access to

health care units. On the other hand, the inhabitants living in rural areas were more aware of

the use of endemic plants. Forest was in close proximity to people of rural area; thus

medicinal plants were easily accessible. Some informants from rural areas believe that use of

medicinal plants as a traditional medicine is spiritual, easily accessible, cheap and quite good

in providing complete relief from diseases (Figure 7).

Dem

og

rap

hic

ch

ara

cter

isti

cs o

f th

e in

form

an

ts

AG

E G

END

ER E

DU

CATI

ON

AL

LEV

ELG

RO

UPS

TERTIARY SCHOOL 6.09

SECONDARY SCHOOL 12.18

PRIMARY SCHOOL 34.52

LITERATE 47.21

WOMEN 34.52

MEN 65.48

ABOVE 55 49.75

36-55 33.50

15-35 16.75

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00

Percentage of informants

Figure 7: Demographic characteristics (Age, gender, educational level) of the informants

(n=197) in the study area



3.2.3 Most dominant families and dominant disease categories

Most plants used as medicine belonged to family Ranunculaceae (6 genera, 9 spp.),

Papilionaceae (4 genera 6 spp.), Rosaceae (3 genera 5 spp.), Fumariaceae (1 genus 5 spp.),

Gentianaceae (2 genera 4 spp.), Berberidaceae, Poaceae and Rubiaceae (each with 1 genus 3

spp.), Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae and Primulaceae (each with 3 genera 3 spp.), Apiaceae,

Asclepiadaceae, Asteraceae, Orchidaceae and Polygonaceae (with 2 genera and 2 spp.).

While remaining 11 families have one species each. It has also been observed that local

persons recognize plants morphologically, thus they name similar vernacular names to the

related species of a genus. For example, a number species of genus Corydalis

morphologically looks a like and locally known as “Chiripawa” or “Chiripawi”.

The maximum number of plants was used for curing gastrointestinal ailments (36

species), Infectious diseases (29 spp) and dermatological problems (22 spp) (Table 11). With

respect to gastrointestinal disorders our results are in line with various researchers along the

globe (Ankkii et al., 1999; Bennett and Prance, 2000, Heinrich et al., 1998; Miraldi et al.,

2002; Ghorbani, 2005; Ghorbam et al., 2011; Mosaddegh et al., 2012; Nasab and Khorsavi,

2014; Ullah et al., 2013; Sadeghi et al., 2014; Bibi et al., 2014, Bibi et al., 2015).

3.2.4 Part used and mode of administration

Plant parts which were widely used for healing were; leaves (33.66%) followed by

roots (25.74%) (Figure 8). Probable reason that leaves were used mostly may be due to the

reason that dominant flora in subalpine and alpine area was herbaceous. Some researchers

also commented that leaves are more easily accessible and abundant than any other plant

parts (Bonet et al., 1999; Neves et al., 2009; Bibi et al., 2014). The leaves were used

abundantly because they contain more bioactive compounds and include all life forms (Srithi

et al., 2009). Our results are close to the results reported earlier by various Asiatic scientists

including Pakistani scientists viz. India, Bangladesh, Iran, Thailand and China (Poonam and

Sing,2009; Singh and Sing, 2009; Kadir et al., 2013; Srithi et al., 2009; Rehmn et al., 2015).

Most common mode of administration reported is oral (54%), followed by oral and tropical

(39%) (Figure 9). The oral administration is common as it is simple and does not require any

equipment or accessories (Sivasankari et al., 2014).


99


Percentage (%) of endemic medicinal plant parts

1% 1% 1%

7% 26% 1%

7%

4%

4%

12%

34% 1%

2%

Roots Leaves Aerial parts Oil Whole plant Stems Flower Rhizome Young twigs

Figure 8: Percentage of endemic medicinal plant parts used in traditional medicine

Percentage of mode of adminstrations

Topical 7%

Oral and topical

Oral and topical

Oral

39%

Topical

Oral 54%

Figure 9: Percentage (%) of mode of administrations of endemic medicinal plants used for

various aliments



3.2.5 Mode of preparation

For accurate mode of preparation of herbs emphasis was laid upon their dosage and

frequency of administration. Fruits were taken in raw form and mostly low in numbers from

1-3 depending on the size of fruits. The most categorized mode of preparation used

traditionally was decoction (31.62%) followed by powder (24.78%) and paste (16.23%). The

least used mode of administration was juice (10.25%) (Figure 10). Mostly the plants were

made into powdered form and stored in bottles while decoction used was aqueous. The

dosages that were recommended also varied among the plants in treatment of various

diseases. The preparation of herbal medicine was estimated with reference to type of illness,

immediate situation and the age of the patient. The frequency of dosage depended upon the

severity and condition of the infection.

prep

ra

tio

n

of

mode 1

Perc

en

tage

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Poultice Maceration Juice Infusion Paste Powder Decoction Extract

Categorization of mode of preprations

Figure 10: Categorization of mode of preparations for endemic medicinal plants used in

traditional medicine

Study results are presented in alphabetical orders with their botanical binomials,

family, local names, habit (life form), altitudinal range (m) flowering period, localities, part

used, mode of administration, mode of preparation, applications and toxicity (Table 11).


Table 11: Enumeration and quantitative analysis of endemic medicinal plants used to treat various diseases in Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of

Northern Pakistan

Botanical Local Habit/ Localities Part used/ Therapeutic Previous Reported Toxicity F U.V*

RFC FL* CSI RI*/

Name/ Name Floweri / Altitude Mode of use* Reported Phytochemical C* * * CI

*

Family/Voucher ng (in m) preparation ethno s & Biological %

No. period (administra medicinal

uses activity

tion)

Aconitum Patris Perenni Shandur Roots/ Neurologic Not reported Not reported Toxic if 41 0.10 0.21 73.17 9.35 43.9 curvipilum al herb Pass, Extract al excess 6/

H.Riedl (June- Chitral (Oral) disorders, used 20.8

(Ranunculaceae) Septem (3719) tonic*, 1

SK 276 ber) fever,

urinary

diseases

Aegopodium Kamas Annual Chail sar, Leaves/ Fever*, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 32 0.06 0.16 59.38 5.61 21.9

burttii E. Nasir la herb Galiat Decoction tonic 8/

(Apiaceae) (June- (2997- (Oral) 16.2

SK 207 August) 3300) 4

Alchemilla Not Perenni On way to Leaves, Urinary Not reported Not reported Not toxic 21 0.29 0.11 71.43 4.42 58.7

cashmeriana known al herb Makra aerial parts/ diseases*, 9/

Rothm (August (3100- Decoction, indigestion 10.6

(Rosaceae) ) 3750) powder , tonic, 6

SK 203 (Oral, kidney

topical) problems,

wound

healing,

stomachic

disorder

Androsace March Perenni Dunga Leaves/ Stomachic Not reported Not reported Not toxic 12 0.17 0.06 83.33 2.11 14.8

hazarica olla, al herb Gali, Decoction disorder, 4/

R.R.Stewart ex Thanid (July- Changla (Oral) constipatio 6.09

Y. Nash i Jari August) Gali n*

(Primulaceae) (2400-

SK 206 3500)

Anemone Hadai Perenni Nathia, Leaves/ Skin spots, Cold, fever, Not reported Toxic if 43 0.05 0.22 93.02 7.54 14.8

falconeri Thoms al herb Dunga Paste wounds* gastritis excess 4/

(Ranunculaceae) (May- Gali (Topical) (Gairola et al., used 21.8

SK 201 June) (2100- 2014), 3

3100) Headaches and

rheumatic gout

(Bhat et al.,

2014)

Anemone Ratanj Perenni Thandian, Leaves, Joints and Reported as Not reported Toxic if 34 0.29 0.17 88.24 9.54 81.3

obtusiloba D ot al herb Saifulmul roots, oil/ muscles poisonous plant excess 2/

Don var (July- uk (2500- Decoction pain*, (Xiang et al., used 17.2

potentilloides August) 3000) (Oral, kidney 2009; Cao et 6

(Ranunculaceae) topical) problems, al., 2013),

SK 205 jaundice, Coughs and

baldness, colds (Griggs et

fever al., 2001;

menstrual Vashistha, 2009

complaints #6), Seeds

, sores, indigestion,

spleen insecticide

disorders, (Rokaya et al.,

improves 2010), Cytology

eyesight, (Mehra and

skin Remanandan,

complaints 1972),

Rheumatism

(Vaidya and

Joshi, 2003)

Aquilegia Ghamu Perenni Saifulmul Whole plant/ Pneumoni Snake bite, Toxic if 23 0.13 0.12 78.26 5.65 32.9

fragrans Benth. k al herb uk Decoction a, body pains, boil excess 7/

Var. fragrans Phoon (July- (3224) (Oral) headache, (Singh, 2012), used 11.6

(Ranunculaceae) ar, August) jaundice* Diabetes and 8

SK 209 Phulph joint pains

undi (Devi et al.,

booti 2013), Cystitis,

gout, eczema,

psoriasis, blood

sugar (Sharma et al., 2006),

Boils and

wound healing

(Hussain et al.,

2011)

Aquilegia nivalis Nikki Perenni Palas, Flowers, Fever*, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 14 0.21 0.07 100 2.70 25.8

Falc. ex Baker Chlund al herb Saifulmul rhizome/ tonic, excess 2/

(Ranunculaceae) ri (June- uk (3000- Extract chest used 7.11

SK 204 July) 3500) (Oral) diseases

Arabidopsis Sfenap Perenni Upper Leaves/ Appetizer* Not reported Not reported Toxic if 45 0.04 0.23 93.33 7.89 14.8

taraxacifolia (T. onga al herb Kaghan Decoction , excess 4/

Anders.) Jafri (April- (2500- (Oral) indigestion used 22.8

(Brassicaceae) June) 3600) 4

SK 210

Artemisia Chau, Perenni Naran Leaves/ Diabetes, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 36 0.31 0.18 86.11 8.21 92.3

amygdalina Jhan al herb (2500- Infusion, epilepsy, 1/

Decne (July- 3700) powder, cough, 18.2

(Asteraceae) Septem paste (Oral, cold, fever, 7

SK 213 ber) topical) tonic,

hepatitis*,

gastrointes

tinal

ailments,

nervous

disorders,

protecting

liver,

lowering

the blood

pressure

Astragalus Bankai Perenni Chitral, Roots/ Liver Not reported Not reported Toxic if 16 0.31 0.08 81.25 3.37 47.8

chitralensis Ali ntha al herb Birmoghla Decoction, diseases, excess 0/

(Papilionaceae) (May- sht, Upper paste (Oral, lung used 8.12

SK 263 June) Kaghan topical) cancer,

(2438- cold*, skin

3650) problems,

sinus,

infectious

disease

Astragalus Sokhru Perenni Karakoru Roots, Gastrointe Not reported Not reported Toxic if 47 0.09 0.24 91.49 12.3 43.9

clarkeanus Ali s al herb m Leaves/ stinal excess 7 6/

(Papilionaceae) (July- (2467- Infusion ailments, used 23.8

SK 265 August) 3611) (Oral) teeth 6

cleaning,

asthma*,

nervous

problems

Astragalus Mamol Perenni Chitral, Young Asthma, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 38 0.16 0.19 68.42 10.0 44.5

laspurensis Ali , Bin al herb Laspur twigs/ cold, flu, excess 0 1/

(Papilionaceae) (July) (4572) Decoction, throat used 19.2

SK 262 extract diseases*, 9

(Oral) diarrhea,

heart

diseases

Berberis Sumba Shrub Saifulmul Roots bark, Hypertensi Not reported Not reported Not toxic 25 0.12 0.13 80.00 4.82 25.8

orthobotrys Bien. l (May- uk stems/ on, heart 2/

ex Aitch. ssp. June) (2600- Powder rate*, 12.6

capitata Jafri 3224) (Oral) diarrhea 9

(Berberidaceae)

SK 217

Berberis Sumba Shrub Oghi, Roots/ Diabetes, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 18 0.28 0.09 100 1.89 47.8

parkeriana l (April- Bhunja Powder, constipatio 0/

Schneid June) (900- paste (Oral, n, 9.14

(Berberidaceae) 3000) topical) anticancer,

SK 219 infectious

diseases,

bone

fractures*

Berberis Kala Shrub Gilgit, On Fruits, roots Stomachic Cold, cough Berberine Not toxic 49 0.06 0.25 93.88 11.1 32.9

pseudumbellata Sumba (May- the way to (Oral) disorders, and fever (Andola et al., 8 7/

subsp. Gilgitica l June) Makra jaundice, (Singh, 2012), 2014) 24.8

Jafri (3048) sore Intestinal 7

(Berberidaceae) throat* disorders, throat

SK 267 ache (Agrawal,

2001), Fever,

backache,

jaundice, and urinary

problems

(Khan et al.,

2012), Jaundice

(Khan et al.,

2014), Stomach

problems and

ulcers (Khan

and Khatoon,

2007), Eye

diseases (Kala,

2006)

Bistorta Maslo Perenni Gali, Rhizome, Ulcer, Ulcer Not reported Toxic if 48 0.10 0.24 89.58 11.7 47.8

amplexicalulis ond, al herb Thandiani, leaves/ fever, flu, (Hamayun et excess 9 0/

(Don) Green var. Rain (June- Kaghan Powder, stomachic al., 2006), use 24.3

speciose Septem Valley decoction disorders*, Purify blood 7

(Polygonaceae) ber) (2500- (Oral, urinary (Adnan and

SK 216 4000) topical) problems Hölscher, 2010)

Calamintha Wild Perenni Dunga Whole plant/ Stomachic, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 38 0.05 0.19 94.74 6.67 14.8

hydaspidis basil al herb Gali Decoction indigestion 4/

(Falconer ex (June- (2300- (Oral) * 19.2

Beath.) Hedge Septem 3000) 9

(Lamiaceae) ber)

SK 215

Caltha alba Makan Perenni Chail Sar, Whole plant/ Insomnia, Antispasmodic, Not reported Not toxic 27 0.11 0.14 74.07 6.16 25.8

Camb. var alba path,T al herb Kaghan Decoction, smooth backache, 2/

(Ranunculaceae) hutha (June- (2700- paste, muscle costochondritis, 13.7

SK 211 July) 4300) powder spasm*, cough, cold and 1

(Oral, urinary fever (Khan et

topical) diseases al., 2015),

Laxative

(Akhtar, 2015;

Haq et al.,

2011),

Cytological

studies (Savita

et al., 2011),

Menstrual disorders,

bronchial

inflammation,

jaundice, liver

disorders,

diuretic,

cleaning skin

lesions, sores,

pain and

cramps,

antispasmodic,

used as pot-

herb, (Haq,

2012; Shad et

al., 2013),

Throat, swelling

of mouth and

tongue (Khan et

al., 2013),

Toothache

(Bano et al.,

2014)

Cortusa Not Perenni Mirajani Roots/ Anti- Not reported Not reported Not toxic 27 0.07 0.14 100 4.74 21.9

matthioli L. ssp. known al herb (2700- Powder, cancerous 8/13.

hazarica Y. (May) 3200) decoction *, tonic 71

Nasir (Oral)

(Primulaceae)

SK 220

Corydalis Chiri Annual Chitral Roots, Insomnia*, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 20 0.15 0.10 90.00 4.56 32.9

diphylla var. Pawa herb (2700- stems/ smooth excess 7/

cyrtocentra (June- 3200) Powder muscle used 10.1

(Prain) Jafri Septem (Topical) spasm, 5

(Fumariaceae) ber) fever

SK 269

Corydalis Bhutke Perenni Saifulmul Rhizome/ Pain killer, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 22 0.32 0.11 100 4.25 55.4

govaniana Wall. shi al herb uk Powder heart 9/

var. malukiana (July) (3000- (Oral) diseases, 11.1

Jafri 3224) insomnia*, 7

(Fumariaceae) headache,

SK 214 insomnia,

reduces

menstrual

and

abdominal

pain

Corydalis Cheri Perenni Siran Roots/ Urinary Not reported Not reported Not toxic 33 0.27 0.17 90.91 7.53 63.1

govaniana Wall. pawa al herb valley Powder, diseases, 9/

var. swatensis (July) (2500- extract, juice insomnia*, 16.7

(Kitam.) Jafri 3550) (Oral) skin 5

(Fumariaceae) problems,

SK 218 gastric

pain,

circulatory

problem,

mythologic

al, muscle

pain,

headache,

eyes

irritation

Corydalis Chirip Perenni Gitidas Rhizome/ Painful Not reported Not reported Not toxic 41 0.12 0.21 92.68 10.0 47.8

pakistanica Jafri awi al herb (3700) Decoction, menstruati 7 0/

(Fumariaceae) (June- powder on, 20.8

SK 222 Septem (Oral) stomach 1

ber) ulcers,

nervous

disorders*,

fever,

hernia

Corydalis Mamer Perenni Chitral Rhizome/ Hair Not reported Not reported Not toxic 37 0.05 0.19 81.08 5.84 21.9

urosepala Fedde a, al herb (3100) Decoction problems, 8/

(Fumariaceae) Chirip (May- (Oral, tonic*, 18.7

SK 270 awa July) topical) liver 8

complaints

Crotalaria Sanai Annual Batal Whole plant/ Headaches, Wounds, Flavonoids, Not toxic 50 0.06 0.25 98.00 10.5 18.6

sessiliflora L. herb (1815- Paste (Oral, scabies*, headache isoflavones, one 3 8/

subsp. (Septem 3000) topical) wounds (Roeder and flavone, 25.3

hazarensis Ali ber) Wiedenfeld, glycoside (Yoo 8

(Papilionaceae) 2009) et al., 2004),

SK 224 Monocrotaline

(Ali‐Seyed et

al., 2015),

Integerrimine,

Trichodesmine,

(Liang et al.,

1980),

Endothelium-

Dependent

Vasodilatory

and

Hypotensive

(Koh et al.,

2007)

Cynanchum Chontr Perenni Manur Latex, roots/ Tonic, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 45 0.13 0.23 91.11 9.47 51.6

jacquemontianu ook al herb (2500- Powder, vascular excess 5/

m Dcne Josh, (July) 3927) maceration, diseases*, used 22.8

(Asclepiadaceae) Bagmi decoction nervous 4

SK 228 rchi (Oral) disorder,

fever,

gastrointes

tinal

problems,

anti-

diarrheal

Delphinium Jadwar Annual Chitral, Seeds, Parasitic Not reported Not reported Toxic if 33 0.17 75.76 6.95 36.8

nordhagenii herb Barum leaves/ worms in excess 0.12 1/

Wende lbo (July- (4500) Powder alimentary used 16.7

(Ranunculaceae) August) (Topical) canal*, 5

SK 268 vomiting,

fever,

urinary

problems

Delphinium Mohri Perenni Palas Roots, Cold, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 27 0.41 0.14 96.30 2.84 70.8

palasianum al herb valley seeds, cough, excess 8/

Rubina Rafique (August (2400- leaves/ antidote to used 13.7

(Ranunculaceae) ) 3100) Powder, snake bite, 1

SK 230 paste (Oral, wounds,

topical) diarrhea,

abdominal

pain*,

fever,

vomiting,

stomachic,

parasitic

worms in

alimentary

canal,

ulcer

Dicliptera Kalu Perenni Galiat, Leaves, Indigestio Headache, Not reported Not toxic 18 0.39 0.09 100 6.00 55.4

bupleuroides var. ghu, al herb Abbottaba seeds/ n, wounds, sores 9/

ciliata Malik & Kaali (Whole d (1200- Powder, wounds*, between fingers 9.14

A. Ghafoor but year) 3150) decoction ulcer, (Malek et al.,

(Acanthaceae) (Oral, cough 2014),

SK 221 topical) intestine Dysentery

infection, (Bhatt et al.,

skin and 2013)

eye

diseases

Draba setosa Not Annual On the Whole plant/ Remove Not reported Not reported Not toxic 23 0.04 0.12 91.30 3.23 10.9

Royle known herb way to Decoction scurvy 9/

(Brassicaceae) (May- Babusar (Oral) 11.6

SK 272 July) top 8

(3100-

4000)

Elymus borianus Shaka Perenni Kaghan Roots/ Juice Urinary Not reported Not reported Not toxic 17 0.12 0.09 88.24 3.58 14.8

(Meld.) T. A. al herb valley (Oral) diseases, 4/

Cope (July- (1800- urinary 8.63

(Poaceae) August) 3000) tract

SK 283 infectious

disease*

Elymus dentatus Thora Perenni Gilgit Roots, Tonic, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 17 0.24 0.09 58.82 4.18 43.9

(Hook.f.) T. A. tharag al herb (3000- leaves/ kidney 6/

Cope hrija (July- 5000) Powder, problems, 8.63

(Poaceae) August) decoction, liver and

SK 281 juice (Oral, urinary

topical) disorders*

Elymus russellii Not Perenni Karakoru Roots/ Skin Not reported Not reported Not toxic 28 0.07 0.14 78.57 4.42 21.9

(Meld.) TA. known al herb m Decoction problems, 8/

Cope (3000- (Oral) tonic 14.2

(Poaceae) 3500) 1

SK 280

Epipogium Not Perenni Thandiani Leaves/ Malaria*, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 38 0.05 0.19 100 2.00 21.9

tuberosum known al herb (1500- Decoction cough 8/

Duthie (August 3200) (Oral) 19.2

(Orchidaceae) - 9

SK 227 Septem

ber)

Galium Tha Perenni Nathia Leaves/ Skin Wounds Not reported Toxic if 49 0.06 0.25 75.51 9.46 32.9

asperifolium Kargh al herb Gali Paste, juice problems*, (Shrestha and excess 7/

Wall. var. Makoo (July- (2200- (Oral, urinary Joshi, 1993), used 24.8

obovatum Nazim kha, Septem 3000) topical) diseases, Hepatitis and 7

(Rubiaceae) ber) fever phlebophlogosis

SK 231 (Suyal et al.,

2010), Jaundice

(Ohsawa,

1987), Tumor,

microbial

infections, and

inflammations

(Jan et al.,

2016), Gout and

epilepsy

(Khuroo et al.,

2007)

Galium Ganal, Perenni Dunga Whole plant/ Warm Not reported Not reported Not toxic 49 0.04 0.25 91.84 7.74 21.9

subfalcatum al herb Gali Paste infection*, 8/

Nazim. & (July- (2200- (Topical) skin 24.8

Ehrend August) 3100) problems 7

(Rubiaceae)

SK 235

Galium Tha Perenni Jachaa Roots/ Stomachic Not reported Not reported Toxic if 33 0.09 0.17 66.67 8.11 32.9

tetraphyllum Kargh al herb (1200- Decoction *, excess 7/

Nazim. & Makoo (July- 3500) (Oral) urinary used 16.7

Ehrend kha August) diseases, 5

(Rubiaceae)

SK 223 skin

problems

Gentianodes Shotay Biennial Makra, Whole plant/ Bronchitis, Jaundice (Khan Not reported Toxic if 47 0.13 0.24 95.74 12.3 44.5

eumarginata var. Lileo herb Sari hut Paste (Oral, liver and Khatoon, excess 7 1/

harrissii (Omer (May- (2500- topical) problems, 2008) used 23.8

et al.) August) 3700) throat 6

(Gentianaceae) problems*,

SK 227 abdominal

disorders,

cough,

jaundice

Gentianodes Kamal Biennial Below Leaves/ Blood Not reported Not reported Toxic if 45 0.16 0.23 93.33 6.32 55.4

nasirii Omer, Ali ay herb Makra Powder, purificatio excess 9/

& Qaiser Char (June) (3300) paste (Oral, n, eye used 22.8

(Gentianaceae) topical) problems, 4

SK 229 diabetes,

hair

elongation,

gastric

troubles,

pneumoni

a, typhoid

fever*

Gentianodes Neel Perenni Musalla, Leaves/ Throat Not reported Not reported Toxic if 53 0.09 0.27 62.26 12.0 40.6

cachemirica Kanth al herb Kagan Paste (Oral, problems*, excess 9 6/

(Decne.) Omer, (August (2500- topical) indigestion used 26.9

Ali & Qaiser ) 4200) s, cough, 0

(Gentianaceae) pneumoni

SK 240 a, malarial

fever

Hackelia Jishay Perenni Ayubia, Leaves/ Wounds*, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 42 0.05 0.21 100 6.63 21.9

macrophylla al herb Naran Paste, coughs 8/

(Brand) I.M. (June- (1900- decoction 21.3

Johnston July) 3550) (Oral, 2

(Boraginaceae) topical)

SK 224

Impatiens Atrang Annual Shumlai, Seeds, aerial Antibacter Diuretic, tonic Methyl- Toxic if 56 0.07 0.28 91.07 11.7 43.9

bicolor Royle ai herb Murree parts/ ial, tonic, and has cooling 4hydroxyl excess 9 6/

subsp. urinary cinnamate, used

pseudobicolor (June- (1700- Powder diseases*, effect (Gilani et stigmasterol, 28.4

(Grey-Wilson) July) 3100) (Oral) cooling al., 2006) stigmasterol 3- 3

Y. Nasir effect O-glucoside

(Balsaminaceae) and -Sitosterol

SK 222 (Mughal

Qayum et al.,

2013)

Ferulic acid

(Shahwar et al.,

2010),

Glycosides:

naringenin 40-

O-β-D-

glucopyranosid

e, kaempferol

7O-β-D-

glucuronopyran

oside, quercetin

3-O-β-D-

glucopyranosid

e, kaempferol

5-O-β-D-

xylopyranoside,

kaempferol 3-

O-β-D-

galactopyranosi

de and

kaempferol 7-

O-β-D-

xylopyranoside

(Hasan and

Tahir, 2005)

Inula royaleana Chupat Perenni Sari hut, Roots, Lowering Hypertension Sesquiterpene Toxic if 37 0.240.19 89.19 9.0963.1

DC i al herb Galiat rhizome/ hypertensio (Haq et al., lactones of excess 9/

(Asteraceae) Phoon (July- (2000- Powder, n, 2011), eudesmane type used 18.7

SK 226 ar Septem 3500) paste (Oral, headache, Inflammation (Bohlmann et 8

ber) topical) wounds, (Shah et al., al., 1978),

throat 2012), Abietane

sores, Dermatitis, diterpenes

fever, throat sores (Bhat et al.,

inflammati (Qurishi, 1986), 1975),

on of skin, Aromatic, tonic, Diterpene

intestinal diaphoretic, alkaloids

problems, diuretic and (Hegnauer,

anti- expectorant 1964),

allergic, (Jan et al., Biological

skin 2009) activities

infectious insecticidal

diseases* (Jennings et al.,

1986), Insect

repellant

(Ulubelen et al.,

2001),

Antimicrobial

(Yang et al.,

2001), Anti-

inflammatory

(Dirsch et al.,

2000),

Antiproliferativ

e against

different cancer

cell lines

(Lawrence et

al., 2001),

Neuromuscular

blocking

properties

(Edwards and

Rodger, 1959)

Jasminum Nik Perenni Bangah, Roots, Urinary Fumigant Not reported Not toxic 15 0.200.08 86.67 1.8425.8

leptophyllum al herb Palas leaves/ diseases, against fleas, 2/

Rubina Rafique (August (1500- Decoction causing against lice in 7.61

(Oleaceae) ) 3100) (Oral) vomiting*, cattle (Saqib

SK 228 parasitic and Sultan,

worms in 2005)

alimentary

canal

Juncus elegans Rush Annual Naran Leaves, Causing Not reported Not reported Not toxic 19 0.05 0.10 ___ 2.67 10.9

Royle ex Buchen herb (2700- whole plant/ vomiting* 9/

(Juncaceae) (July- 3550) Decoction 9.64

SK 271 Septem (Oral)

ber)

Lavatera Perenni Mahandri, Flowerss, Irritation Treatment of Not reported Toxic if 46 0.09 0.23 97.83 4.04 29.6

cachemiriana al herb Dung gli seeds leaves of mumps in excess 7/

Camb var. (June- (2200- / Paste alimentary children used 23.3

haroonii July) 3550) (Oral, canal and (Jeelani et al., 5

S.Abedin topical) respirator 2013)

(Malvaceae) y tract,

SK 234 constipatio

n, skin

infectious

diseases,

mumps*

(viral

disease)

Lepidium Haloon Shrub Siri Leaves, Headache* Uterine Not reported Not toxic 43 0.07 0.22 97.67 9.05 32.9

capitatum (May- (3100) seeds/ Paste, , stimulant 7/

Hook.f. &Thoms June) powder depression (Cordell, 2015) 21.8

(Brassicaceae) (Oral, , bone 3

SK 273 topical) fractures

Meconopsis Gauri Perenni Shinger, Roots, Fever*, Swelling of legs Not reported Toxic if 35 0.20 0.18 94.29 0.00 55.4

aculeata Royle Kun in al herb Bhunja leaves/ backache, after excess 9/

(Papaverceae) india (June- (3600) Powder, stiffness, long distance used 17.7

SK 233 August) paste (Oral, colic, walking, 7

topical) fractures, narcotic and

narcotic poisonous

(Kumar and

Singhal, 2013; Singh and Chauhan,

2005), Fever

(Sekar and

Rawat, 2011),

Analgesic,

chronic, renal pain, tonic,

narcotic and

febrifuge (Baig

et al., 2014),

Headache

(Singh and

Rawat, 2011)

Neottia inayatii Not Annual Bhurj Leaves, Cramp, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 32 0.38 0.16 87.50 7.86 74.7

(Duthie) known herb (1700) roots/ urinary 3/

Beauverd (July) Decoction, diseases*, 16.2

(Orchidaceae) Juice (Oral) tonic, 4

SK 236 parasitic

worms in

alimentary

canal,

joints

pain, anti-

allergenic,

kidney

problems,

skin

problems,

dandruff,

diarrhea,

mouth and

throat

infectious

disease

Otostegia Chitti Annual Nathia Leaves/ Gum Not reported Not reported Not toxic 52 0.08 0.26 61.54 12.7 36.8

limbata (Benth.) pataki, herb gali Powder, diseases, 7 1/

Boiss Booi (April- (500- Infusion sore 26.4

(Lamiaceae) May) 3000) (Oral) throat, 0

SK 238 eye

diseases,

wounds*

Oxytropis Aeani Annual Chitral Stems, Wounds, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 31 0.10 0.16 93.55 5.98 25.8

Chitralensis Ali buti , herb (3700) rhizome/ broken excess 2/

(Papilionaceae) (June- Paste bones*, used 15.7

SK 274 July) (Topical) toothache 4

Pimpinella Watani Perenni Balakot Roots/ Indigestio Not reported Not reported Not toxic 39 0.13 0.20 89.74 10.2 40.6

stewartii (Dunn) kag al herb (700- Powder, n, 6 6/

E. Nasir (August 3000) decoction gastrointes 19.8

(Apiaceae) - (Oral) tinal 0

SK 231 Septem problems*,

ber) flu, fever,

stomach

diseases

Potentilla Kunac Shrub Naran- Leaves, Fever, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 52 0.12 0.26 96.15 11.8 58.7

bennehalensis hi (July) Saifulmul roots/ diarrhea*, excess 6 9/

Cambess uk Powder, painful used 26.4

(Rosaceae) (2000- decoction menstrual, 0

SK 237 3550) (Oral, ulcers, eye

topical) and skin

inflammati

on

Potentilla Gesg Perenni Chitta Leaves/ Stop Stop bleeding, Not reported Not toxic 57 0.05 0.29 89.47 17.0 25.8

curviseta Hook f. gul al herb Katha Infusion, bleeding*, snake and 0 2/

(Rosaceae) (June- (3000- extract snake and centipede bite 28.9

SK 235 August) 4000) (Oral) centipede (Kayani et al., 3

bite 2015)

Potentilla Tarqan Annual Nila, Leaves/ Kidney Not reported Not reported Not toxic 17 0.18 0.09 94.12 3.88 32.9

pteropoda Royle , herb Kaghan Decoction, problems, 7/

(Rosaceae) Troma (June- (4000- powder joints 18.6

SK 231 August) 5000) (Oral) pain, 3

Diarrhea*

Primula Raam Perenni Bhunja, Leaves, Headache* Not reported Not reported Not toxic 38 0.13 0.19 100 9.33 47.8

hazarica Duthie Totia al herb Saral flowers/ , urinary 0/

(Primulaceae) (July- (3300- Decoction, aliment, 19.2

SK 245 August) 4300) juice (Oral) liver 9

problem,

diabetes,

pulmonary

disease

Pyrola Not Perenni Upper Leaves/ Epilepsy, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 52 0.23 0.26 73.08 12.7 96.1

rotundifolia known al herb Kaghan Powder, cardio- 7 5/

(Linn.) subsp. (June- (3500- decoction, tonic*, 26.4

karakoramica July) 4200) poultice nervous 0

(Krisa) Y. Nasir (Oral) afflictions,

(Pyrolaceae) skin

SK 244 infectious

diseases,

urinary

diseases,

eye related

complaints

, joints and

muscles

pain,

smooth

muscle

spasm,

skin

problems,

insomnia,

skin

problems,

as a gargle

Rosularia Warkh Perenni Bkt, Whole plant/ Skin Inflammations Not reported Not toxic 39 0.05 0.20 89.74 6.84 21.9

adenotricha aray al herb Purana Juice, paste problems, (Kumar et al., 8/

(Wall. Ex (May- Gora (Oral, applied on 2015) 19.8

Edgew.)Jansson July) (1900- topical) burns* 0

& Rh ssp. 4500)

chtralica GRS

(Crassulaceae)

SK 253

Rumex crispellus Tarook Perenni Naran- Roots, Joints and Not reported Not reported Toxic if 52 0.17 0.26 80.77 10.0 84.6

Rech.f ay al herb Kaghan seeds/ muscles excess 4 2/

(Polygonaceae) (June- (2700- Extract, pain, skin used 26.4

SK 251 August) 3600) infusion, problems*, 0

juice, tonic,

poultice jaundice,

(Oral, lung

topical) diseases,

intestine

infection,

blood purificatio

n,

constipatio

n

Salix denticulata Terik, Perenni Lachi Leaves/ Joints and Used as fodder Flavone Not toxic 39 0.05 0.20 97.44 6.16 21.9

subsp. hazarica Biara al herb mali, Powder, muscles (Samant et al., di glucoside 8/

(R. Parker) Ali (March- Mokshp juice (Oral) pain*, 2007), Cure (Nautiyal et al., 19.8

(Salicaceae) April) (2300- fever rheumatism, 2001) 0

SK 257 3500) fever, and

diarrhea

(Nautiyal et al.,

2001), Fever,

headache,

paralysis,

itching and

allergy (Khan

and Khatoon,

2007)

Scutellaria Lasht Perenni Manda Roots, Insomnia*, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 14 0.93 0.07 100 3.68 100.

chamaedrifolia thespi al herb Gucha, leaves/ bronchitis, 00/

Hedge & Paton (April- Chatar Infusion, smooth 7.11

(Lamiaceae) June) (1500- decoction, muscle

SK 252 3000) paste, juice spasm,

(Oral, menstruati

topical) on,

epilepsy,

diarrhea,

headaches,

cut wound, urinary

tract

infectious

disease, joints and

muscles

pain,

hypertensi

on, skin

problems

Silene Mango Perenni Chitral Whole plant/ Eye Not reported Not reported Not toxic 46 0.04 0.23 91.30 7.26 21.9

longisepala E. tai al herb (2743- Juice (Oral) trouble*, 8/

Nasir (June- 3250) stomachac 23.3

(Caprifoliaceae) August) he 5

SK 280

Sophora mollis Beshu, Shrub Malkandi, Whole plant/ Wounds, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 30 0.33 0.15 86.67 3.68 67.0

(Royle) ssp. Kath, (April- Kaiwai Decoction, cooling, excess 3/

Mollis Khakh Septem (2750- powder, urinary used 15.2

(Papilionaceae) u ber) 3000) poultice infection, 3

SK 287 (Oral, urinary

topical) diseases*,

diarrhea,

sun burn,

fever

intestine

infection,

constipatio

n, pimples

Spiraea hazarica Kurku Perenni Makra Leaves, Diarrhea, Not reported Not reported Not 57 0.11 0.29 78.95 10.0 51.6

R N Parker n, al herb way, Siran roots/ intestine Toxic 0 5/

(Rosaceae) Mole (July) (3000) Infusion, infection, 28.9

SK 256 decoction leucorrhoe 3

(Oral) a. tonic,

stomach*,

infectious

disease

Swertia Tikta Perenni Naran, Leaves, Fever, Not reported Not reported Toxic if 39 0.08 0.20 84.62 7.53 32.9

thomsonii Clarke al herb Saifulmlk stems/ stomach excess 7/

(Gentianaceae) (Jul- (2500- Decoction disorder*, used 19.8

SK 260 Novemb 3000) (Oral) tonic 0

er)

Thalictrum Kamas Shrub Galiat, Roots/ Tonic, Not reported Not reported Not toxic 39 0.10 0.20 94.87 8.21 43.9

secundum var. la Thandiani Decoction, fever, 6/

hazaricum H. mamm (2400- infusion joints and 19.8

Riedl era 3250) (Oral) muscles 0

(Ranunculaceae) pain,

SK 258 gastrointes

tinal

problems*

Valeriana Muksh Shrub Skardo Roots/ Juice Headache* Not reported Not reported Toxic if 52 0.06 0.26 94.23 9.12 32.9

clarkei Briq bala (June- (2700- (Oral) , excess 7/

(Valerianaceae) August) 3600) hypertensi used 26.4

SK 278 on, 0

gastrointes

tinal

problems

Vincetoxicum Not Perenni Bhunja Whole plant/ Constipati Wounds, Antitumor Toxic if 44 0.18 0.22 68.18 13.1 59.3

arnottianum known al herb (1700- Decoction, on, injuries, evaluation excess 2 4/

Wight (April- 3000) poultice malaria, Maggots in (Engel et al., used 22.3

(Asclepiadaceae) June) (Oral, gastritis*, wounds of 2016) 4

SK 261 topical) asthma, cattle, horses

skin (Engel et al.,

problems, 2016), Skin

ulcer, disorders (Shah

cholera, et al., 2016)

wounds


3.2.6 Quantitative analysis of ethnomedicinal information

Several ethnobotanical indices were employed to evaluate the medicinal plants use in

alpine and sub alpine regions of northern Pakistan.

3.2.6.1 Use Value (UV) and Use Report (UR)

High UV value (0.93) was observed in Scutellaria chamaedrifolia followed by

Delphinium palasianum (0.41) that indicates the most consumed endemic medicinal plants

against different diseases. The minimum UV value (0.12) was observed in Delphinium

nordhagenii followed by Draba setosa (0.04) amongst other which shows that the traditional

uses of these plants have not been preserved. Few studied have been undertaken on the

quantitative approaches of medicinal plants in the country, but this is the first quantitative

ethnobotanical report on the endemic medicinal plants of this region (Khan et al., 2015,

Abbasi et al., 2013., Mahmood et al., 2012; Bibi et al., 2014; Saqib et al., 2013; Yaseen et al.,

2014) but in previously published works there is a clear difference in quantitative values. For

example, in our findings the use value for Caltha alba (0.11), this endemic medicinal plant is

also reported by Kayani et al., (2015) but with different use value that of 0.23. The study

conducted by Kayani et al., (2015) reported that Solanum virginianum (05), Sisymbrium

erysimoides and Saxifraga hirculus were the most cited plants while in the study of Bano et

al., (2014) Matricaria chamomilla has the highest value (0.91) followed by Atriplex

canescens (0.88). In other parts of the country for example Mahmood et al., (2012) quantified

that highest use value was 1.00 for Artemisia macrocerphala and Saussuria lappa followed

by Valeriana jatamansi with 0.99 UV. The difference in ratios was due to variation in

climatic condition of area and its vegetation (Table 11).

Maximum Use Report (UR) was reported for Scutellaria chamaedrifolia (13), followed

by Neottia inayatii (12) and minimum UR was observed in Cortusa matthioli ssp. hazarica,

Elymus borianus and Androsace hazarica (2 UR each). Common uses of plants like Scutellaria

chamaedrifolia are sedative, antispasmodic, used to cure bronchitis, menstruation, epilepsy and

diarrhea while Neottia inayatii as anti-spasmodic, diuretic, tonic, anthelmintic, anti-rheumatic,

anti-allergenic, antidandruff, also used to remove kidney stones, cure skin problems, diarrhea,

mouth and throat infections. In case of endemic medicinal plants of alpine and sub alpine regions

of northern Pakistan, important uses of Valeriana clarkei include uses against headache,

hypertension and a carminative. Local people used Aconitum curvipilum potently



against neurological disorders, tonic, fever and as diuretic. Berberis orthobotrys was used to

cure hypertension, heart problem and diarrhea. Primula hazarica was used to cure Headache,

urinary aliment, liver problem, diabetes and pulmonary disease. Thalictrum secundum var.

hazaricum was used for the treatment of gastrointestinal and rheumatism problems, as a tonic

and to reduce fever. Swertia thomsonii was used as a tonic and for relieving from fever and

stomach disorder. Otostegia limbata was used for curing gum diseases, sore throat, eye

disorders and wounds (Table 11).

3.2.6.2 Fidelity Level (FL)

It indicates informants’ consensus about therapeutic uses of medicinal plants. In this

study nine endemic medicinal plants have a 100% fidelity level. Three of them were used to treat

muscular disorders (Berberis parkeriana, Dicliptera bupleuroides, Hackelia macrophylla), three

species for nervous disorders (Corydalis govaniana, Primula hazarica, Scutellaria

chamaedrifolia), two species for infectious diseases (Aquilegia nivalis, Epipogium tuberosum),

Cortusa matthioli as anti-cancerous. Traditional uses of medicinal plants have still their own

value among the people though they have access to government health care system. Among these

plants, some can be found with minimum FL used to treat various ailments. Here are some

examples Elymus dentatus is known as a tonic but has not been previously reported as a treatment

for kidney, liver and urinary disorders and Aegopodium burttii (Fever, tonic). Juncus elegans was

among those which are used to treat single disease (Table 11).

3.2.6.3 Frequency of citation (FC) and Relative Frequency Citation (RFC)

FC is used to calculate the consensus of herbal species used for the treatment of

various disorders based on the number of informants citing the species. In the present study,

the highest FC was observed in Potentilla curviseta and Spiraea hazarica (57 each) and

lowest in Androsace hazarica (12) (Table 10). Previously, folked used Potentilla curviseta is

to stop bleeding as an antidote for snake and centipede bite (Kayani et al., 2015) and other

species of Potentilla reported to heal wounds, treat fever, diarrhea and used stomach ache (Bano

et al., 2015). While, Spiraea hazarica was a newly recorded species for curing diarrhea, stomach

disorders and infectious disease. Also, it has not been studied regarding preclinical study. From


123


present report, Androsace hazarica had low FC value. This situation may be due to its dominant

endemic nature resulting in less common plant and not easily accessible to the informants.

In this investigation, the RFC ranges between 0.06 to 0.29. The plants with the highest

RFC were Potentilla curviseta and Spiraea hazarica (0.29 each) and lowest was found for

Androsace hazarica (0.06) (Table 10). The most important plant species based on RFC were

Spiraea hazarica, Potentilla curviseta, Impatiens bicolor and Gentianodes cachemirica. The

reason behind their maximum RFC values may be their use in traditional herbal formulation

and majority of the informants agreed they are most popular and valuable medicinal species.

Based on the literature review, this is the first report on the medicinal use of endemic species

for the quantitative and qualitative ethnobotanical research in the alpine and sub-alpine region

of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan because of this it was difficult to match the

quantitative data within the regions or in in other parts of Pakistan. However, only one report

on endemic medicinal plant from different region (Balochistan) has been documented

previously. Bibi at al., (2015) calculated the highest RFC value for Achillea millefolium

(0.19) followed by Xylanthemum macropodum and Astragalus lowarensis (with 0.1each) and

least RFC was recoded for B. sindica (0.02) from the Balochistan. All these endemic plant

species were different from the taxa including in the present study due to different

phytogeographical region (Table 11).

3.2.6.4 Family importance value (FIV)

FIV indicates the most common families of endemic plants as Balsaminaceae was

found so the dominant family with 81% FIV, Pyrolaceae (75%), Polygonaceae (72%),

Caprifoliaceae, Crassulaceae and Gentianaceae (67% each). While the least value of FIV was

recorded for Oleaceae (22%) (Figure 11). This could be attributed that for treating various

diseases maximum people report for the species of the family that are in common use. Bibi et

al., (2015) reported, Fabaceae as the dominant family for endemic medicinal plants and the

results described in current research are contrary to previous study due to the variation in

phytographic regions. Malik et al., (2018) from Northern Pakistan documented the

Salvadoraceae as dominant family with FIV (86.8) and Ephedraceae with (67.5). The present

findings differ from the previously reported research because of endemic medicinal plants.


124


3.2.6.5 Cultural Significance Index (CSI)

In some community the cultural importance of some species is revealed by Cultural

Significance index (Silva et al., 2016). Maximum CSI value was reported in Potentilla

curviseta (17.00). Vincetoxicum arnottianum was 2nd

with CSI value (13.12) while,

Otostegia limbata and Pyrola rotundifolia were in third rank both with CSI value (12.77).

These species have accumulated a lot of traditional knowledge that has been transmitted

through direct experience over time in sub alpine and alpine regions (Kayani et al., 2015,

Engel et al., 2016, Shah et al., 2016). The Native community recognized that Potentilla

curviseta is not a toxic plant and can be used without hesitation. Minimum CSI values was

observed in Jasminum leptophyllum (1.84). Cultural importance of species was based on their

utilization. The application of CSI measurement in this study in fact can provide additional

information which is very likely to useful for the cultural context of their use or further study

on the relationship between the cultural models of diseases (Table 11).

3.2.6.6 Relative Importance (RI)

The Relative Importance (RI) is based on the number of body systems treated by a plant

species and the number of diseases treated. In the present work, it ranged from 10 to 100. The

Highest RI was found for Scutellaria chamaedrifolia, while the lowest was accounted by

Juncus elegans. The high relative importance (RI) might be an indication of its high

affordability and availability in the study area. Thus, important medicinal taxa showing

versatility in handling various disorders of the human body systems in the present study

include Scutellaria chamaedrifolia, Pyrola rotundifolia, Artemisia amygdalina, Rumex

crispellus and Anemone obtusiloba (Table 11). However, it was distinguished that present

usage of endemic medicinal plants may or may not be the same as indicated from neighboring

regions and in rest of the world. Previously, Khan at al., (2015) described relative importance

for the medicinal uses of edible wild fruits in Swat Valley, Northern Pakistan and reported the

most versatile EWFs (RI=51) Vitis vinifera, being cited for cardiovascular disorders,

antioxidant and preservative agent Torres et al., (2002) and Torres and Bobet (2001) followed

by Punica granatum (RI=45.4), citied for hyperglycemic activity, antioxidant and

antimicrobial activity (Kim et al., 2002; Lansky and Newman, 2007).


Family importance value (FIV) of endemic medicinal plants

81.16

75.36 72.46

64.49

66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67 63.29

60.87

59.13

53.62 56.52

51.45 52.90

50.24 50.72 50.72 51.21

44.44 44.35 45.25

37.20

29.95

26.09 27.54

21.74

Families

Figure 11: Family importance value (FIV) of endemic medicinal plants into study area


3.2.6.7 Consensus index (CI)

Highest Consensus indices were observed in Spiraea hazarica, Potentilla curviseta

(28.9%) each, and Impatiens bicolor (28.4%) followed by Gentianodes nasirii, Valeriana

clarkei, Pyrola rotundifolia, Potentilla bennehalensis, Otostegia limbata and Rumex

crispellus, (26.40%) each. Most consensus index from Manoor Valley (Northern Himalaya)

for Rumex dentatus (57.7%) was reported previously by Rahman et al., (2016). However, for

eighteen endemic medicinal plant species consensus index value ranged from 25.38% ≤ to ≤

20.81% and lowest CI value was observed for Androsace hazarica (6.09%). Current study

displays compatibility of the results of different indices indicating at parallel outcome, e.g.

FC and RFC value shows high consensus for Spiraea hazarica, Potentilla curviseta and

Impatiens bicolor citied by the informants. Importance of family Balsaminaceae and

Rosaceae was also shown by highest FIV value for these families. Whereas, CI indicates

consensus on the importance of these endemic medicinal plant for various disorders in the

alpine and subalpine regions of Northern Pakistan (Table 11).

3.2.6.8 Informant consensus factor (ICF)

ICF has been calculated in previously published study for the 19 disease categories

among which the highest value was observed 0.54 while the lowest value was reported 0.14

(Khan et al., 2015). In our study the ICF values were in between 0.13 and 0.50. Antidote

diseases had the highest ICF (0.50). They were followed by gastrointestinal diseases (0.45),

respiratory disorders (0.39), nervous disorders (0.39) and glandular disorders (0.31) (Table

12). Diseases category have the highest ICF values in most of previously published studies

such as Algeria, Tunisia (Leporatti and Ghedira,2009), Morocco (El-Hilaly et al.,2003), Italy

(Dei Casetal.,2015; Tuttolomondo et al., 2014a, 2014b) and Spain (Benítez etal., 2010). The

highest values of ICF for antidote may be explained by the fact that relative clinical signs are

common and are more easily identified by the traditional healers.

Interestingly gastrointestinal diseases have the 2nd highest ICF which could be high

incidence of the disease in the studied area. High ICF values of endemic medicinal plants

confirming that for the management of common disorder people want to use more medicinal

plants (Urso et al., 2016). Similarly, highest ICF value indicates that the medicinal plants are

assumed to be affected in the treatment of certain disorders (Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu, 2010).


127


The lowest ICF values (0.00) recorded for anti-allergic, cardiovascular, kidney problems, eye

diseases, hair related problems, sexual diseases and tonic followed by diuretic (0.13) last five

diseases category with lowest ICF (0.00) have also been reported by Khan et al., 2015. Eye

disorder category having lowest ICF (0.00). In most of the previously published studies

similar results were observed (Bibi et al., 2014a, 2015b and Khan et al., 2015). Lowest ICF

values for disease categories, could be attributed to the cultural development (Al-Qura’n,

2009). Interestingly, our finding about ICF value for gastrointestinal diseases category (0.45)

are the same as reported by Bibi et al., 2015.

Table 12: Disease categories and their ICF

S.no. Disease category No. of % age of No. of % age of ICF

diseases disease report taxa taxa

1. Anti-allergic 2 0.67 2 2.90 0.00 2. Antidote 3 1.01 2 2.90 0.50

3. Cardiovascular 14 4.71 14 20.29 0.00

4. Dermatological problems 31 10.44 22 31.88 0.30

5. Urinary diseases 17 5.72 15 21.74 0.13

6. Ear, nose and throat 9 3.03 7 10.14 0.25

diseases (ENT)

7. Eye diseases 7 2.36 7 10.14 0.00

8. Gastrointestinal diseases 65 21.89 36 52.17 0.45

9. Glandular disorders 14 4.71 10 14.49 0.31

10. Hair related problems 3 1.01 3 4.35 0.00

11. Infectious diseases 35 11.78 29 42.03 0.18

12. Kidney problems problems 5 1.68 5 7.25 0.00

13. Muscular disorders 24 8.08 18 26.09 0.26

14. Nervous disorders 24 8.08 15 21.74 0.39

15. Respiratory disorders 24 8.08 15 21.74 0.39

16. Sexual diseases 6 2.02 6 8.70 0.00

17. Tonic 14 4.71 14 20.29 0.00

297 100 220 100 0.18* * = Mean of ICF

3.2.7 Phytochemical constituent and Pharmacological evidence of endemic medicinal

plants

The literature review found that from all documented medicinal plants only six endemic

medicinal plants had already been validated for active phytochemical compounds and

pharmacological activities in relation to folk uses (Table 11). For example, Berberis

pseudumbellata was used by local communities for the treatment of various ailments such as

cold, cough, backache, urinary problems, jaundice, stomach problems and eye diseases (Sing

2012; Khan et al., 2012; Khan and Khatoon, 2007; Kala, 2006). Berberis pseudumbellata was

also investigated for phytochemicals and it contains Berberine (Andola et al., 2014). Crotalaria

sessiliflora is traditionally used to cure wounds and headache (Roeder and Wiedenfeld, 2009).

Crotalaria sessiliflora its phytochemicals constituents are, Flavonoids, isoflavones, one


128

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flavone, glycoside (Yoo et al., 2004), Monocrotaline (Ali‐Seyed et al., 2015), Integerrimine,

Trichodesmine, (Liang et al., 1980), and its pharmacological activities are Endothelium-

Dependent Vasodilatory and Hypotensive (Koh et al., 2007). Previous reports on traditional

usage of Impatiens bicolor suggest its efficacy against tonic and as a diuretic (Gilani et al.,

2006) and its phytochemical are Ferulic acid (Shahwar et al., 2010), Methyl-4hydroxyl

cinnamate, stigmasterol, stigmasterol 3-O-glucoside and -Sitosterol (Qayum et al., 2013),

Glycosides: kaempferol 7O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, naringenin 40-O-β-D-

glucopyranoside, kaempferol 5-O-β-D-xylopyranoside, quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside,

kaempferol 7-O-β-D-xylopyranoside and kaempferol 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside (Hasan and

Tahir, 2005). Presence of these phytochemical might be responsible for different

pharmacological studies (Table 10).

Salix denticulata is traditionally used for treating rheumatism, fever, and diarrhea

(Nautiyal et al., 2001); headache, paralysis, itching and allergy (Khan and Khatoon, 2007), its

phytochemical is Flavone di glucoside was also reported (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Vincetoxicum

arnottianum is used for injuries, maggots in wounds of cattle, horses (Engel et al., 2016), skin

disorders (Shah et al., 2016) and for antitumor evaluation (Engel et al., 2016). Inula royaleana

traditionaly was traditionally used to treat dermatitis, throat sores (Qurishi, 1986), hypertension

(Haq et al., 2011), inflammation (Shah et al., 2012), used as aromatic, tonic, diaphoretic, diuretic

and expectorant (Jan et al., 2009) and contain various constituents including Sesquiterpene

lactones of eudesmane type (Bohlmann et al., 1978), Abietane diterpenes (Bhat et al., 1975),

Diterpene alkaloids (Hegnauer, 1964), and was also reported to have antimicrobial (Yang et al.,

2001), Anti-inflammatory (Dirsch et al., 2000), antiproliferative potential against different cancer

cell lines (Lawrence et al., 2001), neuromuscular blocking properties (Edwards and Rodger,

1959) and insecticidal activities (Jennings et al., 1986 and Ulubelen et al., 2001). It is evident that

most of the phytochemical are liked with particular biological activity. Much work has been done

on ethno-pharmacological aspects in past but there are no references available that show

correlation between the chemical composition of plants and their pharmacological properties of

the mentioned plants. So that these plants are therefore recommended for future studies using

advanced pharmacological experimental techniques for drug development. In previous literature

about phytochemistry of these species, many compounds have been identified as the bioactive

compounds that possess anti-hyperglycemic activities which supports the fact that most of the

phytochemicals are associated with biological activity (Adebajo et al., 2013; Verpoorte and

Memelink, 2002) (Table11).


129



































3.2.8 Ethnomedicinal evidence of endemic medicinal plants

Use of medicinal plants by the traditional people against various ailments is a

common practice throughout the world. Comparing with published literature it is found that

from present study 14 of them had previously been reported in other studies and have strong

ethno-medicinal evidences but not yet pharmacologically validated. Several ethnobotanical

studies have been carried out throughout the world to explore the indigenous phytotherapy

against different diseases but comparing with previously reported ethno-medicinal study it

was found that current ethno-medicinal data varies in respect of use report and part used.

Many plants are first time reported for example Anemone falconeri used by traditional healers

and informants of the study area for skin spots and wounds healing. Whereas, the literature

survey suggested, different uses like cold, fever, gastritis (Gairola et al., 2014), moreover also

documented for headaches and rheumatic gout (Bhat et al., 2014).

Anemone obtusiloba has been reported as a multipurpose medicinal plant by local

community members from present study area for the treatment of kidney problems, jaundice,

baldness, fever, menstrual complaints, sores, spleen disorders, improves eyesight, skin

complaints, joints and muscles pain. Previously, Anemone obtusiloba wasreported from different

regions of Pakistan also from rest of the world as a medicinal as well as a poisonous plant (Xiang

et al., 2009; Cao et al., 2013). Cytology of A. obtusiloba is studied by Mehra and Remanandan

(1972), Griggs et al. (2001) and Vashistha, (2009) cited A. obtusiloba in relations to coughs and

colds, Vaidya and Joshi. (2003) reported A. obtusiloba for rheumatism whereas, Rokaya et al.

(2010) mentioned it for indigestion and insecticide. Many researchers reported Aquilegia

fragrans for various disorders except pneumonia, headache and jaundice which clearly shows

that the current uses of this endemic medicinal plant are novel one (Table 11). Previously,

Aquilegia fragrans is cited for different medicinal uses viz snake bite, body pains, boil (Singh,

2012), diabetes, joint pains (Devi et al., 2013), cystitis, gout, eczema, psoriasis, blood sugar

(Sharma et al., 2006), boils and wound healing (Hussain et al., 2011). Caltha alba is in the list of

multiple uses of plant species and reported for backache, antispasmodic, costochondritis, cough,

cold and fever (Khan et al., 2015), Akhtar (2015) and Haq et al. (2011) citied it as laxative, C.

alba cytological deliberate by Savita et al. (2011) , Haq (2012) and Shad et al. (2013) reported C.

alba for multi uses like menstrual disorders, bronchial inflammation, jaundice, liver disorders,

diuretic, cleaning skin lesions, sores, cramps, antispasmodic and used as pot-herb. Khan et al.

(2013) reported C. alba for throat pain, swelling of mouth and tongue, C. alba also used for

toothache (Bano et al., 2014). Despite these many previously citied





























medicinal uses, C. alba in present study is acknowledged for insomnia, smooth muscle spasm

and urinary diseases.

Medicinal uses of Galium asperifolium in present study are skin problems, urinary

diseases and fever, these medicinal uses are also new one throughout the world, while many

researchers mentioned Galium asperifolium as very important medicinal plant and reported it

for other medicinal uses for example, Ohsawa (1987) reported G. asperifolium for the

treatment of jaundice. Jan et al. (2016) mentioned the usefulness of G. asperifolium as anti-

microbial, anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory. G. asperifolium has been documented for

wounds healing (Shrestha and Joshi, 1993), Khuroo et al. (2007) reported G. asperifolium for

epilepsy and gout. Suyal et al. (2010) mentioned it for hepatitis and phlebophlogosis. Saqib

and Sultan (2005) cited Jasminum leptophyllum as a fumigant against fleas and against lice in

cattle. Lepidium capitatum has been described by local inhabitant to cure headache,

depression, and bone fractures from present research area and previously, Cordell (2015)

reported L. capitatum as uterine stimulant. All these cited usages of medicinal endemic plants

could be considered important, as after appraisal with other studies no other researcher has

ever acknowledged it for the current uses. Also, all these previously available citations visibly

identify the novelty of present medicinal uses of the endemic plant species (Table 11).

The documented endemic medicinal plant species was cross checked with previously

published literature. Of these, some similar reports were found for seven endemic medicinal

plants along with some novel reports. Out of these seven endemic medicinal plants; only one

species is found with no new use report that is Potentilla curviseta, previously mentioned by

Kayani et al., (2015) as anti-dote (snake and centipede bite) and to stop bleeding (Table 11).

Similar reported species with new medicinal uses include, Meconopsis aculeata has been

documented as narcotic and poisonous (Kumar and Singhal, 2013; Singh and Chauhan,

2005), Baig et al. (2014) citied M. aculeata as analgesic, chronic, renal pain, tonic, narcotic

and febrifuge. It is also employed in treating fever (Sekar and Rawat, 2011), Singh and Rawat

(2011) reported M. aculeata for headache. In my present study M. aculeata along with fever

and narcotic also documented for backache, stiffness, colic, fractures.

Gentianodes eumarginata is used for jaundice Khan and Khatoon (2008). Dicliptera

bupleuroides has been reported by local informants for treatment of ulcer, indigestion, wounds,

cough, intestine infection, skin and eye diseases. Similarly, D. bupleuroides has been used to treat

dysentery (Bhatt et al., 2013), headache, wounds healing and sores between fingers (Malek et al.,

2014). Bistorta amplexicalulis is reported as an important treatment of ulcer (Hamayun et al.,

2006) and purify the blood (Adnan and Hölscher, 2010). In present study B.


131




























amplexicalulis along with ulcer also documented for fever, flu, stomach disorders and urinary

problems. Kumar et al. (2015) reported Rosularia adenotricha as an anti-inflammatory and in

the current study R. adenotricha is reported with one novel report that is skin problems.

Jeelani et al., (2013) reported Lavatera cachemiriana for the treatment of mumps in children.

Bioactive potential of these documented plant species is indicated by similar cross cultural

traditional usage of the medicinal therapies (Maroyi, 2013).

3.2.9 Toxicity of endemic medicinal plants

Traditional data recorded in current study are mostly confined to medicinal usage with

some information on the plants toxicity. In using herbal plants in a safe and secure way,

toxicities should be of alarm along with drug properties because such products are of great

health concerns. It was found that on documented plants 42% have some toxic effect (Table

11). Generally, toxicities vary from mild to severe and they could have acute, slightly toxic,

moderately toxic and showed no toxicity. Moreover, some plants have adverse effect

(Neamsuvan et al., 2018). According to the majority of informants, medicinal plants have

some toxic effect when used in excess, while some informants stated they do not believe

medicinal plants are toxic and they use plants based on the experience of elders among them.

However, for the safe and effective administration mode of preparation and dose dependence

of the formulations were vital factors. Despite this fact elemental contents of medicinal plants

are preferred, Aziz et al., (2016) reported the elemental contents of 69 medicinal plants from

Pakistan which are used for curing several disorders. The study showed that elemental

contents of certain medicinal plants may produce toxicity in human bodies because their

elemental contents were greater then the WHO permissible limits. Around the globe various

chemical compounds have been extracted from different medicinal plants, though the

toxicological and biological activities of many of these chemical compounds still remain

unidentified.

Therefore, in new health care systems incorporation of traditional herbal products in

modern day drugs, phytochemical investigation of biological active constituents and clinical trials

should be sentinised. European Directive of Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products is a model

providing fact to maintain herbal medicines for safer use, so the incorporatio of traditional herbal

products can be justified by this directive (Cox and Roche, 2004, Aziz et al., 2016).

Documentation of toxic effects of plants may provide useful information regarding the


132





future investigation and safe use of these medicinal plants (Asha et al., 2001; Shrestha and

Dhillion, 2003; Day et al., 2017).

3.2.10 Role of endemic species, threats, conservation and cultivation of

endemic medicinal plants.

In any community structure endemic and rare species are critical components and loss

of endemic species will eventually lead to simplification of communities and homogenization

(Goodall, 1954). The endemic medicinal plants species are less accessible in the area due to

urbanization, deforestation, uprooting of medicinal plants and grazing pressure, also these

threats increase the risk of the extinction of endemic and rare species (Bibi et al., 2015).

Other studies have stated environmental degradation, uncontrolled collection of non-timber

forest product also decrease the number of medicinal plants (Larsen and Olsen, 2007, Sher

and Barkworth, 2015, Aziz et al., 2017). According to some informants of the study area the

medicinal herbs in the old days were more accessible but now they have to travel a lot and

need to search more. These are inaccessible areas and marginally these herbs are now

difficult to find. During a survey in Fiche Ethiopia similar reports were recorded (Avigdor et

al., 2014). Urbanization and rapid modernization threatan extinction of associated indigenous

knowledge along with the extinction of plant species. It is documented that destruction of

people’s knowledge, is a main threat for natural resources sustainability and the basic reason

for this destruction is the low value attached to it. Dweba and Mearns (2011) also recorded

disappearance of traditional knowledge linked with natural resources has been stated more in

danger than the destruction of natural resources.

A report of WHO showed that 80% population of the world depend on plant resources

for their traditional system of medicines. High quality medicinal plants demand increase day

by day at the national and global level because of this many of species being broadly

removed from these regions. Medicinal flora harvested by local communities on a regular

basis for self-use and viable purpose which leads to gradual disappearing of infrequent

species (Shah et al., 2016). It is therefore, a great need to create awareness among the local

people about the protection of medicinal plants, importance of flora in their regions

especially rare and endemic plants with their ethnomedicinal and ethnobotanical uses in daily

lives. It is also suggested that for the flora of each area there will be data base in which large

amount of information will be entered and prevented from being distorted.



The Northern area of Pakistan including Deosai plains, alpine and sub alpine regions and

northern area forest are considered important habitats (hotspots) and have been given significance

attention for biodiversity conservation. In 1992 Pakistan luckily became participant of CBD, in

2000 Pakistan has developed Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) in order to meet the aims of CBD.

Integrated manner was required for the conservation in these areas because still there is gap in

comprehensive implementation and biodiversity planning. Further, for managements and

conservation of rare and endemic species ecological studies needed including standard ecological

methods (Bhat et al., 2013). These procedures could be helpful in reviving the production of rare

and endemic medicinal plants in their natural habitats. It is important to give the herb

collectors/indigenous communities a proper training and education for safe harvesting of endemic

and rare plant species. Cultivation of medicinal plants especially rare and endemic plants and the

sustainable use of wild flora should be encouraged. This will strongly improve the socio-

economic condition of the indigenous communities.

3.2.11 Novelty and future influence

The present study is the first ever documentation of ethnomedicinal awareness aiming

endemic medicinal plants from alpine and sub alpine regions of Northern Pakistan. In remote

(alpine and sub-alpine) regions of Northern Pakistan, cultural knowledge is restricting within

their geographic boundaries and communities are confined by these geographies further, due

to very limited availability of medical facilities the local communities completely rely on

their traditional medicinal treatments. The present survey reported medicinal uses of 69

endemic plant species with the new claims of 49 endemic plant species which were reported

for the first time globally, from rthe remaning 20 endemic plants only 6 endemic medicinal

plants had been validated for active phytochemical compounds, 14 of them had been reported

in other studies but in current study out of these 14 endemic species 7 plant species Anemone

falconeri, Anemone obtusiloba, Aquilegia fragrans, Caltha alba, Galium asperifolium,

Jasminum leptophyllum and Lepidium capitatum are recorded first time globally for their

current uses alongwith old use reports 6 endemic species Meconopsis aculeata, Gentianodes

eumarginata, Dicliptera bupleuroides, Bistorta amplexicalulis, Rosularia adenotricha and

Lavatera cachemiriana are reported with some novel reports throughout the world and only

one endemic plant Potentilla curviseta is reported with no new reports previously. This

species is used as antidote and to stop bleeding (Kayani et al., 2015).




Besides this, all mentioned plant species were reported for the first time from alpine

and sub alpine regions of northern Pakistan and no single report for ethnomedicine, clinical

and pharmacological studies is available in the published literature. Although, preliminary

research undertaken on some of these endemic medicinal plants have definite therapeutic

effect; additional toxicological, phytochemical and pharmacological examinations need to be

accompanied on the most of these endemic medicinal plants. As a result, such studies not

only contribute to the research on sharing traditional knowledge, but also help in tracing

active constituents in the medicinal plants for the drug discovery and development of viable

medications.



Plate 39: Endemic Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan



Plate 40: Endemic Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara



SECTION 3

. “Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory

disorders among the inhabitants of Gallies, Abbottabad,

Northern Pakistan.”


3.3. Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants for respiratory disorders among

the inhabitants of Gallies, Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan.

Comprehensive study on medicinal plants used to cure the respiratory disorders was

carried in Gallies Abbottabad.

3.3.1 Medicinal plants documentation and ethno-demography of the inhabitants

This study reports the uses of 120 medicinal plants species disseminated in 90 genera

consist of 51 families for the treatment of 25 types of respiratory disorders. Table 13

provided the informant’s demographic data while the detailed plant species information used

for respiratory problems is presented in Table 13.

Table 13: Demographic Information of the participants

Variable Demographic Categories Percent

Gender Male 61.85

Female 38.15

Experience Hakims 21.39

local people 78.61

Age 30-45 years 21.97

46-60 years 25.43

61-75 years 27.75

76 and above 24.9

Education Illiterate 36.9

Primary and Middle 20.81

Secondary qualification 18.5

Undergraduate 12.14

Graduate 11.56

A total of 173 informants were interviewed and categorized into different

demographic categories. It is recorded that there was 61.85% male informants and 38.15%

female informants. Data regarding experience of medicinal plants preparation shows that

21.39% were confined to

local herbalists while the majority of the informants were inexperienced. The informants were

categorized into four main groups On the basis of age i.e., informants of 30–45 years (21.97%),

46–60 years (25.43%), 61–75 years (27.75%) and 76 years and above (24.9%). On the basis of

education level, the management of respiratory ailments by the use of medicinal plants



regarding indigenous knowledge is more prevalent among illiterate people i.e., (36.9%) and

the same awareness was reducing in the exceedingly educated class of the area, with primary

and middle level education (20.81%), secondary level (18.5%), undergraduate (12.14%) and

graduate level (11.56%). Higher level exposure of well-educated people to modernization in

the study should thee be less knowledge of the practice of medicinal flora. The studies

accompanied in Ethiopia show similar outcomes (Gedif and Hahn, 2003; Giday et al., 2009)

and Thailand (Westerand Yongvanit, 1995).

3.3.2 Life form, parts used, preparations and respiratory disorders

The study area falls in moist temperate climatic region and has a rich floral variety,

signified by a great number of plant species. The medicinal plant diversity shows that out of

the 120 recorded medicinal plants, 44 were dicots (86%), 5 were monocots (10%), 1

gymnosperm (2%) and 1 pteridophyte (2%) (Figure 12). The major source of medicine were

herbs (67%) followed by trees (19%) and shrubs (14%) (Figure 13). Among the indigenous

communities the common use of herbs is due to the rich wealth of herbaceous floras in their

environments (Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu, 2005; Uniyal et al., 2006).

Among various plant parts used, the leaves (62 reports) were most frequently used for

the formation of medicine completely or mixed with additional plant parts. Among different

plant parts used, the most often used plant parts for the preparation of medicine exclusively or

mixed with other plant parts were leaves (62 reports). Leaves were followed by whole plant

(53 reports), roots (37 reports), fruits (34 reports), gums (32 reports), seeds (30 reports),

flower (27 reports), bark (14 reports), shoots (12 reports), rhizomes (7 reports), latex (6

reports), stem and branches (5 reports), bulbs (4 reports), pods (3 reports) and fronds (2

reports) (Figure 14). Leaves were also consumed, mostly for the formation of herbal

medicines in various places.



PLANT DIVERSITY Pteridophytes Gymnosperms

2% 2%

Monocots 10%

Dicots 86%

Pteridophytes Gymnosperms Monocots Dicots

Figure 12: The medicinal plant diversity for treatment of respiratory disorders

LIFE FORM

Herbs Shrubs Trees

14%

19%

67%

Figure 13: Life forms of traditional plants against respiratory disorder


Table 14: Medicinal plant species of Gallies, Abbottabad with its use values, relative frequency citation and similarity ratio with previous records

S. Family Taxonomic Name Local Life Part Mode of Diseases Treated U U.Vb

F RFC Comparison Similarity

No Name For Useda

Utilization Rb C

b b with previous ratio

d

m recordsc

▲: ●

1. Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus Bhindi Herb Fr, Se Powder Cough, difficulty in 02 0.66 03 0.01 1 ●, 2▲, 3 ●, 4 2:2 (L.) Moench breathing like asthma ▲

ISL:667

2. Pinaceae Abies pindrow Royle. Himalaya Tree Le Decoction Cough, phthisis, 04 1.33 03 0.01 14▲, 20 ●, 2:1

ISL:688 n Silver Tincture asthma, chronic 21▲

Fir bronchitis

3. Mimosaceae Acacia modesta Wall. Phulai Tree Le, Gu, Ash, Cough, respiratory 03 0.16 18 0.10 13▲, 1:0

ISL:670 Ba, Powder tract problems,

Fl, Se, St, Extract, tonsillitis

Ba Decoction

4. Mimosaceae Acacia nilotica (L.) Babool Tree Gu, Po Decoction Cough, asthma, 04 0.14 28 0.16 10●, 9● 0:2

Delile. Se, Le, Fl, Powder, respiratory tract

ISL:671 Ba, St Paste disorders, chest

Extract complaints

5. Asteraceae Achillea millefolium L. Sultani Shru Wh Decoction, Cough, profuse 02 0.25 08 0.04 2 ●, 6▲, 13 ●, 2:4

ISL:622 Booti b Infusion mucous discharges 14●, 20 ●,21●

6. Amaranthac Achyranthes aspera L. Phutkanda Herb Wh, Le, Decoction, Asthma, cough 02 0.06 32 0.18 3▲, 5:3

eae ISL:607 Ro Powder, 5▲,9▲,11▲,1

Extract, 0●, 13 ●, 17●,

Paste, Ash 22▲

7. Ranunculace Aconitum Atis Herb Ro, Wh Powder, Cold, cough 02 0.2 10 0.05 2 ●, 15▲, 20 1:2

ae heterophyllum Wall.ex Decoction ●,

Royle.

ISL:700

8. Ranunculace Aconitum violaceum Zaharmor Herb Ro, Fl Powder, Cold, cough 02 0.28 07 0.04 2 ●,13 ●, 20 ●, 0:3

ae Jacquem. ex Stapf. a Decoction

ISL:701

9. Araceae Acorus calamus L. Skhuwaja Herb Ro, Wh Powder Asthma, cough 02 0.25 08 0.04 5▲, 6 ●,7●, 13 4:4

ISL:620 6 ●, 15▲, 16▲,

17▲, 20 ●,

10. Ranunculace Actaea spicata L. KayayZuc Herb Fr, Ro,Se Extract Asthma 02 01 02 0.01 2 ●, 4 ●,8▲, 1:2

ae ISL:702 h

11. Pteridaceae Adiantum capillus- Siraj Herb Wh, Fr Extract, Bronchial problems, 02 0.12 16 0.09 2▲, 13 ▲ 1:1

veneris Decoction Cough

ISL:697

12. Pteridaceae Adiantum venustum Sumbal Herb Wh, Extract Lung disorders 01 0.2 05 0.02 2▲,13 ▲, 19●, 2:1

D.Don. Fr

ISL:698

13. Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides L. Neel Herb Se Decoction Cough, cold 02 02 01 0.00 11● 0:1

ISL:623 kanthi 5

14. Lamiaceae Ajuga brateosa Wall. KouriBoot Herb Le, Wh Powder, Throat infection, 02 0.10 19 0.10 12●, 13 ▲ 1:1

ISL:662 i Decoction tonsillitis

Extract

15. Mimosaceae Albizia lebbeck (L.) Siris Tree Le, Se, Fl, Powder Tuberculosis 01 0.07 14 0.08 9●, 0;1

Benth. Ba

ISL:672

16. Mimosaceae Albizia procera (Roxb.) Sirin Tree Ba, S, Le Decoction Bronchitis 01 0.5 02 0.01 -------

Benth.

ISL:673

17. Alliaceae Allium carolinianum Khush Herb Wh Extract Flu, Cough 02 0.66 03 0.01 15●, 0:1 DC.

ISL:604

18. Alliaceae Allium sativum L. Thoom Herb Bu, Le Extract Asthma, Whooping 03 0.27 11 0.06 1▲, 4▲, 6 ●, 3:1

ISL:605 cough, Respiratory 18▲,

disorders

19. Alliaceae Allium victorialis L. Aloon Herb Wh Extract Asthma, Respiratory 02 02 01 0.00 -------

ISL:606 problems 5

20. Apocynacea Alstonia scholaris (L.) Sat patia Tree Ba, Le Infusion, Asthma 01 01 01 0.00 12● 0:1

e R.Br Decoction 5

ISL:618

21. Malvaceae Althaea officinalis L. RishaKhat Herb Le, Ro, Extract Asthma, Bronchitis, 03 03 01 0.00 -------

ISL:668 mi Se, Fl Pneumonia 5

22. Amaranthac Amaranthus caudatus Phankza Herb Wh Decoction, Pulmonary 01 0.5 02 0.01 15▲, 1:0 eae L. Paste congestion

ISL:608

23. Amaranthac Amaranthus viridis L. Cholai Herb Le, Se, Paste, Flu, Cold 02 0.08 25 0.14 19●, 20 ●, 0:2 eae ISL:609 Wh, Ro Powder

Decoction

24. Apiaceae Ammi visnaga (L.) Spairkai Herb Fr Decoction Asthma 01 01 01 0.00 -------

Lam. 5

ISL:612

25. Asteraceae Artemisia absinthium L. Afsanteen Herb Wh, Fl, Extract, Tuberculosis, Cough 02 0.22 09 0.05 1 ●, 2 ●,8● 0:3

ISL:624 Le Decoction

26. Asteraceae Artemisia annua L. Afsantinja Herb Le Powder Cold, Cough 02 02 01 0.00 15▲, 1:0 ISL:625 ri 5

27. Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia Bursay Herb Wh Powder, Cough, Respiratory 02 0.5 04 0.02 8● 0;1

Wall. ex DC. Le, Fl Paste stimulant 3

ISL:626

28. Asteraceae Artemisia Chaoo Herb Se Powder Cold, Cough, Flu, 04 02 02 0.01 -------

macrocephala Jacquem. Asthma

ex Besser

ISL:627

29. Asteraceae Artemisia scoparia Herb Wh, Fl Extract, Cough Asthma, 03 0.2 15 0.08 8▲, 13 ▲,20 2:1

Waldst. & Kit Se, Ro Decoction Profuse mucous ●,

ISL:628 Smoke, discharges

Powder

30. Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Adr. Neem Tree Le,Se, Fr Extract, Asthma 01 0.1 10 0.05 3▲, 5 2:2

Juss. Decoction ●,9▲,10●

ISL:669 Paste

31. Polygonacea Bistorta amplexicaulis Anjabaar Herb Ro, Le, Powder, Sore throats 01 0.09 11 0.06 2▲, 1:0

e (D. Don) Green. Rh Extract 3

ISL:692 Decoction

32. Nyctaginace Boerhavia procumbens Itsit Herb Wh Decoction, Cough and Asthma 02 0.22 09 0.05 -------

ae Banks ex Roxb. Le, Ro Extract

ISL:682

33. Moraceae Broussonetia Jangli Tree Ba, Decoction Cough 02 01 02 0.01 -------

papyrifera L. Toot Fr

ISL:675

34. Buddlejacea Buddleja asiatica Lour. Butterfly Shru Ro Infusion Asthma, coughing 02 02 01 0.00 12● 0:1

e ISL:642 Bush b with blood 5

35. Papilionacea Butea monosperma Palas Tree Fl, Le Extract, Asthma 01 0.2 05 0.02 3▲, 9● 1:1

e (Lain.) Powder 8

ISL:684

36. Asclepidiace Calotropis procera Akk Shru Wh Extract, Asthma, Cough 03 0.09 32 0.18 2▲, 5▲,9▲, 4:0

ae (Willd.) R.Br. b L,Fl Decoction 13 ▲

ISL:621 Paste

37. Theaceae Camellia sinensis (L.) Tea Shru Ro, Fl Decoction Coughing up with 01 01 01 0.00 -------

O. Ktze. b blood 5

ISL:637

38. Cannabacea Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Herb Wh, Extract, Throat infection, 02 0.07 28 0.16 8▲,12●, 9●, 1:6

e ISL:643 Le, Fl Paste Chest problems 13●, 15●, 16●,

Powder 20 ●,

39. Capparadace Capparis cartilaginea Kirip Shru La, Le Paste, Asthma 01 0.5 02 0.01 -------

ae Decne. b Smoke

ISL:644 Powder

40. Capparadace Capparis decidua Karin Shru Fr, Ba Infusion Cough, Asthma, 03 0.3 10 0.05 -------

ae (Forssk.) Edgew. b Bronchial problems 7

ISL:645

41. Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Hirimirch, Herb Fr Paste Asthma, Whooping 03 0.75 04 0.02 -------

ISL:707 cough, Cold 3

42. Apocynacea Carissa opaca Stapf ex Granda Shru Wh, Le, Decoction, Asthma 01 0.12 08 0.04 -------

e Haines b Ro, Fr, Se Powder,

ISL:619

43. Asteraceae Carthamus tinctorius L. Pungh Herb Fl, Se Decoction, Cough, Throat 02 01 02 0.01 8▲,12● 1:1

ISL:629 Oil problems

44. Apiaceae Carum copticum (L.) Spaerkae Herb Se, Wh Decoction Sore throat, 02 01 02 0.01 15▲, 1:0 C.B. Whooping cough

ISL:613

45. Ulmaceae Celtis australis auct. Tagha Tree Wh, Fr, Decoction Cough 01 0.5 02 0.01 1 ●, 13● 0:2

ISL:645 Le

46. Asteraceae Cichorium intybus L. Kasni Herb Wh Decoction, Asthma 01 0.04 24 0.13 13▲, 1:0

ISL:630 Paste,

Extract

Powder

47. Rutaceae Citrus grandis(L.) Shru Ba Infusion Cough 01 01 01 0.00 17▲ 1:0 Osbeck. b 5

ISL:704

48. Rutaceae Citrus reticulata Shru Le Extract Flu 02 02 01 0.00 -------

Blanco. b 5

ISL:705

49. Colchicacea Colchicum luteum Suranjaan Herb Wh, Se, Powder Bronchial diseases 01 0.07 13 0.07 2 ●,20 ●, 0:2

e Baker. eTalakh, Ro 5

ISL:646 Chunar

50. Apiaceae Coriandrum sativum L. Dhanial, Herb Wh, Le, Powder, Asthma, Cough, 03 0.18 16 0.09 1 ●, 5 ●, 13●, 1:3

ISL:614 Dhania Fr, Se Paste Bronchitis 15▲,

Decoction

51. Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum Sufaid Herb Se, Fr Paste, Dry cough, Cold 02 01 02 0.01 13●,19● 0:2 Linn. Zira Extract,

ISL:615 Smoke

52. Cuscuctacea Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Aakaash Herb Wh Paste, Bronchitis 01 0.04 24 0.13 5 ●,13●, 0:4

e ISL:647 bail Extract, 19●15●,

Powder

53. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotendus L. Deela, Herb Ro, Le, Decoction Cough 01 0.07 14 0.08 5 ●, 17● 0:2

ISL:648 Kabh Wh Extract,

Oil

54. Solanaceae Datura innoxia Miller . Sada Herb Le, Se, Fr Powder, Asthma 01 0.07 13 0.07 13●, 0;1 ISL:708 dhatura Extract,

Smoke

55. Solanaceae Datura metel L. Dhatuora Herb Le, Ro, Smoke Asthma 01 0.33 03 0.01 3▲, 5▲,10●, 2:3

ISL:655 Se, Fl Powder 15●, 17●,

56. Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. Dhatura Herb Le, Se, Fr Decoction , Asthma, Bronchitis 02 0.18 11 0.06 9▲, 8●, 15●, 1:2

ISL:656 Extract

57. Brassicaceae Descurainia sophia (L.) Kheli Herb Fl, Le, Se Powder, Chest complain, 02 0.66 03 0.01 8▲ 1:0

Webb & Berth Kheli Decoction Cough

ISL:640

58. Papilionacea Desmodium elegans Chamra Herb Ro, Le Decoction Cough, Asthma 02 02 1 0.00 15●, 0:1 e DC. 5

ISL:685

59. Poaceae Desmostachya Herb Le Decoction Asthma 01 0.11 09 0.05

bipinnata (L.) Stap.

ISL:691

60. Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata L. Khokhri, Herb Wh, Ro, Extract, Cough 02 0.4 05 0.02 5 ●,12●, 17● 0:3

ISL:631 Bhangra Fl, Le Powder 61. Elaeagnacea Elaeagnus angustifolia Shinjoor, Herb Fr, Fl, Gu Extract Sore throat 02 0.5 04 0.02 13▲, 1:0

e L. Sisk Decoction

ISL:649 Powder 62. Elaeagnacea Elaeagnus umbellata Ghanamra Herb Fl, Fr Decoction Cough and Chest 02 02 01 0.00 13▲,20 ●, 1:1

e Thunb. nga pain 5

ISL:650





63. Ephedraceae Ephedra gerardiana Asmani Shru Le, St Infusion Hay fever, Cold, 05 0.55 09 0.05 2▲,20 ●, 1:1

Wall.exStapf ex Decne. Booti b Asthma,

ISL:652 Tuberculosis,

Bronchitis

64. Ephedraceae Ephedra Asmani Shru Fr Decoction Asthma, 04 1.33 03 0.01 20 ●, 0:1 intermediaSchrenk& Booti b Tuberculosis, Chest

Meyer infections, , Cough

ISL:653

65. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus Lachi, Tree Le Decoction, Common cold, Nose 04 01 04 0.02 -------

camaldulensis Sofaida Powder, infection, Cough, Flu 3

Dehnhardt.

ISL:679

66. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus Sufaida, Tree Le, St, Se Decoction, Asthma, Cold, 04 01 04 0.02 11▲ 1:0

Labillardière. Lachi Extract Cough, Throat

ISL:680 lozenges

67. Euphorbiace Euphorbia hirta L Dodak Herb Le, Fl, Se, Extract, Asthma, Respiratory 03 0.37 08 0.04 3▲,2●, 7▲, 3:3

ae ISL:654 Wh Powder disorders, Cough 9▲, 10●, 17●

Decoction

68. Zygophylac Fagonia indica var. Dramaaho Herb Wh, St, Powder, Fever, Cold, Cough 03 0.42 07 0.04 -------

eae schweinfurthii Hadidi Le, Ro Decoction

ISL:668

69. Apiaceae Ferula assa-foetida L. Sup Herb Gu, Ro, Powder , Asthma, Cough 02 01 02 0.01 -------

ISL:616 La Extract,

70. Apiaceae Ferula narthex Boiss. Herb Wh, Gu Powder Cough, Asthma, 05 1.66 03 0.01 -------

ISL:617 Whooping cough,

Pneumonia,

Bronchitis

71. Moraceae Ficus benghalensis L. Barr, Bohr Tree Fr, Ba, Se, Extract, Asthma,, Flu 02 0.2 10 0.05 5 ●,10●, 9●, 0:4

ISL:676 Le, Ro Powder 7 17●

72. Moraceae Ficus palmata Forssk. Fig Tree Fr Powder Lung diseases 01 01 01 0.00 7▲, 17● 1:1

ISL:677 5

73. Moraceae Ficus religiosa L. Pipal Tree Fr Asthma 01 01 01 0.00 9▲,10●, 17● 1:2

ISL:678 5

74. Rosaceae Fragaria indica Khunmurc Shru Fr, Le, Extract, Sore throats, 02 0.09 21 0.12 14●,21● 0:2 Andrews. h, Zamki b Wh, Paste, Tuberculosis 1

ISL:703 Toot, Powder

Decoction

75. Gentianacea Gentianodes olivieri Nilkant Herb Ro, Wh Decoction Cough, Chest 03 1.5 02 0.01 -------

e (Griseb.) Omer. problems, Throat

ISL:658 problems 76. Gentianacea Gentianopsis Herb Wh Decoction Throat problems, 02 02 01 0.00 8▲ 1:0

e vvedenskyi (Grossh.) Cough 5

V.V.Pis.

ISL:659

77. Papilionacea Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Shalako Herb Rh, R, Wh Decoction Cough, Bronchitis, 04 01 04 0.02 1▲,8▲, 16●, 2:1

e ISL:686 Constipation, Asthma 3

78. Elaeagnacea Hippophae rhamnoides Buru Shru Fr Decoction Whooping cough 01 01 1 0.00 20 ●, 0:1 e L. b 5

ISL:651

79. Solanaceae Hyoscyamus niger L Khrasani Herb Le, Se, Fr Decoction, Asthma, Cough 02 0.25 08 0.04 1▲,2▲, 8▲, 3:1

ISL:679 Ajwain Powder, 6 20 ●,

Extract 80. Asteraceae Inula obtusifolia A. Herb Wh Powder Tuberculosis, Chest 03 03 01 0.00 8▲ 1:0

Kern. problems, Cough 5

ISL:632

81. Oleaceae Jasminum humile L. Chambeli, Shru Le Extract Sinusitis 01 01 01 0.00 16▲, 1:0 ISL:683 b 5

82. Juglandacea Juglans regia L. Akhrot Tree Le, Fr, Decoction Sore throat 01 01 01 0.00 1 ●, 2 ●, 6 ●, 0:3

e ISL:661 Ro, Ba 5

83. Acanthaceae Justicia adhatoda L. Bhaiker Herb Le, Fl, Ro, Decoction, Cough, Sore throat, 04 0.16 24 0.13 3▲, 5▲,7▲, 4:0

ISL:601 Wh, St Extract, Asthma, Tuberculosis 17▲,

Powder

84. Asteraceae Lactuca serriola L. Herb Wh Decoction Expectorant, Cough, 05 0.83 06 0.03 -------

ISL:633 Phthisis, Bronchitis,

Asthma

85. Polygonacea Persicaria Thangmar Herb Wh Powder Respiratory problems 01 01 01 0.00 -------

e hydropiper (L.) Spach. cy 5

ISL:693

86. Euphorbiace Phylanthus emblica L. Amla Tree Wh, Fr Powder Asthma, Bronchitis 02 0.4 05 0.02 5▲,11▲ 2:0

ae ISL:655

87. Anacardiace Pistacia atlantica Desf. Gowan Tree Le, Gu Decoction Cough 01 01 01 0.00 -------

ae ISL:610 Powder 5

88. Anacardiace Pistacia integerrima J. Shnai Tree Wh, Le, Extract Asthma, Cough, 03 0.23 13 0.07 7▲ 1:0

ae L. Fr Phlegm 5

Stewart ex Brandis

ISL:611





89. Plantaginace Plantago lanceolata L. Jabai Herb Le, Se, Fr Powder, Cough, Whooping 03 0.16 18 0.10 2▲, 4 ●, 6▲, 4:4

ae ISL:689 Extract cough, Bronchitis 8●,13●,

Decoction 14▲,20 ●,

21▲

90. Plantaginace Plantago ovata Forssk. Herb Se, Fr, Powder Cough and Cold 02 0.15 13 0.07

ae ISL:690 Decoction

91. Aizoaceae Portulaca quadrifida L. Kulfa Herb Wh, L, Se Paste Cold, Flu, 03 01 03 0.01 13●, 0:1 ISL:602 Extract Respiratory problems

Powder

92. Primulaceae Primula Mammera Herb Fl, Le Powder Cough, Asthma 02 0.66 03 0.01 8● 0:1

macrophylla D. Don. Decoction

ISL:696

93. Mimosaceae Prosopis juliflora Shru Ba, Le, Extract Asthma 01 0.33 03 0.01 -------

(Swartz) DC. b Po, Fl Decoction

ISL:674

94. Lamiaceae Prunella vulgaris L. Ustukhdo Herb Se, Wh Powder Respiratory 02 01 02 0.01 12● 0:1

ISL:663 os difficulties, Cough

95. Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Amrood Shru Fr, Le, Ba Powder Old cough, 03 0.5 06 0.03 12● 0:1

ISL:681 b Decoction bronchitis, Whooping

cough

96. Punicaceae Punica granatum L. Anar Tree Fr, Br, Le, Powder Whooping cough, 04 0.12 31 0.17 1 ●, 6 ●, 15▲, 1:2

ISL:699 Ba, Ro, Se Decoction, Tuberculosis, Cold

Ash and Flu

Extract

97. Fagaceae Quercus dilatata Royle. Spin banj Tree Se, Fr Powder Asthma 01 0.16 06 0.03 20 ●, 0:1 ISL:656 4

98. Fagaceae Quercus Rein Tree Ba Decoction Asthma 01 01 01 0.00 -------

leucotrichophora A. 5

Camus.

ISL:657

99. Polygonacea Rheum australe D. Chotial Herb St, Rh, Infusion Respiratory 02 0.66 03 0.01 13▲, 15▲, 20 2:1 e Don. Ro, Le problems, Asthma 7 ●,

ISL:694

100. Polygonacea Rumex dentatus L. Shulkhay Herb L, R, St Powder Cough, cold 02 0.14 14 0.08 13▲, 14▲, 2:1 e ISL:695 Extract 21●

Decoction,

Paste

101. Lamiaceae Salvia lanata Roxb. Kianr Herb Fl, Ro Powder Cough & Cold 02 01 02 0.01 2▲,20 ●, 1:1

ISL:664

102. Lamiaceae Salvia Kallijarri Herb Le, Se, Ro Paste Cough & cold 02 0.16 12 0.06 2 ●,20 ●, 0:2

moorcroftiana Wall. ex Powder

Benth

ISL:665

103. Asteraceae Saussurea lappa L. Kuth Herb Ro Extract Cough, Asthma, 04 0.5 08 0.04 8▲, 20 ●, 1:1

ISL:634 Powder Throat problems, 6

Paste Influenza

Decoction

104. Saxifragacea Saxifraga hirculus L. Sitbark Herb Wh Decoction Cough, Chest 03 03 01 0.00 -------

e ISL:706 complaints, 5

Pulmonary disorders

105. Asteraceae Senecio Kalay di Herb Ro, Fl, Le Extract Asthma, Respiratory 02 0.5 04 0.02 20 ●, 0:1 chrysanthemoides DC. Jar Decoction problems

ISL:635

106. Brassicaceae Sisymbrium Herb Wh, Le Decoction Expectorant, 03 03 01 0.00 -------

erysimoides Desf. Extract Bronchial disorders, 5

ISL:641 Sore throat

107. Solanaceae Solanum virginianum Herb Wh Powder Cough, Asthma, 05 05 01 0.00 ------- L. Ro Decoction Bronchitis and chest 5

ISL:708 Fr Extract affections, Sore

throat

108. Solanaceae Solanum nigram L. var Kachmak Herb Le, St, Se, Powder Flu, Cough 02 0.07 27 0.15 4 2:2

nigrum. o Fr, Wh, Paste 6 ●,8▲,9▲,10●

ISL:707 Ba , St Extract

Decoction

109. Asteraceae Sonchus arvensis L. Dodh Herb St, Le, Decoction Cough, Bronchitis, 03 0.5 06 0.03 4 ●,7▲ 1:1

ISL:636 Bhatal Wh, Ro Asthma

110. Asteraceae Sonchus asper (Linn) Asgandh Herb Wh, Ro, Extract Cough, Bronchitis, 03 0.21 14 0.08 -------

Hill Le Asthma

ISL:637

111. Gentianacea Swertia petiolata D. Plamas Herb St, Wh, Powder Pneumonia fever, 05 01 05 0.02 15▲, 1:0 e Don. Ro Throat problems,

ISL:660 Bronchitis, Asthma

and bronchitis

112. Lamiaceae Thymus serphyllum L. Kanesh Herb Wh, Le, Decoction Cough and Cold, Flu, 06 1.5 04 0.02 4 ●, 13▲, 1:1

ISL:666 Fl Sore throat,

Bronchitis, Chest

infections

113. Aizoaceae Trianthema Itsit Herb Wh, Ro, Paste Cough, Asthma 02 0.33 06 0.03 10●, 17▲ 1:1

portulacastrum L. Le Powder

ISL:603

114. Boraginacea Trichodesma indicum Kallri Herb Wh, Decoction Influenza, Cough 02 0.33 06 0.03 -------

e (L.) R. Br. Booti Le,Ro, Extract

ISL:639 Powder

Paste

115. Papilionacea Trifolium pratense L. Herb Fl Decoction Coughs, Sore throat 02 01 02 0.01 8▲ 1:0

e ISL:687

116. Asteraceae Tussilago farfara L. Watpan Herb Ro, Le, Infusion Chronic bronchitis, 04 02 02 0.01 6▲, 1:0

ISL:638 Wh Asthma, Chest

complaints,

Respiratory

infections

117. Valerianacea Valeriana himalayana Grubov Herb Ro Decoction Cough, Asthma 02 0.09 21 0.12 8▲, 21▲ 2:0

e Grub.

ISL:717

118. Violaceae Viola betonicifolia Sm. Banafsha Herb Le, Fl Extract, Lung troubles, 03 1.5 02 0.01 13▲,20 ●, 1:1 ISL:718 Ro, Fr Decoction, Cough, Colds,

Infusion

119. Violaceae Viola canescens Wall. Banafsha Herb Wh, Fl, St Decoction Sore throat, Cough 02 0.15 13 0.07 7▲, 20 ●, 1:1

exRoxb.

ISL:719

120. Violaceae Viola pilos.a Blume. Banafsha Herb Ro Decoction Bronchitis, Asthma, 04 0.5 08 0.04 14▲, 1:0 ISL:720 Cough, Cold


ethnic populations (Mahishi et al., 2005; Ignacimuthu et al., 2006, 2008; Srithi et al., 2009;

Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu, 2010; Giday et al., 2010; Gonzalez et al., 2010). The purpose why

leaves were used frequently is that they are collected very easily than other parts, roots and

fruits etc (Giday et al., 2009) and logicalay leaves are vigorous in making of metabolites and

photosynthesis (Ghorbani, 2005).

The crude preparation of different parts of medicinal plant was assembled into nine

categories (Figure 15). Of these, utmost often used process of crude formation was decoction

(73 reports) followed by powder (59), extract (50), paste (22), infusion (9), smoke (6), oil (2),

ash (4) and tincture (1). Crude preparation of decoction for the management of respiratory

disorders is an often practice between the ethnic communities in Gallies. The decoction was

attained by boiling the plant parts in water until the required quantity. Of water or the volume

of the water reduced to minimum.

Crushing of shade dried plant parts was used for the preparation of powder. The paste

was prepared by crushing the garden-fresh or dried parts of the plant with oil or water. The

inhalation was done by the scorching of plant parts and inhaled the smoke. Internal uses

(83%) were dominant over topical or external uses (17%) and nasal application. Utmost of

the medications were specified orally which is in agreement with some other research

accompanied elsewhere (Ssegawa and Kasenene, 2007; Andrade-Cetto, 2009; Lee et al.,

2008; Samy et al., 2008; Poonam and Singh, 2009). The local people and traditional health

practitioners (THPs) often use few adjuvant such as honey, sugar, salt, ghee, and milk to

increase the adequacy and medical efficacy of certain therapies. They customarily use

particular parts of plant and definite methods for the management of ailments and the dosage

given to the patient depends on age, health conditions and physical status. Before giving the

crude drugs for treatment the condition of the patient was deeply observed.

Considering disease therapy, the local people preferred medic-inal plants most

frequently for the treatment of cough using 72 plants, 58 for asthma, 25 for bronchitis, 22 for

cold, 10 for flu 9 for whooping cough, 3 for influenza, 12 for sore throat, 11 for chest

problems,, 8 for tuberculosis, 4 for bronchial problems, 3 for coughing with blood, 3 for

pneumonia, 2 for tonsillitis, 2 for mucous discharge, 1 for nose infection and 1 species for

treating sinusitis (Figure 16).



Plants parts used against respiratory disorders

Pla

nt

pa

rts

use

d

Fronds

Branches

Barks

Whole plant

Flowers

Gum

Rhizomes

Leaves

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Number of part used

Figure 14: Plants parts used against respiratory disorders

80 Mode of utilization

utili

zati

on

70

60

of 50

of m od e 30 40

Nu

mb

ers

20

10

0 Decocti

Tinctur Powder Extract Infusion Smoke Paste Oil Ash

on e

Series1 59 73 50 9 6 22 2 4 1

Figure 15: Mode of utilizations reported to treat respiratory disorders


80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Disease catagories

Figure 16: Number of disease categories in respiratory disorders (Disease Therapy)


3.3.3 Quantitative Analysis of ethno-respiratory information

3.3.3.1 Family Importance value (FIV)

Asclepiadaceae were the most common families as depicted by its FIV as the leading

family with 18.5 FIV followed by Punicaceae (17.9), Cannabaceae (16.2), Acanthaceae

(13.9), Cus-cuctaceae (13.9), Rosaceae (12.1), Valerianaceae (12.1) and Amar-anthaceae

(11.6). The minimum FIV were observed for Papilionaceae (1.7341) followed by Myrtaceae

(2.3), Apocynaceae, (2.9), Moraceae (2.9), Alliaceae (2.9) and Apiaceae (2.9) (Figure 17). In

the study area most frequently encountered medicinal plant families were Asteraceae (14.2 %

of use-reports) followed by Solanaceae (6%), Apiaceae (5%), Mimosaceae and Lamiaceae

(4.2%) (Figure 17).

FIV

Family Importance Value 20 18 16 14 12 10

8

6

4

2

0

Families

Figure 17: Family Importance value (FIV) for respiratory disorders



3.3.3.2 Relative Frequency citation (RFC)

Relative frequency citation was calculated to ascertain the most common medicinal

plants used for respiratory ailments. Based on the values of RFC, for ethno-respiratory

disorders number of inhabitant who cited the taxa at different areas, the most used up

medicinal taxa includes Achyranthes asper (0.18), Calatropis procera (0.18), Punica

granatum (0.17), Acacia nilotica (0.16), Cannabis sativa (0.16), Solanum nigrum (0.16),

Amaranthus viridis (0.14), Cichorum intybus, Cuscuta reflexa and Justicia adhatoda (0.13)

(Table 14, Figure 18). These medicinal plants have been conservatively utilized for

respiratory disorders besides its other ethnobotanical uses. Least values of RFC were

represented by Buddleja asiatica, Camellia sinensis, Citrus grandis, Citrus reticulate,

Desmodium elegans, Elaeagnus umbellate, Ficus racemosa, Ficus religiosa, Gentianopsis

vyedenskyi, Hippophae rhaminodes, Inula obtusifolia, Jasminium humile, Juglans regia,

Persicaria hydropiper, Pistacia atlantica, Quercus leucotrichophora, Saxifraga hirculus,

Sisymbrium ersimoides and Solanum virginianum. RFC with greater value narrate the fact

that these medicinal species were well known to maximum number of study informants. Achyranthes aspera is one of the common herb used in the research area for cure of cough and

asthma, where whole plant leaves or roots are prepared as decoction, powdered, burnt into ash,

extracted with alcohol or made into a paste administered accordingly to the needs of the patient.

Calatropis procera (milk weed) is an important plant used in folk remedies for ailments like

asthma and cough, as decoction or powdered whole plant, leaves or flowers. Punica granatum is

an important ethno-medicinal plant utilized in many ailment categories. Local people in Gallies

consume it in the form of powdered, prepared from leaves, fruit and bark for the cure of cough.

Acacia nilotica is prepared into a decoction, powder, paste or alcoholic extract, where the gum,

leaves, stem, bark, seeds and flowers are exploited for ailments like cough, asthma, respiratory

tract disorders and other chest complaints. Cannabis sativa is a common weedy plant but of

important medicinal uses utilized by the local communities for treatment of respiratory disorders

like throat infection and chest problems. The leaves, whole plant and flower are prepared into

powder, extracts or paste. Solanum nigrum is utilized by the tribal communities for the treatment

which are made into decoctions, powder, paste or extracts. Amaranthus viridis is used in the cure

of flu and cough. The folk recipe comprises of leaves, stem, seeds, flower, whole plant and bark

which are made into decoctions, powder, paste or extracts. Amaranthus viridis is used in the cure

of ailments like cold and flu, the crude drug is made from whole plant, leave, seeds or roots

molded into paste, powder or decoctions.



Cichorum intybus an important medicinal herb that is used as remedy in asthma, where the

whole plant is exploited for crude preparation as decoction, paste, powder or an alcoholic

extract is prepared and administered as per conditions of the patient. Cuscuta reflexa is

important therapeutically for bronchitis, where the whole plant is used in folk preparation

forming powder, paste or an extract is prepared. Justicia adhatoda is also an important plant

in the study region for its remedial effects in tuberculosis, cough, sore throat and asthma.


RF

C

0.2 Relative frequency citation for medicinal plants

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08 0.06

0.04

0.02

0

Medcinal Plant species

Figure 18: Relative frequency citations for medicinal plant species


3.3.3.3 Use value (UV)

The use value is a numerical technique for information inquiry that authenticates the relative

significance of species or family for an inhabitants (Vendruscolo and Mentz, 2006). This key

was anticipated to craft a connotation among each species and the usages allocated to it by

investigating the index in relative to the use groups. In this investigation, the high UVs

recorded for Solanum virginianum (05), Sisymbrium erysimoides Saxifraga hirculus, Inula

obusifolia and Althaea officinalis (03) entitle their extensive practice in the ethnomedicinal

custom in the assessment area. The lowest UVs were attained for Cichorum intybus (0.04),

Cuscuta reflexa (0.04), Achyranthes aspera (0.06), Albizia lebbeck, Cyperus rotendus,

Cannabis sativa, Colchicum luteum, Datura innoxia and Solanum nigrum (0.07) (Figure 19).

High use values with great use reports can be recognized to its frequent use in the

management of different respiratory diseases and number of informants presenting that it is

well familiar by all the informants as an ethno-respiratory medicinal herb. The five medicinal species through high UVs (Solanum virginianum, Sisymbrium

erysimoides Saxifraga hirculus, Inula obusifolia and Althaea officinalis) supports the

impression that these are most important medicinal plants in the treatment of respiratory

ailments in Gallies regions. Among the common uses attributed to these plants are Solanum

virginianum therapeutically used for cough, asthma, bronchitis and chest affections and sore

throat, prepared into decoction, extract and powder using whole plant, root or fruit;

Sisymbrium erysimoides is used as an expectorant, bronchial disorders and sore throat. The

folk recipe comprises of whole plant and leaves, made into decoction or extracts. Saxifraga

hirculus is exploited for cough, chest complaints and pulmonary disorders. Decoction is prepared by boiling of whole plant administered according to the state of the

patient Inula obusifolia tuberculosis, problems and cough. Whole plant is powdered and

administered orally. Althaea officinalis has remedialefficacy in asthma, bronchitis and

pneumonia. The traditional crude drug is in the form of extract prepared from leaves, roots,

seeds and flowers. Most of the crude drugs are prepared from single plant species but

combinations of multiple species are also prevailing in the region. The dose ranges from two

table spoons thrice a day to one cup thrice a day but mainly depends on the age, gender,

severity of disease and local customs.


6

Use Value 5

4

3

2

1

0

Medicinal Plant species

Figure 19: Use values of medicinal plants used for respiratory ailment


3.3.3.4 Comparative analysis of ethno-respiratory information

The current study was also compared to search ethno-medicinal plants used for the

treatment respiratory ailments, inside Pakistan and the nearby countries through the region.

Overall 21 available research papers were taken into deliberation for the purpose. The

research reveals that maximum medicinal plants used in Pakistan for the treatment

respiratory ailments are at par with the use report from other countries. This analysis

exhibits novel information based on the plant part used, mode of preparation of crude drugs,

its administration and type of respiratory disorder treated. This analysis exhibits novel facts

based on the plant different part used, method of formation of crude medicines, its

administration and category of respiratory disorder treated. Medicinal plants used to treat

respiratory disease in the present study are often used for similar purposes globally.

Sargin et al. (2013) stated 137 taxa from Manisa, Turkey. They have quoted three taxa

with the same uses viz. Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, and Hyoscyamus niger and 5

species with different use viz. Artemisia absinthium, Celtis australis, Coriandrum sativum,

Juglans regia and Punica granatum with 3.64% of novel uses described in current study. Khan

et al. (2013) reported 101 species from Western Himalaya, Pakistan with 06 species have

similar uses as in current study viz. Adiantum venustum, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Ephedra

gerardiana, Hyoscyamus niger, Plantago lanceolata and Salvia lanata. They have also reported

08 plants species with different uses. They were Achillea millefolium, Aconitum heterophyllum,

Aconitum violaceum, Actaea spicata, Artemisia absinthium, Colchicum luteum, Juglans regia

and Salvia moorcroftiana with 7.92% of novel uses reports in current study. Reddy et al. (2006)

stated 86 plant species from Andhra Pradesh, India. Out of these 7 species viz. Achyranthes

aspera, Calotropis procera, Datura metal Euphorbia hirta, Justicia adhatoda, Azadirachta

indica, Butea monsperma and Allium sativum have the same uses. Lone and Bhardwaj (2013)

reported 25 plants and only one plant note with our finding viz. Allium sativum whereas 4

species with different uses from our findings. These include Actaea spicata, Plantago

lanceolata, Solanum nigrum, and Sonchus arvensis. Singh et al. (2012) reported 66 plants from

Terai forest of western Nepal which includes 06 species with similar uses as in present study

viz. Acorus calamus, Achyranthes aspera, Calotropis procera, Datura metal, Justicia adhatoda

and Phyllanthus emblica. They also reported 08 of species with different study viz. Asparagus

racemosus, Azadirachta indica, Coriandrum sativum,


162


Cuscuta reflexa, Cyperus rotundus, Eclipta prostrata, Euphorbia hirta, and Ficus

benghalensis with 12.12% of novel uses reports in current study.

Savikin et al. (2013) stated 69 plant species from South-Western Serbia, Zlatibor, 03

taxa with parallel uses as in current study viz. Achillea millefolium, Plantago lanceolata

and Tussilago farfara. They also reported 06 of species with different study viz. Acorus

calamus, Allium sativum, Ficus carica, Juglans regia, Punica granatum and Thymus

serpyllum with 8.69% of new uses described in current study. Rahul (2013) stated 57

species from Utter Pradesh India. They have quoted 7 plant species with the same uses viz.

Achyranthus aspera, Azadiracha indica, Calotropis procera, Datura stramonium,

Euphorbia hirta, Ficus religiosa and Solanum nigrum and 5 species with different uses viz.

Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbek, Butea monosperma Cannabis sativa and Ficus bengalensis

with 8.77% of new uses reported in current study. Lee et al. (2008) stated 216 plant species

from Yunnan Province, South West China. They have quoted 2 plant species with the same

uses viz. Phylanthus emblica and 8 species with different use viz. Alstonia scholaris,

Carthamus tinctorius, Eclipta prostrata, Buddleja asiatica, Solanum nigrum and

Trianthema portalacastrum with 3.7% of new uses reported in the current study. Bradacs et

al. (2011) described 29 plant species from Northern Australia. They have quoted 1 plant

species with the same uses viz. Achyranthus aspera and 1 species with different uses viz.

Ageratum conyzoides with 3.44% of new uses reported in present study.

Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2011) stated 90 plant species from Western Chats, India.

They have quoted 3 plant species with the same uses viz. Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza

glabra, and Hyoscyamus niger and 9 species with different uses viz. Artemisia absinthium,

Celtis australis, Coriandrum sativum, Juglans regia and Punica granatum with 10% of new

uses described in the current study. Khan and Khatoon (2008) reported 98 plants from

Western Chats, India. They have quoted 14 plant species with the same uses viz. Descuraini

sophia, Cannabis sativa, Carthamus tinctorius and Inula obtusifolia and 5 species with

different use viz. Artemisia absinithum, Artemisia brevifolia, Plantago lanceolata and

Datura stramonium with 5.10% of new uses reported in present study. Rashid (2013)

reported 31 plants from Rajouri of Jammu and Kashmir state they have quoted 6 plant

species with the same uses viz. Euphorbia hirta, Ficus palmata, Justacia adhatoda, Pisticia

integrrima, Sinapis arvonsis and Viola canesce and 1 species with different use viz. Acorus

calamus with 3.22% of novel uses stated in current study.


163


Ahmad et al. (2013) described 100 species ethno-botanically from Madyan valley

swat, Pakistan. 12 plants with similar uses and 12 with dissimilar usages with 12% of new

uses described in current study. Species with similar uses include Acorus calamus, Ajuga

brateosa, Ammi visnaga, Amaranthus viridis, Artemisia scoparia, Calotropis procera,

Cichorium intybus, Hyoscyamus niger, Punica granatum, Rheum australe and Thymus

serphyllum. While plants with dissimilar uses include Achillea millefolium, Acacia modesta,

Acacia nilotica, Achyranthes aspera, Aconitum violaceum, Adiantum venustum, Cannabis

sativa, Coriandrum sativum, Cuminum cyminum, Cuscuta reflexa, Datura innoxia,

Elaeagnus angustifolia and Rumex dentatus. Ummara et al. (2013) conducted

pharmacological studies on 50 plants from Shogran Valley Flora, Pakistan. 4 species with

alike uses and 2 with dissimilar uses with 4% species of new usages reported in present

study. Plants with similar uses include Abies pindrow, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex dentatus

and Viola biflora. While plants with dissimilar uses include Achillea millefolium and

Fragaria indica.

Rokaya et al. (2010) reported 161 species from Humla district of Nepal which were

used ethnomedicinally for various ailments including 9 plants with similar uses and 6 with

dissimilar uses with 3.72% of new usages reported in current study. Plants with similar uses

included Aconitum heterophyllum, Amaranthus caudatus, Artemisia indica, Acorus

calamus,Carum carvi, Coriandrum sativum, Punica granatum, Rheum australe and Swertia

angustifolia. Plants with different uses included Allium carolinianum, Cannabis sativa,

Cuscuta reflexa, Desmodium confertum, Datura metal and Datura stramonium. Shrestha

and Dhillion (2003) studies 58 plants from Highlands of Dolakha district, Nepal two

species with similar uses and 2 with dissimilar uses with 3.44% species of new uses

described in current study. Plants with similar uses include Acorus calamus and Jasminum

humile and plants with different uses included Cannabis sativa and Glycyrrhiza glabra.

Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2011) worked ethnobotanically on 90 medicinal plants from

Kanitribes in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India only one species with similar uses and 6

plants with dissimilar uses having 6.66% species of new uses described in current study. Muthu et

al. (2006) reported 85 species from Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu, India and defined 4

species with parallel uses while 8 with dissimilar uses with 9.41% species of new uses described

in present research. Plants with similar uses included Justicia adhatoda, Trianthema

portulacastrum, Acorus calamus and Citrus aurantifolia. Plants with different uses


164


included Achyranthes aspera, Eclipta prostrata, Cyperus rotundus, Euphorbia hirta, Ficus

benghalensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus religiosa and Datura metal.

Tabuti et al. (2010) studied ethnobotanically 88 species growing in tuberculosis and

associated disorders in Uganda. They reported only 2 plants with similar uses and no plant

included in their study with dissimilar uses with 0 % species of new uses reported in present

study. Plants with similar uses included Allium sativum and Cyperus rotundus. Jan et al.

(2008) reported 27 plants used ethnobotanically from Kaghan valley, Pakistan. They

mentioned no plant with similar uses and 5 plants with dissimilar uses having 18.51% species

of new uses reported in the present study. Ahmad et al. (2009) described 142 plants

ethnomedicinally from Siran Valley, Pakistan with no single plants with the same use value

and 25 plants with different uses with 17.6% species of new uses reported in present study.

Muthu et al. (2006) described 85 plants ethnomedicinally from Kancheepuram district, India

including 3 plants with similar uses and 8 plants with different uses. There was 9.41% species

of new uses reported in present study. Shrivastava and Kanungo, 2013 reported 14 plants

from Surguja District, India 2 with similar use and no plant with different uses. There was 0

% species of new uses reported in present study.

Reddy et al. (2006) reported 72 genera and 41 families used as a remedy for respiratory

disorders by the rural people and forest ethnic people of Eastern Ghats of ndhra Pradesh, India.

They reported 32 plants used for the treatment of asthma, 7 against bronchitis, 14 against cold and

cough, 20 against cough and 13 against whooping cough. Some species mentioned by them are

also included in our study viz. Datura metal, Euphorbia hirta, Butea monosperma, and Justicia

adhatoda almost with the same uses. Tabuti et al. (2010) documented 88 plant species used to

treat tuberculosis and related ailments in Uganda. Some plants men-tioned by them are also

mentioned in present investigation including Eucalyptus spp., Azadirachta indica. Table 15

similarity and differences between study area and neighboring regions.


165


Table 15: Similarity and differences between study area and neighboring regions.

S. No of Species with similar Species Percentage

No Reference Area species uses as with of new uses

reported in

different present

uses study

Sargin et al.

1. (2013) Manisa, Turkey 137 3 5 3.64

Khan et al. Western Himalaya,

2. (2013) Pakistan 101 6 8 7.92

Reddy et al.

3. (2006) Andhra Pradesh, India 86 7 0 0

Lone and Jammu and Kashmir,

4. Bhardwaj India 25 1 4 16

(2013)

Singh et al. Terai forest of western

5. (2012) Nepal 66 6 8 12.12

Savikin et al. South-Western Serbia,

6. (2013) Zlatibor 69 3 6 8.69

district

7. Rahul (2013) Utter Pradesh India 57 7 5 8.77

Yunnan Province, SW

8. Lee et al. (2008) China 216 2 8 3.7

Bradacs et al.

9. (2011) Northern Australia 29 1 1 3.44

Kanitribals in Tirunelveli

10. Ayyanar and hills of 90 1 6 6.66

Ignacimuthub

(2011) Western Ghats, India

Khan and Gilgit Northern Areas of

11. Khatoon Pakistan 98 14 5 5.10

(2008)

Rajouri of Jammu and

12. Rashid (2013) Kashmir 31 6 1 3.22

Ahmad et al. Madyan valley swat,

13. (2013) Pakistan 100 12 12 12

Ummara et al. Shogran Valley Flora,

14. (2013) Pakistan 50 4 2 4

Rokaya et al. Humla district of western

15. (2010) Nepal 161 8 6 3.72

Shrestha and Highlands of Dolakha

16. Dhillion district, 58 2 2 3.44

(2003) Nepal

Muthu et al. Kancheepuram District of

17. (2006) Tamil 85 4 8 9.41

Nadu, India

Tabuti et al. Tuberculosis and related

18. (2010) ailments 88 2 0 0

in Uganda

19. Jan et al. (2008) Kaghan valley, Pakistan 27 0 5 18.51

Ahmad et al.

20. (2009) Siran Valley, Pakistan 142 0 25 17.6

21. Shrivastava and Surguja District, India 14 2 0 0

Kanungo, 2013

Average mean percentage of new uses recorded 7.0448


166


Shrivastava and Kanungo, 2013 reported 14 plant species which were found to be used

for the treatment of respiratory diseases used by Uraon tribe Surguja district India. Nunkoo and

Mahomoodally, 2012 reported 39 plant species belonging to 24 families and 9 animal species

traditionally used in the formulation of herbal remedies and animal products, respectively and

com-monly used against infectious diseases in the tropical island of Mauritius. Some plants

reported by them and mentioned in our study include Cuscuta reflexa, Swertia petiolata Thymus,

Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus, Psidium guajava and Camellia sinensis.

Based on this comparative analysis, average mean percentage of new uses recorded in

21 selected research articles mentioned above was (7.0448) Table 15.

3.3.4. Novelty and future impact of the study

It is the first study of its kind in the area and the region as a whole to the best of our

knowledge. The current study provides information on the effective usage of medicinal plants

for respiratory disorders. This ethno-respiratory information is in relevance upto some extent

with some other ethnobotanical studies within the region and globally, but instead this study

documented a total of 120 medicinal plants which were specifically used for respiratory

disorders. The data revealed that part of plant used, mode of preparation of crude drug by the

local people and its administration considerably differs within the region and globally, thus

providing fresh ethno-medicinal knowledge.


167


Plate 43: Medicinal Plant used for Respiratory Disorders Gallies Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan


168


Plate 44: Medicinal Plant used for Respiratory Disorders Gallies Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan


169

SECTION 4

“Ethnomedicinal appraisal of the medicinal flora among

the Sub-alpine and Alpine indigenous communities of

Palas Valley Kohistan, Northern Pakistan”


3.4. Ethno-medicinal appraisal of the medicinal flora among the Sub-alpine and Alpine

indigenous communities of Palas Valley Kohistan, Northern Pakistan

The contemporary study was conducted to explore the ethno-medicinal potential of

the wild flora exploited by the indigenous communities of Palas valley of Kohisatn, Northern

Pakistan.

3.4.1 Demographics of study Participants

Demographic data of informants (Table 16) are documented during face-to-face get-

togethers and discussions. About 243 informants were interviewed which includes 87

females, 137 males and. 19 herbalists. Highest number of informants were male (62.55%) as

in. the study areas there is restriction on talks and communications of females with strangers

and outside community members females are not allowed to go to marketplaces, cities or any

other religious places. This resulted in less involvement of females in present study. On the

basis of age, it was assessed that old aged people have more knowledge regarding the use of

plants. Most educated people were least interested in folk use of medicinal plants. Nearly

90% of informants stated that vertical transfer of traditional knowledge on medicinal plants is

not taking place efficiently due to lack of interest in younger generation to learn and practice.

It. was also been observed that some informants have stopped to use traditional medicine due

to accessibility of modern medicines.

3.4.2 Medicinal Plant Diversity

A Total of 102 medicinal plants belong to.48 families including. 4 species of

Gymnosperms and. 98 species of Angiosperms. (93 dicotyledonous and. 5 monocotyledons)

are arranged in figure 23, in alphabetical order according to their taxonomic names, family

name and relevant information. (Table 16). Family Importance Value (FIV) is represented in

figure 29. The most frequently cited family was Rosaceae with 10 species (Figure 20).



Table 16: Demographic features of study area

Demographic Features Number of Persons Percentage

Gender

Female 91 37.44

Male 152 62.55

Informant category

Indigenous people 224 92.18

Hakims 19 7.818

Age of Informants

25-40 years 54 22.22

41-55 years 62 25.51

56-70 years 69 28.39

71 and above 58 23.86

Educational background

Illiterate 98 40.32

Elementary School level 69 28.39

Secondary School level 36 14.81

High School level 19 7.81

Higher education 21 21.39

Marital Status

Married 182 74.89

Unmarried 43 17.69

Widowed 18 7.40

Employment Status

Employed 61 25.10

Farmer 76 31.27

Unemployed 106 43.62



Gymnosperms

Monocots 4%

5% 4% 5%

91%

Dicots 91%

BIODIVERSITY

Figure 20: Plant Biodiversity of study area

No

b O

f T

axa

12 10

8

6

4

2

0

Frequently Used Families

Figure 21: Most frequently families for medicinal properties in study area


172


3.4.3 Disease categories

In total. 541 ailments were cured by medicinal plants from the study area. The

category of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) diseases have highest citations. (28.83%) followed by

respiratory diseases. (10.72%) used among the indigenous communities. (Fig. 28). In sense of

plants used, the highest number was observed for GIT diseases. (84.34%) followed by.

urinary disorders (35.29%). It has been unwavering that the local people are interested to use

herbal therapies mainly for the management of GIT and respiratory diseases while it has also

been indicated that valuable plant species of these regions have multiple traditional and

therapeutic uses against these diseases. The highest cited species against above mentioned

diseases should be further assessed and examined through pharmaceutical and biological

properties (Schmeda-Hirschmann et al., 2002). Earlier ethno-botanical studies conducted in

different regions also reported frequent usage of medicinal plants against gastrointestinal

diseases (Frei et al., 1998; Hammond et al., 1998; Bennett and Prance, 2000; Macia et al.,

2005; De-la-Cruz et al., 2007). Other noticeable diseases cured by medicinal plants in the

area are urinary disorders (8.68%) followed by muscles and skeletal diseases (4.62%). The

reason behind noticeable citations in urinary complaints might be the low intake of water

during cold season and hard agricultural work resulting in dehydration. Main reason for

highest citations for muscles and skeletal diseases was found due to walking and travelling in

high elevations without any transport (Schlage et al., 2000). To best of our observations in present research work, number of disorders treated by the

valuable vegetation could be due to lack of health care facilities and accessibility of transport

because the area is only linked to other regions through small roads.


S. No Family Taxonomic Local Life Flowering Part Folk Use Mode Of FL* FC* UR* U.V* RFC*

Name, Voucher Name Form Used Utilization

Number

121. Caprifoliaceae Abelia triflora Puth Shrub May-July Young Antibacterial, Juice, 80 5 5 1 0.020

R.Br. PV twigs Treat boils, Fever, Decoction

36 Measles,

Dysentery

122. Pinaceae Abies pindrow Paludar, Tree April-May Leaves Asthma, Cough, Tincture, 100 20 6 0.3 0.823

Royle. PV Rewar Tuberculosis, Decoction

21 Chronic , Juice,

bronchitis, Powder

Pulmonary

affections, Catarrh

of the bladder

123. Acerearceae Acer caesium Traikana, Tree March- Leaves Induce urination, Fresh 76 6 4 0.66 0.024

(Reinw.ex Traikan May , Bark, Astringent, Leaves,

Blume) Young Dysentery, Bark

Kosterm. twigs Diarrhea Powder

PV 47

124. Asteraceae Achilla Gandana Shrub April-July Rhizo Toothache, Powder 80 18 6 0.33 0.074

millefolium L. me, Dysentery, Tonic,

PV 33 Flower Inflamed gums,

s Excessive

menstrual flow,

Check bleeding

125. Rananculaceae Aconitum Patris Herb August- Latex, Purgative, Induce Root 86 30 7 0.23 0.123

hetrophyllum September Roots vomiting, Powder,

Wall.ex.Royle. Toothache, Joint Paste

PV 49 pain, Gastric

disorder, High

fever, Healing

cough

126. Hippocastanacea Aesculus indica Bankhore Tree April-June Fruits, Relieve pain, Tincture 60 15 4 0.26 0.061

e Wall. Ex Camb. Seeds Horses in colic,

Hk.f. Joint pain, Cure

PV 98 frostbite

127. Lamiaceae Ajuga bracteosa Manji booti Herb June- Whole Relieve malarial Extract 72 6 5 0.83 0.024

Wall. ex Benth. September Plant fever, Aromatic,

PV 101 Astringent, Tonic,

Stomach pain

128. Malvaceae Althea rosea L. Gulkhaira Herb June- Roots, Ointment for boils Maceratio 88.2 5 5 1 0.020

PV 118 September Leaves and abscesses, n, 3

, Mouthwash for decoction

Flower inflammation,

s Soft skin, Sooth

alimentary canal,

Bronchial disorder

129. Euphorbiaceae Andrachine Kurkun Herb June-July Leaves Induce vomiting, Powder 97.1 12 4 0.33 0.049

cordifolia Fruits Nervous 4

(Dene) Muell disorders,

PV 100 Purgative,

Convulsions

130. Primulaceae Androsace Thandi Herb June-July Whole Irregular menses, Powder, 93.7 6 3 0.5 0.024

rotundifolia Jari Plant Avoiding Crude 5

Hardw. conception, form

PV 72 Ophthalmic

diseases

131. Umblifereae Angelica glauca Chora Herb July- Roots Cordial stimulant, Powder 67.8 15 4 0.26 0.061

Edgew. PV 21 August Indigestion, 5

Stomachic,

Constipation

132. Apiaceae Apium ………… Herb June-July Roots Tonic, Relieve Powder 80 5 3 0.6 0.020

graveolens L. … pain, Induce urine

PV 01

133. Ppaveraceae Argemone Peeli Herb March- Leaves Leucorrhoea, Skin Decoction 86.6 4 5 1.25 0.016

mexicana L. kindiari April , diseases, 6

PV 07 Roots, Narcotic,

Seeds Diuretic,

Ophthalmic

134. Asteraceae Artemisia Chaw Herb July- Leaves Carminative, Powder, 82.6 14 7 0.5 0.05

absinthium L. September Cold, Fever, Decoction 0

PV 12 Antiseptic,

Purgative, Anti- malarial, Expel

intestinal worms

135. Liliaceae Asparagus Shahghand Herb May-June Leaves Kill and expel Crude 90 5 2 0.4 0.020

officinale L. al, Nanoor Intestinal worms, form,

PV 22 Tonic Powder

136. Liliaceae Asparagus Shahghand Shrub June- Roots, Induce urine, Powder, 82.6 10 3 0.3 0.041

racemoss Willd. al/ Nanoor August Whole Fever, Relieve Crude 0

PV 28 Plant stomach pain form

137. Papilionaceae Astragalus Bankantha Shrub May-June Seeds Soften alimentary Paste, 80 3 4 1.33 0.012

candolleanus canal, Soften skin, Powder

Royle ex Benth. Relieve colic,

PV 39 Leprosy

138. Papilionaceae Astragalus Chitti Bin, Shrub May- Young Skin disease, Crude 66.6 5 4 0.8 0.020

grahamianus Kanthi August twigs, Leprosy, Fever, form 6

Royle ex Benth. Leaves Mouth infection

PV 42

139. Solanaceae Atropa Cheela Herb June- Seeds, Anti-diabetic, Powder, 76.6 11 5 0.45 0.045

belladonna L. lubar, August Whole Induce sleep, Decoction 6

PV 41 Angoor Plant Induce urine, , root

shifa Dilate pupil of paste

eye, Fever,

140. Berberidaceae Berberis Zirishk, Shrub March- Roots, Induce urine, Powder, 73.6 25 8 0.32 0.102

kunawurensis Sumbal June Bark Treat mouth sore, Crude 8

Royle. Astringent, Cool form,

PV 99 the body, Brain Decoction

PV affections,

Anti-bilious,

Scarlet fever,

Tonic

141. Berberidaceae Berberis lycium Kashmal, Shrub March- Roots, Chronic, Powder, 100 35 6 0.17 0.144

Royle. PV Sumbal June Bark Menorrhagia, Crude

10 Diarrhea, Piles, form,

Eye diseases, Decoction

Reduce fever ,

Maceratio

n

142. Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata Batpewa Herb March-July Roots Treatment of Powder, 71.4 15 6 0.4 0.061

(Haw.) Sternb. fevers, Pulmonary decoction 2

PV 17 affections, Tonic,

Diarrhea, Kidney

stones, Cardiac tonic

143. Saxifragaceae Bergenia But pewa Herb June- Roots Stomach disorder, Powder, 70.5 10 5 0.5 0.041

Ligulata (Wall.) August Skin diseases, Paste 8

Engl. PV 13 Induce urine,

Cardio-tonic,

Cure wounds

144. Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia Itsit Herb June- Leaves Hepatic, Powder, 68.9 5 3 0.6 0.20

diffusa Engelm August Antidiabetic, Decoction 6

& A.Gray. Stimulant

PV 103

145. Buddlejaceae Buddleja Booi Shrub November- Leaves Treat asthma, Crude 82.3 6 7 1.16 0.024

asiatica Lour. April , Abortifacient, form, 5

PV 55 Flower Skin complaints, Powder,

s Insecticide, Night Decoction

blindness, Eyes

strain, Coughing

with blood

146. Ranunculaceae Caltha indica Thutha Herb May- Leaves Removal of warts, Paste 75 7 5 0.71 0.028

Cambess. August , whole Cough, Induce

PV 52 plant urine, Diabetes,

Uterine cancer

147. Pinaceae Cedrus deodara Diar, Tree October Stem, Carminative, Powder, 80 18 14 0.77 0.074

(Roxb.ex. Gum/ Complexion, Paste

D.Don) G.Don. Resin Reduce fever,

PV 71 Relieve

flatulence,

Pulmonary

disorders, Urinary

disorders, Joint

pain, Piles, Stone

in kidney,

Astringent,

Diarrhea, Dysentery, Skin

diseases of goats

and camels, Ulcers, Horses

and sore feet of cattle

148. Liliaceae Colchicum Qiamat Herb Feruary- Corm, Carminative, Powder, 79.1 15 9 0.6 0.037

luteum Baker Gul, June Seeds Laxative, Increase Paste 6

PV 104 suranjan sexual desire,

Gout, Joint pain,

Liver, Spleen

diseases, Reduce

inflammation,

Blood purifier

149. Asteraceae Cichorium Hand Herb May-June Whole Carminative, Powder, 88.2 9 7 0.77 0.037

intybus L. Plant, Sudorific, decoction 3

PV 47 roots Stimulant,

Stomach disorder,

Appetizer,

Jaundice, leprosy

150. Cornaceae Cornus Kandar, Tree April-June Stem, Malaria, Crude 87.5 3 3 1 0.012

macrophylla Leaves Indigestion, form

Wall. PV 89 , bark Diabetes

151. Anacardiaceae Cotinus cogyira Parnh Shrub April-June Whole Eye ailments, Powder, 80 6 3 0.5 0.024

Scop. Plant Coagulant, Fever Maceratio

PV 70 n

152. Rosaceae Cotoneaster Luni Shrub April-June Whole Expel mucus, Powder 82.6 5 4 0.8 0.020

nummularia Plant Astringent, 0

Fisch and Mey. Aperients,

PV 16 Stomach disorder

153. Rosaceae Crataegus Ban Sinjli, Tree May-June Fruits, Hypertrophy, Crude 90 18 3 0.16 0.074

songarica Bat Sinjli, Flower Heart oppression, form,

C.Koch. s, Cardiac Powder

PV 77 Seeds

154. Solanaceae Datura Kala Herb Summer Seeds, Ulcers, Poisoning, Fresh 78.9 12 4 0.33 0.049

stramonuim L. Datura, Leaves Relieve Asthma, leaves, 4

PV 19 Boil Smoke,

Seed

powder

155. Leguminosae Desmodium Chamra Shrub July- Roots, Diarrhea, Root 76.9 6 15 2.5 0.024

elegans DC. September Leaves Carminative, Powder, 2

PV 31 Abscesses, Tonic, Fresh

Induce urine, Leaves

Astringent,

Chronic Fever,

Biliousness,

Cough, Vomiting,

Asthma, Snake

bite, Wounds,

Dysentery,

Convulsion

156. Leguminosae Erythrina Dhak Tree March- Bark, Induce urine, Eye Decoction 74.0 5 12 2.4 0.020

glabrescens April Leaves diseases, 7

(Prain.) Parker. Laxative, Induce

PV 109 menses, Expel

mucus, Expel and

kill intestinal

worms,

Antibilious,

Reduce fever,

Dysentery,

Cathartic,

Increase flow

milk, Dressing

ulcer

157. Moraceae Ficus carica L. Phagwar Tree April- Fruits, Laxative, An Crude 100 18 9 0.5 0.074

PV 53 December Latex ingredient in Fruit,

confection of Syrup of

“Senna” and Fruit,

compound syrup Latex

of “Fig”. from

Constipation, Leaves

Renal and vesical

calculi, Piles,

External ulcers,

Boils, Cracks in mouth, Against

warts

158. Moraceae Ficus foveolata Bat Shrub May- Whole Latex sooths the Latex 83.3 3 5 1.66 0.012

Wall.ex.Miq. Phagwar September Plant, bee sting, 3

PV 72 Latex Gastrointestinal

disorders

Latex, Remove

wart,

Haemorrhoids

159. Moraceae Ficus palmata Phagwar Tree June- Fruit, Lungs bladder Crude 83.3 12 5 0.41 0.049

Forssk. December Ash diseases, Fruit, Ash 3

PV 84 Laxative, of wood

Demulcent,

Constipation, Ash

is used in snuff

160. Oleaceae Fraxinus Sum Tree May-June Seed, Digestive, Powder 82.7 5 4 0.8 0.020

excelsior Boiss. leaves, Antidiabetic, 5

PV 97 bark Tonic, Induce

urine

161. Geraniaceae Geranium Ratanjot Herb June- Stem, Toothache, Crude 85.7 7 6 0.85 0.028

wallichianum September Roots Astringent, Root, 1

D.Don.ex. Applied externally Root,

PV 88 to the eyes, Tonic, Paste

Joint pain,

Backache

162. Araliaceae Hedra nepalense Arbambal Shrub September- Leaves Pulmonary Decoction 75 8 6 0.75 0.032

K. Koch. PV October , Fruit infections, Fever,

119 Antidiabetic, Joint

pain,

Anticancerous,

Increase

perspiration

163. Solanaceae Hyoscyamus Ajwain Herb May- Leaves Dilate pupil of Decoction 93.3 7 4 0.57 0.028

niger L. September , seeds eye, Relieve colic, , Juice 3

PV 108 Induce sleep,

Dilate pupil of eye

164. Hypericaceae Hypericum Chamba Shrub February- Whole Antidepressant, Decoction 83.3 5 4 0.8 0.020

oblongifolium April Plant Relieve colic, 3

Choisy. Stimulate bile

PV 08 flow, Antiviral

165. Hypericaceae Hypericum Dodal booti Herb May- Leaves Anti- Powder, 95.1 15 4 0.26 0.061

perforatum L. August Flower inflammatory, decoction 6

PV 12 s Antibacterial,

Antidepressant,

Induce sleep

166. Bignoniaceae Incarvillea Patakgarhi Shrub March- Leaves Anti- Powder, 86.6 2 6 3 0.008

emodi (Royle ex April inflammatory, Juice 6

Lindl.) Relieve pain,

PV 107 Deafness,

Exudation of pus,

Pain in the

auditory

apparatus,

Epilepsy

167. Fabaceae Indigoferra Kainthi Shrub May-June Leaves Anti-Cancerous, Decoction 93.7 12 6 0.5 0.049

heterantha , Cooling, 5

Wall.ex Brand. Flower Relieving

PV 14 s, Stem abdominal pain,

Demulcent, chest

pain

168. Lamiaceae Isodon regosus Booi . Shrub May- Leaves Kill insects, Blood Decoction 97.1 8 2 0.25 0.322

(Wall. ex September , purifier , 4

Benth.) Codd. Young Maceratio

PV 03 twigs n

169. Oleaceae Jasminum Chambeli, Shrub April-June Flower Tonic to heart and Decoction 80 5 4 0.8 0.020

humile L. Chamba s, bowels, , Juice

PV 116 Roots Astringent,

Ringworms,

Destroying the

unhealthy lining

walls of chronic

sinuses and

fistulas

170. Oleaceae Jasminum Chambeli Shrub May-July Roots, Headache, Decoction 84.6 6 11 1.83 0.024

officinale L. Flower Scorpion sting, of Root, 1

PV 27 s, Ringworm, Paste of

Leaves Induce urine, Flower,

, Promote menses, Juice,

Seeds, Kill intestinal Crude

Whole worms, Skin Leaves, Plant diseases, Weak Oil

eye, Ulceration,

Eruption in the

mouth, Ear

infection

171. Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. Akhor, Tree February- Leaves Astringent, Decoction 71.4 15 10 0.66 0.061

PV 78 Akhori April , Antiseptic, Expel , Tincture, 2

Fruits, intestinal worms, Crude

Roots, Anti-syphilitic, Bark,

Bark Cleaning teeth, Unripe

Children as Fruit and

relieve colic, kernel of

Checking the Fruit,

sickness of Husk

pregnancy, Stop

mammary

secretion, As

gargle in sore

throat, Brain tonic

172. Caprifoliaceae Lonicera Puth Shrub May-July Stem, Digestive, Horses Decoction 88.8 5 5 1 0.020

quinquelocularis Leaves for colic, Remedy , Powder 8

Hardw. , Bark for venereal

PV 123 diseases, Kill

worms, Stomach

tonic

173. Caprifoliaceae Lonicera Puth Shrub June-July Leaves Stomach disorder, Decoction 91.4 4 4 1 0.016

caucasica Pall. , Venereal diseases, 2

PV 132 Flower Boils, joint pain

s

174. Asteraceae Matricaria Baboona Herb June-July Roots Heart stroke, Decoction 97.9 4 4 1 0.016

chammomilla L Fever, Colic, , Crude 5

PV 120. Dyspepsia Powder

with water

175. Leguminosae Medicago sativa Sinji Herb June-July Whole Menopause, Cooked 92.5 5 10 2 0.020

L. PV Plant Tonic, Leaves 9

05 Menstruation,

Diuretic, Earache,

Jaundice, Clotting

of blood, Kidney pain, Cough,

Antidiabetic

176. Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis Podina Herb May-July Fruits Soft skin, Juice, 75 12 3 0.25 0.49

L. Aperient, Sooth Paste

PV 156 alimentary canal

177. Lamiaceae Mentha piperita Podina Herb May-July Whole Stomach disorder, Powder, 71.4 11 4 0.36 0.45

L. PV Plant Relieve spasm, Decoction 2

65 Carminative, .

Antibacterial

178. Lamiaceae Nepta Pisho boty Herb June- Seeds Seed tonic, Induce Decoction 80 5 6 1.2 0.020

hindostana August urine, Against , Powder,

Haims. PV constipation, Fresh

40 Stomach disorder, Leaves,

Carminative,

Leaf appetizer

179. Lamiaceae Origanum Ban Herb June- Tubers Epilepsy, Colic, Decoction 83.3 6 3 0.5 0.024

vulgare L. Ajwain October Uterine disorder 3

PV 82

180. Oxalidaceae Oxalis Khat kurla Herb June- Whole Antidiabetic, Juice 60 20 8 0.4 0.82

corniculata L. August Plant Aperient, Induce

PV 130 sweat, Induce

urine, Used to kill

and expel

intestinal worms,

Reduce vomiting,

Heal fractured

bones, Vaginal

discharge

181. Paeoniaceae Paeonia emodi Mamaikh Shrub April-May Tubers, Purgative, Induce Cooked 77.7 22 10 0.45 0.09

Wall ex Hk.f Seeds urine, Uterine Roots 7

PV 138. diseases, Nervous (Halwa),

disorders, Emetic, Powder

Sooth alimentary

canal, Cool the

body,

Cardiovascular diseases, Tonic,

piles

182. Pinaceae Picea smithiana Kachal Tree April-May Stem Joints pain, Powder, 66.6 8 2 0.25 0.032

(Wall) Bois. PV Stomach pain Decoction 6

15

183. Pinaceae Pinus Biar, Kail Tree April-June Stem Cough, Scorpion Infusion, 72 9 4 0.44 0.037

wallichiana and snake bite, Powder

A.B.Jackson. Fever, Asthma,

PV 19

184. Anacardiaceae Pistacia Kanghar Tree March- Gall Skin diseases, Decoction 100 8 2 0.25 0.032

integerrima May Reducing , Paste

(J.Stewart.)Rech inflammation

.f. PV from body

20

185. Plantaginaceae Plantago ovata Chmchi Herb June- Seeds Induce urine, Powder, 78.9 15 11 0.733 0.061

Forss k. pattar September Soften the skin, Maceratio 4

PV 57 Relieve n

constipation,

Sooth alimentary

canal, Relieve

mucus,

Astringent, Cool

body, Anti-

inflammatory,

Tonic, Dysentery,

Dry cough

186. Liliaceae Polygonatum Adbis Herb May-June Rhizo Skin trouble, Paste, 75 3 8 2.66 0.012

multiflorum me Nausea, Piles, Decoction

(Linn.)All. Excite vomiting, , poultice

PV 50 Bleeding of the

lungs, Demulcent,

Stomach

inflammations,

Respiratory

disorders

187. Polygonaceae Polygonatum Mahameda Herb May-July Roots Increase sexual Decoction 83.3 4 5 1.25 0.016

verticillatum (L) stock, desire, Cooling, , Powder 3

All. Rhizo Induce urine,

PV 66 me Increase milk

flow, Fever

188. Polygonaceae Polygonum Masloorn Herb July- Roots, Gastrointestinal Decoction 72 9 7 0.77 0.037

bistorta L. August Rhizo disturbances, , Syrup

PV 08 me Stomachic,

Cough, Fever,

Sedative

activities,

Excessive

menstruation,

Bleeding piles,

189. Salicaceae Populus ciliata Palach Tree March- Bark, Tonic, Stimulant, Decoction 85.7 7 5 0.71 0.028

Wall ex Royle. April Leaves Purify blood, 1

PV 60 , Stem Anti-

inflammatory,

Urinary tract

infection

190. Rosaceae Pyrus pashia Batangi Tree March- Fruits, Diarrhea, Juice, 91.1 7 4 0.57 0.028

Hamilt. April Leaves Laxative, Fever, Crude 1

PV 99 Induce sleep Fruit

191. Fagaceae Quercus baloot Reen, Tree April-May Stem, Astringent, Induce Decoction 55.5 6 4 0.66 0.024

Griffth. Birtha, Leaves urine, Asthma, , Smoke, 5

PV 07 Baloot. Sore throat Infusion

192. Fagaceae Quercus dilatata Barungi Tree April-May Fruits, Urinary problems, Decoction 100 5 4 0.8 0.020

Lind. ex Royle. Stem, Sexual disease, , Powder

PV 87 Leaves Infectious

, diseases, piles,

Young

twigs

193. Fagaceae Quercus incana. Reen Shah Tree April-May Fruits Diarrhea, Decoction 75 4 6 1.5 0.016

Roxb. baloot Astringent, Induce , Smoke

PV 95 urine, Asthma,

Indigestion,

Gonorrhea

194. Ericaceae Rhodendron Rantol, Shrub February- Flower Skin diseases, Fresh 66.6 5 3 0.6 0.020

arboreum Sm. Ramtol May. s, Tonic, Headache Petals, 6

PV 114 Leaves Smoke,

Paste

195. Grossulariaeae Ribes alpestre Kag Dakh Shrub May-June Fruits Purgative, Cold, Powder, 96 7 4 0.57 0.028

Dene.ex Jacq. Flu Increase, Crude

PV 17 immunity Berries

196. Grossulariaeae Ribes glaciale Karn, Shrub April-May Leaves Reduce fever, Decoction 100 7 7 1 0.028

Wall. Jangli , Fruits Induce urine, Cool , Fresh

PV 133 Angoor body, Relieve Fruit

Constipation,

Cooling,

Detergent, Sore

throat

197. Rosaceae Rosa brunonii Jhal, Shrub April-June Roots, Astringent, Paste, 90 10 5 0.5 0.041

Lindl. PV Flower Increase sexual Powder,

54 s, desire, Bilious Juice, Oil

Seeds affections,

Burning of the

skin, Eye diseases

198. Rosaceae Rosa webbiana Shingari Shrub June- Flower It is an ingredient Powder, 100 15 4 0.26 0.061

Wall ex Royle. August s of “Gul Kand” Paste

PV 63 used in digestive

ailments, Ulcer,

Wounds, Sprain

199. Rosaceae Rubus ellipticus Guracha Shrub February- Leaves Diarrhea, Infusion, 88.8 8 7 0.87 0.032

Smith. April , Whooping cough, Decoction 8

PV 116 Roots, Cordial astringent, , Powder

Fruits Looseness of

bowels, Bleeding,

Dysentery , Sore

throat

200. Rosaceae Rubus Guracha Shrub April- May Leaves Induce urine, Powder, 98.2 8 4 0.5 0.032

macilentus , Fruits Urticarial, Fresh 1

Camb. PV Diarrhea, Increase Fruit.

140 sperms

201. Polygonaceae Rumex hastatus Khatambal Shrub Summer Whole Wounds, Reduce Juice 85.7 19 3 0.15 0.078

D.Don. plant vomiting, Stop 1

PV 103 bleeding

202.

Salicaceae

Salix denticulata Baira Shrub March- Bark, Reduce fever, Decoction 75 5 4 0.8 0.02

N.J.Andress. May Stem Kill intestinal

var.hazarica worms,

(Parker) Parker. Astringent,

PV 152 Intermittent

203. Lamiaceae Salvia lanata Choti Herb April-June Roots Antiseptic, Powder, 80 5 3 0.6 0.020

Roxb. Kalijari Reduce sweating, Decoction

PV 157 Menses problem

204. Sambucaceae Sambucus Ganula Shrub June- Bark, Purgative, Decoction 76.9 7 8 1.14 0.028

wightiana August Fruits Remove , Fresh 2

Wall.ex Wight constipation, Berries

and Arn. Induce urine,

PV 09 Dropsy, Relieve

mucus, Induce

sweat, Dropsy,

Anti-

inflammatory

205. Buxaceae Sarcococca Shela, Shrub September- Leaves Muscular pains, Decoction 85 5 3 0.6 0.020

saligna (Don) May Laxative, Blood

Muell.Arg. purifier

PV 173

206. Asteraceae Sassurea costus Kuth Herb Roots Throat infection, Powder 70.5 8 3 0.37 0.032

(Falc) Lipsch. Bilious affection, 8

PV 60 Astringent

207. Rutaceae Skimmia Ner, Nera Shrub April-May Leaves Small pox, Decoction 87.5 22 5 0.22 0.090

laureola (DC) Asthma, Improve , Smoke

Sieb & Zucc. ex breathing, Relax

Walp. central nervous

PV 88 system, Repel evil

sprit

208. Solanaceae Solanum nigrum Kachmach Herb May- Fruits, Dental problem, Decoction 77.7 11 6 0.54 0.045 L. PV September Flower Skin infection, , Paste in 7

54 s Antiseptic, Tonic Water

in fever,

Dyspepsia,

Scabies

209.

Leguminosae

Sophora mollis Kathi Tree March- Leaves Relieve headache, Decoction 100 9 4 0.44 0.037

(Royle)Baker April , To kill lice in hair, , Juice,

ssp mollis. Seeds, Skin diseases, Powder,

PV 115 Stem Sore- eye Ointment

210.

Rosaceae

211. Rosaceae

212. Rosaceae

213. Gentianaceae

214. Asteraceae

215. Taxaceae

Sorbaria Karli Shrub June- Leaves Relieve colic, Decoction 70 7 3 0.42 0.028

tomentosa August , Against acne, , Ointment

(Lindl) Rehder. Fruits, Insect repellant in Butter

PV 121 Young

twigs

Spiraea hazarica Kurkun Shrub May-July Leaves Diarrhea, Infusion, 91.6 2 4 2 0.008

R.N.Parker. , Dysentery, Tonic, Decoction 6

PV 100 Young Astringent

twigs

Spiraea Kurkun Shrub May-July Leaves Wounds, Sores 70 11 2 0.18 0.045

vaccinifolia ,

D.Don. PV 30 Young

twigs

Swertia Chiraiyta Herb July- Whole Induce urine, Decoction 66.6 22 10 0.45 0.090

Chiraiyta (Roxb. September Plant Anti- 6

ex inflammatory,

Fleming.)H.Kars Anti-tubercular,

t. PV Anti-oxidative,

31 Typhoid fever,

Antifungal

activities,

Narcotic, Pain

killer, Dilate pupil

of eye, Induce

sleep

Taraxicum Hand Herb February- Whole Astringent, Decoction 76.4 16 7 0.43 0.065

officinales April Plant Kidney disorder, , Juice 7

Weber ex Tonic, Aperient,

Wigger. Induce urine,

PV 159 Liver disorder,

Pain killer

Taxus Birmi Tree February- Leaves Fever, Bronchitis, Decoction 90.9 16 11 0.68 0.065

wallichiana May , Stem, Hiccough, 0

Zucc. Resin Promote

PV 160 menstrual cycle,

Indigestion,

Epilepsy, Increase sexual desire,

Sedative,

Antiseptic, Asthma, Anti-

cancerous

216. Papilionaceae Trigonella Methray Herb March- Seeds Joint pain, Chest Powder 100 20 4 0.2 0.082

foenum-graecum June infections, Tonic,

L. Stomach problem

PV 124

217. Ulmaceae Ulmus villosa Mannu Tree March- Leaves Diarrhea, Increase Decoction 100 4 9 2.25 0.016

Brandis ex April , Bark, urine, Reduce

Gamble. Stem fever, Abscesses,

PV 136 Remove stones

from the bladder,

Skin eruptions,

Swellings,

Backache,

Ringing in the ear

218. Urticaceae Urtica dioca L. Bichubuti Herb May- Roots, Menorrhagia, Decoction 80 7 4 0.57 0.028

PV 110 September Rhizo Breast milk,

me Anemia, Cause

severe irritation

219. Valerianaceae Valeriana Mushk bala Herb February- Roots, Reduce pain, Decoction 73.3 25 11 0.44 0.102

jatamansi Jones. August Rhizo Tranquilizer, , Powder 3

PV 111 me Relieve spasm,

Carminative,

Relax mucus,

Nervine relaxant,

Induce sleep,

Stimulant, Induce

urine, Hair tonic,

Hysteria

220. Scrophulariacea Verbascum Gidar Herb July- Leaves Skin burn, Paste in 90 4 4 1 0.016

e thapsus L. Tambaku August Flower Cooling agent, Butter

PV 99 s, Reduce fever,

Seeds Soft skin

221. Caprifoliaceae Viburnum Guch Shrub April-May Fruits, Tonic, Astringent, Fresh 100 10 7 0.7 0.041

foetens Dene. leaves Induce urine, Fruit,

PV 02 Sedative, Relieve powder

colic, Uterine

disorder,

Facilitate removal of placenta in

animals after

delivery

222. Violaceae Viola canescens Banafsha Herb Ferbraur- Whole Jaundice, Cough, Decoction 87.5 30 7 0.23 0.123

Wall. ex Roxb. May Plant Cold, Fever, `

PV 112 Epilepsy, Nervous

disorder, Induce

perspiration

FL*= Fidelity Level, FC* = Frequency Citation, UR* = Use reports, U.V* = Use value, RFC* = Relative frequency of Citation, Symbols indicate comparison of use with neighboring regions: (▲) similar use, (●) Different use. (∆) Use not reported


3.4.4 Life Forms

In current study, herbs were the most used life forms as a medicine (41%) followed by

shrubs (37%) and trees. (22%) (Figure 25). Herbs were used most because in study area they

were easy available and they are geographic feature of sub-alpines. and alpine area. During

study, this same reason was also stated by local people about more frequent use of herbs.

Besides this, herbs can be handled with easiness in herbal formulation methods and extraction

of bioactive compounds (Shreshtha and Dhillion, 2003). Similar conclusions were drawn

from other studies on medicinal plants carried out in central Nepal (Shrestha and Dhillion,

2003; Uprety et al., 2010) and west Nepal (Kunwar et al., 2006). Less percentage of trees

were due to high altitude, where tree growth is hindered due to high rate of wind velocity and

other climatic and geographical related factors.

3.4.5 Plant parts used

In present research, the most commonly used plant parts were leaves. (42 reports)

followed by underground parts, the roots. (24 reports) (Figure 26). Leaves are most

frequently used due to their active secondary constituents. It is believed that leaves comprises

of extractable phytochemicals, crude drugs and many other mixtures which may be

recognized as precious regarding phytotherapy. This fact is line with studies conducted in

elsewhere in different regions of Pakistan (Ahmad et al., 2014, Bano et al., 2014a, 2014b)..

Besides leaves, roots are also most preferred parts in many cases because they contain higher

concentration of bioactive compounds than other parts. (Srithiet al., 2009, Robinson, 1974;

Moore, 1994; Basualdo et al., 1995). The often used whole plants (17 reports) correspond to

higher usage of herbs in these areas as whole plant is chosen only in the case of herbaceous

habit. It is imperative to note that the confiscation of roots may have noteworthy harmful

effects on plant existence and regeneration. So it should be abridged as much as conceivable

in the cases where some threatened or rare plant species are used. Leaves are most used part

as the removal of the whole plant or roots or excessive use of fruits or seeds as medicines has

a damaging effect on plant population growth, possibly leading to a strong degeneration of

many medicinal plant populations in nature (Ghimire et al., 2008; Giday et al., 2003).


191


Percentage of plant life forms

Tree 22%

Shrub 37%

Herb 41%

Shrub Herb Tree

Figure 22: Percentage of plant life forms of study area

Whole Plant Young twigs Bark Corm

4% 6% 1% Flowers

Tubers 9%

8% Fruits

Stem 1%

9% Gall 8% 1%

Gum 1%

Seeds Latex

2% 9%

Roots 13%

Leaves 23%

Rhizome Resin

3% 1%

Percentage Of Plant Parts Used

Figure 23: Percentage of plant parts used in study area


192


3.4.6. Modes of preparation and routes of administration

In current study, various preparation modes like decoction, infusion, paste, powder,

smoke poultice and raw forms are reported (Fig 27). Out of total. 182 preparations, the most

frequently reported mode is decoction. (51 reports) followed by powder. (49 reports). The

most common use of decoction was due to efficacy of herbal drugs. It is common observation

on heating numerous biological reactions are accelerated resulting in many active compounds

(Zhang et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2008; Han et al., 2007). Besides decoction, in high altitude

regions during winter dried powder is preferred possibly due to cold dry and snowy season

(Kayani et al., 2014; Bano et al., 2014a, 2014b; Ahmad et al., 2014). Local communities use

decoction as well as powder according to diseases treated and their conditions.

The most frequent routes of administration were oral (70%) in some cases topical

application (30%). Topically herbal preparations are applied as paste, washings or rubbing on

the affected body part as reported in previous studies (Hammond et al., 1998; De-la-Cruz et

al., 2007). There is versatile medicinal plant diversity and their wide uses in study area; the

exact doses used for each medicine have not been included in the present study. As per

information of respondents, one of the specific reasons was observed that plant material used

for preparation of herbal drugs is difficult to measure due to less availability of measuring

systems. It was also indicated by some of informants that roughly 40.–50 g of fresh plant

material or 20– 25 g of powdered plant material may be taken daily. Doses are taken twice a

day because people are present at home on the morning and evening time. Besides above,

according to few informants the dosage depends on the age and physical appearance of the

individual and children are given less than adults. Same sort of conclusions has been

observed in previous studies (Liu et al., 2005).



30

Per

cen

tag

e o

f m

od

e o

f p

rep

ara

tio

n

25

20

15

10

5

0

Mode of preparation

Figure 24: Percentage of herbal drug preparation in study area

3.4.7 Quantitative data analyses

3.4.7.1 Informant's Consensus Factor (ICF)

The consensus of informants on medicinal plants reported for treating different ailments was

quantitatively analysed. To develop this consensus, all treated diseases are grouped into 16

categories. In current studies, ICF value ranges from 0.06 to 0.68. The highest ICF value

(0.45) is found for. GIT diseases followed by respiratory disorders (0.40) (Figure. 28). The

most prevalent records of. GIT diseases have resulted to high ICF value. It may be due to the

non-availability of pure drinking water and food containing many germs; dust particles and

spores particularly of herbs (more frequent in the mountain community) which may stick in

these sensitive organs causing abnormalities. Respiratory disorders having second most

highest ICF may be resulted from cold, moist and high altitude areas where low temperature is more existent than high temperature (Kayani et al., 2014).. According to some

traditional healers respiratory disorders are also caused due to prevalence of pollen and

spores which get stuck into respiratory organs.



0.5 0.45

0.4 0.35

0.3 0.25

0.2 0.15

0.1 0.05

0

Category of Diseases

Figure 25: Informant's Consensus Factor (ICF) value of medicinal plants used for treatment of various disease


195


The other more noticeable ICF (0.266) was more existent than high temperature (Kayani et

al., 2014).. According to some traditional healers respiratory disorders are also caused due to

prevalence of pollen and spores which get stuck into respiratory organs. The other more

noticeable ICF (0.266) was found. for sexual diseases and (0.260) for nervous disorders. This

shows common occurrence of disorders in the study areas either due to poor hygiene or water

contamination (Adzu et al., 2003; Schlage et al., 2000).

This high ICF values indicated reasonable reliability of informants on the use of

medicinal plant species (Lin et al., 2002), while the low ICF value of body energizers,

urinary disorders, infectious diseases such as chicken pox, measles and dengue fever

indicated the less uniformity of the informants' knowledge. Further high ICF is always

allied with a few specific plants with high use reports for treating single disease category

(Madikizela et al., 2012). On the other hand, its low values are always associated with

many plants with almost equal or high use reports suggesting the lesser level of agreement

among the informants on use of plant species to treat a particular disease category.

3.4.7. 2 Fidelity Level (FL)

The FL of plant species for treating specific diseases in the study area varies

between 23% and 100%. We found. 11 plant species having maximum 100 FL% that are.

Abies pindrow (Chronic bronchitis), Berberis lycium (Reduce pain), Ficus carica (Laxative),

Pistacia integerrima (Reducing inflammation from body), Quercus dilatata (Sexual disease),

Ribes glaciale (Cool body), Rosa webbiana (digestive ailments), Sophora mollis (Skin

diseases), Trigonella foenum-graecum(Tonic), Ulmus villosa (Remove stones from the

bladder), Viburnum foetens (Joint pain.. These species may be proven as important medicinal

plants on further evaluation through phytochemical, pharmaceutical and biological activities.

We have recognized plants as more important having 80 FL% or more. In accordance with

FL results (Table 16), there are. 15 plant species highly cited for gastrointestinal tract

disorders, 12 for respiratory disorders, 8 for urinary disorders., 7 for. blood circulatory

system, 6 for body energizer, 4 for infectious diseases and 3 for nervous disorders. These

species should be taken in further consideration and studies to evaluate more data regarding

their efficacy and authenticity as reported and recommended in other studies (Street et al.,

2008). Besides, plants with low FL% should not be abandoned as dwindling to remark them

to the future generation that it could increase the risk of gradual disappearance of the

knowledge (Chaudhary et al., 2006).



Fam

ily i

mp

ort

an

ce v

alu

e (F

IV)

25

20

15

10

5

0

Families

Figure 26: Family importance value (FIV) for different disorders


197


3.4.7.3 Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and use value (UV)

RFC shows the local eminence of every species with reference to informants

who cited these plant species (Vitalini et al., 2013). In our present work, RFC ranges from

0..823 to 0..008 (Table 16). The plants having high RFC are predominantly used and

commonly known by the local people. Reason for the high RFC may be wide distribution,

easy availability and indigenous culture for treating various ailments by using these species..

These results may be taken as most important for linking and evaluating research in related

academic disciplines for future drug discovery and sustainable use of plants for therapeutic

uses (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006.). The plant species having high RFC should be subjected

to pharmacological, phytochemical and other biological studies to evaluate and prove their

authenticity (Mukherjee et al., 2012).. Besides above, it should be prioritized for conservation

as their preferred use may cause threats to their population by over harvesting.

UV determines the relative prominence of species having more use reports indicated by

local informants. In our present work, it ranges from. 3 to 0..15 (Table 16). It is found that

plants having more use reports (UR) always have high UV while plants. Having fewer UR

reported by informants have low UV. It is also observed that plants which are used in some

repetitive manner are more likely to be biologically active. (Trotterand Logan,1986).

Hence, the plants having the highest RFC and UV values might be an indication of their

good healing potential for specific ailments.


198


Plate 45: Medicinal Plant used among the Sub-alpine and Alpine indigenous communities of Palas Valley Kohistan, Northern Pakistan


199


Plate 46: Medicinal Plant used among the Sub-alpine and Alpine indigenous communities



200





201





202

SECTION 5

“Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of traditional

healing practices among Sub alpine and Alpine

indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern,

Pakistan


3.5 Quantitative ethno-medicinal analysis of traditional healing practices among sub

alpine and alpine indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan

Comprehensive study of traditional healing practices among sub alpine and alpine

indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern, Pakistan was carried as these regions

are the hot spot for medicinal plants biodiversity.

3.5.1 Diversity of medicinal flora

The present study reported 115 plants being used to treat various human ailments in

study area (Table 18). These indigenous medicinal plants were distributed among 45 families.

The documented medicinal plants and their ethno medicinal uses along with a common name,

part used, preparations and means of administration had been summarized in Table 18. The

plant family that turned out contributing higher number of medicinal species was Rosaceae

(13 species) followed by ten species of Ranunculaceae, nine species of Asteraceae and

Lamiaceae, six species of Berberidaceae, five species of Caprifoliaceae and Papilionaceae,

four species of Primulaceae, three species of Boraginaceae, Cupressaceae and Geraniaceae,

two species for Apiaceae, Araceae, Gentinaceae, Grossulariaceae, Liliaceae, Moraceae,

Onagraceae, Polygonaceae, Saxifragaceae and Scrophuliaraceae while rest of the families

reported one medicinal plant each. Rosaceae reported higher diversity of medicinal plants

followed by Lamiaceae and Asteraceae. Malvaceae also showed greater diversity of

medicinal plants. Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae are those families which hold a diversity of

medicinal plants all over the Pakistan (Saqib et al., 2013).

3.5.2 Growth forms of medicinal plants

Growth form investigation of medicinal plants used in the study area revealed that wild

herbs constituted the largest proportion and were the main source of indigenous medicines,

followed by the cultivated herbs. Easy availability and high curative efficacy in comparison to

other growth forms could be the reason for frequent use of herbs for medicinal purpose. Almost

all plant parts were used for the medication either singly or in combination with other plants.

Other growth forms include wild trees, wild shrubs and wild and cultivated herbs (Figure 27).


203


A possible reason for the use of these growth forms could be their relative resistant against

seasonal variations and availability throughout the year (Albuquerque, 2006)

PERCENTAGE OF HABIT

Herb Shrub Tree

3%

32%

65%

Figure 27: Life forms percentage (%) of medicinal plants

3.5.3 Demographic Information

Ethnobotanical data was collected through free listing interviews with randomly

selected informants and field interviews with key informants selected after free listing

(Ghorbani et al., 2011). The questionnaire was mainly focused on the ethnobotanical claims

and traditional believes of local communities and nearby people. The interviews were

conducted using the local languages, as the first author is a local person of the region. For the

ethnomedicinal information, a total of 163 inhabitants of the area were interviewed. 67

women, 96 men and 9 traditional healers were interviewed. The informants were divided into

four different age groups i.e. Less than 20 years, 20–40, 40–60 and 60–80 years old. All

informal meetings were held in different localities of alpine and sub alpine regions of Hazara

Division, Northern, Pakistan i.e. Mukshpuri, Kaghan valley, Lash Gilash Kohistan, Mira Jani,

Shaheed Pani, Saif ul Malook Lake, Basel, Tor Ghar, Babusar, Palas valley Kohistan and

Naran (Table 18).


204


Table18: Demographic data of participants in Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan

S.no Variable Categories No. of persons Percentage

1. Gender Female 67 39.26 Male 96 60.74

2. Informant category Indigenous people 154 94.48

Traditional health practitioners 9 5.52

3. Age Less than 20 years 12 7.36

20-40 years 44 26.99

40-60 years 62 38.04

Above 60 years 45 27.61

4. Education Illiterate 69 39.26

Primary and Middle 54 36.20

Secondary qualification 21 12.88

Undergraduate 12 7.36

Graduate 7 4.29

3.5.4 Plant parts used for herbal preparations

The most frequently used plant parts for preparation of medicines were whole plant,

roots, leaves, fruit, flowers, seeds, bark. The leaves and whole plants were used most

frequently followed by the seed, roots, flower, bulb, fruit, stem, latex and rhizome and sap

and gum (Figure 28). For herbs, local healers believed more efficacy of herbal preparation of

whole plants including roots rather than single plant parts. Higher concentration of bioactive

compounds in the underground plant parts has been reported (Kunwar et al., 2006; Mahmood

et al., 2013). Practice of harvesting underground plant parts and whole plant was not viable

(Flatie et al., 2009) and posed a threat to the sustainability of majority of medicinal plants

used by the indigenous communities of study area. Generally fresh plant parts were collected

by healers and villagers themselves from the forest or other uncultivated areas. In alpine and

sub alpine regions, villages were not very far from the forest, and plants used in traditional

medicine could still be accessed with relative ease from the nearby natural vegetation,

sometimes various parts were collected dried and stored for their use in the off season.

3.5.6 Mode of administration

Among herbal drug preparation, powder (68 species), and decoction (50 species) (Figure

29) are highly used in the area. The results of wide spread use of decoction and powder agree

with the results of Gurdal and Kultur (2013) and Ahmad et al. (2014) who reported that decoction

was the most commonly used preparation method, followed by powder. In the study eleven

internal application methods were recorded i.e. decoction, infusion, powder, raw,


205


cooked, tea, soup and juice have been used internally. The gum was used as chewing gum and 4

direct external application methods like ash, steam, smoke, and tincture were also recorded.

Petals Aerial parts Young twigs Gum Percentage of part used Rhizomes

1% 2% Branches 1% 1% Corm

Roots 2%

4% 1%

14% Fruit

Shoots 7% Whole plant

1% 27% Seeds

6%

Wood 1%

Bark

4% Root bark

3%

Flowers 6%

Stem leaves 18% 2%

Figure 28: Percentage of medicinal plant parts used in traditional medicine

Nu

mb

er o

f m

od

e of

80 70 60 50 40

30

20

10

0

Mode of utilization

Figure 29: Categorization of mode of utilization for medicinal plants among indigenous communities of Hazara Division, Northern, Pakistan


Table 19: Enumeration and quantitative analysis of traditional healing practices among sub alpine and alpine indigenous communities of Hazara

Division, Northern, Pakistan

Family Botanical Local Habit Site of Part Mode of Ethnobotanical uses UR U.U FC RFC

Name/ Name (s) Collection used utilization 1* 2* 3* 4*

Voucher No

Apiaceae Angelica glau Chora Herb On the Roots Decoction Digestive troubles, carminative, 7 0.30 23 0.14

ca Edgew way to abdominal pain, stomachic,

SK/MA-01 Makra and flavoring agent, insect bite and

upper skin diseases

Kaghan

valley

Heracleum Saag Herb Mukshpuri Roots Poultice, Diarrhea, treat inflammation, 14 0.28 50 0.31

candicans paste pain caused by fever, abdominal

Wall. Ex DC cramps, checks haemorrhage,

SK/MI-02 blood pressure, stomach

disorder, bone diseases, anti-

leucodermal, dysentery skin

diseases , boils, blisters, wounds

and joint pains

Araceae Arisaema Sapmaka Herb Mokshpuri Whole Paste, Sedation, nervous disorder, 7 0.39 18 0.11

jacquemontii i plant powder, psychic, snake bite, eye pain,

Blume decoction foot and mouth diseases in cattle

SK/MI-03 and warts

Arisaema Cobra Herb Payya and Rhizom Paste, juice Headache, antidote to the 7 0.19 37 0.23

flavum Plant, upper es snakebite, edema, scorpion sting,

(Forsskal) Sap Kaghan wart, wounds on the skin and

Schott Makai valley vaginal infections

SK/PA-04

Asteraceae Achillea Brinjasif, Herb Lash Whole Extract, Urinary problem, gum 23 1.53 15 0.09

millefolium L Boimada Gilash plant decoction, inflammation, diaphoretic,

SK/LGK-05 ran Kohistan powder, stimulant, toothache, astringent,

poultice headaches, cold, colic, treat

piles, kidney trouble, epilepsy,

menstrual disorders, digestive

tonic, healing of wounds, fevers

hysteria, chapped skin and

rashes, obstructed perspiration,

flatulence, heartburn,

hemorrhages, profuse mucous

discharge as mouth wash and

diuretic

Anaphalis Booti Herb Mira Jani Whole Paste, Genital problems, cold, fever,

margaritacea plant powder, menstrual disorder, tonsillitis,

(L.) Benth. & decoction wounds, cough, edema and

Hook.f swollen body part

SK/MI-06

Artemisia Chau, Herb Whole Decoction, Used for malaria, asthma,

brevifolia Jhan plant poultice, stomach complaints, oil has

Wall ex DC tincture , fungicidal properties, appetite,

SK/BL-07 oil menstrual disorders, threatened

abortion, carminative,

leucorrhoea, brain diseases,

jaundice, weak digestion,

anthelmintic, cardiac or

respiratory stimulant, colic,

neuralgia, and rheumatism,

tumors, foul ulcers, antiseptic,

tonic, digestive, febrifuge,

purgative, scorpion stings and

snake’s bites

Echinops Kanda Herb Shaheed Whole Paste, Septic wounds, jaundice and

ehcinatus Pani plant powder tonic

Roxb

SK/ SI-08

Inula Phulwari Herb Kund Roots Decoction Antiseptic, anthelmintic for

royaleana Bangla on children, Bronchial asthma and

DC SK/KA- the way to diuretic

09 Musa ka

Mussala

Leontpodium Phool Herb Miranjani Roots, Decoction Rheumatic pains, stomach and

himlayanum top stem anti-dysenteric

DC and

SK/MI-10 leaves

9 0.50 18 0.11

25 0.45 55 0.34

3 0.30 10 0.06

4 0.27 15 0.09

3 0.38 8 0.05

Leucanthemu Ox- eye herb Mukshpuri Flowers Powder Anti-inflammator, Stomachic, 3 0.38 8 0.05

m vulgare daisy, and migraine

Lam Phool

SK/MI-11

Taraxicum Hand Herb Saif ul Whole Juice, Tonic, blisters, bowel 8 0.67 12 0.07

officinales malook plant powder complaints, blood purifier,

Weber ex lake dysentery, headache, gastric

Wigger ulcers and kidney disorders

SK/SM-12

Saussurea Kuth. Herb Basel Roots Paste Aphrodisiac, analgesic, 15 0.30 50 0.31

costus (Falc.) Qist e emmenagogue, anthelmintic,

Lipsch Shareen carminative, asthma, paralysis,

SK/BL-12 cough, inflammation, chest pain,

joint pains, ophthalmia, old

fever, cures liver and kidney

diseases

Asclepiadaceae Cynanchum Nil Shrub Tor Ghar Flower Powder Cold, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, 8 0.44 18 0.11

canescens ear pain, kidney disease, fever

(Wind.) K. and stomachache

Schum

SK/TR-12

Berberidaceae Berberis Sumbal Shrub On the Root Decoction Diuretic, refrigerant, anti-bilious, 6 0.40 15 0.09

brandisiana way to bark astringent, fever and brain

Ahrendt Makra and affections

SK/MA-13 upper

Kaghan

valley

Berberis Sumbal Shrub Mukshpuri Root Paste, Cold, fever, cough, and 4 0.57 7 0.04

jaeschkeana bark decoction dysentery

Schneid

SK/MI-14

Berberis Kashmal, Shrub On the Bark Powder, oil Diuretic, refrigerant, anti-bilious, 8 0.40 20 0.12

kunawurensis Sumbal way to brain affections, astringent,

Royle Makra and scarlet fever, used as tonic and to

SK/MA-15 upper treat mouth sore

Kaghan

valley

Berberis Berberry Shrub Lalazar Flowers Powder, Cure edema and eye diseases

orthobotrys (English) upper , leaves poultice

Bien ex Aitch , Sumbal Kaghan and bark

SK/LR-16 (Hindko) valley

Berberis Sumbal Shrub Tor Ghar Root Powder Fever

pachycantha bark

Koehne

SK/TG-17

Berberis Sumbal Shrub On the Root Powder, oil Gastrointestinal tract,

pseudumbella way to bark gallbladder, blood purifier,

ta Parker Makra and kidney problem, liver,

SK/MA-18 upper respiratory tract, urinary tract,

Kaghan also as a febrifuge and internal

valley wound healing

Betulaceae Betula utilis Buraj Tree Babusar Bark, Powder Mental disorder, diuretic,

D. Don leaves rheumatism and for gall bladder

SK/BR-19 and stone

wood

Boraginaceae Arnebia Ratra, Herb Palas Whole Decoction Anti-dandruff, blood purifier,

euchroma Gaozuba valley plant ash, cold, cough, cure burn wound,

(Royle) I.M. n, Kohistan powder eye diseases, anti-microbial,

Johnston Phosook, antipyretic, carminative,

SK/PV-20 Jogi stimulant, skin infection used as

Badshah anti-inflammatory, cardiac tonic,

in tooth ache, ear ache, lung and

pulmonary problems

Lindelofia Not Herb Naran Whole Decoction Blood purification, given to

longiflora known plant ladies after childbirth and (Benth.) Baill diarrhea

SK/NR-21

Onosma Gao Herb Mom Leaves, Decoction Purgative, asthma, spasmolytic,

hispida Wall. Zuban Chatti and cordial stimulant, diuretic, anti-

ex G. Don flowers dandruff, astringent, bronchial

SK/MC-22 affections, insomnia,

constipation, depression, mental

exhaustion, misperistalsis,

jaundice, dysuria and urethral

discharges

2 0.29 7 0.04

1 0.13 8 0.05

9 0.36 25 0.15

4 0.27 15 0.09

16 0.29 55 0.34 3 0.25 12 0.07

16 0.32 50 0.31

Caprifoliaceae Lonicera Phut Shrub Shaheed Leaves, Powder Venereal diseases and seeds are

caucasica Pani, Siran flowers, given to horses for coli

Pallas valley seeds

SK/SP-23 and

stem

branche

s

Lonicera Puth Shrub Barwai Bark, Powder Leaves are germicides, digestive

purpurascens (Hindko) and upper leaves, and stomach tonic

(Dene) Walp . Kaghan fruit and

SK/BI-24 valley flowers

Lonicera Phut kali Shrub Naran and Wood, Decoction Cough and fever

quinquelocul upper leaves

aris Kaghan and

Hardwicke valley stem

SK/NR-25 branche

s

Viburnum Guch, Shrub Manoor Fruit Paste Used as tonic

foetens Dene Ukloon and

SK/MR-26 (Hindko) Branche

s

Viburnum Guch, Shrub Naran and Bark Infusion, Antispasmodic, astringent,

grandiflorum Ukloon upper powder, diuretic and uterine sedative in

Wall. ex DC Kaghan functional uterine disorders

SK/NR-27 valley

Celastraceae Parnassia Phool Herb Mera Jani Whole Infusion, Eye problem, digestive disorder,

nubicola plant antidote and wounds

Wall.ex

Royle

SK/MI-28

Cupressaceae Juniperus Bhentri Shrub Above Fruit Juice, oil Diuretic, cancer, swellings,

communis L. Payya on tumors, warts, carminative,

var. saxatilis the way to stimulant in dysmenorrhoea,

Pallas Makra skin diseases, kidney diseases,

SK/PA-29 peak and deobstruent, diaphoretic,

upper digestive, scanty urine, cough,

Kaghan pectoral affections, rheumatic

valley and painful swellings

2 0.17 12 0.07

3 0.17 18 0.11

2 0.29 7 0.04

1 0.20 5 0.03

4 0.25 16 0.10

4 0.33 12 0.07

17 0.49 35 0.21

Juniperus Chalai Medi Babusar Twigs Extract, Stomach cramps, asthma,

excelsa M. um and upper and fruit powder diuretic, carminative, stimulant,

Bieb sized Kaghan used in dropsy, gonorrhoea,

SK/BR-30 tree valley leucorrhoea and some cutaneous

diseases

Juniperus Chalai Shrub Jalkhad Wood Powder When domestic animals suffer

squamata Bantha, and upper from insect bite, scabies and

Buch. Ham. Oobakht Kaghan wounds

ex D. Don Valley

SK/JD-30

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae Mirgheez Shrub Palas Fruit Decoction Anti-ageing, anti-cold, memory

rhamnoides L valley restoration, energy boosting

SK/PV-31 properties, lungs problem, cure

split heals, resistance to

infections, cardiac tonic, blood

purifier, skin disease, diarrhea,

diuretic, cold, cough, kidney

disorders, cures jaundice, chest

pain, stomachache, dysentery,

rheumatism and gastritis

Ephedraceae Ephedra Asmani Shrub On the Young Powder Tonic, fever, hepatic diseases,

gerardiana Booti, way to twigs rheumatism, bronchial asthma,

Wall.ex Stapf Asmania. Dodipat in order to stop bleeding and

SK/DP-32 Sar, and relieving bronchial spasm

upper

Kaghan

valley

Ericaceae Rhodendron Kaizaban Shrub Babusar Leaves Decoction Aromatic, cold, cough, high hypenanthum (Urdu), Top and and blood pressure, stimulant,

Balf. F Nichni upper flowers paralysis, purification blood,

SK/BR-33 (Punjabi) Kaghan fever tonsillitis, limb and waist

valley pain

Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Harvi, Herb Mokshpuri Root Powder Cold, cough, fever and sinusitis

wallichii Dodal and skin diseases

Hook. f

SK/MI-34

Fumariaceae Corydalis Chiripaw Herb Naddi Whole Extract Antipyretic, diuretic, to relieve

govaniana a Bangla plant gastric pain and muscular pain,

Wall. var. ebrifuge, useful against

9 0.14 65 0.40

3 0.08 40 0.25

21 0.32 65 0.40

7 0.20 35 0.21

10 0.16 62 0.38

5 0.28 18 0.11

9 0.36 25 0.15

malukiana contagious fever, eye diseases

Jafri and infections as well as for

SK/NB-35 treatment of swellings and burns

Gentinaceae Gentiana kur Neel Herb Babusar Flower Powder Pharynx, bronchitis, cough,

roo Royle Kanth, Top and hoarseness of throat, excess

SK/BR-36 Kamal leaves sputum, edema, cuts, toxic,

Phul epidemic fevers, stomachache,

and urinary infections

Swertia Chirta Herb Basel and Whole Decoction Cold, cough, headache, jaundice,

cordata (G. karita upper plant malarial fever and diabetes

Don) Clarke (H), Kaghan

SK/BL-37 Chiraita valley

(Tib)

Chiratta,

Bitter

stick (E)

Geraniaceae Geranium Ratanjot, Herb Mokshpuri Leaves Decoction Febrifuge, analgesic, pneumonia,

nepalense Geraben used against fever from

Sweet influenza, infectious disease,

SK/MI-38 inflammation of lung and veins,

swelling of the limbs, as tonic,

dysentery and diarrhoea

Geranium Ratanjot Herb Miran Jani Flowers Powder Gingivitis, toothache and

ocellatum and smoking pipe

Camb leaves

SK/MJ-39

Geranium Ratanjot Herb Shaheed Rhizom Powdered, Lowering blood pressure,

wallichianum Pani and es and juices, leucorrhoea, backache, chronic D. Don ex Siran flowers paste, diarrhea, dysentery, toothache,

Sweet valley decoction rheumatic pain, tonic for

SK/SP-39 backache, astringent, cholera and

leucorrhoea

Grossulariaceae Ribes Kag Shrub On the Fruit Powder Purgative

alpestre Dene Dakh way to

ex Jacq Babusar

SK/BS-40

Ribes Currant Shrub Near Leaves Decoction Diuretic, refrigerant, detergent,

glaciale (English) Makra and and fruit laxative, cooling and anodyne

Wall. , Karn,

10 0.22 45 0.28

6 0.24 25 0.15 10 0.40 25 0.15

3 0.25 12 0.07

11 0.29 38 0.23

1 0.10 10 0.06

6 0.40 15 0.09



SK/MA-41 Jangli Kaghan Angoor valley

(Hindko)

Hypericaceae Hypericum Bilsana Herb Mokshpuri Flowers Decoction Astringent, analgesic, sedative, 10 0.28 36 0.22

(Guttiferae) perforatum L and antiseptic, antispasmodic,

SK/MI-42 whole expectorant, nervine, vulnerary,

plant against uterine cramping,

menstrual difficulties for

stimulating intestine secretion

and bile flow

Iridaceae Iris Chalundr Herb Mira Jani Whole Decoction, Diuretic, cathartic, diseases of 14 0.35 40 0.25

hookeriana i Galiat plant powder, liver, detoxify the body, mild

Foster extract, laxative effect, chronic skin

SK/MJ-43 juice diseases, biliousness,

indigestion, gland problems,

weight loss, juice removes

freckles, overcome disagreeable

breath, increases urination and

bile production

Lamiaceae Isodon Booi Shrub Manoor Leaves Oil Blood purifier and insecticide 2 0.13 15 0.09

regosus and

(Wall. ex branche

Benth.) Codd s

SK/MR-44

Lamium White Herb Mukshpuri Leaves Powder, Haemostatic, antispasmodic, 14 0.37 38 0.23

album L dead decoction astringent, diuretic, anti-

SK/MI-45 nettle inflammatory, expectorant,

(English) menorrhagia, leucorrhoea,

cystitis, prostatitis, bleeding

piles, diarrhoea, irritable bowel

and respiratory catarrh

Origanum Banjawai Herb Mirajani Arial Infusion, Cold, whooping cough, asthma, 20 0.29 68 0.42

vulgare L n parts powder, oil bronchitis, volatile oil is

SK/MJ-46 stimulant, tonic, carminative,

diuretic, diaphoretic, toothache,

earache, hysteria, stimulates hair

growth, stomach-ache, antispasmodic, high blood

pressure, fever, heart diseases

also applied in chronic

rheumatism

Phlomis Booti Herb Mukshpuri Aerial Decoction Stomach disorder, fever, skin

bracteosa top parts disease, diarrhea, tonic, anti-

Royle ex Bth malarial and respiratory diseases

SK/MI-47

Prunella Self-Heal Herb Mirajani Leaves Powder Treatment of wounds, ulcers,

vulgaris L (English) sores, fevers, diarrhoea, sore

SK/MJ-48 mouth and internal bleeding

Salvia hian Kathra Herb On the Whole Decoction Renal diseases, contraindicated

Royle ex way to plant during pregnancy also for

Benth Mirajani lumbago

SK/MJ-49

Salvia lanata Kathra Herb Mukshpuri Roots Used as a substitute for Saliva

Roxb. (Hindku) moorcroftiana

SK/MI-50

Stachys Jari Herb Tor Ghar Whole Powder, Digestive, external application to

emodi plant poultice wounds, diuretic, sinus

SK/TG-51 headaches, asthma and

rheumatism

Thymus Ban Herb Ganja Whole Powder, Antispasmodic, whooping

linearis Ajwain Mountain plant extract cough, dry nervous asthma, anti-

Benth Kohistan spasmodic, antiseptic,

SK/GJ-52 expectorant, carminative,

anthelmintic, stimulating

properties, nephritis, kidney

ailments, Gall bladder ailments,

uterus ailment infection of urinary tract, eye pain, gingivitis,

increasing the blood, epilepsy,

suppression of urine and

menstrual catarrh,

Liliaceae Colchicum Qiamat Herb Manda Corm Powder, Inflammation joints, carminative

luteum Baker Gulla, Gucha and extract laxative and aphrodisiac

SK/MG-53 Suranjan seeds

Paris Booti Herb Shaheed Arial Powder Useful in getting rid of worms

polyphylla Pani parts and herbal tonic

SK/SP-54

7 0.20 35 0.21

6 0.22 27 0.17

3 0.21 14 0.09

1 0.17 6 0.04

5 0.42 12 0.07

19 0.29 65 0.40

4 0.50 8 0.05

2 0.25 8 0.05

Moraceae Ficus Ram Shrub On the Whole Decoction, Astringent, carminative,

foveolata Phagwar, way to plant powder digestive, stomachic; diarrhoea,

Wall.ex.Miq Bat Makra dyspepsia, dysentery,

SK/MK-55 Phagwar menorrhagia, haemorrhages,

antiemetic, and latex sooths the

Bee sting

Ficus Phagwari Small On the Leaves Decoction, Anti- swellings, diuretic, tumors,

semicordata (Hindko) tree way to and fruit powder inflammatory, ulcers, pulp-

Buch-Ham. , Kasa, Payya analgesic, gum abscesses,

ex J.E. Smith Ghui, analgesic, treating warts, toxic,

SK/PA-56 Kuri insect bites and stings

(Punjabi)

Oleaceae Jasminum Chambel Shrub Shinkiari Roots Decoction, Ringworms treatment, astringent

humile L. i Hut and powder and tonic

SK/SH-57 (Hindko) flowers

Onagraceae Epilobium Not Herb Lulusar Whole Infusion, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia,

hirsutum L known upper plant poultice uterine haemorrhage, ulceration

SK/LR-58 Kaghan of mouth and throat, whooping

valley cough, hiccough, asthma,

remove warts and infectious

diseases

Epilobium Not Herb Lulusar Whole Infusion Ulcers, whooping cough,

laxum Royle known upper plant hiccough and asthma and

SK/LR-59 Kaghan infectious diseases

valley

Orchidaceae Dactylorhiza Ambolak Herb Momchatti Roots Paste Boils, wounds, burns, scabies,

hatagirea (D. pa and upper health tonic, energy boosters,

Don) Soó Kaghan snake bite and scorpion stings SK/MC-60 Valley

Papaveraceae Meconopsis Jangli Herb Naran Whole Powder Ulcers, disorders of lungs, liver

aculeata post plant inflammation, pharyngitis,

Royle backache and disorders of spinal

SK/NR-61 cord

Papilionaceae Astragalus Bankaint Shrub Manoor Seeds Powder, Demulcent, emollient, given in

candolleanus ha, decoction colic, leprosy and tuberculosis

Royle ex Sarmul

Benth

SK/MR-62

11 0.92 12 0.07

12 0.67 18 0.11

3 0.25 12 0.07

9 0.36 25 0.15

5 0.19 26 0.16

8 0.18 45 0.28

6 0.21 28 0.17

5 0.28 18 0.11

Astragalus Chitti Shrub Jalkhad Gum, Poultice, Demulcent, emollient, given in

grahamianus Bin, seeds powder colic and leprosy

Royle ex Kainthi and

Benth leaves

SK/JD-63

Desmodium Chamkat Shrub Seri Roots Poultice, Diuretic, astringent, used in

elegans DC , Chamra Manoor decoction chronic fever, biliousness,

SK/SM-64 cough, vomiting, asthma,

diarrhea and snakebite

Indigofera Kainthi Shrub Naran Leaves Demulcent, anti-leprotic and

heterantha and anti-cancerous

Wall. ex branche

Brandis s

SK/NR-65

Sophora Kathi, Shrub Lalazar Seeds Extract, Hepatitis, skin spots, treat

mollis Buna upper Juice, diarrhea, abdominal pain, burns,

(Royle) Kaghan decoction, leprosy and hemorrhoids with

Baker valley powder bleeding

SK/LR-66

Phytolacaceae Phytolacca Lubber Herb Payya Leaves Juice, Skin diseases and narcotics

latbenia and powder

(Moq.) Hans berries

Walter

SK/PA-67

Plantaginaceae Plantago Ispaghol, Herb Ganja top Seeds Powder, Antihistaminic, antibacterial,

major L Chamchi and decoction wound-healing in burns also

SK/GJ-68 Patar Battagram inflammation of tissues, cooling,

astringent, diuretic, vulnerary, febrifuge, diarrhoea, bacillary

dysentery, hepatitis, piles, ulcers,

skin diseases, cystitis with

blood, haematuria and other

bladder disorders

Plumbaginaceae Acantholimo Cushion Shrub Jalkhad Leaves Powder Cardiac disorders

n plant upper

lycopodioides Kaghan

(Girard) valley

Boiss.

SK/JD-69

4 0.17 23 0.14

9 0.45 20 0.12

3 0.17 18 0.11

7 0.18 39 0.24

2 0.13 15 0.09

17 0.50 34 0.21

1 0.08 12 0.07

Podophyllaceae Podophyllum Bankakri Herb Payya Roots Decoction, Gynaecological disease,

hexandrum powder menstrual irregularity, disease of

Wall.ex the uterus, hepatic stimulant,

Royle cholagogue, purgative,

SK/PA-70 anticancer properties, improves

lung and blood circulation,

Polygonaceae Bistorta Masloon Herb Gittidas Shoots Decoction, Curing ulcers, as tonic,

amplexicaulis and upper and powder carminative, used as antiseptic,

(D. Don) Kaghan leaves cold, cough, tonsillitis and fever

Green valley

SK/GD-71

Polygonaceae Rheum Chutial Herb Lulusar Roots Poultice, Rheumatism., purgative,

australe D. lake powder indigestion, abdominal diseases,

Don boils, diuretic used against

SK/LR-72 indigestion, gastritis, laxative,

cure infected wounds,

carbuncles, heart beating,

asthma, sore eyes, body strength,

stringent and diuretic

Polygonaceae Rheum emodi Rewand Herb Palas Rhizom Powder Purgative, astringent, tonic,

Wall. Ex chini, Valley es stomachic, diuretic,

Meisn Jamgli emmenagogue, expectorant,

SK/PV-73 Chutial tonic and purify blood

Rumex Hola Herb Jacha and Whole Decoction, Cold, gingivitis, joint pain and

nepalensis Siran plant powder stomachache

Spreng valley

SK/GA-74

Primulaceae Androsace Phulari Herb Mukshpori Whole Paste, Fever, infectious disease,

foliosa Dcne. plant powder menstrual problems, edema also

Ex Duby used to cure skin swelling

SK/MI-75

Androsace Panjphlw Herb Palas Leaves Powder, Treatment of stomach disorders

rotundifolia ari valley Paste and skin infections

Hardwicke Kohistan

SK/PV-76

Primula Raam Herb On the Roots Powder Antibacterial, leukoderma,

denticulata Totia, way to stomach disorder, cure fever,

Smith Mameera astringent, in constipation, blood

9 0.31 29 0.18

8 0.57 14 0.09

15 0.22 68 0.42 9 0.60 15 0.09

4 0.33 12 0.07

5 0.20 25 0.15

2 0.17 12 0.07

9 0.32 28 0.17

SK/MA-77 Musa ka purifier, tonic. antidote to

Mussalla centipede and snake bite

Primula Ramtotia Herb Shaheed Roots Decoction Skin disease, cough, asthma,

macrophylla Pani and and toxic plant, anti‐inflammatory,

D. Don Siran leaves febrifuge, treatment of diarrhoea,

SK/SP-78 valley inflammation of the liver, gall

bladder, stomach , intestines,

children fever, ophthalmic

diseases of the livestock

Ranunculaceae Aconitum Patris, Herb Lulusar Tuberou Powder Trouble, stomach complaint,

heterophyllu Atis. lake and s roots high fever, gastric headache,

m Wall.ex upper rheumatism, menstruation,

Royle Kaghan antiperiodic, irregular menses,

SK/LR-79 valley curative for gonorrhea and

against toothache

Aconitum Mohri, Herb Dodipat Roots Powder Joint pains, antipyretic,

violocium Patris Sar and abdominal pain, antidote, anti-

Stapf upper inflammatory, asthmatic,

SK/DR-80 Kaghan coughing children, cold, fever,

valley toothache and toxic plant

Anemone Anemon Herb Payya Roots Juice Ophthalmic

rupicola e and

Camb seeds

SK/PA-81

Anemone Chitta Herb Naran Whole Powder Cold, cough, stomachache,

tetrasepala phull plant edema, in removing white

Royle intestinal worms

SK/NR-82

Aquilegia Phulwari Herb Mukshpuri Whole Powder Stomach complaint

fragrans plant

Benth

SK/MI-83

Caltha alba Caltha Herb Naran and Whole Extract, Menstrual disorders, laxative,

Jacq.ex upper plant powder, diuretic, is used for cleaning skin

Camb Kaghan tincture lesions, sores, dysuria, diarrhoea,

SK/NR-84 valley sexual debility, depression,

diabetes, bronchitis. excellent for

uterine cancer in tincture form in

repeated long intervals, laxative,

14 0.22 65 0.40

10 0.18 55 0.34

12 0.92 13 0.08

1 0.13 8 0.05

5 0.33 15 0.09

1 0.14 7 0.04

16 0.32 50 0.31

diuretic, poisonous,

stop pain and cramps

Delphinium Larkspur Herb Mukshpuri Whole Juice Treating colic and insecticide

palasianum plant

Rubina

Rafique

SK/MI-85

Delphinium Larkspur Herb On the Whole Decoction, Skin eruptions, toothache,

roylei Munz way to plant powder rheumatic pain, menstrual

SK/LR-86 Musa ka problem, jaundice, fever due to

Musala typhoid and malaria, to control

and Siran the weakness associated with

valley this medication

Ranunculus Makhan Herb Payya Whole Decoction Used for asthma, fever and

laetus Wall. Booti plant purgative for cattle

Ex Hook.f.

&Thoms

SK/PA-87

Thalictrum Booti Herb Lalazar Whole Poultice Application in boils, wounds,

secundum and upper plant other skin diseases, in case of

var. Kaghan domestic animals such as horse,

hazaricumH. valley yak and mule suffering from

Riedl diarrhea

SK/PA-87

Rosaceae Cotoneaster Looni Shrub Mokshpuri Fruit Extract Astringent, expectorant and

microphylla and stomachic

Wall. Ex leaves

Lindl

SK/MI-88

Duchesnea Buddi Herb Mira Jani Shoots Extract Diuretic, astringent and mental

indica Mewa and disorders

(Andr.) fruits

Focke

SK/MJ-89

Fragaria Buddi Herb Kaghan Whole Decoction Diuretic, astringent, diarrhea,

nubicola Mewa plant dysentery, diabetes, gonorrhea,

Lindl menstrual disorder, cold, cough,

SK/KN-90 veins pain, edema and numbness

of limbs

2 0.33 6 0.04

7 0.16 45 0.28

3 0.25 12 0.07

4 0.08 48 0.29

3 0.23 13 0.08

3 0.09 34 0.21

12 0.60 20 0.12

Geum elatum Phool Herb Momchatti Whole Decoction Astringent, 3 0.09 33 0.20

L plant diarrhea and dysentery.

SK/MC-91

Potentilla Phul Herb Mokshpuri Whole Powder, Cramps bleeding piles; kidney 13 0.46 28 0.17

kashmirica plant decoction stones, haemostatic,

Hook. f antiinflammatory, astringent,

SK/MI-92 arthritis, diarrhoea,

antispasmodic, leucorrhoea,

dysmenorrhoea, as a mouth wash

in pyrrhoea, gingivitis and sore

throat

Potentilla Phulwari Herb Mokshpuri Whole Decoction Febrifuge, blood purifier, 8 0.35 23 0.14

nepalensis plant stomachic, antitumor,

Hook. f antipyretic, haemostatic, women

SK/MI-93 tonic and ointment of bleeding

hemorrhoids

Potentilla Phul Shrub Barwai Whole Powder Antiseptic, stomach, depurative, 6 0.46 13 0.08

sericophylla upper plant antidiarrhoeal, strengthening

Parker Kaghan gum and teeth

SK/BI-94, valley

Rosa Phool, Shrub On the Whole Powder Astringent, aphrodisiac, 5 0.20 0.15

nanothamnus Shingari way to plant beneficial in bilious affections, 25 Boulenger Dodipat skin and eye diseases

SK/DP-95 Sir

Rosa Phool, Shrub Lalazar Petals Powder, Digestive ailments, ulcer, 10 0.31 32 0.20

webbiana Shingari upper and fruit decoction wounds, sprain, injuries, cold,

Wall.ex Kaghan cough, fever, diarrhea and

Royle valley dysentery

SK/LL-96

Sorbaria Karli Shrub Manoor Whole Decoction Used in colic, remedy for acne, 3 0.21 14 0.09

tomentosa plant also insect repellent

(Lindl)

Rehder

SK/MR-97

Spiraea affins Kurkun Shrub Momchati Leaves Poultice Anti-inflammatory 1 0.09 11 0.07

Parker and

SK/MC-98 branche

s

Spiraea Nikki Shrub Makra Leaves Decoction Diuretic

hazarica Kurkun and

R.N. Parker branche

SK/MA-99 s

Spiraea Shagolo Shrub Basel Leaves Powder Anti-inflammatory

lasiocarpa

Kar. and Kir

SK/BL-100

Salicacaeae Salix Bens Shrub Musa Ka Bark Decoction, Febrifuge, headache, cold,

flabellaris Masala powder astringent, intermittent, remittent

Andersson fever, stomachache, diarrhea and

SK/MS-101 dysentery

Sambucaceae Sambucus Ganoola Herb Basel Whole Decoction laxative, purgative, expectorant,

wightiana upper plant diaphoretic and diuretic

Wall. ex Kaghan

Wight and valley

Arn SK/BL-

102

Saxifragaceae Bergenia Pukhanb Herb On the Aerial Powder Diarrhea, dysentery,

ciliata aid, way to parts stomachache, blindness, diuretic,

(Haw.) Batpay Makkra and demulcent, astringent, tonic in

Sternb and upper roots fever, cough and opthalmia

SK/MA-103 Kaghan

valley

Bergenia Pukhanb Herb On the Aerial Paste, Fever, diarrhoea, diuretic tonic,

stracheyi (H. aid, way to parts powder, toothache, cough, kidney stones,

& T.) Engl Batpay Makkra and decoction cuts, anticancerous, cardiac

SK/MA-104 and upper roots tonic, purgative properties, Kaghan sweating, anti-inflammatory.

valley swollen joints, cure chronic

ulcers, dysentery, renal failure,

cystitis, anti-inflammatory,

abscesses, cutaneous infections

and stop bleeding

Scrophuliaraceae Pedicularis Mishran Herb Jalkhad Whole Poultice, Astringent, haemostatic, diuretic,

puctata Dcne plant powder for warts, leucoderma, venereal

SK/JD-105 diseases and emetic

Verbascum Gidder Herb Naran Whole Powder, Urinary diseases, edema,

thapsus L Tambako plant smoke 1demulcent, emollient,

1 0.11 9 0.06

1 0.14 7 0.04

9 0.60 15 0.09

5 0.09 55 0.34

11 0.32 34 0.21

21 0.31 68 0.42

7 0.54 13 0.08

10 0.40 25 0.15

SK/NR-106 antiseptic, stimulant, diarrhea, dysentery in cattle’s, smoked as

narcotic, healing the wounds,

externally applied to blisters and

carbuncles

Veronica Tezhak Herb Miran Jani Whole Poultice, Antiscorbutic, blood purifier, 9 0.50 18 0.11

polita Fries plant decoction diuretic. used for scurvy,

SK/MJ-107 scrofulous affections, swollen

piles, skin diseases, burns and

ulcers

Solanaceae Hyoscyamus Ban Herb Jalkhad, Leaves Powder Asthma, antispasmodics, 4 0.11 35 0.21

niger L. ajwain, upper and infected teeth for gingivitis and

SK/JD-108 Ajwain- Kaghan seeds toothache

e- valley

Khurasan

i

Violaceae Viola serpens Banafsha Herb Mukshpuri Whole Infusion, Diaphoretic, relieving febrile 15 0.22 68 0.42

Wall plant decoction symptoms, eczema., emetic,

SK/MI-109 purgative, emollient, demulcent,

astringent, laxative, epilepsy,

nervous disorders, stomach

disease, anticancer and

refrigerant

Urticaceae Urtica dioica Bachu Herb Mukshpui Whole Decoction, Diuretic, tonic, astringent, 10 0.18 55 0.34

Linn Booti plant powder prevents hemorrhages, anti-

SK/MI-110 allergic, increases breast milk

production, cough, sedative for

mild insomnia, anti-allergic and

for reducing prostrates

UR*1 = Use reports, UV*2 = Use value, FC*3 = Frequency Citation, RFC*4 = Relative frequency of citation


3.5.7. Quantitative analysis of ethno-medicinal information

Several ethnobotanical indices were employed to evaluate the medicinal plants use

Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Pakistan.

3.5.7.1 Use Value (UV) and Use Report (UR)

The highest use values were reported for Achillea millefolium (1.53), Ficus foveolat

(0.92) and Ficus semicordata (0.67) and least use values were reported for Acantholimon

lycopodioides, Juniperus squamata and Thalictrum secundum (with 0.08 each). Although it

was impossible to match the quantitative data within the region due to first quantitative

ethnobotanical report in the region, however few quantitative works have been done in the

other parts of the country (Abbasi et al., 2013; Ahmad et al., 2014; Bano et al., 2014), but

there is a clear difference regarding most cited species and their quantitative values. For

example, in the study carried out by Abbasi et al. (2013) Ficus carica and Ficus palmata

were the most cited species while Bano et al. (2014) reported that Hippophae rhamnoides has

the highest use value (1.64) followed by Rosa brunonii (1.47) Capparis spinosa. The

differences may be due to variation in vegetation and geo-climate of the area.

Highest use report were calculated for Artemisia brevifolia (25), Achillea millefolium

(23), Hippophae rhamnoides (21), and Bergenia stracheyi (21UR) and least use report were

calculated for 10 species (1 UR for each) (Table 18). Salvia lanata has the lowest use report

(1 UR) in the area while Nasab and Khosravi (2014) reported that the Salvia pelibia has the

highest number of use-reports (41UR) which is contrary to our results.



3.5.7.2 Frequency of citation (FC) and Relative Frequency Citation (RFC)

Highest RFC value were calculated for Bergenia stracheyi, Origanum vulgare, Rheum

australe and Viola serpens (with 0.42 each), and Hippophae rhamnoides, Thymus linearis,

Primula macrophylla, Juniperus excelsa (0.40) and least RFC were calculated for Viburnum

foetens (0.03) and Berberis jaeschkeana, Berberis orthobotrys, Lonicera quinquelocularis,

Aquilegia fragrans, Spiraea lasiocarpa, Delphinium palasianum, Salvia lanata (each with

0.04 RFC) (Table 18) It means that these species are the most popular medicinal plants

agreed by the majority of the informants and they are the most popular plants in alpine and

sub alpine regions. Many of them are endemic species; the people of the area not only collect

the species from the field but also purchase it from the local herb sellers. Some species has

been observed at higher altitudes, due to low population size and narrow distribution may be

reasons for the less use of species in the area.


225


Plate 49: Medicinal Plants used by indigenous community of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions

of Northern Pakistan


226


Plate 50: Medicinal Plants used by indigenous community of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Northern Pakistan


227




228




229




230

SECTION 6

“Ethnotoxic Profile of Poisonous Plants of Kaghan

Valley Northern Pakistan


3.6. Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous Plants of Kaghan Valley Western

Himalayas Pakistan

Rich accessibility of medicinal plants in the study area provides low cost health care

for various ailments to local communities. There is an urgent need to take advantage of the

extensive knowledge of different ethnic groups on poisonous plants for scientific scrutiny and

adoption for posterity. Keeping this view in mind, the authors have made an attempt to survey

Kaghan valley, with an aim to study the poisonous plant resources being utilized by various

tribes in multiple purposes for the preparation of herbal products. This research report survey

was commenced with an aim to document ethnic knowledge regarding the use of folk herbal

medicine for various diseases among the local communities of Kaghan Valley. Rapid

Appraisal Approach (RAA), semi-structured interviews, personal observations, group

discussion with local people and meetings with herbalist were accompanied to acquire

ethnomedicinal information.

3.6.1 Demographics information

Demographic information was based on gender, age, and experience and education

status of the informants (Table 20).

Table 20: Demographic characteristics (age, gender, educational level) of the informants in

the study area.

Variable Categories Nob. of person Percent

Gender Male 156 64.19 Female 87 35.80

Age 30-45 years 63 25.92

46-60 years 84 31.4

61-75 years 96 39.50

Informants’ Herbal specialists female 6 2.46

Experience Herbal specialists male 13 5.34

Educational background Illiterate 85 34.97

Primary qualification 48 19.75

Middle qualification 32 13.16

Secondary qualification 28 11.52

Undergraduate 26 10.69

Graduate 24 9.87

A total of 243 informants were interviewed and categorized into two major groups on the

basis of gender, represented by male 64 % and 35% female. The information on age confirms that

the practice of plants based remedies in various aliments was more prevalent in the elderly people

39 % and was declining in the younger generation 25 %. Herbal specialists male 5.34% and 2.46

% female healers as the experienced, while on the basis of education level



the indigenous knowledge and use of poisonous medicinal plants for preparation of herbal

products was more prevalent in the illiterate people i.e. 85% and the same knowledge was

decreasing in the highly educated class of the area.

3.6.2 Diversity of Medicinal Flora

The study has a rich floral diversity, represented by a large number of plant species

due to its favorable climatic conditions. There are about 62 poisonous plant species belonging

to 60 genera and 39 families encountered from the area, being utilized for various

advantageous and disadvantageous purposes by ethnic groups and rural people. The major

uses of poisonous plants recorded from area were fish poison, antilice, anthelmintic,

abortifacient, antiseptic, purgative and larvicides. Family Solanaceae was the most frequently

used family with 6 reported medicinal plants followed by Euphorbiaceae, Papilionaceae and

Ranunculaceae (4 each). The most effective poisonous plant species being utilized for various

advantageous and disadvantageous purposes by ethnic groups and rural people were found to

be Aristolochia bracteolate, Andrachne cordifolia, Caltha palustris Podophyllum hexandrum,

Phytolacca latbenia, Hyocyamus niger, Digitalis purpurea, and Polygonum capitatum. Table

21 represents an overview of the most commonly reported poisonous medicinal plants. These

results also suggest further phytochemical studies to explore new biological compounds for

future drug discovery.


Table 21: Ethno-toxic profile of poisonous Plants of Kaghan Valley Western Himalayas Pakistan

S.No Family Plant name/ Voucher Vernacular Flowering Part Chemical Folklore

number name and Fruiting used constituents

1. Amaranthaceae Amaranthus viridis Linn. Ganiar June-July Roots Amarinthin, Given to pregnant women to

SK/KV/001 isoamarnathin, induce abortion

tryptophan and betanin

2. Asteraceae Ainsliaea aptera DC April-May Roots No information is Used as wormicide

SK/KV/002 available

3. Mimosaceae Albizzia chinensis (Osbeck) Shirin June-July Seeds Ascorbic acid, Seeds are used as fish poison,

Merr SK/KV/003 and leucocyanidin and B- extract of bark is used against

Bark cytosterol conception in women

4. Primulaceae Anagalis arvensis Linn March-May Whole Glycisidic saponins The plant is used as fish

SK/KV/004 plant and Cyclamin poison

5. Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana Linn Kandiari, Seeds Allocryptopine, Seeds oil is used to induce

SK/KV/005 and root berberine, diarrhoea. The root is used as

cheilanthifoline, anthelmintic

norchelerythrine and

methohydroxide

6. Araceae Arisaema flavum (Forsskal) Sur Ganda, September- Tuber. Saponins and Large doses are purgative

Schott SK/KV/006 Sap Makai October diacylglyceryl

galactosides

7. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia bracteolata July-August Leaves Aristolochic acid, and Leaves are used as purgative.

Lamk and root magnoflorine Poultice of roots is used on

SK/KV/007 open wounds and skin ulcers

8. Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris Linn Chau May –July Whole No information is Whole plant is used as fish

SK/KV/008 plant available poison. Plant is also used in

veterinarymedicines as

anthelmintic

9. Ranunculaceae Aconitum heterophyllum Patris March-May Roots The alkaloids, Roots are used as narcotic

Linn SK/KV/009 aconitine occur in all

parts of the plant,

especially the root and

seeds

10. Euphorbiaceae Andrachne cordifolia Kurkan August- Leaves. Not reported This bush causes death of

(Dene.)Muell SK/KV/0010 September animals especially goats if

eaten in large amount. It is emetic and purgative in its

action and may cause nervous

11. Solanaceae Atropa acuminata Royle Cheela August- Whole The alkaloid,

SK/KV/0011 Lubar, September plant hyoscyamine, occurs

Tambaco in all parts of the

Saag plant, especially in

seeds, roots and

leaves. Atropine has

also been found in the

roots. Choline,

succinic acid,

flavonoida, tannins, B-

sistosterol nonacosane,

ascorbic acid and

dehydroascorbic acid

12. Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa Linn Itsit February- Whole Triacontanol

SK/KV/0012 March plant hentriacontane, B-

sitosterol, ursolic acid,

5, 7-dihydroxy-3, 4-

dimethoxy-6, and 8-

dimethyl.

13. Buddlejaceae Buddleja asiatica Lour Chitti Bui February- Leaves Information is not

SK/KV/0013 March available

14. Papilionaceae Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kandiari May-June Seeds Flowers contain butin

Taub SK/KV/0014 and its 7-glucoside and

3-B-D glucoside.Gum

from bark contains

leucocyanidin. Seeds contain palasinin,

aleuritic acid, jalaric

acid, laccijalaric acid, cantharic n-

symptoms and convulsions. The body of animal swells

up. Leaves are crushed and used as fish poison and also

used to poison animals It is considered sedative and narcotic

The roots are purgative and anthelmintic.Poultice of herb mixed with mustard oil is

applied to boils

Dried leaves are applied on the body of animals to

prevent mites. Young

branches and leaves are also used as fish poison. Seeds are used to expel

worms from stomach. Seeds powder is used to expel

larvae from ulcers

heneicosanic acid and monospermin

15. Buxaceae Buxus sempervirens Hk.f Shamshad March-May Leaves No information is Plant is used to induce

SK/KV/0015 available diarrhoea

16. Cannabinaceae Cannabis sativa Linn Bhang July-August Leaves Tetrahydrocannabinol, The drugs addicts who smoke

SK/KV/0016 cannabidiol, them in cigarettes or in pipe

cannabichromene, use the dried leaves

cannabicitran, bracts.The narcotic may cause

cannabicyclol, death because of its

cannabigerol, depressing effect upon the

cannabinodiol, and heart beat. Chars is used for

cannabitetrol soothing activity

17. Ranunculaceae Caltha palustris Linn Mameera May – Whole Helleborin, veratin and Caltha possess very acrid

SK/KV/0017 September plant protoanemonin properties which usually lead

animals to avoid it. However,

eating the fresh tops has

poisoned cattle, sheep and

horses. According to locals

the dried plant is harmless. It

is used as febrifuge

18. Apocynaceae Carissa opaca Stapf. ex Garanda May – Fruits Carissone, carindone, Fruits are purgative.

Haines SK/KV/0018 September and carinol and four Grounded root is put in worm

roots crystalline substances, infested sores of animals

viz.A, B, a

cardioactive and B-

Sitosterol

19. Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus Linn Sadabahar December- Whole The leaves contain Whole plant is poisonous,

SK/KV/0019 March plant alkaloids serpentine, used to remove maggots from

ajmalline, ajmalicine, ulcers in animals

caranthine, vindoline,

vindolinine,

vincaleucoblastine,

leurosidine and

vincristine

20. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium ambrosioides Bathwa August- Whole Seeds contain a Leaves and seeds with sugar

Linn SK/KV/0020 September plant volatile oil and are given to expel intestinal

triterpenoid worms in animals

saponins.Ascaridol is a

powerful worm-

expellant

21. Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis Linn Ilri February- Whole Contains resin

SK/KV/0021 March plant convolvulin

22. Cruciferae Cronopus didymus Linn August- Whole No information is

SK/KV/0022 September plant available

23. Umbelliferae Conium maculatum Linn September Whole Main alkaloid is coline

SK/KV/0023 plant and a volatile oil.

Coline is extremely

toxic and causes

congenital deformities

24. Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb Neela dhari February- Whole The seeds have

SK/KV/0024 March plant cuscutin, cerotic,

linolenic, linolic, oleic,

stearic and palmitic

acid

25. Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn Muthar May-July Tuberou The tubers contain

SK/KV/0025 s roots essential oil which

consist of pinene,

traces of cineole,

sesquiterpenes, B-

Sistosterol and iso-

cyperol

26. Solanaceae Datura strumarium Linn Datura March-May Whole The seeds contain

SK/KV/0026 plant atropine, Hyoscine,

eicosanoic, linoleic

and oleic acids.

Leaves contain

chlorogenic acid, and

datugenin,

cuscohygrine, scopolamine and

tropine.Flowers

contain hyocyamine, dautrataturin, and

Skimmianine

Roots are used as purgative. For pinworms leaves along with fruit are used Paste of the plant is used to remove maggots from wounds in animals The plant seems to be most

poisonous to livestock in the

spring when the herbage is

fresh. Used as a poison to kill

human being and animals by

enemies Whole plant is used as fish poison. The powdered seeds are used as antifertility drugs

Tuber is crushed with water and taken orally to expel intestinal worms.

A decoction of flowers has

been used as a sedative to calm

the patients. Whole plant is

also used as antiseptic. Also

used to poison animals

27. Ranunculaceae Delphinium vestitum March-May Roots Roots contain Roots are used to cure

Wallich ex Royle delphinine, delphisine, toothache

SK/KV/0027 delphinodien,

staphisangarine and a

resin

28. Scrophulariaceae Digitalis purpurea Linn Barg- e- March-May Whole Contain cardiac This is used to make

SK/KV/0028 Lafah plant glucosides, ointments for application on

anthraquinones, wounds and burns

flavonoida and

saponins.Digitoxin

rapidly strengthens the

heart beat

29. Asteraceae Echinops ehcinatus Roxb Kandiari August – Roots The plant contains The powdered root mixed

SK/KV/0029 September hentriacontane, with water is applied to hair to

hentriacontanol, B- kill lices

amyrin, and

lupeol.Besides seeds

are reported to contain

echinopsine

30. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia pilosa Linn Dodal February- Latex The leaves and stem The latex of this plant

SK/KV/0030 March containhentriacontane, possesses vesicant,

B-Sitosterol, B- wormicidal and purgative

amyrin, friedelin, and properties.

taraxerol.Gum contain

campesterol,

stigmasterol,

euphosterol and

xanthorhamin

31. Urticaceae Girardinia palmata (Forsk) kair, Bichu March-May Whole No information is Like Urtica upon contact with

Gaud.Freye SK/KV/0031 booti plant available the skin, produce an intense

itching of short duration.

Whole plant is crushed and

used to stupefy fish

32. Solanaceae Hyocyamus niger Linn Ajwain March-May Whole Alkaloids All parts of the plant are

SK/KV/0032 plant hyocyamine, Hyoscine poisonous but because of its

and scopolamine unpleasant taste animal

usually avoid it. Eating the seeds or seed pods has

poisoned children. The seeds

of this plant have medicinal

properties; they are pasted and

applied locally in pains

33. Guttiferae Hypericum perforatum Linn Peeli booti March-May Flowers Volatile oil, hypericin, Flowers are used as sedative

SK/KV/0033 and pseudohypericin,

flavonoids

34. Araliaceae Hedera nepalensis K.Koch Arbambal February- Berries Not reported. The whole plant, especially

SK/KV/0034 March the leaves and berries are

poisonous. Berries are used as

purgative

35. Convolvulaceae Ipomea hederacea Ilri March-May Whole Contains resin Seeds are purgative. The

(Linn.)Jacq plant convolvulin smoke of the plant is useful to

SK/KV/0035 keep away the mosquitoes

36. Verbenaceae Lantana camara Linn Panjphulari March-May Whole Catalase, amylase, Powdered leaves are useful

SK/KV/0036 plant invertase, tannase, for cuts, wounds, ulcers and

caryophyllene, and swellings

asteroid lancamarone,

quinine like alkaloid

lantanine

37. Papilionaceae Lathyrus aphca Linn Jungli matter Seeds May- No information is Ripe seeds are smoked as

SK/KV/0037 June available narcotic

38. Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippinensis Kambila Fruits May- The fruits contain The crude powder from the

(Lamk.) SK/KV/0038 July rottlerin, isorottlerin, exterior of the fruits is mixed

kamalinsI and II, and with candy or sugar and used

cinnamoyl chromene as anthelmintic.This is used to

and flavone destroy thread worms, hook

chromene.The leaves worms and round worms

contain phorbic acid,

tannins, and

protein.The bark

contains B-sitosterol

and berganin

39. Meliaceae Melia azedarach Linn Derek March-May Leaves Leaves are reported to Leaves are used as purgative.

SK/KV/0039 and fruit containnimbiene, Decoction of fruits is used to

meliacin kill lices

andquercitin.The fruits

contain azaridine,

bakayanin, bakalactone,

margosine, azadirone,

azadiradione,

epoxyazadiradione and

ohchinol

40. Papilionaceae Melilotus alba Desv Sinji February- Whole Melilots contain The plant is mildly sedative

SK/KV/0040 March plant flavonoids, coumarins,

resin, tannins and

volatile oil. If allowed

to spoil, the plant

produces dicoumarol,

a powerful

anticoagulant

41. Oleaceae Nerium indicum Miller Kaner March-May, Whole Roots, bark and seeds The leaves are lightly toxic

SK/KV/0041 plant contain cardio-active both in the green and dry

glycosides, formerly condition. The plant is used as

designated as rat poison. A decoction of

neriodorin, and leaves is used to destroy

karabin maggots infesting wounds

42. Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum Linn Tambaku March-May Leaves Nicotine, nornicotine, The ill effect of this plant is

SK/KV/0042 anabasine, nicotyrine, well known. Leaves are used

nicotimine, piperidine, to kill lices.Leaves are also

pyrrolidine, nicotoine smoked as narcotics

and myosmine

43. Solanaceae Physalis minima Linn Pataki March-May Berries Alkaloids Berries are used as purgative

SK/KV/0043

44. Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca latbenia Lubar June -July Whole Phytolaccine, Herb is used as narcotic

(Moq.)Walter plant betanidine,

SK/KV/0044 isobetanine,

isopyrebetanine and

phytolaccagenic acid

45. Papaveraceae Papaver somniferum Linn Posut/Doda April-June Latex The latex is rich in The capsules from which

from alkaloids; morphine, latex has been drawn off are

capsule codeine, thebaine, used as narcotic, analgesic

nacrocotine, narceine, and sedative

and papaverine

46. Podophyllaceae Podophyllum hexandrum Bankakri March-May Whole Podophyllin,

Wall.ex Royle plant podophyllotoxin,

SK/KV/0046 quercitin and B-peltatin.

47. Polygonaceae Polygonum capitatum Marchari March-May Whole Glucosides.

Buch.-Ham.ex D.Don plant

SK/KV/0047

48. Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiper Linn Marchari March-May Whole No information is

SK/KV/0048 plant available

49. Polygonaceae Polygonum persicariaLinn Marchari March-May Whole Rhizomes and leaves

SK/KV/0049 plant contain tannins

50. Lamiaceae Rabdosia rugosa (Wall ex Bui August- Leaves Information not

Benth) SK/KV/0050 September and available

flowers

51. Ranunculaceae Rananculus scleratus Linn. Chachumba March-May Leaves The plant contains

SK/KV/0051 anemomin,

ranunculine, serotonin

and six other

tryptamines

52. Euphorbiaceae Riccinus communis Linn. Arand March-May Seeds No information is

SK/KV/009 and oil available

53. Papilionaceae, Robinia pseudacacia Linn. Kikar March-May Flowers Not reported.

SK/KV/0053

54. Sapindaceae Sapindus laurifolia Vahl Raitha March-May Fruit Saponins; nuts contain

SK/KV/0054 kaempferol, quercitin,

and B-sitosterol.

55. Solanaceae Solanum nigrum Linn Kach mach March-May Whole Leaf is a rich resource

SK/KV/0055 plant of riboflavin, nicotinic

acid and vitamin

‘C’.The immature

The drug is used as a purgative, overdoses of which may prove fatal

Whole plant is used as fish poison

Whole plant is crushed and thrown in pond water to stupefy fish Whole plant is crushed and thrown in pond water to stupefy fish Leaves and flowers are used to repel mosquitoes and mites

The bruised leaves are used

to raise blisters and may be used to keep open sores

caused by vesication.

Seeds are highly purgative

and cause diarrhoea. The

people take the oil to induce

diarrhoea. Oil is also given to

pregnant women to ease

delivery, over dosed may

induce abortion Flowers are used to induce vomiting Fruit coat is used as antilice

and fish poison. A decoction of

the bark is good for cattle

suffering from ulcers due to

worm infestation after calving

The leaves and berries of the

black nightshade, especially in

the unripe condition, are

poisonous. The leaves are

green fruit of the plant cooked as vegetable and used

contain steroidal as anthelmintic

glycol-alkaloids viz.

solamargine, and A

and B solamargine and

all of them yield

solasodine as the

glycone

56. Scrophulariaceae Scrophulaia koelzii Pennel March-May Whole Contains iridoids, The herb is mildly diuretic

SK/KV/0056 plant flavonoids, tannins, and is reputed to be effective

and phenolic acids when used to expel worms

57. Taxaceae Taxus wallichiana Zucc Barmi March-May Whole Contains paclitaxel, The leaves are used to induce

SK/KV/0057 plant taxine A and B, menstruation and abortion

taxicatin, milossine,

and ephedrine

58. Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris Linn Gokhru March-May Leaves The plant contains The leaves are used to induce

SK/KV/0058 saponins, diosgenin, menstruation and abortion.

gitogenin,

chlorogenin, and

ruscogenin and

flvonoid triboloside

59. Urticaceae Urtica dioica Linn Bichu booti March-May Leaves Contain acid amines, Leaves are eaten as purgative

SK/KV/0059 flavonoids, choline and also eaten to ease delivery

and acetyl transferase and also abortion

60. Verbenaceae Vitex negundo Linn Marvani July-August Leaves Leaves contain two Powdered leaves are used as

SK/KV/0060 alkaloids nishindine, insect repellent. Fresh leaves

and extract solution is sprayed in

hydrocotyline.Fresh the crops to kill insects and

leaves yield pale pests. Leaves are also given to

greenish yellow oil animals to remove maggots

from ulcers.

61. Asteraceae Xanthium strumarium Linn Kandiari July-August Leaves Plant contains Leaves are used to stop

SK/KV/ 0061 alkaloids sesquiterpine bleeding from wounds and

and lactone-xanthinin also to expel maggots in

animals

62. Rutaceae Zanthoxylum armatum Timbar March-May Seeds Seeds contain Seeds are crushed and thrown

SK/KV/0062 pyranocoumarins, in water and used as fish

such as xanthoxyletin, poison

isoquinoline; alkaloids

including berberine and N-methyl-

isocortdin


3.6.3 Growth Forms of medicinal plants

Almost all life forms were represented in the present study. The most dominant being

the herbs 67 % followed by shrub 22 % and trees 9 % (Figure 30).The herbaceous life form

dominant life form and widespread ecological habit distributed all over the world. Similar

results are documented in previous studies (Qureshi et al., 2009 Ahmed et al., 2014).The

dominance of herbaceous life form might be due to easy availability and abundant growth in

wild form. Due to easy access indigenous people prefer herbs as source of medicine.

According to folk people and local healers herbs are easily collected and effortlessly

transformed into herbal therapies.

3.6.4 Plant parts used as Herbal Medicine

The utilization of medicinal plants in the local communities is based on the

indigenous knowledge and common usage. Different plant parts are regarded as useful in

different treatments. Local communities of selected districts utilize almost all parts of the

poisonous medicinal plants as remedies for various disorders. The highly utilized part for

treatments observed were whole plant 40% followed by leaves 25%, root 16% and seeds 10%

(Figure 31).

3.6.5 Chemical constituents and ethno-toxic profile of poisonous plants

The poisonous properties of plants are due to the presence of certain toxic constituents

which include alkaloids, fixed oils, glycosoides, saponins, bitter principles, toxic proteins,

essential chemical oils, resins, organic acids, tannins, and other toxic compounds. According

to the nature of these compounds, and how they occur in different plants, they produce

varieties of toxic effects. Some of them cause deadly poisonous effect to humans, livestock,

insects, pests and maggots while other produce colic, vomiting, dehydration, diarrhoea,

dermatitis, blistering, violent irritation etc. Siran valley has not been explored before for

poisonous plants and their traditional uses.



PERCENTAGE OF LIFE FORM

Wild herbs Wild shrubs Trees Wild herbs

6% Wild shrubs

2%

Trees

92%

Figure 30: Percentage of growth forms of poisonous plants used in study area

PERCENTAGE OF PLANT PART USED

Per

cen

tage

of

pla

nt

part

use

d

50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00%

0.00% Whole leaves Root seeds

plant

Plant part used

Figure 31: Percentage of poisonous plant parts used for medicinal application in study area


245


There are more than 300 medicinal and poisonous plants encountered from the area.

The present study reveals that a large number of plants found in Kaghan valley, commonly

known for its injurious and harmful properties have been utilized for varieties of beneficial

purposes by local community. During the survey of the area, it has also been observed that

some ancient methods are still used for catching fish and hunting of animals to meet their

food requirement. About 10 species are used as fish poison by resident of this region to

procure food from animal resources.

The inhabitants of this area also rear cows, goats and sheep and they use several plants for

the treatment of various animal diseases. Ten species are used as larvicides to expel or remove maggots

from the wounds and ulcers in animals. The aggregation of parasitic insects such as lices is also very much

common in animals and humans. To get rid of these insects, about four plant species are used as bath or

spray on the body and hair. To expel internal worms about 12 species are used as anthelmintic or

wormicide to kill worms from the intestines and stomachs of humans and animals. There are about three

species are used in such criminal practices. Killing of men and women with poisoning due to jealously and

of mad and stray dogs and other dangerous animals are also rarely and occasionally occurring in the area.

Birth control and abortion is not very much common, still 6 species are used as abortifacient to abort

premature pregnancy and to induce menstruation. The use of narcotics is a common factor of tribal and

rural communities. The local community uses about 11 species are used as narcotics and sedative.

Treatment of constipation through plants is very popular among the local community. About 10 species are

used as purgative and to induce vomiting, but sometime high doses may cause diarrhoea and dehydration

ultimately leading to death. About eight harmful plants containing spines, stining hairs and pointed seeds

have also been recorded from the area which by mechanical or chemical action produces subcutaneous

abcesses, blisters, dermatitis and itching sensation in humans and livestock.

Thus it is evident, that a large number of plants used to kill or remove or repel insects,

pests, worms and other animals are completely harmless to men. These plants may be utilized

to prepare new bio-pesticides, bio-insecticides, and bio-wormicides. These bio-drugs would

not only be cheap products in comparison to chemical pesticides, but also biodegradable,

hence, eliminating the chances of pollution hazards. There is also possibility to yield new

wormicide after chemical and pharmacological investigations. Therefore the herbal products

prepared carefully from various poisonous plants for the treatment of various ailments and

other beneficial purposes may play important role in the economy of rural societies as well as

of the country, if properly studied and analyzed.

It is therefore suggested that a detailed and systematic survey of poisonous plants in many

more areas in the country should be done along with phytochemical and pharmacological


246


studies for their positive exploitation and wider applications. The recent literature makes it

evident that that there is considerable gap in the knowledge of poisonous plants and more

information on such plants are awaited. The potentiality of ethno-toxicological investigations

on plants is perhaps more scintillating in the quest for new bio-drugs. It is therefore,

suggested that a detailed and systematic survey of poisonous plants in many more areas of the

country should be done along with phytochemical and pharmacological studies for their

positive exploitation and wider application.



Plate 55: Poisonous plants from Kaghan Valley Western Himalayas Pakistan


248




249




250




251

SECTION:7 “Anti-bacterial activity of selected medicinal plants from

Northern Pakistan”


3.7. Anti-bacterial activity of selected medicinal plants from sub-alpine and Alpine

regions of Northern Pakistan against different bacterial strains

The anti-bacterial activity of selected studied plants was identified through assessing

the impact of various plant extracts and their doses/concentrations on the four bacterial

strains i.e., Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus

aureus. The response for each plant extract was assessed at various doses, while the overall

dose response was used to estimate IC50 values for each extract against each bacterial strains

3.7.1 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts on bacterial strains Bacillus subtilis

Analyses of the data revealed significant (p-value <0.0001) impact of various plant

extracts on growth of the bacterial strains (B. subtalis) along with a significant plant extract x

dose interaction (Table 22). These statistical analyses thus suggest that different plant extracts

have different inhibition activity on the B. subtalis. Similarly, different concentrations had

also variable impact on the inhibition activity of this bacterial strains B. subtalis, while the

concentration effect had a significant interaction with plant extracts.

Table 22: Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains B. subtalis as affected by various

plant extracts and their concentrations.

Response: B. subtalis

Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 3.975715 0.567959 42.61209 0.00 ***

Plant Extract 44 58.20043 1.322737 99.24055 0.00 ***

Concentration: Plant Extract 308 42.17905 0.136945 10.27452 0.00 ***

Residuals 743 9.903146 0.013329

Total 1102 114.2583 2.04097

The overall maximum mean value was recorded as 2.20 whereas the maximum mean

inhibition activity was recorded for Dose-100µg/ml which was 2.5 µg/ml and the minimum

was recorded as 1.8 for Dose-400µg/ml concentration dose (Figure 32). The overall mean

based on the mean values over all plant extracts, thus suggested a direct increase in inhibition

activity from Dose-0 till Dose-400µg/ml, with a subsequent decrease for further increase in

concentration. An overall similar impact of concentration was observed across individual

plant extracts response on the bacterial strains B. subtalis, which was used in fitting model to

estimate IC50, see below Figure 33(a,b,c,d,e,f).

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division Northern Pakistan


Figure 32: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against bacterial strains B. subtalis as

influenced by different concentrations of plant extracts.

Detailed data on inhibition of bacterial strains B. subtalis as affected by various plant

extracts and their concentrations as shown in Table 22. The maximum value was recorded for

plant leaves extract of Iris hookeriana, which was 7.08 at dose with concentration of Dose-

40µg/ml, whereas the minimum value was recorded for Bergenia stracheyi, which was,

recorded 0.574 at Dose-200µg/ml.

The overall response of individual plant extract across various doses was plotted to fit

model for estimation of IC50 with R package DRC, individually for each plant extract

(Figure 33a,b,c,d,e,f). The minimum value of IC50 was estimated for Delphinium roylei,

which was 7.51, while the maximum value was recorded for Phlomis bracteosa leaf extract,

which was 1567.18. The very high IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it could

arise from lack of good fit of the model.


253

Figure 33a: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 33b: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 33c: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 33d: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species.

Figure 33e: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 33f: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains B. subtalis fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species.

Table 22: Cell inhibition of bacterial strains B. subtalis as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Part Plant Extract Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Code

0 4 10 20 40 100 200 400

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP 307 2.144 1.924 1.809 2.003 1.979 2.745 2.872 2.035 2.189

Asteraceae Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 2.000 1.628 1.626 1.780 1.947 2.172 1.033 1.463 1.706

Asteraceae Lentopodium entopodioides AP 325 2.267 2.373 2.753 2.824 2.968 2.732 2.659 2.107 2.585

Boraginaceae Arnebia euchroma R 305 2.197 2.444 4.217 2.946 3.728 4.937 4.754 4.142 3.671

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 2.145 2.511 2.470 2.915 3.467 3.707 1.663 1.030 2.489

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 2.162 2.066 2.213 2.382 2.609 2.814 2.496 1.535 2.285

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 1.985 2.063 2.034 2.136 2.119 2.650 1.906 0.891 1.973

Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola WP 311 1.757 1.814 1.727 1.893 2.069 1.751 1.123 1.754 1.736

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F 303 2.412 1.933 1.828 1.757 1.850 1.917 1.912 3.133 2.093

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 2.410 2.241 2.433 2.340 3.149 1.928 1.116 1.046 2.083

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 2.311 2.108 2.097 2.255 2.489 3.462 2.331 1.719 2.347

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana L 316C 4.658 4.340 5.266 4.386 7.084 5.368 1.396 1.880 4.297

Lamiaceae Stachys emodi WP 312 1.705 1.907 1.573 1.674 1.804 2.584 2.023 1.439 1.839

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare WP 320 2.003 1.832 2.100 1.959 2.534 3.732 4.145 3.271 2.697

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 2.041 3.788 4.160 3.696 3.872 4.542 4.157 3.228 3.686

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 2.109 2.215 1.695 1.863 2.001 2.319 1.510 0.781 1.812

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 2.100 1.778 1.759 1.890 2.023 2.098 3.544 2.264 2.182

Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 1.699 2.175 2.274 2.418 2.280 1.978 1.890 1.563 2.035

Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S 308 2.183 1.995 2.020 1.840 1.896 1.961 2.233 1.157 1.911

Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon lycopodioides WP 319 1.999 2.852 1.994 2.273 2.288 2.549 3.091 1.497 2.318

Primulaceae Primula denticulata WP 317 2.117 1.917 1.996 2.103 2.567 2.862 1.135 1.075 1.972

Primulaceae Primula macrophylla RL 318 2.241 1.965 2.013 1.887 2.723 3.231 2.438 2.604 2.388

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK 301A 2.211 2.326 2.182 2.246 2.331 1.601 1.325 1.219 1.930

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MI 301B 2.257 1.912 1.775 1.823 1.915 2.576 2.656 1.688 2.075

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium R 306 2.156 2.004 2.099 2.044 1.999 2.094 1.669 0.935 1.875

Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei AP 314 2.001 1.867 1.710 1.752 1.777 1.823 1.090 1.138 1.645

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba L 309A 2.197 2.092 2.070 2.198 2.487 1.717 0.782 1.156 1.837

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba R 309B 2.022 2.502 2.550 2.394 2.203 3.156 2.879 2.963 2.584

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba S 309C 1.931 1.786 1.703 1.675 1.739 2.155 1.844 1.911 1.843

Rosaceae Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 2.139 2.052 1.764 2.068 2.178 1.176 1.297 1.391 1.758

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 2.091 1.980 2.152 1.741 1.765 1.823 3.589 3.031 2.272

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L 304A 2.083 1.764 1.696 1.675 2.068 2.488 2.043 1.848 1.958

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana F 304B 2.181 1.846 1.772 1.757 1.841 1.974 2.825 4.223 2.302

Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi WP 322 1.795 1.760 1.822 1.781 1.670 0.613 0.574 0.778 1.349

Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ciliata WP 324 2.139 2.052 1.764 2.068 2.178 1.176 1.297 1.391 1.758

Mean 2.167 2.166 2.203 2.184 2.446 2.526 2.151 1.865 2.214

Table 23: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of bacterial strains B. subtalis as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Part used Plant Extract Code IC50 Std. Error Lower Upper

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP 307 49.29501 74.03234 -105.656 204.2465

Asteraceae Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 162.9198 94.5436 -34.9622 360.8018

Boraginaceae Arnebia euchroma R 305 12.91833 12.49841 -13.2411 39.07779

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora R R 321A 8.425435 1.607245 5.061433 11.78944

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora W WP 321C 218.6602 84.60882 41.57192 395.7485

Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola WP 311 114.7512 44.12014 22.40665 207.0957

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F 303 525.0062 NA NA NA

Lamiaceae Stachys emodi WP 312 31.4742 178.7848 -342.727 405.6751

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare WP 320 44.31604 16.47809 9.826987 78.80508

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa L L 302A 1567.183 64553.2 -133544 136678.6

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa S S 302B 206.5766 NA NA NA

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa F F 302C 108.5644 61.95193 -21.1025 238.2313

Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 239.1292 135.4092 -44.2856 522.544

Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S 308 447.1905 800.1359 -1227.51 2121.894

Primulaceae Primula denticulata WP 317 147.7611 149.5576 -165.266 460.7887

Primulaceae Primula macrophylla RL 318 29.94281 60.50484 -96.6953 156.5809

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK MK 301A 86.30223 25.10868 33.74916 138.8553

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MI MI 301B 51.03534 104.1861 -167.029 269.0993

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium R 306 210.5583 62.15684 80.4625 340.654

Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei WP 314 7.514313 0.698173 6.05302 8.975605

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba L L 309A 103.9903 12.30584 78.23391 129.7467

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba R R 309B 53.86379 96.57179 -148.263 255.9909

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba S S 309C 51.29802 78.07975 -112.125 214.7208

Rosaceae Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 74.05438 107.773 -151.517 299.6258

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 121.1863 146.6135 -185.679 428.0519

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 106.0183 16.38398 71.7262 140.3103

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 23.99461 44.80405 -69.7813 117.7706

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana L 316C 156.884 126.6356 -108.167 421.9354

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L 304A 32.80875 18.59978 -6.12103 71.73854

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana F 304B 266.0425 812.8617 -1435.3 1967.382

Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi WP 322 51.68417 NA NA NA

Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ciliata WP 324 74.05438 107.773 -151.517 299.6258


3.7.2 Impact on bacterial growth for bacterial strains Escherichia coli

A highly significant (p-value <0.0001) impact of various plant extracts on growth of

the bacterial strains E. cloi strain was observed with significant interaction effect (Table 24).

Considering statistical analyses results, different plant extracts have different inhibition

activity on the bacterial strains E. cloi. Similarly, different concentrations had also variable

impact on the inhibition activity of this bacterial strains E. cloi, while the concentration effect

had a significant interaction with plant extracts.

Table 24: Analyses of Variance table for bacterial strains E. cloi as affected by various plant

extracts and their concentrations.

Response: E.coli


Concentration 7 5.698706 0.814101 156.0214 0.00 ***

Plant Extract 44 62.38525 1.417846 271.7285 0.00 ***


Residuals 743 3.876885 0.005218

Total 1102 93.30429 2.306462

Perusal of different doses effect suggested a steady increase in inhibition activity till

Dose-10µg/ml with subsequent decrease for further increase in doses, when the overall mean

over all plant extract response was considered (Figure 34). Though there were certain

differences, the individual plant extracts doses response varied in a similar pattern (Figure

35a,b,c,d,e,f), which was plotted with DMRC package of R to estimate IC50.


264


Figure 34: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against bacterial strains E. cloi


Detailed data on inhibition of bacterial strains E. cloi as affected by various plant


Arnebia euchroma at Dose-400µg/ml (1.60) whereas the minimum value was recorded for

Bergenia stracheyi at Dose-400µg/ml with a value of 0.688.

The minimum value for IC50 was recorded for plant extract of Delphinium roylei

with a value of 7.51 while the minimum value was recorded 25291.14 for the root extract of

Lindelofia longiflora (Table 24). The very high values and very low values were excluded

from the results in cases where there was a doubt on the estimation. Similarly, the very high

IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it could arise from lack of good fit of the

model.


265

Figure 35a: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Figure 35b: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Figure 35c: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Figure 35d: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Figure 35e: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Figure 35f: Dose Response Curve for bacterial strains E. cloi fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant species

Table 25: Cell inhibition of bacterial strains E. cloi as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Plant Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Part Extract Code

0 4 10 20 40 100 200 400





Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 1.135 1.150 1.205 1.198 1.314 1.172 1.104 0.994 1.159 Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 1.176 1.230 1.253 1.217 1.330 1.226 1.166 1.013 1.201

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 1.174 1.171 1.212 1.202 1.347 1.269 1.116 0.947 1.180 Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola WP 311 1.156 1.232 1.279 1.253 1.186 0.997 0.953 1.153 1.151



Iridaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 1.158 1.180 1.191 1.210 1.183 1.101 0.914 0.847 1.098 Iridaceae Iris hookeriana L 316C 1.122 1.184 1.209 1.219 1.211 1.082 1.048 1.067 1.143






Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 1.122 1.181 1.173 1.056 0.962 0.864 0.852 0.894 1.013 Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S 308 1.133 1.128 1.077 0.981 0.912 0.910 0.886 0.934 0.995



Primulaceae Primula macrophylla RL 318 1.122 1.220 1.241 1.246 1.232 1.273 1.206 1.097 1.205 Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK 301A 1.181 1.170 1.025 0.984 0.864 0.856 0.888 0.940 0.989













Mean 1.151 1.199 1.206 1.190 1.158 1.106 1.071 1.033 1.139

Table 26: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of bacterial strains E. cloi as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations


Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP 307 8836.89 197244.1 -404000 421673.5

Asteraceae Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 41.10 5.966664 28.60883 53.58558

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 25291.14 NA NA NA

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 535.46 7909.136 -16018.6 17089.47

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 209.23 24.08119 158.8295 259.6345


Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F 303 3297.32 60506.73 -123345 129939.4


Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 47.22 3.960606 38.92806 55.50735

Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 25.33 2.944686 19.16659 31.49319

Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S 308 15.34 1.846814 11.47296 19.20381

Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon lycopodioides WP 319 47.75 20.69277 4.442011 91.06295

Primulaceae Primula denticulata WP 317 180.31 30.48908 116.4935 244.1222

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK 301A 11.16 3.480358 3.875679 18.44462

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MI 301B 1567.18 64553.2 -133544 136678.6


Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei WP 314 7.51 0.698173 6.05302 8.975605

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba L 309A 7.74 2.966251 1.526929 13.9438

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba S 309C 471.61 503.2313 -581.662 1524.889

Rosaceae Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 114.08 38.73812 32.99832 195.1579

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 31.66 1.346693 28.83853 34.47585

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 406.78 1671.418 -3091.54 3905.102

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 137.69 16.54032 103.0744 172.313

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana L 316C 85.87 28.3477 26.53297 145.1978

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L 304A 207.18 21.31405 162.5649 251.7865

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana F 304B 266.04 812.8617 -1435.3 1967.382

Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi WP 322 16.91 2.560505 11.55347 22.27186

Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ciliate WP 324 10.55 2.938737 4.399704 16.7014


3.7.3 Impact on bacterial growth for bacterial strains Enterococcus faecium

The growth of the bacterial strains E. facium was significant (p-value <0.0001)

affected by various plant extracts, various doses and their interaction (Table 27). This reflects

based on statistical analyses that plant extracts have different inhibition activity on the

bacterial strains E. facium. These plant extracts behaved differentially at various

concentrations, while the concentration effect had a significant interaction with plant extracts

on the growth of the bacterial strains E. facium.

Table 27: Analyses of Variance table for the bacterial strains E. facium as affected by

various plant extracts and their concentrations.

Response: E.facium Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 1.611484 0.230212 18.3465 0.00 ***

Plant Extract 44 50.03949 1.137261 90.6328 0.00 ***


Residuals 743 9.323169 0.012548

Total 1102 86.01264 1.461315

The pattern of dose effect when considered the overall mean across all plant extracts

suggested a steady increase in inhibition activity till Dose-20µg/ml, with subsequent

reduction in inhibition activity against bacterial strains E. facium (Figure 36). A similar

pattern was observed for individual plant extracts doses response with some variations

(Figure 37a,b,c,d,e,f). These individual dose responses were plotted under model fitting to

estimate IC50 with DMRC package of R.


276


Figure 36: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against the bacterial strains E. facium as

influenced by different concentrations of plant extracts

Detailed data on inhibition of bacterial strains E. facium as affected by various plant

extracts and their concentrations as shown in Table 28. The maximum value (1.41) was

recorded for plant extract of Primula macrophylla at Dose-400µg/ml, while the minimum

value (0.217) was recorded for plant extract of Bergenia stracheyi at Dose-400µg/ml (Table

28).

The maximum value for IC50 against the bacterial strains E. facium was recorded for

root extract of Iris hookeriana with a value of 6.60 whereas the minimum value was recorded

for Lindelofia longiflora W with a value of 1172454.76 (Table 29). The very high values and

very low values were excluded from the results in cases where there was a doubt on the

estimation. Similarly, the very high IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it could arise from lack of good fit of the model.


277

Figure 37a: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 37b: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25plant

species

Figure 37c: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 37d: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 37e: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 37f: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains E. facium fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species.

Table 28: Cell inhibition of the bacterial strains E. facium as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Plant Extract Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Part Code

0 4 10 20 40 100 200 400



































Saxifragaceae Bergeina ciliata WP 324 0.683 0.654 0.593 0.559 0.564 0.429 0.349 0.443 0.534

Mean 0.517 0.610 0.619 0.633 0.625 0.616 0.607 0.588 0.602

Table 29: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of the bacterial strains E. facium as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Part Plant Extract IC50 Std. Error Lower Upper

used Code


Asteraceae Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 7.79 3.241248 1.001784 14.5698

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora R R 321A 26.28 13.07733 -1.08678 53.65556

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora L L 321B 17082.13 269743.6 -547498 581661.9

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora W WP 321C 1172454.76 37761851 -7.8E+07 80208917

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F 303 55.56 33.85339 -15.2935 126.4184

Lamiaceae Stachys emodi WP 312 20.75 4.365111 11.61147 29.88403

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa L L 302A 1567.18 64553.2 -133544 136678.6




Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK MK 301A 350.02 NA NA NA

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MI MI 301B 273911.54 70552966 -1.5E+08 1.48E+08

Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei WP 314 654.24 2567.894 -4720.43 6028.905

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba L L 309A 580.69 10840.13 -22108 23269.34

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba S S 309C 1693.16 25721.04 -52141.6 55527.92

Rosaceae Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 462.32 2181.86 -4104.36 5029.007

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK MK 315C 41.84 19.63416 0.749294 82.93881

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 6.60 NA NA NA

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 23.99 44.80405 -69.7813 117.7706


Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L L 304A 145.56 203.9031 -281.216 572.3326

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana F F 304B 266.04 812.8617 -1435.3 1967.382


Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ciliata WP 324 34.35 20.9062 -9.40655 78.10778


3.7.4 Impact on bacterial growth for bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus

When statistical analyses were made for the effect of various plant extracts and their

doses on growth of the bacterial strains S. aureaus, a highly significant (p-value <0.0001)

impact of was observed along with significant interaction effect (Table 30). This means that

different plant extracts have variable inhibition activity on the bacterial strains S. aureaus

with a variable dose effect along with significant extract x dose interaction in terms of

inhibition activity against this bacterial strains S. aureaus.

Table 30: Analyses of Variance table for the bacterial strains S. aureaus as affected by

various plant extracts and their concentrations.

Response: S.aureaus Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 2.572411 0.367487 34.52627 0.00 ***

PlantExtract 44 51.83587 1.178088 110.6841 0.00 ***

Concentration:PlantExtract 308 27.97123 0.090816 8.532341 0.00 ***

Residuals 743 7.908269 0.010644

Total 1102 90.28778 1.647035

The inhibition activity against bacterial strains S. aureaus increased with increasing

dose till Dose-40 with further decrease in inhibition activity with increase in doses, when the

overall mean across all plant extract response was considered (Figure 38). This response was

similar for individual plant extracts dose response was observed, though with certain

variability (Figure 39a,b,c,d,e,f), which was plotted with DMRC package of R to estimate

IC50.


288


Figure 38: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against the bacterial strains S. aureaus


Detailed data on bacterial strains S. aureaus as affected by various plant extracts and

their concentrations as shown in Table 31. The maximum value was recorded for plant

extract of Phlomis bracteosa at Dose-100µg/ml with a value of 1.584 whereas the minimum

value (0.25) was recorded for plant extract of Bergenia stracheyi at Dose-400µg/ml.

The minimum value for IC50 against bacterial strains S. aureaus was recorded for

leaf extract of Phlomis bracteosa with a value of 4.57 whereas the maximum value was

recorded for Lindelofia longiflora W with a value of 1172454.763 (Table 32). The very high

values and very low values were excluded from the results in cases where there was a doubt

on the estimation. Similarly, the very high IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it

could arise from lack of good fit of the model.


289

Figure 39a: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25

plant species

Figure 39b: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25

plant species.

Figure 39c: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species.

Figure 39d: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25

plant species

Figure 39e: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Figure 39f: Dose Response Curve for the bacterial strains S. aureaus fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 25 plant

species

Table 31: Cell inhibition of the bacterial strains S. aureaus as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations.

Family Plant Plant Plant Extract Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Part Code

0 4 10 20 40 100 200 400



Asteraceae Lentopodium AP 325 0.450 0.537 0.549 0.538 0.544 0.519 0.541 0.503 0.523 entopodioides

















Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon WP 319 0.538 0.974 0.995 0.848 0.971 0.983 0.977 1.034 0.915 lycopodioides
















Mean 0.649 0.720 0.737 0.740 0.769 0.733 0.693 0.679 0.715

Table 32: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of the bacterial strains S. aureaus as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations



Asteraceae Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 115.99 112.506 -119.493 351.4629

Boraginaceae Arnebia euchroma R 305 44.68 9.821323 24.12667 65.2392

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 551.47 4612.743 -9103.11 10206.05

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 1172454.76 37761851 -7.8E+07 80208917



Lamiaceae Stachys emodi WP 312 13.77 5.780855 1.670805 25.86974


Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 4.57 2.770942 -1.22578 10.37351

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 218.92 309.1947 -428.233 866.0705


Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 558.85 5529.492 -11014.5 12132.21



Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK 301A 350.02 NA NA NA

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MI 301B 273911.54 70552966 -1.5E+08 1.48E+08


Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei WP 314 12223.35 105465.4 -208518 232965

Ranunculaceae Caltha alba R R 309B 428301.08 96754101 -2E+08 2.03E+08

Rosaceae Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 116.18 14.96972 84.85238 147.5163

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 3025.19 14200.44 -26696.7 32747.05

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MK 315C 25.13 2.330558 20.25454 30.01036

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 19.08 2.423674 14.01204 24.15765

Rosaceae Iris hookeriana WP 316B 49.49 4.68128 39.69467 59.29073


Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L L 304A 145.56 203.9031 -281.216 572.3326

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana F F 304B 266.04 812.8617 -1435.3 1967.382

Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata stracheyi WP 322 135.88 50.299 30.60133 241.1553

Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata ciliata WP 324 68.02 11.37406 44.21804 91.83039


3.7.5 Discussion

3.7.5.1 Stachys spp

No previous report exists in the published literature in world about bacterial activity

of Stachys emodi. Jelena et al., 2010 reported the antimicrobial activities against

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneu-moniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

and Salmonella enteritidis on Stachys germanica subsp. heldreichii (Boiss) Hayek, Stachys

iva Griseb., Stachys plumosa Griseb and Stachys scardica Griseb from Serbia. They observed

significant antimicrobial activity against the most persistent human pathogens E. coli, P.

aeruginosa and S. aureus. Peyman et al., 2011 observed the antibacterial activities against

Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella spp

and Escherichia coli on Stachys schtschegleevii from Iran. They commented that the most

sensitive bacterial isolates to Stachys schtschegleevii extracts was P. aeruginosa. Kamar, et

al., 2014 reported the antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus

epidermidis, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus

cereus, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella typhimuium and Salmonella

enteritidis on Stachys lavandulifolia, they observed limited inhibition against the gram

positive and negative bacteria. Abichandani et al., 2010 the antimicrobial activities against

ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis

on Stachys inflata from Iran. They observed that plant extract was active against ampicillin-

resistant Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.

Abdullah & Nadeem 2016 studied the antibacterial activities of Stachys parviflora

collected from Pakistan against Escherichia coli, Enterobacter sakazakii, Proteus vulgaris,

Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram negative) and

Staphylococcus aureus (gram positive). They observed maximum activity against all bacterial

strains. Halimi et al., 2016 reported the antibacterial activities of Pseudomonas viridiflava,

Pseudomonas syringaepv, Rathayi bacterrathayi, Xanthomonas campestris, Xanthomonas

arboricola, Agrobacterium sp. and Rathayi bactertritici on Stachys turcomanica collected

from Iran. They observed maximum antibacterial activities on Xanthomonas campestris,

Agrobacterium sp. and Pseudomonas viridiflava. Khan et al., 2006 reported the antibacterial

effect of Stachys palustris on Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus and


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Straptococcus faecalis and four Gram negative bacteria Serratia marcescens, Proteus

vulgaris, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aerugrinosa. Kıymet et al., 2009 reported the

antibacterial effect of Stachys aleurites on 26 bacterial strains and observed the antimicrobial

activity in varying degrees on all the microorganisms tested. Ferhat et al., 2016 studied the

antimicrobial activities of Stachys guyoniana on Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella heidelberg, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter

aerogenes and Morganella morganii. They observed the tested extracts exhibited a good

antibacterial activity.

3.7.5.2 Sambucus spp

No report found about the antibacterial activity of Sambucus wightiana from Pakistan.

Only one published report found in the published literature from India and that was reported

by chashoo et al., in 2012. They stuies the antibacterial effect of S. wightiana on

Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, K. pneumonia and they observed

that the plant possesses significant antimicrobial activity. Meriç et al., 2014 reported the

antimicrobial activities of Sambucus ebulus on Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis,

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis and one

yeast Candida albicans from Turkey. They found no significant activity against any strains of

bacteria. Only Sambucus ebulus fruit extract has shown moderate effect against Candida

albicans. Salehzadeh et al., 2014 studied the antimicrobial activity of Sambucus ebulus on

Methicillin resistant S. aureus and the test bacterium found sensitive. Rodino et al., 2014

studied the antibacterial activities of fruit of Sambucus ebulus from Romania on Bacillus

subtilis, B. cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas fluorescens

and Escherichia coli. The plant showed antimicrobial activity against most of the tested

strains, best results regarding antibacterial activity were obtained against P. fluorescens and

E. fecalis.

Karakaş et al., 2012 reported the antibacterial activities of Sambucus nigra on 10

bacteria, including Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis,

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium, Serratia marcescens,

Proteus vulgaris and Enterobacter cloacae. The plant showed showed inhibitory activity

against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Bahiense et al., 2016 studied the

antimicrobial activities of Sambucus australis on Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus

agalactiae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae and yeast


301


represented by Candida albicans. The extract exhibited minimum inhibitory concentration

(MIC) against Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumonia. Bahiense et al., 2016

discussed antimicrobial activities of Sambucus australis on Staphylococcus aureus,

Streptococcus agalactiae, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella

pneumoniae and Candida albicans. Ginovyan & Trchounian, 2017 reported the antibacterial

activities against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella

typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus on Sambucus nigra. They concluded that the plant

was more active against Gram-positive bacteria.

3.7.5.3 Primula spp

Only one report was found about the antibacterial activity of Primula macrophylla in

Pakistan as well as in world. Saqib et al., 2008 reported the antibacterial activities of

Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Shigella flexenari, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa and Salmonella typhi on Primula macrophylla. The test was repeated three times

but none of the samples showed any activity. Saqib et al., 2008 also studies antifungal

activities of Trichophyton longifusus, Aspergillus flavus, Microspoum canis, Fusarium solani,

Candida albicans and Candida glaberata on Primula macrophylla and they observed

excellent antifungal activity. Majid et al., 2014 reported antibacterial activities of Escherichia

coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus on Primula. Vulgaris from

Pakistan and they observed that the leaves and roots extracts of P. vulgaris contains a brought

range of antimicrobial activity against the microorganism. Bülbül et al., 2008 studies

antibacterial activities of Primula veris on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia oli,

Enterococcus faecalis, Proteus sp., Listeria sp. , Serratia marcescens and at 300C for

Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus cereus, B. sphaericus and Pseudomonas fluorescens. They

observed inhibitory effect against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative micro-organisms at

varying degrees.

No report was found from Pakistan on antibacterial activity of Primula denticulata.

Aslam et al., 2015 reported the antibacterial activities of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi on leaves of Primula denticulata

from India. The plant showed antibacterial activity on all bacteria. Shafi et al., 2016 reported

the antimicrobial activities of Gram negative bacterial strains; S. flexneri, P. aeruginosa, E.


302


coli, S. typhimurium; one Gram positive bacterial strain S. aureus and six fungal strains

including A. versicolor, A. flavus, Acremonium sp., C. albicans, C. kruesie and C.

parapsilosis on Primula denticulata. The plant was found effective against most of tested

strains, and showed no growth inhibitory effects against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and

Salmonella typhimurium.

3.7.5.4 Potentilla spp

There was no report available in the world about the bacterial activity of Potentilla

sericophylla in the published literature. Asnowies et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial

activities of Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis on Potentilla erecta. Extract did

inhibit the growth of Gram-negative bacteria. Vasić et al., 2006 observed the antimicrobial

activities of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans

Potentilla erecta and Potentilla alba (rhizome with roots) and they observed that they have

antimicrobial effect. Jurkštienė et al., 2011 reported the antibacterial activities of

Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus on Potentilla

fruticose. The highest resistance was observed in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumonia.

3.7.5.5 Phlomis spp

One report was found from Pakistan and one from India about the antibacterial

activity of Phlomis bracteosa. Three bacterial isolates are same one different we used also E.

facium. Hussain et al., 2010 reported antibacterial activities of Escherichia coli, Bacillus

subtilis, Shigella flexenari, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella

typhi on Phlomis bracteosa. The plants showed activity against bacteria. Joshi et al., 2011

reported the antibacterial activities of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

Escherichia coli and Proteus vulgaris on essential oil extracted from Phlomis bracteosa.

They observed significant activity against tested human pathogens. Aligiannis et al., 2013

worked on antimicrobial activities of Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Escherichia

coli, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida

albicans, C. tropicalis and C. glabrata on essential oil extracted from three species of

Phlomis

viz. P. fruticosa, P. cretica and P. samia. P. fruticosa has been tested against seven Gram-

positive and Gram-negative bacteria and seven fungi using a modified disc


303


diffusion method. From the given results, it was concluded that it possessed moderate

activities, while the oil P. lanata appeared a moderate activity against the four out of

the six tested bacteria and a stronger one against the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli

and P. aeruginosa. Formisano et al., 2005 reported the antibacterial activities of Gram

positive and Gram negative bacteria Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus

aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa and Salmonella paratyphi on essential oil of Phlomis ferruginea. The essential oil

put moderate activity, mostly against Gram-positive bacteria. Kyriakopoulou et al., 2001

reported antibacterial activities of two Gram positive bacteria Staphylococus aureus and S.

epidermidis and four Gram negative bacteria Enterobacter cloaceae, Escherichia coli,

Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Phlomis samia (Phenylethanoid

glycoside). They noted that the glycoside inhibited the growth of all the tested bacteria.

3.7.5.6 Parnassia spp and Lindelofia spp

This is the first ever antibacterial study on Parnassia nubicola and Lindelofia

longiflora as no report is available in the world about the bacterial activity of Parnassia

nubicola in the published literature. Only antimalarial, antioxidant activities have been

reported from India. Similarly, no report was found from the world on antibacterial activity

of Lindelofia longiflora in the published literature.

3.7.5.7 Leontopodium spp

No report was found about the bacterial activity of Leontopodium leontopdioides.

Dobner et al., 2002 reported the antibacterial activities of Staphylococcus aureus and

Streptococcus pyogenes on Leontopodium alpinum. The plant showed significant activities.

3.7.5.8 Delphinium spp

No report was found in the world on antibacterial activity of Delphinium roylei. This

is the first ever attempt on antibacterial activity.

3.7.5.9 Epilobium spp

No report was found from Pakistan on antimicrobial activity of Epilobium hirsutum.

Battinelli et al., 2001 reported antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus two strains,


304


Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus sanguis, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis,

Listeria monocytogenes, Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri and Salmonella enteritidis on 5 species of

Epilobium viz.; E. angustifolium, E. hirsutum, E. palustre, E. tetragonum and E.

rosmarinifolium. All the extracts showed antimicrobial activity. Staphylococcus aureus two

strains, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus sanguis, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus

faecalis, Listeria monocytogenes, Gram negative bacteria Escherichia coli, Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri and Salmonella enteritidis and all

the extracts showed antimicrobial activity. NICU et al., 2017 studied the antimicrobial

activities of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and

Staphylococcus epidermidis on Epilobium hirsutum. The plant showed better results against

the Gram positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis. Mukku et al., 2013 reported

antibacterial activities of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Shigella flexneri

and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Epilobium angustifolium, E. coloratum and E. glandulosum.

All the plant species showed moderate effect. Steenkamp et al., 2005 reported the

antibacterial effect of Escherichia coli on Epilobium parviflorum. The plant inhibited growth

of Escherichia coli.

3.7.5.10 Hippophae spp

Two reports were found from Pakistan on antibacterial activity of Hippophae

rhamnoides but our bacterial isolates are different. Chauhan et al., 2007 reported the

antibacterial activities of Listeria monocytogenes and Yersinia enterocolitica on Hippophae

rhamnoides seeds and the plant showed activity. Upadhyay et al., 2010 discussed the

antibacterial activities of Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus,

Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli Hippophae rhamnoides leaves and the plant

showed marked antibacterial activity against B. cereus, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus and E.

faecealis. Negi et al., 2004 reported the antibacterial activities of Bacillus cereus, Bacillus

coagulans, Bacillus subtilis, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica on Hippophae

rhamnoides seeds. MeOH extract was also found to possess maximum antibacterial activity.

Jeong et al., 2010 Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and

Staphylococcus aureus on Hippophae rhamnoides root and stem. They showed better

antimicrobial activity. Abidi et al., 2015 reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus

epidermidis on Hippophae rhamnoides dried berries. In combination with antibiotics, these


305


extracts exhibited appreciable synergistic activity. Arora et al., 2012 studied the antimicrobial

activity of 17 foodborne pathogens, which included six Gram positive and 11 Gram-negative

species on Hippophae rhamnoides leaves. The plant has antibacterial properties against these

foodborne pathogens. Gupta1 et al., 2011 reported the antibacterial activities of Bacillus

subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Escherichia coli, Agrobacterium

tumefaciens and Acinetobactor junii on Hippophae salicifolia crude leaf, seed and seed oil.

Seed extract showed significant and leaf extract showed intermediate activity against both

Gram positive bacteria.

Michel et al., 2012 reported the antibacterial activities of Escherichia coli,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus durans

on Hippophaë rhamnoides leaf, stem, root and seed. ŞANDRU 2015 reported the

antibacterial activities of Escherichia coli on Hippophae rhamnoides essential oils and the

plant exhibited moderate antimicrobial activity. Handique 2013 reported the antibacterial

activities of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia,

Enterobacter aerogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Hippophae salicifolia leaf and

bark. The plant showed activity. Qadir et al., 2016 reported the antibacterial activity of

Staphylococcus aureus on Hippophae rhamnoides berries and leaves. The plant showed

antibacterial activity. Yue et al., 2017 studied the antibacterial activity of Bacillus subtilis,

Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus coagulans on

Hippophae rhamnoides essential oils from the seed, pulp and leaf. The plant exhibited more

or less antibacterial activities. Pirvu et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial activity S. aureus

and E. coli on Hippophae rhamnoides leaves. Whole extracts showed only weak activity.

3.7.5.11 Bergenia ciliata spp

Some work was reported from Pakistan on antibacterial activity of Bergenia ciliata

ciliata but we used E. facium also. Sinha et al., 2000 reported antibacterial activity Bacillus

pumilis, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella dysenteriae on Bergenia ciliata ciliata. Rhizomes

exhibited a broad spectrum of activity. Phull et al., 2016 reported antibacterial activities of

two gram positive (Micro-coccus luteus ATCC 10240, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538)

and


306


two gram negative (Bordetella bronchiseptica ATCC 4617 on Bergenia ciliata ciliata

nanoparticles. The plant showed activities. Verma et al., 2016 reported the antibacterial

activity of Escherichia coli, Yersinia pestis and Staphylococcus aureus on Bergenia ciliata

ciliata leaf and rhizome. The plant inhibited Gram positive bacteria, S. aureus more

efficiently than Gram negative bacteria E. coli and Y. pestis. Pokhrel et al., 2014 reported the

antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Bergenia ciliata ciliata root and leaf from Nepal. The plant was

found active against both Gram Positive and Gram negative Bacteria tested.

Khan et al., 2015 reported antibacterial activity of two human Gram positive bacteria

Staphylococcus aureus and Micrococcus luteus and four Gram negative ones Escherichia

coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloacae, and Klebsiella Pneumonia on Bergenia

ciliata ciliata ethyl acetate fractions. The ethyl acetate fraction exhibited activity. Khan et al.,

2013 studied the antibacterial activity of five bacterial pathogens including Staphylococcus

aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli on

Bergenia ciliata. Ciliata. They concluded that the plant has potential activity. Shankar et al.,

2016 discussed the antibacterial activity of E. coli, P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis on Bergenia

ciliata ciliata. The plant showed activity. Pal et al., 2016 reported the antibacterial activity of

E.coli, Bacillus megaterium on Bergenia ciliata ciliata. The plant showed good antimicrobial

activity. Ahmed et al., 2016 discussed antibacterial activity of six bacterial strains, four gram

negative Bordetella bronchiseptica, Escherichia coli, Salmonella setubal, Salmonella

typhimurium and two gram positive, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus on Bergenia

ciliata ciliata and they observed significant activities.

One report from Pakistan exists on antibacterial activity of Bergenia ciliata stracheyii

but we used two different bacterial strains. Ali et al., 2014 studied antibacterial activity of six

bacteria viz., Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Shigella flexenari, Staphylococcus aureus,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi on Bergenia ciliata stracheyi. The plant

showedsignificant activity.

3.7.5.12 Androsace spp

No report was found from the world on the antibacterial activity of Androsace foliosa.

This is the first ever study on this aspect.

3.7.5.13 Acantholimon spp


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One report from Pakistan on antibacterial activity of Acantholimon lycopodioide. We

used one more bacterial starin E. facium and we used whole plant. Nabi et al., 2013 reported

the antibacterial of Bacillus subtilis., Escherichia coli., Pseudomonas aeruginosa.,

Salmonella typhi., Staphylococcus aureus on Acantholimon longiscapum leaves. Crude drug

showed maximum antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus.

3.7.5.14 Aconitum spp

No report was found in the wold about the antimicrobial activity of Aconitum

violocium. Sinam et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus,

Salmonella typhimurium, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,

Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescence and Xanthomonas compestris on Aconitum

nagarum root alkaloid. The root alkaloid showed antibacterial activity against S. aureus, B.

bronchiseptica, B. subtilis, P. putida and X. campestris, while this activity was negligible

against S. typhimurium, E. coli and P. fluorescence. Sinam et al., 2012 reported the

antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli

and Bacillus subtilis on Aconitum nagarum and they found the plant exhibited maximum

antibacterial activity. Soni et al., 2012 reported the antimicrobial activity of Proteus vulgaris,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Trichophyton rubrum, Streptococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,

Klebsiella pneumoniae and Shigella sonnei on Aconitum napellus and they observed that the

plant exhibited antibacterial effect. Sinam et al., 2013 reported the antibacterial activities of

Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Escherichia

coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescence and Xanthomonas

compestris on Aconitum nagarum and Aconitum elwesii.

The extent of antibacterial activity varied among different bacterial strains . Shi et al.,

2015 reported the antibacterial activity of E. coli and S. aureus on Aconitum alkaloids

collected from China and they observed significant activity. Ahmad et al., 2007 reported the

antibacterial activity of subtilis, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, and Salmonella typhi on Aconitum heterophyllum alkaloids and they observed

significant activity. Hazrat et al., 2012 reported the antimicrobial activity of Escherchia coli

ATCC 25922, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Shigella flexeneri (clinical isolate),

Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and


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Salmonella typhi ATCC 1430 on Aconitum heterophyllum collected from Northern Pakistan

and he observed significant activity.

3.7.5.15 Caltha spp

No work was reported on antibacterial activity of Caltha alba in the world. Mubashir

et al., 2014 reported the antimicrobial activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus

bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus on Caltha

palustris var. alba.

3.7.5.16 Iris spp

Antibacterial activity have been study in different species of Iris from Pakistan but no

work on antimicrobial aspect was reported before on Iris hookeriana. Ajaib et al., 2013 reported antibacterial activity of Streptococcus faecalis , Staphylococcus aureus and two

Gram negative i.e. Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Iris aitchisonii. The

pant showed activity. Kovalev et al., 2017 reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis,

Proteus vulgaris, Candida albicans on leaves and rhizomes of Iris hungarica and Iris

sibirica from Ukraine. The plant species exhibited a pronounced antimicrobial activity. Uzair

et al., 2016 worked on Staphylococcus aureus, B. subtilis, Bacillus atrophaeus,

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Erwinia carotovara, Klebsiella pneumoniae

and Salmonella typhi on Iris germinica. The plant showed activity. Wani et al., 2012 reported

the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella typhi on rhizome of Iris croceae, Iris ensata, Iris

germanica, Iris hookeriana and Iris kashmiriana from India. All the species showed broad-

spectrum antibacterial activity. Orhan et al., 2003 reported the antibacterial activity of

Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Corynebacterium diptheriae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus

aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes on Iris germanica from Turkey. Rhizomes exhibited

bactericidal activity.

3.7.5.17 Artemisia spp

No report was found about the antibacterial activity of Artemisia brevifolia in the

world. Appalasamy et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus,


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Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus subtilis and two Gram negative USM bacteria strains,

Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp on bioactive compounds of Artemisia annua. The plant

was effective in inhibiting the growth of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.

Mohamed et al., 2009 reported the antibacterial activities of Gram positive bacteria

(Streptococcus hemolyticus and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram negative bacteria

(Escherichia coli, Shigella sonnei and Salmonella typhosa,) on Artemisia herba-alba from

Egypt. The essential oil was found active against some Gram-positive bacteria (Streptococcus

hemolyticus and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Shigella sonnei and

Salmonella typhosa,), Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli showed no significant activity.

Sharma et al., 2014 discussed the antibacterial activity of Gram-positive bacteria:

Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Gram-negative bacteria:

Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas fluorescence and Acinetobacter

calcoaceticus on essential oil of Artemisia maritima from India. A. maritima essential oil has

capacity to inhibit the growth of both Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains.

Shuneigat et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin

sensitive Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes,

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on

essential oil of Artemisia herba-alba from Jorden. The volatile fractions exhibited potent

activity against all resistant strains except Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Kahlouche et al., 2015

reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus

vulgaris and Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Artemisia herba alba. The plant showed little or no

effect.

3.7.5.18 Origanum spp

Two reports from Pakistan exist on antibacterial activity of Origanum vulgare but we

used one different strain E. facium. Jnaid, et al., 2016 reported the antimicrobial activity of

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and

Candida albicans on essential extracted from Origanum vulgare from Syria. They

demonstrated the highest resistance. Santoyo et al., 2006 reported the antibacterial activity of

two Gram positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) two Gram negative

bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) on leaves of Origanum vulgare

from Spain. The plant showed antimicrobial activity against all of the microorganisms tested.


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Kursat et al., 2011 reported antibacterial activity of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,

Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus megaterium on Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile and

Origanum acutidens seeds. The seeds inhibited the bacterial growth. Batool, 2016 reported

antibacterial activity of Ampicillin, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis E. coli serovar, P. aeruginosa, P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas

fluorescens, S. aureus, S. aureus, Listeria innocua, Listeria monocytogenes serovar and

Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus subtilis on Origanum vulgare. The plant inhibited the

bacterial growth. Bouhdid et al., 2008 reported the antibacterial activities of Escherichia coli,

Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, E. coli, E. serovar, P.

aeruginosa, P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, S. aureus, S. aureus, Listeria innocua,

Listeria monocytogenes, L. serovar, Enterococcus faecium and Bacillus subtilis on essential

oil of Origanum compactum. They observed that the essential oil was remarkably active

against all tested strains except Pseudomonas, which showed resistance. Miraj et al., 2016

reported the antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus saprophyticus, S. aureus, Micrococcus

roseus, M. kristinae, M. nishinomiyaensis, M. lylae, M. luteus, M. sedentarius, M. varians,

Bacillus megaterium, B. thuringiensis, B. alvei, B. circulans, B. brevis, B. coagulans, B.

pumilus, B. laterosporus, B. polymyxa, B. macerans, B. subtilis, B. firmus, B. cereus and B.

lichiniformis on Origanum vulgare from Iran. The plant showed the activity. Lakhrissi et al.,

2015 reported antibacterial activity of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter

cloacae, Acinetobacter sp, staphylococcus aureus on essential oil of Origanum vulgare from

Morrocco. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil was found very significant against all

strains studied.

Ivanova et al., 2016 studied antibacterial activity of Escherichia coli, Staphylococus

aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella Typhymurium, Listeria monocytogen and Enterobacter

aerogenes on essential oil extracted from Origanum vulgare subsp. Vulgare. The plant

showed activity. Marques et al., 2015 reported the antibacterial activity of S. aureus and

Staphylococcus spp on essential oils of Origanum vulgare and Origanum majorana from

Brazil. The plants showed antibacterial activity. Moradi et al., 2014 reported the antibacterial

activity of (Salmonella thyphimurium and Escherichia coli and two Gram positive bacteria

(Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes leaves and flowers of O. vulgare ssp.

gracile from Iran. They quoted that flowers essential oil has more effect than those of leaves.

Sankar et al., 2013 studied antibacterial activity of E. coli on Origanum vulgare (silver


311


nanoparticles) from India. Biosynthesized nanoparticles were found impressive in inhibiting

human pathogens. Sivropoulou et al., 1993 reported antibacterial activity against eight strains

of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria viz. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,

Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Rhizobium leguminosarum and Bacillus

subtilis on essential oils of Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum, Origanum dictamnus, Origanum

from Greece. They caused considerable decrease in bacterial growth rates. Ashraf et al., 2011

reported antibacterial assays on Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella

paratyphi A and Proteus mirabilis on Origanum vulgare. Chloroform and methanol extracts

showed promising result by exhibiting maximum antibacterial activity. Saghi et al., 2015

reported antibacterial activities of Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Escherichia coli

and multi drug resistant (MDR) strains of A. baumannii from selected hospitals in Tehran,

Iran on essential oil of Origanum vulgare. They observed potent antimicrobial activity

against MDR A. baumannii.

Oliveira et al., 2009 reported antibacterial activities of Staphylococcus aureus, S.

coagulase negative, Enterobacter spp., Proteus spp., Acinetobacter spp., Klebsiella spp.

isolated from the patients with conjunctivitis on essential of Origanum vulgare from Brazil.

The oil showed a prominent inhibitory effect on all the bacterial strains. Coccimiglio et al.,

2016 reported antibacterial activity of P. aeruginosa (Clinical isolates), Bordetella

bronchiseptica, Escherichia coli, Bur-kholderia cenocepacia (Clinical isolates),

Acinetobacter lwoffii, Acinetobacter baumannii, Moraxella catarrhalis, Bacillus subtilis, and

S. aureus (clinical isolates) on Origanum vulgare from Canada. Exhibited antimicrobial

properties against Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains including clinical

isolates. Sesterhenn et al., 2015 reported antibacterial activity of E. coli Origanum vulgare

(essential oils) from Brazil. The oil exhibited antimicrobial properties E. coli strains.

Rajendran et al., 2015 studied antimicrobiall activity of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae and

Candida albicans on Silver nanoparticles Origanum heracleoticum from India. These

synthesized

AgNPs exhibited effective antibacterial effect against pathogens. Brđanin et al., 2015reported

the antimicrobial assays of Gram positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis,

Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus feacalis and Gram negative bacteria


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Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella abony and

one strain of the yeast Candida albicans on aerial parts of Origanum vulgare from Serbia.

The extracts of O. vulgare were more active against bacteria, especially against Gram

positive bacteria. Priti et al., 2014 reported antibacterial activity of four Gram positive

cultures namely S. aureus, S. pyogenes, Sarcina, C. diptheriae, and six Gram negative

cultures namely E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, S. typhi, S. flexneri and P. aeruginosa

on Origanum vulgare oil, The oil exhibited activity.

Akrayi et al., 2015 reported antibacterial activity of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, K.

pneumoniae and P. mirabilis from Iraq on Origanum vulgare. Results confirm the resistance

of the bacterial isolates against more than three antibiotics. Almeida et al., 2002 reported

antibacterial activity of 8 bacterial; Escherichia coli, resistant and sensitive Staphylococcus

aureus, two Enterobacter species, carbepenemase positive and negative Klebsiella

pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa on Origanum vulgare from Brazil. The plant

exhibited antimicrobial activity against all microorganisms. Bendifallah et al., 2015 reported

antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas

aerogenosa, Escherichia coli on Origanum vulgare from Algeria. These results indicated

some benefits of Origanum vulgare leaves which can be used to treatment the microbial

infection. Ali et al., 2015 reported antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus on

Origanum vulgare from Saudi Arabia. Extract exhibited antibacterial activity against multi

drug resistance (MRSA).

3.7.5.19 Arnebia spp

No report was found on antibacterial assays of Arnebia euchroma from Pakistan.

Pirbalouti, 2011 reported the antimicrobial activity of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, Yersinia

enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes on Arnebia euchroma from Iran. The

plant showed relatively high antimicrobial activity. Attari et al., 2009 reported the

antibacterial activity of Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa on

Arnebia euchroma from Iran. The plant showed considerable antibacterial activity. Shen et

al., 2002 reported antibacterial activity of Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA 8-8S), vancomycin

resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE F935), and vancomycin resistant Enterococcus


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faecalis (VRE CKU-17) on alkannin, shikonin and their derivatives isolated from Arnebia

euchroma. None of these compounds was found active against Gram negative bacteria tested.

3.7.5.20 Sophora spp

One report was found on antibacterial activity of Sophora mollis but we used three

different bacterial strain. Manzoor et al., 2013 reported antibacterial of Escherichia coli on

leaves and stem of Sophora mollis. Finding confirmed the antimicrobial activity against

Escherichia coli.

Present research confirmed the ethnobotanical uses of the selected medicinal plants.

Results of bio assays suggest that selected plants are beneficial for the treatment of infectious

diseases. To the best of our knowledge Stachys emodi, Artemisia brevifolia, Aconitum

violecium, Iris hookeriana, Androsace foliosa, Leontopodium leontopdioides, Lindelofia

longiflora, Delphinium roylei, Parnassia nubicola, and Potentilla sericophylla have not been

early investigated against bacterial activity in Pakistan as well as in other world. No data is

available about the bacterial activity of Sambucus wightiana, Primula macrophyll, Phlomis

bracteosa, Sophora mollis and Arnebia euchroma from Pakistan. Earlier, few reports have

been reported about the antibacterial activites of Origanum vulgare, Acantholimon

lycopodioide, Bergenia stracheyii, Bergenia ciliate, Hippophae rhamnoides, Epilobium

hirsutum, Phlomis bracteosa, Primula macrophylla but in present study these plants are

tested against different bacterial strains and we find out significant results. This study suggest

these selected medicinal plants are good candidates for the isolation of antibacterial

compounds.


314


Plate 59: Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-bacterial activity from Hazara Davison,

Northern Pakistan


315


Plate 59: Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-bacterial activity from Hazara Davison,

Northern Pakistan


316

SECTION 8 “Anti-cancerous activity of selected medicinal plants from

Northern Pakistan”


3.8 Anti-cancerous activity of selected medicinal plants from sub-alpine and Alpine

regions of Northern Pakistan used against four cancer cell lines (HEK293, MCF-7,

NIH3T3 and MDCK)

The anti-cancerous activity of selected studied medicinal plants was identified

through assessing the impact of various plant extracts and their doses/concentrations on the

four cancer cell lines i.e. HEK- 293, MCF-7, NIH3T3 and MDCK. The response for each

plant extract was assessed at various doses/concentrations, while the overall

dose/concentration response was used to estimate IC50 values for each extract against each

cancer cell line.

3.8.1 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts against cancer cell (HEK- 293 )

inhibition

Analyses of the data revealed significant (p-value <0.0001) impact of various plant

extracts on inhibition of the cancer cell line HEK- 293 along with a significant plant extract x

dose/ concentration interaction (Table 33). These statistical analyses thus suggest that

different plant extracts have different inhibition activity on the cancer cell line HEK- 293.

Similarly, different concentrations had also variable impact on the inhibition activity of the

cell line HEK- 293, while the concentration effect had a significant interaction with plant

extracts.

Table 33: Analyses of variance table for HEK- 293 cancer cell line as affected by

various plant extracts and their concentrations Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 14.12119 2.017313 325.5004 0.00 ***

Plant extract 37 69.86284 1.888185 304.6651 0.00 ***

Concentration x Plant extract 259 13.07138 0.050469 8.143291 0.00 ***

Residuals 656 4.065609 0.006198

Total 959 101.121 3.962164

The overall maximum mean value was recorded as 0.527395 whereas the maximum

mean inhibition activity was recorded for dose/concentration 5 µg/ml which was 0.63008 and

the minimum was recorded as 0.284192 for 200µg/ml concentration dose (Figure 40). The

overall mean based on the mean values overall plant extracts, thus suggested a direct increase

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub Alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,Northern Pakistan

317


in inhibition activity from Dose-1 till Dose-10µg/ml, with a subsequent decrease for further

increase in concentration. An overall similar impact of concentration was observed across

individual plant extracts response on the cancer cell line HEK- 293, which was used in fitting

model to estimate IC50 (Figure 41a,b,c,d,e,f,g).

Figure 40: Overall mean value of inhibition activity as influenced by different

concentrations of plant extracts.

Detailed data on cell inhibition of HEK- 293 cancer cell line as affected by various

plant extracts and their concentrations as shown in Table 34. The maximum value was

recorded for plant extract Androsace foliosa (301-B) belonging to family Primulaceae which

was 1.396 at dose with concentration of 10 10 µg/ml followed by 1.332 Phlomis bracteosa

(302-B) which belongs to family Lamiaceae and 1.289 Phlomis bracteosa (302- A) which

also belongs to family Lamiaceae at dose concentration of 1 µg/ml and 20 µg/ml whereas the

minimum value was recorded for plant extract Primula macrophylla (318) of family

Primulaceae which was recorded 0.112 at dose with concentration of 200 µg/ml followed by

0.115 Iris hookeriana (316- A) belonging to family Iridaceae and 0.120 Androsace foliosa

(301-A) which belongs to family Primulaceae at dose concentration of 200 µg/ml for both of

the plant extracts (Table 35). Thus, the family Primulaceae plant extracts showed maximum

cell inhibition of HEK- 293 cancer cell line whereas some other plant extracts belonging to Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub Alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,Northern Pakistan

318


family Primulaceae and Iridaceae showed minimum cell inhibition of HEK- 293 cancer cell

line.

The overall response of individual plant extract across various doses was plotted to fit

model for estimation of IC50 with R package DRMC, individually for each plant extract

(Table 35). The maximum value for IC50 was recorded for plant extract Phlomis bracteosa

(302- C) which belongs to family Lamiaceae was 223969.5 followed by plant extract

Epilobium hirsutem (310) which belong to family Onagraceae and Lentopodium

entopodioides (325) belonging to family Asteraceae having value of 126259.4 and 1705.558

whereas the minimum value was recorded for extract Primula denticulata (317) belongs to

family Primulaceae and Iris hookeriana (316- B) belonging to family Iridaceae having value

of 0.004192. The very high IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it could arise from

lack of good fit of the model.

Figure 41a: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data

using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.


319

Figure 41b: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24

plant species

Figure 41c: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant

species

Figure 41d: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24

plant species

Figure 41e: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant

species

Figure 41f: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24

plant species

Figure 41g: Dose Response Curve for HEK- 293 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24

plant Species

Table 34: Cell inhibition of HEK293 cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Plant Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Plant Extract

Family Plant Part Code 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia

Asteraceae Lentopodium

entopodioides

Asteraceae Leontpodium

himlayanum

Boraginaceae Arnebia euchroma

Boraginaceae Lindelofia longiflora



Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana



Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare

Lamiaceae Phlomis bracteosa



Lamiaceae Stachys emodi

Onagraceae Epilobiumhirsutum

Papilionaceae Sophora mollis

Plumbaginacea Acantholimon

e lycopodioides

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa

Primulaceae Primula denticulata

Primulaceae Primula macrophylla

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium

WP AP

AP R R L WP WP F R WP L WP L S F WP WP S WP

MK MI WP RL R

307 0.910 0.983 0.859 0.964 0.794 0.681 0.491 0.354 0.755

325 0.517 0.848 0.687 0.689 0.458 0.622 0.641 0.427 0.611

313 0.523 0.602 0.729 0.716 0.753 0.746 0.697 0.483 0.656

305 0.815 0.807 0.693 0.595 0.123 0.129 0.126 0.142 0.429

321A 0.316 0.349 0.260 0.283 0.215 0.170 0.177 0.137 0.238

321B 0.317 0.327 0.472 0.334 0.238 0.233 0.176 0.157 0.282

321C 0.301 0.344 0.426 0.435 0.413 0.369 0.240 0.139 0.333

311 0.687 0.685 0.726 0.668 0.846 0.606 0.572 0.335 0.641

303 0.925 0.853 1.058 0.999 0.977 0.744 0.554 0.470 0.823

316A 0.280 0.256 0.249 0.213 0.178 0.176 0.142 0.115 0.201

316B 0.295 0.247 0.248 0.296 0.201 0.206 0.201 0.139 0.229

316C 0.333 0.273 0.309 0.264 0.177 0.211 0.209 0.145 0.240

320 0.330 0.378 0.257 0.290 0.226 0.202 0.114 0.130 0.241

302A 1.157 1.173 1.184 1.245 1.289 1.327 1.184 0.913 1.184

302B 1.332 1.046 1.057 1.233 1.299 1.243 0.480 0.116 0.976

302C 0.956 0.795 1.050 0.953 0.827 0.693 0.541 0.304 0.765

312 0.590 0.661 0.740 0.721 0.776 0.681 0.671 0.545 0.673

310 1.051 0.953 0.991 0.818 0.722 0.649 0.473 0.128 0.723

308 0.794 0.814 0.848 0.847 0.736 0.564 0.427 0.389 0.677

319 0.429 0.407 0.218 0.227 0.210 0.186 0.125 0.131 0.242

301A 0.844 1.032 1.169 1.201 1.091 0.834 0.312 0.120 0.825

301B 1.151 1.321 1.112 1.396 1.335 1.333 0.930 0.875 1.182

317 0.295 0.196 0.213 0.184 0.148 0.150 0.116 0.116 0.177

318 0.268 0.308 0.235 0.229 0.175 0.169 0.118 0.112 0.202

306 0.849 0.975 0.955 1.003 0.834 0.660 0.194 0.137 0.701




Ranunculaceae Delphinium roylei WP 314 0.263 0.264 0.299 0.285 0.214 0.135 0.139 0.177 0.222

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI 315C 0.242 0.279 0.342 0.337 0.302 0.266 0.172 0.130 0.259






Saxifragaceae Bergenia ciliata WP 324 0.453 0.578 0.397 0.457 0.321 0.353 0.160 0.150 0.359

323 0.345 0.386 0.418 0.416 0.359 0.351 0.182 0.136 0.324

Negative

Cont 0.596 0.829 0.748 0.731 0.703 0.700 0.641 0.491 0.680

0.60002 0.62913 0.63000 0.62742 0.56140 0.50318 0.38378 0.52739

Mean 5 3 8 5 8 3 3 0.284192 5

Table 35: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of HEK- 293 cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Part Plant Extract IC50 Std. Error Lower Upper

Code


Lentopodium entopodioides AP 325 1705.558 61314.92 -126628 130039.2

Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 1.934572 1.375457 -0.94429 4.813437


Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 169.2715 876.352 -1664.95 2003.497

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 23.00628 35.79196 -51.9071 97.91971

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 93.81188 5.12598 83.08308 104.5407

Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola WP 311 212.8454 667.7229 -1184.71 1610.405

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F 303 58.98984 27.63571 1.147637 116.8321

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 56.27128 748.1407 -1509.61 1622.148

Iris hookeriana WP 316B 1.22E+08 1.71E+10 -3.60E+10 3.60E+10

Iris hookeriana L 316C 10.63233 3.484071 3.340091 17.92458

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare WP 320 19.51268 24.69818 -32.1812 71.20656

Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 342.3648692 NA NA NA

Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 95.00766573 27.54276 37.36 152.65533

Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 223969.5 6321469 -1.30E+07 13454957

Stachys emodi WP 312 362.1171 NA NA NA

Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP 310 126259.4 2265320 -4615110 4867629



Androsace foliosa MI 301B 89.16659897 24.68407 37.502237 140.83096

Primula denticulata WP 317 0.004192 0.058832 -0.11895 0.127329

Primula macrophylla RL 318 142.3706 657.8186 -1234.46 1519.201


Caltha alba L 309A 6.431199 26.16428 53.08559 63.33216

Caltha alba R 309B 20.50735 8.140411 93.98515 75.74905

Caltha alba S 309C 916.3156 -1658.87 2176.87 235.9143

Delphinium roylei WP 314 20.01268 1.311536 17.2676 22.75776

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI 315C 75.851 58.47002 -46.5282 198.2302

Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 49.74292 4.604272 40.10607 59.37978

Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 104.5033 30.613 40.42955 168.577


Sambucus wightiana F 304B 11.88291 5.056682 1.299151 22.46667


Bergenia ciliata WP 324 217.3563 NA NA NA

323 76.33512 14.31878 46.36556 106.3047

Negative cont 302.7848 8183.584 -16031.7 16637.29


3.8.2 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts on cancer cell line (MCF-7) inhibition

A highly significant (p-value <0.0001) impact of various plant extracts on growth of

the cancer cell line MCF-7 was observed with significant interaction effect (Table 36).

Considering statistical analyses results, different plant extracts have different inhibition

activity on the cancer cell line MCF-7. Similarly, different concentrations had also variable

impact on the inhibition activity of the cell line MCF-7, while the concentration effect had a

significant interaction with plant extracts.

Table 36: Analyses of variance table for MCF-7 cancer cell line as affected by various

plant extracts and their concentrations Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 20.07567 2.867952 180.5658 0.0000 ***

Plant extract 37 100.1661 2.707191 170.4443 0.0000 ***

Concentration: Plant extract 259 26.39292 0.101903 6.415807 0.0000 ***

Residuals 656 10.41934 0.015883

Total 959 157.054 5.69293

Perusal of different doses effect suggested a steady increase in inhibition activity till

dose-5 with subsequent decrease for further increase in doses/concentrations, when the

overall mean over all plant extract response was considered (Figure 42). Though there were

certain differences, the individual plant extracts doses response varied in a similar pattern

(Figure 43a,b,c,d,e,f,g), which was plotted with DMRC package of R to estimate IC50.

Detailed data on cell inhibition of MCF-7 cancer cell line as affected by various plant


plant extract Aconitum violocium (306) belonging to family Ranunculaceae which was 1.389

at dose with concentration of 2µg/ml followed by 1.375 Sambucus wightiana (304B) which

belongs to family Sambucaceae and 1.338 Sophora mollis (308) which also belongs to family

Papilionaceae at dose concentration of 5 µg/ml for both of the plant extracts whereas the

minimum value was recorded for plant extract code Iris hookeriana (316A) of family

Iridaceae which was recorded 0.121 at dose with concentration of 200 µg/ml followed by

0.122 Arnebia euchroma (305) belonging to family Boraginaceae and 0.129 Phlomis

bracteosa (302b) which belongs to family Lamiaceae at dose concentration of 200 µg/ml for

both of the plant extracts (Table 38).


330


Thus, the family Ranunculaceae plant extracts showed maximum cell inhibition of

MCF- 7 cancer cell line where as some other plant extracts belonging to family Iridaceae and

Boraginaceae showed minimum cell inhibition of MCF-7cancer cell line.

The maximum value for IC50 was recorded for plant extract Potentilla nepalensis

(315C) which belongs to family Rosacea was 3390546825.00 followed by plant extract

Bergenia ciliate (324) which belong to family Saxifragaceae and Phlomis bracteosa (302C)

belonging to family Lamiaceae having value of 6019469.37 and 262902.51 whereas the

minimum value was recorded 1.57 for extract Bergenia stracheyi (323) belongs to family

Saxifragaceae followed by extract Lindelofia longiflora (321C) belonging to family

Boraginaceae having value of 5.52. The very high IC50 values need to be carefully

interpreted as it could arise from lack of good fit of the model.

Figure 42: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line MCF-7 as influenced by

different concentrations of plant extracts.


331

Figure 43a: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 43b: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 43c Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 43d: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 43e: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 43f: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.


Figure 43g: Dose Response Curve for MCF-7 Cancer cell line fitted on observed data

using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species


338

Table 37: Cell inhibition of MCF-7 cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Plant Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Part Extract

1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200

Code


Lentopodium AP 325 0.564 0.432 0.418 0.512 0.413 0.466 0.407 0.324 0.442

entopodioides

Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 1.086 1.113 1.156 1.311 1.210 1.360 1.209 0.906 1.169


Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 0.764 0.792 0.766 0.725 0.712 0.718 0.695 0.489 0.708

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 0.344 0.292 0.257 0.264 0.318 0.326 0.325 0.325 0.306

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 0.321 0.324 0.344 0.475 0.471 0.495 0.464 0.360 0.407




Iris hookeriana WP 316B 0.254 0.240 0.282 0.202 0.239 0.249 0.213 0.169 0.231

Iris hookeriana L 316C 0.245 0.273 0.305 0.224 0.235 0.257 0.239 0.178 0.244


Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 0.967 1.078 1.030 0.361 0.451 0.529 0.575 0.561 0.694

Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 0.857 1.009 0.842 0.308 0.351 0.274 0.131 0.129 0.488

Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 1.113 1.052 1.130 0.952 1.064 0.862 0.862 0.627 0.958

Stachys emodi WP 312 1.186 1.148 1.279 1.353 1.246 1.109 0.780 0.555 1.082



Plumbaginacea Acantholimon WP 319 0.580 0.567 0.627 0.628 0.618 0.523 0.247 0.299 0.511

e lycopodioides


Androsace foliosa MI 301B 1.076 1.303 1.280 0.453 0.474 0.553 0.500 0.281 0.740

Primula denticulata WP 317 0.280 0.280 0.309 0.205 0.195 0.149 0.142 0.148 0.214

Primula macrophylla RL 318 0.599 0.586 0.481 0.413 0.356 0.329 0.288 0.150 0.400


Caltha alba L 309A 1.067 1.189 1.235 1.222 1.059 0.706 0.340 0.145 0.870

Caltha alba R 309B 1.231 1.322 1.361 1.299 1.092 0.921 0.470 0.181 0.985

Caltha alba S 309C 1.154 1.186 1.309 1.349 1.267 1.331 1.203 0.595 1.174

Delphinium roylei WP 314 0.659 0.580 0.607 0.695 0.592 0.257 0.148 0.192 0.466


Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 0.697 0.594 0.631 0.690 0.662 0.675 0.299 0.192 0.555

Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 0.629 0.533 0.593 0.654 0.600 0.662 0.564 0.401 0.579


Sambucus wightiana F 304B 1.305 1.347 1.375 1.352 1.177 1.118 1.065 0.901 1.205


Bergenia ciliata WP 324 0.581 0.487 0.370 0.364 0.396 0.429 0.310 0.139 0.385

323 0.471 0.426 0.392 0.347 0.360 0.415 0.430 0.272 0.389

Negativ 0.728 0.811 0.637 0.677 0.682 0.697 0.717 0.741 0.711

e cont

Mean 0.827008 0.839375 0.835983 0.766817 0.722342 0.6923 0.566117 0.399 0.706118

Table 38: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of MCF-7 cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations.

Family Plant Plant Part Extract IC50 Std. Error Lower Upper

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP 307 95.03 12.56121 68.74155 121.3234

Lentopodium entopodioides AP 325 25419.93 1191886 -2469226 2520066



Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 962.55 5243.241 -10011.7 11936.78

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 16.59 7.608405 0.661959 32.51111

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 5.52 NA NA NA




Iris hookeriana WP 316B 103.80 21.38877 59.03615 148.5706

Iris hookeriana L 316C 14109.17 1106007 -2300790 2329008


Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 7.88 12.16494 -17.5793 33.3437


Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 262902.51 13917143 -2.9E+07 29391818

Stachys emodi WP 312 95.10 91.9935 -97.4436 287.6456





Androsace foliosa MI 301B 8.38 6.358671 -4.92696 21.69074

Primula denticulata WP 317 10.35 1.565779 7.077727 13.63216

Primula macrophylla RL 318 653.59 8556.557 -17255.5 18562.67

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium R 306 150.03 NA NA NA

Caltha alba L 309A 63.33 23.71378 13.69865 112.9657

Caltha alba R 309B 75.75 26.54746 20.18457 131.3135

Caltha alba S 309C 235.91 NA NA NA


Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI 315C 3390546825.00 NA NA NA

Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 93.43 NA NA NA

Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 110.82 70.90069 -37.5769 259.2168


Sambucus wightiana F 304B 86594.79 1551540 -3160817 3334006


Bergenia ciliata WP 324 6019469.37 1.98E+08 -4.1E+08 4.2E+08

323 1.57 4.252807 -7.32843 10.47403


3.8.3 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts on cancer cell line (NIH 3T3) inhibition

The growth of the cancer cell line NIH 3T3 was significant (p-value <0.0001)

affected by various plant extracts, various doses and their interaction (Table 39). This effect

is based on statistical analyses that plant extracts have different inhibition activity on the

cancer cell line NIH 3T3. These plant extracts behaved differentially at various

concentrations, while the concentration effect had a significant interaction with plant extracts

on the growth of NIH 3T3.

Table 39: Analyses of variance table for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line as affected by various

plant extracts and their concentrations.


Concentration 7 55.69479 7.956399 407.7412 0.00 ***

Plant extract 37 26.61382 0.719292 36.86154 0.00 ***

Concentration: Plant extract 259 30.65924 0.118375 6.06638 0.00 ***

Residuals 656 12.80076 0.019513

Total 959 125.7686 8.813581

The pattern of dose effect when considered the overall mean across all plant extracts

suggested a steady increase in inhibition activity till dose-10, with subsequent reduction in

inhibition activity (Figure 44). A similar pattern was observed for individual plant extracts

doses response with some variations (Figure 45a,b,c,d,e,f,g). These individual dose responses

were plotted under model fitting to estimate IC50 with DMRC package of R.


343


Figure 44: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line NIH 3T3as influenced

by different concentrations of plant extracts.

Detailed data on cell inhibition of NIH 3T3cancer cell line as affected by various plant


plant extract (313) belonging to family Asteraceae which was 1.451 at dose with

concentration of 20 µg/ml followed by 1.351 Bergenia stracheyi (322) which belongs to

family Saxifragaceae and 1.348 Sambucus wightiana (304) which belongs to family

Sambucaceae at dose concentration 2 µg/ml and 10 µg/ml respectively of the plant extracts

whereas the minimum value was recorded for plant extract code Primula denticulata (317) of

family Primulaceae which was recorded 0.108 at dose with concentration of 200 µg/ml

followed by 0.121 Potentilla nepalensis (315C) belonging to family Rosaceae and 0.122

Caltha alba (309C) which belongs to family Ranunculaceae at dose concentration of 200

µg/ml for both of the plant extracts. Thus, the family Asteraceae plant extracts showed

maximum cell inhibition of NIH 3T3cancer cell line where as some other plant extracts

belonging to family Primulaceae and Rosaceae showed minimum cell inhibition of NIH 3T3

cancer cell line.

The maximum value for IC50 was recorded for plant extract Sambucus wightiana


344


(304A) which belongs to family Sambucaceae was 33451.37 followed by plant extract

Sophora mollis (308) which belong to family Papilionaceae and Hippophae rhamnoides (303) belonging to family Elaeagnaceae having value of 624.1221and 340.1465 respectively

whereas the minimum value was recorded 2.478201 for extract Arnebia euchroma (305)

belongs to family Boraginaceae followed by extract Androsace foliosa (301A) belonging to

family Primulaceae having value of 19.00688 (Table 41). The very high IC50 values need to

be carefully interpreted as it could arise from lack of good fit of the model.

Figure 45a: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using

DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub Alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,Northern Pakistan

345

Figure 45b: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant

species.

Figure 45c: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 45d: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant

species.

Figure 45e: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant specie

Figure 45f: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 45g: Dose Response Curve for NIH 3T3 cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species

Table 40: Cell inhibition of NIH 3T3 cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations

Family Plant Plant Part Plant Dose/Concentration (µg/ml) Mean

Extract

1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200

Code


Lentopodium AP 325 0.754 0.859 0.977 0.910 0.972 0.925 0.807 0.441 0.831

entopodioides

Leontpodium AP 313 0.994 1.119 1.081 1.246 1.451 0.963 0.493 0.248 0.949

himlayanum


Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 0.789 0.959 0.960 1.000 1.069 1.036 0.856 0.349 0.877

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 0.834 1.002 0.946 0.914 0.983 1.006 1.023 0.440 0.893

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 0.953 1.062 1.040 1.210 1.242 1.175 0.843 0.308 0.979




Iris hookeriana WP 316B 0.504 0.776 1.022 1.009 0.827 0.577 0.350 0.206 0.659

Iris hookeriana L 316C 0.633 1.000 0.954 0.999 0.911 0.811 0.473 0.124 0.738


Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 0.938 0.814 0.836 0.918 0.753 0.569 0.267 0.154 0.656

Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 1.034 0.990 0.861 0.820 0.743 0.225 0.133 0.149 0.619

Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 1.042 1.011 1.153 1.118 1.076 0.882 0.391 0.522 0.899

Stachys emodi WP 312 0.954 1.092 1.227 1.188 1.128 0.904 0.241 0.175 0.864



Plumbaginacea Acantholimon WP 319 0.887 0.923 1.163 1.316 1.340 1.361 1.154 0.136 1.035

e lycopodioides


Androsace foliosa MI 301B 0.688 0.663 0.660 0.619 0.703 0.573 0.217 0.292 0.552

Primula denticulata WP 317 0.565 1.022 0.946 1.036 1.038 0.137 0.135 0.108 0.623

Primula macrophylla RL 318 0.796 0.835 1.019 1.046 1.087 0.916 0.112 0.290 0.763


Caltha alba L 309A 1.069 1.113 1.036 1.014 0.855 0.627 0.214 0.369 0.787

Caltha alba R 309B 1.000 1.023 1.134 1.154 1.050 0.757 0.478 0.284 0.860

Caltha alba S 309C 1.095 1.051 1.046 1.064 1.086 0.691 0.187 0.122 0.793

Delphinium roylei WP 314 0.762 0.984 1.098 1.110 0.538 0.129 0.119 0.202 0.618


Potentilla nepalensis MK 315B 0.748 0.940 1.028 0.799 1.108 0.622 0.142 0.130 0.690

Potentilla sericophylla WP 315A 0.876 0.857 1.102 1.126 1.236 0.944 0.260 0.426 0.853


Sambucus wightiana F 304B 1.179 1.348 1.316 1.313 1.316 0.975 1.004 0.905 1.169


Bergenia ciliata WP 324 0.763 0.912 0.866 0.748 0.748 0.159 0.185 0.377 0.595

323 0.924 0.963 0.947 0.955 1.137 1.059 0.651 0.202 0.855

Negative 0.982 1.007 1.071 1.000 1.013 1.061 1.011 0.899 1.005

cont

Mean 0.885042 0.966425 1.010325 1.01045 0.982358 0.779875 0.4774 0.349 0.807609

Table 41: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of NIH 3T3cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations.


Code

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP 307 83.33632 6.58493 69.5539 97.11874

Lentopodium entopodioides AP 325 115.9911 91.87047 -76.296 308.2782



Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 336.038 NA NA NA

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 233.4769 512.8018 -839.83 1306.783

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 107.0081 15.25355 75.08208 138.9342



Iridaceae Iris hookeriana R 316A 53.70957 9.276625 34.29337 73.12577

Iris hookeriana WP 316B 79.57972 203.9911 -347.379 506.5381

Iris hookeriana L 316C 149.3431 598.948 -1104.27 1402.956


Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 56.14887 7.301697 40.86625 71.4315


Phlomis bracteosa F 302C 55.28717 13.69075 26.63209 83.94225

Stachys emodi WP 312 63.68069 12.52514 37.46527 89.89612


Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S 308 624.1221 NA NA NA

Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon lycopodioides WP 319 183.3679 372.173 -595.599 962.3349


Androsace foliosa MI 301B 55.67518 49.00601 -46.8956 158.2459

Primula denticulata WP 317 40.78651 36.26306 -35.1129 116.686

Primula macrophylla RL 318 57.8087 NA NA NA


Caltha alba L 309A 38.31851 8.908296 19.67323 56.96379

Caltha alba R 309B 96.93118 186.844 -294.138 488.0001

Caltha alba S 309C 53.71487 6.085491 40.97779 66.45195


Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI 315C 212.2538 NA NA NA



Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L 304A 33451.37 1500301 -3106714 3173616

Sambucus wightiana F 304B 39.74345 26.90882 -16.5774 96.06425


Bergenia ciliate WP 324 28.19362 8.387855 10.63764 45.7496

323 101.9288 12.41431 75.94539 127.9123

Negative 302.7848 8183.584 -16031.7 16637.29

cont


8.4 Impact of selected medicinal plant extracts on cancer cell line (MDCK) inhibition

When statistical analyses were made for the effect of various plant extracts and their

doses on inhibition of the cancer cell line MDCK, a highly significant (p-value <0.0001)

impact was observed along with significant interaction effect (Table 42). This means that

different plant extracts have variable inhibition activity on the cancer cell line MDCK with a

variable dose effect along with significant extract x dose interaction in terms of inhibition

activity against this cell line MDCK.

Table 42: Analyses of variance table for MDCK cancer cell line as affected by various plant

extracts and their concentrations. Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)

Concentration 7 16.3091 2.329872 349.7087 0.00 ***

Plant Extract 37 18.34527 0.495818 74.4212 0.00 ***

Concentration: Plant Extract 259 12.33654 0.047631 7.14937 0.00 *** Residuals 656 4.370484 0.006662

Total 959 51.36139 2.879984

The inhibition activity against MDCK cell line increased with increasing dose till

dose- 20 with further decrease in inhibition activity with increase in doses, when the overall

mean across all plant extract response was considered (Figure 46). This response was similar

for individual plant extracts dose response was observed, though with certain variability

(Figure 47a,b,c,d,e,f,g), which was plotted with DMRC package of R to estimate IC50.

Detailed data on cell inhibition of MDCK cancer cell line as affected by various plant


plant extract code Primula denticulata (317) belonging to family Primulaceae which was

3.507 and 3.058 at dose with concentration of 1 µg/ml and 2µg/ml followed by 2.895 Iris

hookeriana (316C) which belongs to family Iridaceae at dose concentration 50 µg/ml of the

plant extracts whereas the minimum value was recorded for plant extract Stachys emodi (312)

of family Lamiaceae which was recorded 0.312 at dose with concentration of 200 µg/ml

followed by 0.327 (313) belonging to family Asteraceae and 0.366 Arnebia euchroma (305)

which belongs to family Boraginaceae at dose concentration of 200 µg/ml and 20µg/ml of

the plant extracts. Thus, the family Primulaceae plant extracts showed maximum cell


356


inhibition of MDCK cancer cell line where as some other plant extracts belonging to family

Lamiaceae and Asteraceae showed minimum cell inhibition of MDCK cancer cell line.

Figure 46: Overall mean value of inhibition activity against cell line MDCK as influenced

by different concentrations of plant extracts.

The maximum value for IC50 was recorded for plant extract Lindelofia longiflora

(321C) which belongs to family Boraginaceae was 9772.318 followed by plant extract

Bergenia stracheyi (322) which belong to family Saxifragaceae and Hippophae rhamnoides (303) belonging to family Elaeagnaceae having value of 854.106 and 669.2989 and

respectively whereas the minimum value was recorded 9.908234 for extract Arnebia euchroma (305) belongs to family Boraginaceae followed by extract Lentopodium

entopodioides (325) belonging to family Asteraceae having value of 31.15069 (Table 44).

The very high IC50 values need to be carefully interpreted as it could arise from lack of good

fit of the model.


357

Figure 47a: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 47b: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 47c: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 47d: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 47e: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.

Figure 47f: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.


Figure 47g: Dose Response Curve for MDCK Cancer cell line fitted on observed data using

DRMC package of R software for 24 plant species.


364

Table 43: Cell inhibition of MCK cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations.

Family Plant Plant Part

Asteraceae Artemisia brevifolia WP

Lentopodium AP

entopodioides

Leontpodium himlayanum AP

Boraginaceae Arnebia euchroma R

Lindelofia longiflora R

Lindelofia longiflora L

Lindelofia longiflora WP

Celastraceae Parnassia nubicola WP

Elaeagnaceae Hippophae rhamnoides F

Iridaceae Iris hookeriana R

Iris hookeriana WP

Iris hookeriana L

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare WP

Phlomis bracteosa L

Phlomis bracteosa S

Phlomis bracteosa S

Stachys emodi WP

Onagraceae Epilobium hirsutum WP

Papilionaceae Sophora mollis S

Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon WP

lycopodioides

Primulaceae Androsace foliosa MK

Plant

Extract

307

325

313

305

321A

321B

321C

311

303

316A

316B

316C

320

302A 302B 302C 312

310

308

319

301A

Dose/Concentration (µg/ml)

1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 Mean

1.867 2.097 2.073 2.268 2.312 2.417 2.226 1.000 16.260

1.953 2.188 2.153 2.334 1.970 1.484 1.375 1.264 14.721

0.984 1.145 1.302 1.429 1.628 0.761 0.487 0.327 8.063

1.389 1.385 1.613 0.855 0.336 0.341 0.328 0.351 6.598

2.299 1.958 2.284 2.271 2.830 2.344 2.327 1.156 17.469

1.558 1.291 1.351 1.373 1.409 1.446 1.482 1.413 11.323

1.434 1.512 1.628 1.723 1.515 1.099 0.833 0.431 10.175

0.976 1.132 1.093 1.169 1.165 0.627 0.373 0.351 6.886

1.800 2.280 2.217 2.296 1.960 1.954 1.743 0.781 15.031

2.180 2.060 2.235 2.370 2.466 2.381 0.484 0.385 14.561

2.173 2.151 2.379 2.348 2.514 2.626 2.499 0.566 17.256

3.116 2.313 2.579 2.503 2.616 2.895 2.532 0.757 19.311

1.621 1.644 1.660 1.778 1.852 1.720 1.659 0.902 12.836

1.867 2.097 2.073 2.268 2.312 2.417 2.226 1.000 16.260

1.871 1.962 1.981 2.070 2.101 2.097 2.068 1.587 15.737

1.546 1.873 1.797 1.831 1.873 1.359 0.935 1.692 12.906

0.909 0.984 1.144 1.240 1.087 0.823 0.527 0.312 7.026

1.792 1.925 2.102 2.185 2.185 1.783 0.707 0.358 13.037

1.871 1.962 1.981 2.070 2.101 2.097 2.068 1.587 15.737

1.612 1.732 1.556 1.920 2.119 1.323 1.023 0.632 11.917

1.389 1.385 1.613 0.855 0.336 0.341 0.328 0.351 6.598

Androsace foliosa

MI

Primula denticulata WP

Primula macrophylla RL

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium R

Caltha alba L

Caltha alba R

Caltha alba S

Delphinium roylei WP

Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI

Potentilla nepalensis MK

Potentilla sericophylla WP

Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L

Sambucus wightiana F

Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi WP

Bergenia ciliata WP

301B 317

318

306

309A 309B 309C 314

315C 315B 315A 304A 304B 322

324

323

Negative

cont Mean

1.553 1.780 1.650 2.046 2.129 2.173 1.660 0.476 13.467

3.507 3.058 2.356 2.897 3.411 2.658 0.371 0.374 18.632

1.551 1.629 1.762 1.602 1.683 1.626 1.632 0.959 12.444

1.553 1.780 1.650 2.046 2.129 2.173 1.660 0.476 13.467

1.325 1.597 1.609 1.873 1.889 1.417 0.524 0.345 10.579

1.346 1.678 1.970 2.144 2.097 1.560 0.839 0.353 11.987

1.645 1.938 2.215 2.135 2.114 2.025 1.617 0.389 14.078

1.764 1.879 2.198 2.255 1.966 0.811 0.450 0.384 11.707

2.793 2.829 2.594 2.898 2.687 2.052 1.136 0.430 17.419

2.280 2.418 2.604 2.726 3.140 2.251 0.724 0.488 16.631

1.790 2.247 2.190 2.157 2.522 2.674 2.478 1.043 17.101

1.849 2.430 2.464 1.887 2.043 2.234 1.572 0.707 15.186

1.957 2.143 1.458 1.957 1.951 1.917 1.214 1.085 13.682

1.274 1.262 1.294 1.205 1.062 0.924 0.709 0.433 8.163

1.682 1.907 1.668 1.904 1.453 0.903 0.660 0.575 10.752

1.497 1.395 1.427 1.458 1.387 1.460 1.866 1.621 12.111

5.497 5.869 5.950 5.391 5.771 3.941 3.518 3.452 39.389

71.07 74.915 75.873 77.737 78.121 67.134 50.86 30.793 526.503

Table 44: IC50 estimated based on cell inhibition of MCK cancer cell line as affected by various plant extracts and their concentrations



Lentopodium entopodioides AP 325 31.15069 18.9423 -8.49601 70.79739

Leontpodium himlayanum AP 313 50.70547 21.5952 5.506203 95.90474


Lindelofia longiflora R 321A 284.5421 2422.116 -4785 5354.089

Lindelofia longiflora L 321B 1679904 1.55E+08 -3.2E+08 3.26E+08

Lindelofia longiflora WP 321C 9772.318 84977.55 -168088 187632.4




Iris hookeriana WP 316B 213.329 426.5761 -679.505 1106.163

Iris hookeriana L 316C 238.3221 NA NA NA

Lamiaceae Origanum vulgare WP 320 286.9765 NA NA NA

Phlomis bracteosa L 302A 257.5609 314.6918 -401.097 916.2183

Phlomis bracteosa S 302B 287.2441 1830.52 -3544.08 4118.566

Phlomis bracteosa S 302C 42.06561 31.81689 -24.5279 108.6591

Stachys emodi WP 312 129.9405 377.0019 -659.134 919.0146



Plumbaginaceae Acantholimon lycopodioides WP 319 456.3098 1992.727 -3714.52 4627.136


Androsace foliosa MI 301B 128.7828 NA NA NA

Primula denticulata WP 317 57.1962 NA NA NA

Primula macrophylla RL 318 256.4011 799.0359 -1416 1928.802

Ranunculaceae Aconitum violecium R 306 128.7828 NA NA NA

Caltha alba L 309A 64.14022 20.3114 21.62798 106.6525

Caltha alba R 309B 127.3392 226.298 -346.308 600.9864

Caltha alba S 309C 181.3287 912.486 -1728.53 2091.184


Rosaceae Potentilla nepalensis MI 315C 111.673 161.1468 -225.611 448.9571



Sambucaceae Sambucus wightiana L 304A 102.9335 11.34953 79.1787 126.6884

Sambucus wightiana F 304B 89.14392 73.70601 -65.1245 243.4124

Saxifragaceae Bergenia stracheyi WP 322 854.106 21088.59 -43284.8 44993.04

Bergenia ciliata WP 324 32.10367 12.66218 5.601431 58.60591

323 55.82621 21.44115 10.94938 100.703

Negative cont 39.74244 24.31663 -8.79377 88.27864


3.8.5 Discussion

Cytotoxic activities of most of the studied plants have been reported for the first time.

Previously sporadic cytotoxic research work was conducted elsewhere is discussed below.

3.8.5.1 Aconitum spp

No previous report is available in the published literature for cytotoxic studies on

human cell lines of Aconitum violocium worldwide. However, some reports are available on

different species of Aconitum. Gao et al., (2006) reported the cytotoxicity of alkaloids of A.

spicatum on HL-60 cell line. The alkaloids showed significant cytotoxic activities. Csupor et

al., (2006) reported that Aconitum vulparia alkaloids were found to exhibit marginal cell

growth inhibition on breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) and cervix adenocarcinoma (HeLa)

cells. Gao et al., (2012) reported the cytotoxicity of alkaloids of Aconitum carmichaeli on

HePG2 cell line. Jiang-Bo Hea et al., (2017) reported the inhibitory effect of Aconitum

naviculare on HL-60, SMMC-7721, A-549, MCF-7 and SW480 cell lines.

3.8.5.2 Arnebia spp

No previous study was reported about the cytotoxicity of Arnebia euchroma from

Pakistan. Some work was reported from different country with MCF-7 and different cell line

but not with MDCK, NIH3T3, and HEK-293 and mostly work was about the Acetyl shikonin

and naphthoquinone pigments from the Arnebia euchroma. Xiong et al., (2009) reported the

cytotoxic effects of Acetyl shikonin extracted from A. euchroma on A549, Bel-7402, Lewis

Lung carcinoma and MCF-7 cell lines. They observed that the isolated compound was most

active against the Lewis Lung carcinoma and MCF-7 cell. Syklowska-Baranek et al., (2012)

reported the inhibitory effect of extracts L-phenylalanine, naphthoquinone pigments of

Arnebia euchroma on HeLa, MCF-7 and HL-60 cell lines and reported that highest activity

was Shown against the HL-60 and significant cell growth inhibition was observed against

HeLa and MCF-7 cell lines. Yuzbasioglu et al., (2015) reported that roots and aerial parts

Arnebia purpurea showed intermediate inhibitory effect on L929 murine fibrosarcoma cell

line.


369


3.8.5.3 Artemisia spp

No previous studied was reported about cytotoxicity of Artemisia brevifolia in the

published literature in the world. Other species of Artemisia are reported for their cytotoxicity

but not from Pakistan. Tiwary et al., (2015) reported the cytotoxic effects of Artemisia indica

on HeLa and MCF-7. They observed optimum cytotoxicity on 48 μg/ml for both HeLa and

MCF-7 cell lines.

3.8.5.4 Bergenia spp

No previous report exists in the published literature for cytotoxicity of Bergenia

ciliata and Bergenia stracheyi in the world. Presents study on both the species of Bergenia

was reported for the first time.

3.8.5.5 Caltha spp

No previous work was done on the cytotoxicity of Caltha alba in the Pakistan and on

MCF-7, MDCK, NIH3T3 and HEK-293 cell lines worldwide. One cytotoxic report was

reported from India and they used different cell line. Mubashir et al., (2015) the cytotoxicity

of Caltha alba on THP-1 (Leukemia), A-549 (Lung), HCT-15 (Colon), Cervix (HeLa) and

PC-3(Prostrate) cell lines. And they observed that extract was active mainly against A-549

(Lung) cancer line.

3.8.5.6 Acantholimon spp

Cytotoxic study of Acantholimon lycopodioides was carried for the first time on MCF-

7, MDCK, NIH3T3 and HEK-293 cell lines worldwide. No previous report exists in the

published literature.

3.8.5.7 Androsace spp

There is no report about the cytotoxicity of Androsace foliosa in the world. The

present study on this plant is the first ever attempt.No previous report exists in the published


370


literature for cytotoxicity of Androsace foliosa. Some reports are available on cytotoxicity of

other species of Andresace. Rajbhandari et al., (2007) reported the cytotoxic study of

Androsace strigillosa on MDCK cell line and observed moderate toxicityon MDCK cell line.

Park et al., (2010) suggested that Androsace umbellata extract inhibited the cancer cell

growth.

3.8.5.8 Stachys spp

No cytotoxic study was found on Stachys emodi in Pakistan as well as in other parts of

the world on these cell lines i.e. MCF-7, MDCK, NIH3T3 and HEK-293. Some cytotoxic

studies were reported on other species of Stachys elsewhere but not from Pakistan. Ostad et

al., (2014) reported the cytotoxicity of S. byzatina; S. inflata; S. setifera and S. persica on

HT-29 (colon carcinoma), Caco-2 (colorectal adenocarcinoma), T-47D (breast ductal

carcinoma) and NIH-3T3 (Swiss mouse embryo fibroblast) cell lines. They observed that the

chloroform fraction of S. setifera was the most cytotoxic sample with high selectivity toward

cancerous cell lines. Khanavia et al., (2012) reported the cytotoxicity of chloroform fractions

of Stachys laxa and Stachys subaphylla and ethyl acetate fraction of Stachys subaphylla on

T47D and HT-29 cell lines. They observed that the cells were most affected by chloroform

and ethyl acetate fractions of Stachys laxa while Stachys turcomanica, S. trinervis

demonstrated no effective cytotoxic activities on T47D and HT-29 cell lines. Khanavia et al.,

(2012) reported the cytotoxic effects of S. laxa; S. trinervis; S. subaphylla and S. turcomanica

on HT-29 (colon carcinoma), Caco-2 (colorectal adenocarcinoma), T47D (breast ductal

carcinoma) and NIH 3T3 (Swiss mouse embryo fibroblast) cell lines. They observed S.

trinervis demonstrated no effective cytotoxic activity against these cell lines. Jassbi, et al.,

(2013) reported the cytotoxic activities of S. pilifera; S. persica; S. byzantine; S.

lavandulifolia; S. acerosa and S. obtusicrena on HL-60, K562 and MCF-7 cell lines. They

concluded that dichloromethane (DCM) extract of S. pilifera had the highest cytotoxic

activities against HL-60, K562 and MCF-7 cell lines.

3.8.5.9 Sophora spp

No previous cytotoxic study was reported in the published literature in the world for

Sophora mollis. The plant was studies for cytotoxic activities for the first time elsewhere.


371


3.8.5.10 Epilobium spp

No ethno-medicinal and cytotoxic study was reported on Epilobium hirsutum from

Pakistan. Few record about the cytotoxicity of Epilobium hirsutum is available but on

different cell lines and some other species from other part of world were reported. Stolarczyk

et al., (2013) reported the cytotoxic studies of E. hirsutum , E. angustifolium and E.

perviflorum on LNCaP cell line. They observed that these plant species were found potent

prostate cancer cell line.

3.8.5.11 Delphinium spp

The present cytotoxic research conducted on Delphinium roylei is the first ever report

on the potential anti-cancerous activities in the world. Cytotoxicity of other species of

Delphinium has been reported from other workers outside Pakistan. Daoudi et al., (2013)

reported the cytotoxic effects of Delphinium staphisagria on MCF-7, HT29, N2A, H5-6, and

VCREMS cell lines but they observed no activity against these cell lines. Lnes et al., (2005)

worked on norditerpenoid alkaloid of Delphinium sp using CT26, SW480, HeLa, SkMe l25,

SkMe l28 and CHO (the non-tumor cell line). Yang-Qing et al., (2010) reported the cytotoxic

effects of diterpene alkaloid delphatisine- C extracted from D. chrysotrichum on A-549,

MCF-7 cell lines. They observed no activities against MCF-7 and significant activities

against A-549 cell line.

3.8.5.12 Hippophae spp

No cytotoxic activities on MDCF, HEK-293, MCF-7 and NIH 3T3 cancer cell lines

were reported in the published literature in the world. Ali and Ahmad (2015) reported the

cytotoxicity of Hippophae rhamnoides on Brine shrimp. Nitin et al., (2009) reported the

cytotoxic effects of leaf extract of H. rhamnoides on BHK-21 cell line and observed no

cytotoxic effect on BHK-21 cell line. Hou1 et al., (2017) reported the cytotoxic effect of

flavonoids of H. rhamnoides on NK92-MI cells. They reported that TFH stimulated NK92-

MI cells to activate and enhance cytotoxicity. Teng et al., (2006) observed the invitro anti-

tumor activity of isorhamnetin isolated from H. rhamnoides on BEL-7402 cells.


372


3.8.5.13 Iris spp

No published literature is available on cytotoxicity of Iris hookeriana in the world.

Some scientists worked on different species of Iris. Dahab and Fatma (2007) reported the

cytotoxicity of I. graveolens on MCF7 (breast cancer cell line) and observed the most potent

plant extract (IC50 3.83 ȝg/ml). Shin et al., (2011) reported the cytotoxicity of Iris

nertschinskia on MCF-7 (human breast cancer cells).

3.8.5.14 Lentopodium spp

No cytotoxic report on cell line is available in published literature on crude extract of

Lentopodium entopodioides and Leontpodium himlayanum. Gao et al., (2017) reported the

cytotoxic effects of essential oil of Lentopodium entopodioides on Hep G2 and MCF-7 cell

lines and observed significant cytotoxicity.

3.8.5.15 Lindelofia spp

There exists no cytotoxic report for Lindelofia longiflora in the published literature.

This is first ever attempt on cytotoxic studies in the world.

3.8.5.16 Phlomis spp

No published literature is available on cytotoxicity on cell lines of Phlomis bracteosa.

Riaz Ullah et al., (2011 and 2013) reported the cytotoxic brine shrimp bioassay of Phlomis

bracteosa. The fractions did not display any significant result. Mateus et al., (2016) reported

the cytotoxicity of Phlomis purpurea on HeLa and L929 cell lines and observed that HeLa

cell lines with an IC50 of 22 mM, weakly active against L929 cell line. Soltani-Nasab et al.,

(2013) reported the cytotoxicity of Phlomis lanceolata on HT-29, Caco 2, T47D, NIH3T3

cell lines and observed high cytotoxic activity against proliferation of all four cell lines.

Kmez et al., (2004) studied the cytotoxicity of P hlomis brunneogaleata on L6 cell line that

showed cytotoxicity against this cell line.


373


3.8.5.17 Potentilla spp

Potentilla sericophylla was explored for the first time worldwide for its cytotoxicity

against MCF-7, MDCK, NIH3T3 and HEK-293 cancer cell lines. Sporadic cytotoxic data on

cancer line is available on other parts of the world for other species of Potentilla. Rauf et al.,

(2015) reported the cytotoxic effect of flavonoids of Potentilla evestita and observes strong

cytotoxicity. Radovanovic et al., (2013) reported the cytotoxicity of Potentilla reptans on 4TI

(mouse breast cancer cell line) and observed cytotoxic effects. Spiridonov et al., (2005)

observed the marked cytotoxicity of Potentilla erecta. Choudhary et al., (2017) reported the

anticarcinogenic effects of Potentilla fuglens. Uysal et al., (2017) reported the highest

cytotoxicity of Potentilla reptans against MCF-7, A549 cell lines and observed highest

cytotoxicity. Anal et al., (2014) reported the cytotoxicity of Potentilla fulgens against THP-I

(leukemia), HEP-2 (liver), ovcar-5 (ovary), A-549 (lung), PC-3 (prostrate) and SF-295

(neuroblastoma) cell lines. They observed that polar fractions showed in vitro cytotoxic

activity against various human cancer cell lines.

3.8.5.18 Primula spp

Primula macrophylla was explored for its cytotoxic effects for the first time. Saqib et

al., (2009) reported cytotoxic activity (brine shrimps bioassays). They reported that cytotoxic

and phytotoxic activity is due to the ether and ketone groups present in the flavone. Primula

denticulata was explored for its cytotoxic activities against MCF-7, MDCK, NIH3T3 and

HEK-293 cancer cell lines. Tokalov et al., (2004) reported cytotoxicity of P. denticulata

against HL-60 (human acute myeloid leukemia cells). Behzad et al., (2016) reported the

cytotoxic effects of P. denticulata on colon cancer cells and they observed that the extract

inhibited proliferation in colon cancer cells.

3.8.5.19 Sambucus spp

No previous cytotoxic effect of Sambucus wightiana was available in the published

literature in the world. Other species of Sambucus have been explored for their cytotoxicity

but on different cell line and also that work was not reported from Pakistan. Saravi et al.,

(2013) reported the cytotoxicity of S. ebulus on Hep G2, CT26 and normal (CHO and rat


374


fibroblast) cell lines. They observed that the extract was effective cytotoxic agent on liver and

colon cancer cells.

Present research confirmed the ethnobotanical uses of the selected medicinal plants.

Results of bio assays suggest that selected plants are beneficial for the treatment of cancer. To

the best of our knowledge Acantholimon lycopodioide, Androsace foliosa, Sophora mollis,

Leontopodium leontopdioides, Lindelofia longiflora, Stachys emodi and Phlomis bracteosa

have not been early investigated as anti-cancer agent in Pakistan as well as in other world. No

data is available about the anti-cancer activity of Aconitum violecium, Arnebia euchroma,

Artemisia brevifolia, Caltha alba, Epilobium hirsutum, Delphinium roylei, Potentilla

sericophylla and Sambucus wightiana from Pakistan. Earlier, few reports have been reported

about the cytotoxicity of Hippophae rhamnoides and Iris hookeriana but in present study

these plants are tested against different cell line and we find out significant results. This study

suggest these selected medicinal plants are good candidates for the isolation of anti-cancerous

compounds.


375


Plate 60: Selected Medicinal Plants used for anti-cancerous activity from Hazara Davison,

Northern Pakistan


376


Plate 65: (a) Culture thawed in fume hood, (b) Cold room -4 °C, (c) Cytotoxic activities, (d) & (e) The bio-assayed 96 well plate incubated at 37 °C with CO2 for required length of time (f) Fixing of bio-assayed 96 well plate, (g) Measurement of OD at 562 nm in 96 well

plate reader (Photometer, SPECTRA max PLUS Instrument), (h) Staining of bio-assayed 96 well plate,


377


Plate 66: The result of preliminary screening showed that some plant extracts gave

remarkable cytotoxic effect against cell lines (MDCK, MCF-7, NIH3T3 and HEK-293 whereas, the cytotoxicity of the other plant extract ranged from moderate to weak effects.


378


Conclusion

The Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Northern Pakistan are one of the unique

phyto-geographic parts of Northern Pakistan with very few studies regarding systematic and

its ethno-pharmacological finding. Present study provides first report and promising

information on medicinal plants in this region with descriptive as well as quantitative ethno-

pharmacological data regarding the general ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants (125

species) among the communities of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division,

endemic medicinal plants(69 species), medicinal plants for respiratory diseases (120 species),

medicinal plants usage among indigenous communities of Palas valley (102 species), ethno-

toxic profile of poisonous plants (62 species) and antibacterial potential of some selected

plants (25) with cytotoxic activities. The present finding showed that in total 424 medicinal

plants belonging to 93 families and 254 genera were used by the local communities of

Northern Pakistan. Among the disease categories, Gastrointestinal (GIT) disorder was

reported to be highest followed by respiratory disorders. The most dominant plant families

reported Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae, and herbs as dominant life form. The frequently

consumed plant part were leaves, while decoction and powder was the major mode of

utilization. About 32 plants showed maximum 100 FL% with high UV and RFC values. This

study reported 69 with the new claims of 49 endemic plant species, for the first time at global

perspectives. The species like Anemone falconeri Thoms, Anemone obtusiloba D. Don var

potentilloides, Aquilegia fragrans Benth. var. fragrans, Caltha alba Camb. var alba, Galium

asperifolium Wall. var. obovatum Nazim, Jasminum leptophyllum Rubina Rafique and

Lepidium capitatum Hook.f. & Thoms were recorded with new ethnomedicinal uses first time

at global level for their current uses along with old use reports. Similarity 6 endemic plant

species Meconopsis aculeate Royle, Gentianodes eumarginata var. harrisii, Dicliptera

bupleuroides var.ciliata Malik & A.Ghafoor, Bistorta amplexicalulis (Don) Green var.

speciose, Rosularia adenotricha (Wall.Ex Edgew) Jansson & Rh ssp. Chtralica and Lavatera

cachemiriana Camb var. haronii S.Abedin were reported with some novel reports throughout

the world. The current study is first preliminary report on the anti-microbial and anticancer

activity of slected 25 medicinal plants. The present study represents an important step for the

documentation and preservation of traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants,

making possible the identification of various species of native medicinal plants and

predominance of their uses in the study area. This study signifies a useful and long-lasting

compilation, which can subsidize to preserve knowledge on the use of medicinal plants in this Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub Alpine and Alpine Regions of Hazara Division,Northern Pakistan

379


region and also encourage the researchers for future work which may leads to natural drug

discovery and development of the local communities while taking into account the

conservation status of these valuable natural resources.

Recommendations:

Based on the findings of the present study on the ethnobotanical exploration within the

Sub-alpine and Alpine regions of Hazara Division, Northern Pakistan the author suggests the

following recommendations for sustainable utilization and development in future:

• Many species of medicinal plants especially endemic medicinal plants were

investigated first time. These plant species require a thorough investigation in the

context of phytopharmacological efficacy both in vitro and in vivo so as to validate

their biological potential. Further, endemic medicinal plants in Sub-alpine and

Alpine regions is facing severe threats of extinction because of overgrazing and

unstainable harvesting, cultivation techniques be formulated, for the most

important endemic medicinal plants and conserve the endemic medicinal by Ex

situ and in situ conservation for sustainable use of local flora.

• Other ethno botanically important flora of Sub-alpine and Alpine regions should

also be studied to provide scientific basis to their local use, also conserve

indigenous knowledge about medicinal plants use for common and specific

diseases.

• To aware local people about Poisonous medicinal plants also for safe and secure

use of such herbal drugs required critical toxicological investigations.

• The present project, results offer a scientific basis for the biological screening of

selected medicinal plants. Fractions and isolated compounds of selected plants

should also be tested against other cancer cell lines. Further study needed on

biological screening of other medicinal plants from Alpine regions of Northern,

Pakistan for future drug discovery.

• Present work needs to be compiled into a book with detail description and colored

photos of the medicinal plants.


380

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408

APPENDIX

Ethnobotanical inventory of medicinal plants used in Sub-alpine and Alpine Regions of


S.No Taxonomic Name Family

1. Abelia triflora R.Br. Caprifoliaceae

2. Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Malvaceae

3. Abies pindrow Royle. Pinaceae

4. Acacia modesta Wall Mimosaceae

5. Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Mimosaceae

6. Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss Plumbaginaceae

7. Acer caesium (Reinw.ex Blume) Kosterm. Acerearceae

8. Achellia millefolium L Asteraceae

9. Achyranthes aspera L Amaranthaceae

10. Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf ex Holmes Ranunculaceae

11. Aconitum curvipilum H.Riedl Ranunculaceae

12. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.ex Royle Ranunculaceae

13. Aconitum rotundifolium Kar. & Kir Ranunculaceae

14. Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf Ranunculaceae

15. Acorus calamus L. Araceae

16. Actaea spicata L Ranunculaceae

17. Adiantum capillus-veneris Pteridaceae

18. Adiantum venustum D.Don Pteridaceae

19. Adonis aestivalis L Ranunculaceae

20. Aegopodium burttii E. Nasir Apiaceae

21. Aesculus indica Wall. Ex Camb. Hk.f Hippocastanaceae

22. Ageratum conyzoides L Asteraceae

23. Ainsliaea aptera DC Asteraceae

24. Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth Lamiaceae

25. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth Mimosaceae

26. Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae

27. Albizzia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr Mimosaceae

28. Alchemilla cashmeriana Rothm Rosaceae

29. Allium carolinianum DC Alliaceae

30. Allium sativum L Alliaceae

31. Allium victorialis L Alliaceae

32. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br Apocynaceae

33. Althaea officinalis L Malvaceae

34. Althea rosea L Malvaceae

35. Amaranthus caudatus L Amaranthaceae

36. Amaranthus viridis L Amaranthaceae

37. Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam Apiaceae

38. Anagalis arvensis Linn Primulaceae

39. Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook.f., Asteraceae

40. Andrachine cordifolia (Dene) Muell Euphorbiaceae

41. Androsace hazarica R.R.Stewart ex Y.Nasir Primulaceae

42. Androsace rotundifolia Hardwicke Primulaceae

43. Androsace semipervivoides Jacqq.ex Duby Polygonaceae

44. Anemone rupicola Camb. Ranunculaceae

45. Anemone falconeri Thoms Ranunculaceae

46. Anemone obtusiloba D Don var potentilloides Ranunculaceae

47. Anemone tetrasepala Royle Ranunculaceae

48. Angelica glauca Edgew Umblifereae

49. Apium graveolens L Apiaceae

50. Aquilega pubiflora Wall. ex Royle Ranunculaceae

51. Aquilegia fragrans Benth Ranunculaceae

52. Aquilegia nivalis Falc. ex Baker Ranunculaceae

53. Arabidopsis taraxacifolia (T. Anders.) Jafri Brassicaceae

54. Argemone mexicana L Papaveraceae

55. Arisaema flavum (Forsskal) Schott Araceae

56. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume Araceae

57. Aristolochia bracteolata Lamk Aristolochiaceae

58. Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnston Boraginaceae

59. Artemisia absinthium L Asteraceae

60. Artemisia amygdalina Decne Asteraceae

61. Artemisia annua L Asteraceae

62. Artemisia brevifolia Wall.ex DC Asteraceae

63. Artemisia macrocephala Jacquem. ex Besser Asteraceae

64. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit Asteraceae

65. Artemisia vulgaris Linn Asteraceae

66. Asparagus officinale L Liliaceae

67. Asparagus racemoss Willd Liliaceae

68. Astragalus laspurensis Ali Papilionaceae

69. Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth Papilionaceae

70. Astragalus chitralensis Ali Papilionaceae

71. Astragalus clarkeanus Ali Papilionaceae

72. Astragalus grahamianus Royle ex Benth. Papilionaceae

73. Atropa acuminata Royle Solanaceae

74. Atropa belladonna L Solanaceae

75. Azadirachta indica Adr. Juss Meliaceae

76. Berberis brandisiana Ahrendt Berberidaceae

77. Berberis jaeschkeana Schneid Berberidaceae

78. Berberis kunawurensis Royle Berberidaceae

79. Berberis lycium Royle Berberidaceae

80. Berberis orthobotrys Bien Berberidaceae

81. Berberis pachycantha Koehne Berberidaceae

82. Berberis parkeriana Schneid Berberidaceae

83. Berberis pseudumbellata Parker Berberidaceae

84. Berberis vulgaris L Berberidaceae

85. Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb Berberidaceae

86. Bergenia Ligulata (Wall.) Engl Saxifragaceae

87. Bergenia stracheyi (H. & T.) Engl Berberidaceae

88. Betula utilis D. Don Betulaceae

89. Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Green Polygonaceae

90. Boerhavia diffusa Engelm & A.Gray Nyctaginaceae

91. Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb Nyctaginaceae

92. Broussonetia papyrifera L Moraceae

93. Buddleja asiatica Lour Buddlejaceae

94. Bupleurum longicaule Wall. Ex DC Apiaceae

95. Butea monosperma (Lain.) Papilionaceae

96. Buxus sempervirens Hk. F Buxaceae

97. Calamintha hydaspidis (Falconer ex Beath.) Hedge Lamiaceae

98. Calotropis procera (Willd.) R.Br Asclepidiaceae

99. Caltha alba Camb. var alba Ranunculaceae

100. Caltha indica Cambess Ranunculaceae

101. Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze Theaceae

102. Cannabis sativa Linn Cannabinaceae

103. Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Capparadaceae

104. Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew Capparadaceae

105. Capsicum annuum L Solanaceae

106. Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines Apocynaceae

107. Carthamus tinctorius L Asteraceae

108. Carum copticum (L.) C.B Apiaceae

109. Catharanthus roseus Linn Apocynaceae

110. Cedrus deodara (Roxb.ex. D.Don) G.Don Pinaceae

111. Celtis australis Willd Ulmaceae

112. Ceratium pulsillum Ser Caryophyllaceae

113. Chenopodium album L Chenopodiaceae

114. Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn Chenopodiaceae

115. Chenopodium botrys L Chenopodiaceae

116. Cichorium intybus L Asteraceae

117. Citrus grandis(L.) Osbeck. Rutaceae

118. Citrus reticulata Blanco. Rutaceae

119. Colchicum luteum Baker Liliaceae

120. Conium maculatum Linn Umbelliferae

121. Convolvulus arvensis Linn Convolvulaceae

122. Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae

123. Cornus macrophylla Wall. Cornaceae

124. Cortusa brotheri Pax ex Lipsky Primulaceae

125. Cortusa matthioliL. ssp. hazaricaY. Nasir Primulaceae

126. Corydalis diphylla var. cyrtocentra (Prain) Jafri Fumariaceae

127. Corydalis govaniana Wall. var. malukiana Jafri Fumariaceae

128. Corydalis govanianaWall. var. swatensis(Kitam.)

Jafri

Fumariaceae

129. Corydalis pakistanicaJafri Fumariaceae

130. Corydalis stewartii Fedde Fumeraceae

131. Corydalis urosepala Fedde Fumariaceae

132. Cotinus coggyra Scop. Anacardiaceae

133. Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindley Rosaceae

134. Cotoneaster microphyllus Wallich ex Lindley Rosaceae

135. Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch and Mey. Rosaceae

136. Crataegus songarica C.Koch. Rosaceae

137. Cronopus didymus Linn Cruciferae

138. Crotalaria sessiliflora L. subsp. hazarensisAli Papilionaceae

139. Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae

140. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Cuscuctaceae

141. Cynanchum canescens Asclepiadaceae

142. Cynanchum jacquemontianum Dcne Asclepiadaceae

143. Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk Boraginaceae

144. Cyperus rotendus L Cyperaceae

145. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó Orchidaceae

146. Datura innoxia Miller Solanaceae

147. Datura metel L Solanaceae

148. Datura strumarium Linn Solanaceae

149. Delphinium nordhagenii Wendelbo Ranunculaceae

150. Delphinium palasianum Rubina Rafique Ranunculaceae

151. Delphinium roylei Munz. Ranunculaceae

152. Delphinium vestitum Wallich ex Royle Ranunculaceae

153. 9 Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb & Berth Brassicaceae

154. Desmodium elegans DC Leguminosae

155. Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stap Poaceae

156. 9

Dicliptera bupleuroidesvar. ciliataMalik & A.

Ghafoor

Acanthaceae

157. Digitalis purpurea Linn Scrophulariaceae

158. Draba nemorosa L Brassicaceae

159. Draba setosa Royle Brassicaceae

160. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke Rosaceae

161. Echinops ehcinatus Roxb Asteraceae

162. Eclipta prostrata L Asteraceae

163. Elaeagnus angustifolia L Elaeagnaceae

164. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb Elaeagnaceae

165. Elymus borianus (Meld.) T. A. Cope Poaceae

166. Elymus dentatus (Hook.f.) T. A. Cope Poaceae

167. Elymus russellii(Meld.) TA. Cope Poaceae

168. Ephedra gerardiana Wall.ex Stapf Ephedraceae

169. Ephedra intermediaSchrenk& Meyer Ephedraceae

170. Epilobium hirsutum L Onograceaeae

171. Epilobium laxum Royle Onograceaeae

172. Epipogium tuberosum Duthie Orchidaceae

173. Erodium cicutarium (L.) L’Herit, ex Aiton Geraniaceae

174. Erythrina glabrescens (Prain.) Parker Leguminosae

175. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnhardt. Myrtaceae

176. Eucalyptus globulus Labillardière. Myrtaceae

177. Euphorbia hirta L Euphorbiaceae

178. Euphorbia pilosa Linn Euphorbiaceae

179. Euphorbia wallichii Hook. f Euphorbiaceae



180. Fagonia indica var. schweinfurthii Hadidi Zygophylaceae

181. Ferula assa-foetida L Apiaceae

182. Ferula narthex Boiss Apiaceae

183. Ficus benghalensis L Moraceae

184. Ficus carica L Moraceae

185. Ficus foveolata Wall.ex.Miq Moraceae

186. Ficus palmata Forssk Moraceae

187. Ficus religiosa L Moraceae

188. Ficus semicordata Buch-Ham. ex J.E. Smith Moraceae

189. Fragaria indica Andrews Rosaceae

190. Fragaria nubicola Lindl Rosaceae

191. Fraxinus excelsior Boiss Oleaceae

192. Galium asperifolium Wall. var. obovatumNazim Rubiaceae

193. Galium subfalcatumNazim. & Ehrend Rubiaceae

194. Galium tetraphyllumNazim. & Ehrend Rubiaceae

195. Gentiana kurroo Royle Gentinaceae

196. Gentianodes cachemirica (Decne.) Omer, Ali &

Qaiser

Gentianaceae

197. Gentianodes eumarginata var. harrissii(Omer et al.) Gentianaceae

198. Gentianodes nasirii Omer, Ali & Qaiser Gentianaceae

199. Gentianodes olivieri (Griseb.) Omer Gentianaceae

200. Gentianopsis vvedenskyi (Grossh.) V.V.Pis Gentianaceae

201. Geranium nepalense Sweet Geraniaceae

202. Geranium ocellatum Camb Geraniaceae

203. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet Geraniaceae

204. Geum elatum L Rosaceae

205. Girardinia palmata (Forsk) Gaud. Freye Urticaceae

206. Glycyrrhiza glabra L Papilionaceae

207. Hackelia macrophylla(Brand) I.M. Johnston Boraginaceae

208. Hedera nepalensisK. Koch Araliaceae

209. Heracleum candicans Wall. Ex DC Apiaceae

210. Hippophae rhamnoides L Elaeagnaceae

211. Hyoscyamus niger L Solanaceae

212. Hypericum oblongifolium Choisy Hypericaceae

213. Hypericum perforatum L Hypericaceae

214. Impatiens bicolorRoyle subsp. pseudobicolor(Grey-

Wilson) Y. Nasir

Balsaminaceae




215. Impatiens edgeworthii Hook. f Balsaminaceae

216. Impatiens glandulifera Royle Balsaminaceae

217. Impatiens lemanni Hook.f. &Thoms. Balsaminaceae

218. Incarvillea emodi (Royle ex Lindl.) Bignoniaceae

219. Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis Papilionaceae

220. Inula obtusifolia A. Kern. Asteraceae

221. Inula royaleana DC Asteraceae

222. Ipomea hederacea (Linn.) Jacq Convolvulaceae

223. Iris hookeriana Foster Iridaceae

224. Isodon regosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd. Lamiaceae

225. Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae

226. Jasminum leptophyllumRubina Rafique Oleaceae

227. Jasminum officinale L. Oleaceae

228. Juglans regia L Juglandaceae

229. Juncus elegans Royle ex Buchen Juncaceae

230. Juniperus communis L. var.saxatilis Pallas. Cupressaceae

231. Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb Cupressaceae

232. Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Cupressaceae

233. Justicia adhatoda L Acanthaceae

234. Lactuca serriola L Asteraceae

235. Lamium album L Lamiaceae

236. Lantana camara Linn Verbenaceae

237. Lathyrus aphca Linn Papilionaceae

238. Lathyrus emodi (Wall. Ex Frisch) Ali Papilionaceae

239. Lathyrus humilis (Ser.) Fisch ex Sprengel Papilionaceae

240. Lathyrus pratensis L Papilionaceae

241. Lavatera cachemiriana Camb var. harooniiS.Abedin Malvaceae

242. Leontpodium himlayanum Asteraceae

243. Lepidium capitatumHook.f. &Thoms Brassicaceae

244. Leucanthemum vulgare Lam Asteraceae

245. Lindelofia longiflora (Benth.) Baill Boraginaceae

246. Lonicera caucasica Pallas Caprifoliaceae

247. Lonicera obovata Royle Caprifoliaceae

248. Lonicera purpurascens (Dene) Walp Caprifoliaceae

249. Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardwicke Caprifoliaceae

250. Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell Euphorbiaceae

251. Malva neglecta wallr. Malvaceae

252. Matricaria chammomilla L Asteraceae

253. Matricaria recutita L. Asteraceae

254. Meconopsis aculeata Royle Papaveraceae

255. Medicago sativa L Leguminosae

256. Melia azedarach Linn Meliaceae

257. Melilotus alba Desv Papilionaceae

258. Mentha arvensis L Lamiaceae

259. Mentha piperita L Lamiaceae

260. Neottia inayatii(Duthie) Beauverd Orchidaceae

261. Nepeta clerkei Hook. f Lamiaceae

262. Nepeta govaniana (Wall. ex Benth.) Benth. Lamiaceae

263. Nepta hindostana Haims Lamiaceae

264. Nerium indicum Miller Apocynaceae

265. Nicotiana tabacum Linn Solanaceae

266. Onosma bracteatum Wall Boraginaceae

267. Onosma hispida Wall. ex G. Don Boraginaceae

268. Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae

269. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Lamiaceae

270. Oxalis acetosella L Oxalidaceae

271. Oxalis corniculata L Oxalidaceae

272. Oxytropis Chitralensis Ali Papilionaceae

273. Oxytropis lapponica (Wahl.) Gay Papilionaceae

274. Paeonia emodi Wall ex Hk.f Paeoniaceae

275. Papaver somniferum Linn Papaveraceae

276. Paris polyphylla Liliaceae

277. Parnassia nubicola Wall.ex Royle Celastraceae

278. Pedicularis puctata Dcne. Scrophuliaraceae

279. Persicaria capitata (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H.

Gross

Polygonaceae

280. Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Spach Polygonaceae

281. Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Bth Lamiaceae

282. Phylanthus emblica L Euphorbiaceae

283. Physalis minima Linn Solanaceae

284. Phytolaca latbenia (Moq.) Hans Walter Phytolaccaceae

285. Picea smithiana (Wall) Bois Pinaceae

286. Pimpinella stewartii(Dunn) E. Nasir Apiaceae

287. Pinus gerardiana Wall.ex. Lamb Pinaceae

288. Pinus wallichiana A.B. Jackson Pinaceae

289. Pistacia atlantica Desf. Anacardiaceae

290. Pistacia integerrima (J.Stewart.) Rech.f. Anacardiaceae

291. Plantago lanceolata L Plantaginaceae

292. Plantago major L Plantaginaceae

293. Plantago ovata Forssk Plantaginaceae

294. Podophyllum hexandrum Wall.ex Royle Podophyllaceae

295. Polygonatum multiflorum (Linn.)All. Polygonaceae

296. Polygonatum verticillatum (L) All. Polygonaceae

297. Polygonum aviculare L Polygonaceae

298. Polygonum capitatum Buch. Ham. ex D. Don Polygonaceae

299. Polygonum hydropiper Linn Polygonaceae

300. Polygonum persicaria Linn Polygonaceae

301. Populus ciliata Wall ex Royle Salicaceae

302. Portulaca quadrifida L Aizoaceae

303. Potentilla astroguinea Lodd Rosaceae

304. Potentilla bennehalensisCambess Rosaceae

305. Potentilla curviseta Hook f Rosaceae

306. Potentilla grisae Juz Rosaceae

307. Potentilla kashmirica Hook. f Rosaceae

308. Potentilla monanthes Lindle. Ex Lehm Rosaceae

309. Potentilla nepalensis Hook. f Rosaceae

310. Potentilla pteropoda Royle Rosaceae

311. Potentilla sericophylla Parker Rosaceae

312. Primula denticulata Smith Primulaceae

313. Primula hazaricaDuthie Primulaceae

314. Primula macrophylla D. Don Primulaceae

315. Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC Mimosaceae

316. Prunella vulgaris L Lamiaceae

317. Psidium guajava L Myrtaceae

318. Punica granatum L Punicaceae

319. Pyrola rotundifolia(Linn.) subsp.

karakoramica(Krisa) Y. Nasir

Pyrolaceae

320. Pyrus pashia Hamilt Rosaceae

321. Quercus semecarpifolia Sm Fagaceae

322. Quercus baloot Griffth. Fagaceae

323. Quercus dilatata Royle Fagaceae

324. Quercus incana. Roxb Fagaceae

325. Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus. Fagaceae

326. Rabdosia rugosa (Wall ex Benth.) Hara Lamiaceae

327. Rananculus scleratus Linn Ranunculaceae

328. Ranunculus stewartii H. Riedl Ranunculaceae

329. Ranunculus hirtellus Royle Ranunculaceae

330. Ranunculus laetus Wall. Ex Hook.f. &Thoms Ranunculaceae

331. Rheum emodi Wall.ex Meisn Polygonaceae

332. Rheum australe D. Don Polygonaceae

333. Rhodendron arboretum Sm Ericaceae

334. Rhodendron hypenanthum Balf. f Ericaceae

335. Ribes alpestre Dene ex Jacq Grossulariaceae

336. Ribes glaciale Wall Grossulariaeae

337. Riccinus communis Linn Euphorbiaceae

338. Robinia pseudacacia Linn Papilionaceae

339. Rosa brunonii Lindl Rosaceae

340. Rosa nanothamnus Boulenger Rosaceae

341. Rosa webbiana Wall.ex Royle Rosaceae

342. Rosularia adenotricha(Wall. Ex Edgew.)Jansson &

Rh ssp. Chtralica GRS

Crassulaceae

343. Rubus ellipticus Smith Rosaceae

344. Rubus macilentus Camb Rosaceae

345. Rumex crispellusRech.f Polygonaceae

346. Rumex dentatus L Polygonaceae

347. Rumex hastatus D.Don Polygonaceae

348. Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae

349. Salix denticulate subsp. hazarica(R. Parker) Ali Salicaceae

350. Salix flabellaris Andersson Salicaceae

351. Salvia hian Royle ex Benth Lamiaceae

352. Salvia lanata Roxb Lamiaceae

353. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth Lamiaceae

354. Sambucus wightiana Wall. ex Wight and Arn Sambucaceae

355. Sapindus laurifolia Vahl Sapindaceae

356. Sarcococca saligna (Don) Muell.Arg Buxaceae

357. Saussu reacostus (Falc.) Lipsch Asteraceae

358. Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch Asteraceae

359. Saussurea lappa L Asteraceae

360. Saxifraga hirculus L Saxifragaceae

361. Scrophulaia koelzii Pennel Scrophulariaceae

362. Scutellaria chamaedrifoliaHedge & Paton Lamiaceae

363. Senecio chrysanthemodies DC Asteraceae

364. Senecio jacquemontianus (Decne.) Benth. ex Hook.f Asteraceae

365. Sibbaldia procumbens Hook. f Rosaceae

366. Silene gonospermasub sp. Himaalayensis (Rohrb.)

Bocquet

Caryophyllaceae

367. Silene indicavar.edgeworthii (Bocquet) Y. Nasir Caryophyllaceae

368. Silene longisepala E. Nasir Caprifoliaceae

369. Silene morcrooftiana Wall Caryophyllaceae

370. Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Caryophyllaceae

371. Sisymbrium erysimoides Desf Brassicaceae

372. Skimmia laureola (DC) Sieb & Zucc. ex Walp Rutaceae

373. Solanum nigrum L Solanaceae

374. Solanum virginianum L Solanaceae

375. Sonchus arvensis L Asteraceae

376. Sonchus asper (Linn) Hill Asteraceae

377. Sophora mollis (Royle) Baker Papilionaceae

378. Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl) Rehder Rosaceae

379. Spiraea affins Parker Rosaceae

380. Spiraea hazarica R.N. Parker Rosaceae

381. Spiraea lasiocarpa Kar. and Kir Rosaceae

382. Spiraea vaccinifolia D.Don Rosaceae

383. Stachys emodi Hedge, nom. nov. Lamiaceae

384. Stellaria media (L.) Vill Caryophyllaceae

385. Swertia Chiraiyta (Roxb. ex Fleming.)H.Karst Gentianaceae

386. Swertia cordata (G.Don) Clarke Gentianaceae

387. Swertia petiolata D. Don Gentianaceae

388. Swertia thomsonii Clarke Gentianaceae

389. Tamaricaria elegans (Royle) Qaiser & Ali Scrophuliaraceae

390. Taraxicum officinales Weber ex Wigger Asteraceae

391. Taxus wallichiana Zucc Taxaceae

392. Thalictrum cultratum Wall Ranunculaceae

393. Thalictrum pedunculatum Edgew Ranunculaceae

394. Thalictrum secundum var. hazaricumH. Riedl Rananculaceae

395. Thymus linearis Benth Lamiaceae

396. Thymus serphyllum L Lamiaceae

397. Trianthema portulacastrum L Aizoaceae

398. Tribulus terrestris Linn Zygophyllaceae

399. Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br Boraginaceae

400. Tricholepis stewartii C.B. Clark ex Hook.f Asteraceae

401. Trifolium pratense L Papilionaceae

402. Trifolium repens L Papilionaceae

403. Trigonella foenum-graecum L Papilionaceae

404. Tussilago farfara L Asteraceae

405. Ulmus villosa Brandis ex Gamble Ulmaceae

406. Urtica dioica Linn Urticaceae

407. Valeriana jatamansii Jones

408. Valeriana clarkei Briq Valerianaceae

409. Valeriana himalayana Grub Valerianaceae

410. Verbascum thapsus L Scrophuliaraceae

411. Veronica polita Fries Scrophulariaceae

412. Viburnum foetens Dene Caprifoliaceae

413. Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC Caprifoliaceae

414. Vicia bakeri Ali Papilionaceae

415. Vincetoxicum arnottianum (Wight) Wight Asclepiadaceae

416. Viola betonicifolia Sm Violaceae

417. Viola biflora L Violaceae

418. Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb Violaceae

419. Viola pilos.a Blume Violaceae

420. Viola serpens Wall Violaceae

421. Vitex negundo Linn Verbenaceae

422. Xanthium strumarium Linn Asteraceae

423. Zanthoxylum armatum Roxb Rutaceae


❖ Thesis Outcomes: Publications

Title List of Author Journal Vol/Issue

and P.NO

Ethnobotanical uses of medicinal Sadaf Kayani, Mushtaq Ahmad, Journal of 156 (2014)

plants for respiratory disorders Muhammad Zafar, Shazia Sultana, Ethnopharmacolog 47–60

among the inhabitants of Gallies Muhammad Pukhtoon Zada Khan, y

Abbottabad, Northern Pakistan Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, Javid

Hussain, Ghulam Yaseen

Ethnobotany of medicinal plants Sadaf Kayani, Mushta Mushtaq Ahmad, Journal of 164 (2015)

among the` communities of Shazia Sultana, Zabta Khan Shinwari, Ethnopharmacolog 186–202

Alpine and Sub-alpine regions of Muhammed Zafar , Ghulam Yaseen, y

Pakistan Manzoor Hussain , Tahira Bibi

Ethnotoxic profile of poisonous

Sadaf Kayani,Mushtaq Ahmad, The Journal of

27(1): 2017,

plants of Kaghan valley Western 128-135 Manzoor Hussain, Muhammad Zafar, Animal and Plant

Himalayas Pakistan

Mir Ajab Khan and Ghulam Mujtaba Sciences

Shah

`

467

Ethnobotany of Medicinal Plants of Sub-alpine and - Pakistan ...

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