Suhslancf Use & Misuse. 40:1697-1706 / ^ T ^ Tavlor F* FCopyrighl © 2O0.'i Taylor & Francis Inc. v j *ISSN: 1082-6084 (print); 1^32-2491 (online)OOI: 10, IOKO/UIK2WIHO5(X)222y25

Emotional Intelligence and Acculturation to theUnited States: Interactions on the Perceived Social

Consequences of Smoking in Early Adolescents

DENNIS R. TRINIDAD.' JENNIFER B. UNGER."CHIH-PING CHOU,- AND C. ANDERSON JOHNSON^

'Cancer Prevetition and Control Program, University of Californiaat San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA•^Institute for Prevention Research, University of Southern California,Los Angeles, California, USA

High emotional intelligence (El) is associated with decreased adolescent smoking. Ac-culturation to the United States is a risk factor for adolescent .smoking. High El maybuffer the relationship betv.'een acculturation to the United States and perceptions of thesocial consequence.-i of smoking (PSC).

Emotional intelligence is the ability to: accurately perceive, appraise, and e.xpressemotion: access and/or generate feelings in facilitating thought: understand emotionand emotional knowledge: and regulate emotions. Emouonal inlelligence {measured bythe Muitifaetor Emotional Intelligence Scale. Adolescent Version), acculturation, andPSC were asses.sed in 2001 from 416 Southern California sixth graders (47% boys:mean age — 11.3 yrs: 32% Hispanic/ Latino. 29% Asian/Pacific Islander. 13% White.19% Multiethnic. 6% Other).

There was a signifuanr El x VSacctdttiralion interaction (p < 0.01 j suggesting thatthose with high El perceived more social consequences associated with smokini>. As theU.S. population becomes increasingly diversified, identifying protective variables anddesigning effective prevention prop-ams for adolescents of diverse ethnic and culturalbackgrounds becomes important.

Keywords emotion: intelligence; tobacco; adolescence; acculturati{)n; risk factor

IntroductionRecent interest in emotional intelligence(EI)stems from claims by the popular media that Elmay possibly be the most important predictor of life success, accounting lor up to 80% of thatvariance (Golenian. 1995). It is improbable that the effect of El could be of such tTiagnitudein most life domains, although encouraging empirical research has shown that high El isassociated with decreased adolescent health risk behaviors, including tobacco and alcoholuse and aggression (Rubin. 1999; Trinidad and Johnson, 2002). Emotional intelligence

'This study was supported by the Tobacco Relaled Diseases Research Program of the Universityof California, Office of the President (Grani #9DT-0174). and the University of Southern CaliforniaTransdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center (TTURC), funded by the National Institutes of Health(Grant #P50CA8473).

Address correspondence to Dennis R. Trinidad, Ph.D.. MPH, Cancer Prevention and ControlProgram. University of California. San Diego. 9500 Gilman Dr., MC (WOl. La Jolla, CA 92093.E-mail: dtrinidad@ucsd.edu

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1698 Trinidad eta!.

is conceptualized as the "ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion;the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought: the ability tounderstand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions" (Mayerand Saiovey, 1997, p. 10). As tbe field of El research continues to grow, the relationship ofEl with specific healtb behaviors and risk factors requires further clarilication.

Adolescence represents a time of vast changes in one's life. Tbese changes can lead toturmoil in many domains of an adolescent's life and during this period tbey are more at riskof experimenting witb maladaptive behaviors, such as smoking {Jessor and Jessor. 1977).Tbis period of life may be even more tumultuous for adolescents who are acculturating tothe general, mainstream U.S. culture. Acros.s various ethnic groups, acculturation to themainstream U.S. culture (e.g.. increase in English language use, increase in eating tradi-tional American food, and celebration of holidays, etc.) has been identified as a risk factorfor bealth-compromising bebaviors in adolescents, including smoking (Unger et al., 2000;Epstein et al., 1996). As people of varying cultural backgrounds come into contact witb themainstream U.S. culture, attempts to coexist with and/or conform to tbe new culture canlead individuals to change tbeir social behavior, attitudes, and beliefs. As students accultur-ate to tbe mainstream U.S. culture and attempt to navigate between the two cultures, tbeymay perceive smoking bebavior less as a social consequence, thus putting tbemselves at anincreased risk for smoking. Beginning smoking is a complex process involving perception,interpretations, awareness of options, and weighing and judging decisions. Because of tbeemotional processing skills tbat comprise El we suspect tbat high El buffers the risk ofperceiving low social consequences associated with smoking more for those wbo are moreacculturated to the mainstream U.S. culture. Understanding the differences of associationsbetween El and perceptions of the social consequences of smoking (PSC) across accultura-tion level may help in designing improved cross-cultural smoking prevention programs foradolescents.

MethodsThe data described in tbis article are from the baseline portion of a longitudinal school-basedexperimental trial of smoking prevention strategies in a multicultural, urban population ofadolescents in Southern California, and was part of the University of Southern California'sTransdiciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center. Latino and Asian adolescents were over-sampled. A measure of emotional intelligence was administered to a subset of students fromthe control condition of tbe main prevention trial. Analyses were performed on tbis subsetof students.

Subjects

Subjects were 416 sixtb-grade adolescents wbo provided active parental consent and studentassent from public middle scbools in Ibe greater Los Angeles area in 2()()l. representinga 79% response rate from 529 eligible students. This sample population bad a mean age11.3 years and was 53% male. Tbe ethnic distribution was 32% Latino. 29% Asian/PacificIslander, 13% White, 19% Multiethnic, and 6% Other. Tbe schools from which the studentswere sampled were selected due to their bigb percentages of ethnic minority populations.

Procedure

Students completed an initial 160-item paper-and-pencil survey measuring smoking-relatedrisk factors, in their classrooms during a single class period (45-50 minutes). During another

Emotional Intelligence. Acctilturation, and Smoking Risk 1699

classroom session several weeks after the baseline sut^ey. students completed a measure ofEl (about 45-50 minutes).

Measures

Emotional intelligence. The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale, Adolescent Version{AMEIS) (Mayer et al., 1997) was employed to assess the El ofthe participants. A thoroughde.scription of this te.st and how it is scored can he found in Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey(1999). Briefly. Ihc AMEIS is a competence-hascd mea.sure consisting of four branchesassessing an individual's ability to perceive, assimilate, understand, and manage emotionin himself/herself and in others. In this study, the AMEIS was shortened by eliminating theDesigns subscale ofthe Emotional Identification branch and by excluding the AssimilatingEmotions branch (assessing one's ability to generate emotions). This was due to timerestrictions at schools. Thus, we included only the Emotional Identification, UnderstandingEmotions, and Managing Emotion branches. Exploratory factor analysis revealed that thisabbreviated measure of El, consisting of these three branches of El, still formed an overallEl factor similar to Mayer et al.'s (1999) overall El model and one used in previous work byTrinidad and Johnson (2002). Work by Sullivan (1999) also utilized a similar abbreviatedEl measure and found it to be reflective ofthe overall AMEIS. A critical evaluation oftheconstruct of El, as measured by the AMEIS. conducted by Ciarrochi, Chan, and Caputi(2000) showed the AMEIS to be a valid measure of El.

As an "intelligence" per se, El hinges on the conception that certain emotional tasks orproblems have answers that can be judged either correct or incorrect (Mayer et al., 1999,2(X)3). To obtain the norms used to score the AMEIS consensus scoring was employed. Thisis the standard recommended scoring method based on norms of reference groups studiedby Mayer et al. (1999). Since Latino and Asian students were underrepresented in Mayeret al/s (1999) sample used to create reference norms, we computed norms based on thecurrent sample. Following the procedure described by Mayer et al. (1999), each student'sresponse was weighted by the proportion ofthe sample giving the same response. Subtotalsfor each branch were summed. Branch totals were then summed to obtain an aggregateAMEIS .score.

Acculturation. To measure acculturation, we used the recently developed Acculturation,Habits, and Interests Multicultural Scale (AHIMSA) that was previously validated in a largetnultiethnic sample of adolescents in the greater Los Angeles area (linger et at., 2002). Thisbrief, multidimensional measure of acculturation asses.sed aspects of ethnic interaction,cultural heritage, and ethnic behaviors from the perspective of an early adolescent. Sampleitems from the 8-itcm AHIMSA scale include. "I am tnost comfortable being with peoplefrom .. .'* "My best friends are from ...," and "The food I eat at home is from...'" Forced-choice response options were: "The United States," "The country my family is from,""Both," and "Neither." The total number of 'The United States" responses indicates therespondent's United States Orientation score. The score for this scale ranged from 0 to 8.Because of our hypothesis, we used the U.S. Orientation score.

Perceived Social Consequences of Smoking. Perceived social consequences of smoking(PSC) was an index score comprised of eight variables measuring a student's perception ofthe social outcomes of smoking (alpha — 0.66). Variables included items such as "Smokingcigarettes is one way to lose friends who are nonsmokers" and "Smoking cigarettes makeskids look cool." Possible responses were rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale with high

1700 Trinidad etal.

scores indicating a greater perception of negative social consequences (i.e.,. high scores aremore desirable). The range of responses was 11 to 32. This measure was contained withinthe baseline tobacco use survey that was designed to assess smoking behaviors, attitudes,beliefs and demographics.

Statistical A nalyses

Multiple regression analyses were performed to assess the interaction between El and theAHIMSA U.S. Orientation scale on PSC. Analyses included main effects for El, main ef-fects for the AHIMSA U.S. Orientation scale, and El x AHIMSA U.S. Orientation scaleinteraction terms. The interaction variable was created by multiplying the centered El vari-able with the centered AHIMSA variable. Relevant covariates were several demographicvariables, including age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (ratioof number of peopleper room in a home), English language use (3-point Likert-type scale of language spokenat home ranging from "'English only" to "Only another language"), and self-^reported as-sessment of overall grades received in school last year (e.g.. mostly A's, mostly A's and Bs,mostly B's, etc.). English language use was included in analyses because it is correlatedwith the U.S. Orientation scale of the AHIMSA. Self-reported grades were included inanalysesasaproxy for IQ. Previous research has shown El to be related to lQ (Mayer et al.,1999). All analyses were performed using SAS version 8.1 (2001).

Results

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The sample population of 416 adolescents had a mean age 11.3 years and was 53% female.The ethnic distribution was 32% Hispanic/Latino, 29% Asian/Pacific Islander, 13% White,19% Multiethnic, and 6% Other.

Gender Differences in El, U.S. Orientation, and PSC

Unadjusted mean score on the AMEIS for girls was significantly higher than for boys(59.16 vs. 57,14; p — 0,03). Girls reported receiving higher grades in school than boysip < 0.01). No other significant differences by gender were found in PSC or the AHIMSAU.S. Orientation scale.

Acculturative Variation in the Association Between AMEIS Score and PSC

Table 1 contains information from a regression model and shows the significant associationbetween El, AHIMSA U.S. Orientation scale, and PSC from multiple regression analyses[Overall model: F( 11 - 5.17, MS - 58.43. MSE - 11,31, /? < 0.001 ]. The numbers shownin the table are standardized Beta coefficients.

Main Effects of Emotional lntcllii;encc. Higher El scores on the AMEIS were associatedwith greater negative PSC in the model testing for an interaction between U.S. OrientationandEK/; <0.01).

Main Effects of AHIMSA U.S. Orientation Scale. Orientation to the U.S. culture was neg-atively associated with PSC (p < 0.05).

Enwtiotiat Intellii'ence. Acculturation, and Smoking Risk 1701

Table 1US acculturation differences in emotional intelligence on the percep-

tions of the negative social consequences of smoking

Main Variables of InterestU.S. orientationEmotional intelligenceU.S. Orientation x emotional intelligence

CovariatesAgeGenderSocioeconomic statusLanguage spoken at homeGrades received in schoolEver tried cigarettesPerceived social norms about smokingPerceived peer attitudes about smoking

Std./i

-.124*.167*.181*

.075-.026

.084

.134*-.087-.176*

.016-.105*

/J-value

.030

.002

.001

.166

.630

.122

.019

.120

.001

.774

.054

Overall model ; F ( l l ) = 5.17, M S = 5 8 . 4 3 . M S E = 11.31; /) < O.(X)1;0.15; 'p < .05.

Interactions Between El and U.S. Orientation Scale on PSC. As hypothesized, the El xU.S. Orientation interaction temi was significant (/; < 0.01), suggesting that the protectiveeflect of El on PSC is stronger for those more U.S. oriented vs. less U.S. oriented.

DiscussionThere is growing evidence that emotional intelligence may protect against adolescent smok-ing and .smoking risk factors (Trinidad et al., 2002, 2004a, 2004b). Our results suggest thatthe mental ability skills of El (emotional identification, understanding, management) con-tribute to the increased perceptions of social consequences, particularly for those are U.S.acculturated. Past research has shown that those with high El perceived greater negativesocial consequences associated with smoking (Trinidad et a!.. 2004a, 2004b). Previous re-search has also shown that those more U.S. acculturated were more likely to smoke (Ungeret al.. 2000; Epstein et al., 1996). It is possible that highly U.S. acculturated students mayhave smoked more in part because their perceptions of the negative social consequences ofsmoking were low. However, our findings suggest that, for those who are more acculturatedto the mainstream U.S. culture, having high El contributes to increased views of smokingas a social consequence. Those who were U.S. acculturated with low El. on Ihe other hand,may not have been as perceptive of such social consequences. Eurthennore, attempts byadolescents to conform to the U.S. culture might have led to increased stress, which waspossibly mitigated by high El.

Individual El scores are weighted by the sample population and thus suggest that theassociation between El and smoking risk factors may differ for a multiethnic sample relativeto a more homogeneous one. However, associations between El and smoking risk factorsremained significant when we utilized norms from Mayer et al.'s (1997) predominantlyWhite (79%), suburban, adolescent sample. This suggests that El may be a construct that

1702 Trinidad etal.

cuts across cultures. In this case, it is possible that perceptions and actions consideredemotionally intelligent among adolescent.s from White, suburban cultures are very similarto what would be considered emotionally intelligent among multiethnic cultures. It shouldalso be noted that our results remained significant even when controlling for ethnicity, butfor sake of model parsimony we decided to not include the ethnicity dummy variables inour final, presented results.

Study's Limitations

Our measure of El may not completely reflect all of its aspects because we shortenedthe Emotional Identification branch by removing the Designs subscale and excluded thewhole Assimilating Emotions branch. The Designs subscale involved students identifyingemotions in abstract art and the Assimilating Emotions branch involved students generatingvarious emotions. Both were excluded primarily due to time constraints within classrooms.Furthermore, in our previous work we discovered that these were particularly difficulttasks to comprehend for those with limited English proficiency or English as a secondlanguage. Though we acknowledge that our abbreviation of the AMEIS may have alteredthe generally accepted mental ability model of El, as well as lowered the alpha for theEmotional Identification branch, factor analyses indicated that the abbreviated version weemployed was still very similar to (Mayer et al., 1990). Also, causal inferences from thisstudy should be treated with caution because of its cross-sectional design.

Implications

Despite El being a relatively new empirical construct, evidence of a protective link betweenEl and smoking-related factors is beginning to increase (Trinidad ct ai., 2002,2()04a, 2004b).With the emerging trend within tobacco research towards positive and protective factors,our findings regarding a trend towards the protective role of El against smoking intentionsis encouraging. Smoking cigarettes is a complex behavior involving a myriad of variables(e.g., social networks, health beliefs, genetics, etc.) and many adolescent smoking riskfactors cannot be changed, such as ethnicity and socioeconomic status. However, El is amodifiable factor that can be improved (i.e.. it can be taught) (Mayer etal., 1997), and thus,may help to curb future adolescent smoking behaviors, particularly for those who are U,S.acculturated.

As adolescent smoking prevention programs evolve, adding novel El-enhancing com-ponents to future prevention programs may lead to increased effectiveness. Increasingperceptions of negative social consequences associated with smoking are generally tar-geted by social infiuences based-tobacco prevention programs (Hansen and Graham. 1991;Mackinnon et al., 1991). and our findings suggest that adding an El component to socialinHuences-based prevention programs may increase their efficacy, particularly for thosewho are U.S. acculturated. As the dynamics of the U.S. population shift and become moreculturally diverse, it becomes increasingly important to identify protective variables, as wellas the critical necessary conditions for them to operate, and to design adolescent smokingprevention programs that will be more effective for adolescents of diverse ethnic and culturalbackgrounds.

AcknowledgmentsWe wish to express our thanks to Drs. Peter Salovey. John Mayer, and David Caruso forallowing us to use the AMEIS and sharing their ideas and research with us; and Gaylene

Emotional Intelligence. Acculturation, and Smoking Ri.sk 1703

Gunning and Steven Cen for their help with data collection and management. To them andall others who contrihuted to this work, we are very grateful and extend our heartfelt thanks.

L'intelligence emotiunnelle et l^acculturatiun aux Etats-Unis : I>es interactions sur lesconsequences suciales pert̂ ues du tahagisnie dans de Jennes adolescentes

RESUME

Un haut niveau de 1' intelligence emotionnelle (IE) est associe a une diminution du tahagismechez les adolescents. L"acculturation aux Etats-Unis est un facteur de risque du tahagismeadolescent. L'lE scrvirait de tampon entre I'acculturation aux Etats-Unis et la perceptiondes consequences sociales (PCS) du tahagisme.

L'lE consiste en la capacite de 1) precisement percevoir. evaluer, et exprimer lesemotions; 2) acceder aux et/ou generer des sentiments en facilitant des idees; 3) compren-dre ies emotions et la connaissance emotionnelle; et 4) reguler les emotions. L'lE (mesureepar rEchellc d'Intelligence Emotionnelle Multifacteur). Tacculturation, et les PCS ont eteevaluees parmi 416 enfants en 2001 enCalifoniie du sud (47%' gargons; agemoyen = 11,3ans; 32% hispaniques/latins, 29% asiatiques/des lies de I'Ocean Pacifique, 13% hlancs,19% muitiethniques. 6% autres).

II y a eu une interaction significative entre TIE et I'acculturation americaine (p <0.01). suggerant que ceux avec un haut niveau de TIE per^oivent plus de consequences so-ciales associees au tabagisme. Tandis que la population americaine continue a se diversifier,1' identification de variahles protectrices et la creation de programmes de prevention efficacespour ies adolescents d"origines ethniques et culturcllcs diverses deviennent importantes.

Mots-clefs emotion, intelligence, tabac. adolescence, acculturation

La inteligencia emocional y la aculturacion para los Estados Unidos: interacciones enel percibido consecuencias sociales asociadas con el fumur en los adolescentes jovenes

RESUMEN

La alta inteligencia emocional (por sus siglas en Ingles El), se asocia con la disminucion defumar en los adolescentes. La aculturacion para los Estados Unidos es un factor de riesgopara fumar en los adolescentes. Al alta El puede mitigar la relacion entre acuituracion paralos Estados Unidos y percepciones de las consecuencias sociales del fumar (conocidos porsus siglas en Ingles como PSC. Perceptions of the Social Consequences).

El es la habilidad para: exactamente percibir. evaluar y expresar emocion; accedery/o generar sentimientos en facilitar pensamientos; entender la emocion y el conocimientoemocional; y regular emociones. El (medido por el Multifactor Emocional en la Escala deInteligencia) aculturacion y PSC fueron evaluados por 416 alumnos del sexto grado en 2001en el sur de California (47% ninos; edad promedio = 11.3 afios, 32% hispanos/latinos, 29%asiaticos/islefio del pacifico, 13% blancos, 19% multietnico, 6% otro).

Habia una interaccion significativa entre El y aculturacion en los Estados Unidos{p < 0.01) sugiriendo que aquellos con un alto nivel de El perciben mas consecuenciassociales asociadas con el fumar. Mientras la poblacion de los Estados Unidos se diversificai nee sante mente. viene a ser importante identificar y disenar diferentes programas efectivosde prevencion para adolescentes de diversas razas y culturas de acuerdo a su origen.

Palabras Claves emocion, inteligencia, tabaco, adolescencia, aculturacion

1704 Trinidad et al.

THE AUTHORS

Dennis R.Trinidad. Ph.D.. MPH, Dennis, Trinidad, is an As-sistant Research Scientist at the University of California at SanDiego's Cancer Prevention and Control Program. He receivedhis Ph.D. in Health Behavior Research from the Universityof Southern California Keck School of Medicine's Institutefor Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research andTransdiciplinary Tobacco Use Research Center. His researchinterests Include understanding social and cultural influenceson adolescent health risk behaviors, and approaches to preven-tion of behavioral risks for disease. His current work focuseson ethnic disparities in smoking prevention.

Jennifer B. Linger, Ph.D., Dr. Unger is an Assistant Pro-fessor of Preventive Medicine at the University of South-ern California Keck School of Medicine. She is an Asso-ciate Director of the USC Transdisciplinary Tobacco UseResearch Center (TTURC). an NIH-funded center thatstudies adolescent smoking prevention across cultures. Dr.Unger's research focuses on the psychosocial and culturaldetemiinanis of health behaviors, including acculturation,cultural values, and social integration.

Chih-Ping Chou. Ph.D., Dr. Chou received his Ph.D. inResearch Methods and Evaluation. Graduate School ofEducation, University of California, Los Angeles. He iscurrently an Associate Professor of Research in the De-partment of Preventive Medicine at University of South-ern California. Dr. Chou has a well-established recordon the application and development of statistical mod-els and research methodologies. His major research ac-tivities have been in the areas of multivariate statis-tical analyses, especially structural equation modelingand statistical computing. In addition, he is also ac-tively involved in of substance-use prevention and treat-ment research with extensive experience in the de-

sign of community trials, program evaluation., research methodology., and statisticalmodeling.

Emotional Intelligence, Acculturation, and Smoking Risk J 705

C. Anderson Johnson. Ph.D.. is the Sidney GarfieldProfessor of Preventive Medicine at the Keck Schoolof Medicine and Director of the Institute tor HealthPromotion and Disease Prevention Research. His re-search focuses on understanding the determinants ofhealth-related lifestyles and approaches to preventionof behavioral risks for disease. His areas of concen-tration include tobacco, alcohol, and other drug use,nutritional practices physical exercise, and communi-cation strategies for health promotion. Dr. Johnson isPrincipal Investigator for "Lowering Smoking and En-vironmental Tobacco Smoke in Pacific Rim Youth" aprogram project funded by the Tobacco. Related Dis-

ease Research Program and Director of the Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Centerfunded by the National Cancer Institute. National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the RobertWood Johnson Foundation. He is also Director of the China Seven Cities Study, a study ofhealth-related lifestyles and approaches to tobacco use prevention and control in China. Dr.Johnson received his B.A. and Ph.D. in Social Psychology from Duke University.

GlossaryEmotional Intelligence. Defined by Mayer and Salovey (1997, p.lO) as the "ability to

perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generatefeelings when they facilitate though; the ability to understand emotion and emotionalknowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions."

Acculturation. Defined by Berry (1980) as the process by which foreign-born individualsand their children acquire and accommodate the values, beliefs, language, customs,and mannerisms of the new country in which they live, including behaviors such assmoking.

Perceived Social Consequences of Smoking. The perception that smoking cigarettes is as-sociated with negative social outcomes (e.g.. losing friends).

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