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Ugwoke Oluchi C.

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER GUIDANCE

ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION OF

APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN NIGER STATE

MUSA, ABDULLAHI

PG/Ph.D/11/58880

2

EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER

GUIDANCE ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS

ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN

NIGER STATE

BY

MUSA, ABDULLAHI

PG/Ph.D/11/58880

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS,

FACULTY OF EDUCATION,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

MARCH, 2015.

i

TITLE PAGE

EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER GUIDANCE

ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION OF

APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN NIGER STATE

BY

MUSA, ABDULLAHI

PG/Ph.D/11/58880

A Ph.D THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, FACULTY OF EDUCATION,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA, IN FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF

PHILOSOPHY IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

MARCH, 2015

ii

APPROVAL PAGE

This thesis has been approved for the Department of Educational

Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

BY

________________________ ______________________

Asso. Prof J.C. Omeje Internal Examiner

Supervisor

__________________________ ________________________

External Examiner Prof. C.J.A Onwuka

Head of Department

__________________________

Prof. U. C. Umo

Dean Faculty of Education

iii

CERTIFICATION

Musa, Abdullahi a postgraduate student in the Department of Educational

Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with

Registration Number PG\Ph.D\11\58880, has satisfactorily completed the

requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in

Guidance and Counselling.

The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in

part or full for any other degree or diploma of this university or any other

university.

_______________________ _____________________

MUSA, ABDULLAHI ASSO. PROF. J.C. OMEJE

(STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR)

iv

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my dear mother Hajiya Ramatu Idrisu Musa who

is one of my benefactors that laboured and toiled but could not see the fruit of her

joy.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A work of this magnitude cannot be shouldered alone but collectively

critiqued by well-meaning academia. First on the score list is the researcher’s

supervisor Asso. Prof. J.C. Omeje, that lifted him thrice in the threshold of despair

and abandonment during the attainment of this scholastic achievement. This is

through the supervisor’s benevolent and timely reconstruction of grammatical

errors, exposing the hidden facts and re-directing the researcher’s ideas into an

acceptable fountain. Infact, the researcher is short of vocabulary to express his

gratitude, thank you, sir.

The researcher is indebted to these notable scholars Dr. A. N Okolo, Prof. P.

N. Onwasoanya, Dr. T. O. Oforka and Dr. J. A. Ukonze all of the Faculty of

Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their constructive criticisms during

the stage of proposal defense.

The researcher is grateful to these outstanding scholars Prof. A. A Nwosu,

Dr. J. I. Anyanwu , Dr. E. N. Nwosu and Dr. F. M. Onu all of the Faculty of

Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their positive criticisms and helpful

suggestions during the phase of seminar presentation.

The researcher also acknowledges these scholars for validation of data

collection instruments, Dr. J. Jiya of the Department of Education and Counselling

Psychology, Faculty of Arts and Education, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida

University Lapai, Niger State-Nigeria. Dr. (Mrs) J.U. Eze of Department of

Educational Foundations and Dr. J. J. Ezeugwu of the Department of Science

Education all in Faculty of Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

The researcher also recognizes his Dean Professor U.C. Umo and his Head

of Department Prof. C.J.A Onwuka who worked tirelessly and humbly to ensure

vi

that quality is maintained in the faculty of education sub sector of the University.

This they achieved by showering love, care and intelligent corrections and

suggestions both directly and indirectly. The researcher is most grateful for your

touch to his life. May the Almighty God continue his good tiding on you? Amen.

The researcher wish to express his gratitude to those who provided moral

support and encouragement to enable the work completed, especially Barrister

Hamza Muazu and Abubakar Alhaji Dauda of the Ministry of Tertiary Education

Minna, Niger State. His gratitude extends to those who grapple with absentee head

of house hold, his wife, children and family members during his seemingly sojourn

for academic fulfillment. Finally, Almighty God for giving him good health to

accomplish this task.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page

TITLE PAGE I

APPROVAL PAGE II

CERTIFICATION III

DEDICATION IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT V

TABLE OF CONTENT VII

LIST OF TABLES XI

LIST OF FIGURE XIII

APPENDICES XIV

ABSTRACT XV

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 11

Purpose of the Study 12

Significance of the Study 13

Scope of the Study 15

Research Questions 15

Hypotheses 16

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 18

Conceptual Framework 19

Concept of Employment 19

viii

Concept of Skill Acquisition 22

Concept of Bakery Skills 24

Concept of Soap Making Skills 29

Concept of Apprentice 32

Concept of Career Guidance 33

Conceptual Relationship 36

Theoretical Framework 38

Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (1980) 38

Anderson ACT-R (1983) 41

Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982) 43

Career Guidance Theories 45

Accident Theory 45

Self-Efficacy Theory 46

Review of Empirical Studies 47

Career Guidance and Skill Acquisitions 47

Gender and Performance 49

Age and Skill Acquisition 52

Gender and Skill Acquisition 53

Summary of Literature Review 57

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 59

Design of the study 59

Area of the Study 60

Population of the Study 60

ix

Sample and Sampling Technique 61

Instrument for Data Collection 61

Validation of the Instrument 62

Reliability of the Instrument 62

Experimental Procedure 63

Control of Extraneous Variables 63

Method of Data Collection 64

Method of Data Analysis 65

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 66

Summary of the Findings 85

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS 87

Discussion of Results 87

Conclusion 90

Implications of the Findings 90

Recommendations 91

Limitations of the Study 92

Suggestions for Further Study 93

Summary of the Study 93

References 96

Appendices 105

x

LIST OF TABLES

CONTENTS Page

1. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after

Training in Dreyfus Model and those in the Control Group 66

2. Summary of ANCOVA in the Mean Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores between

Soap Making Apprentices after Training and those without Training in

Dreyfus Model 68

3. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores by Gender of Apprentices in Soap Making

Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 69

4. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Scores by gender (Male

and female) of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 69

5. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores between Young Adults and Older Adults

Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 71

6. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Scores between Young Adults’ and

Older Adults Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 72

7. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and

Age of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 73

8. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Interaction Effect Scores between

Gender and Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 75

9. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of Apprentices in Bakery Skills after

Training in Dreyfus Model 76

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10. Summary of ANCOVA in the Mean Pre-Test and Post-Test Score between Bakery

Skills Apprentices after Training and those without Training in Dreyfus Model 77

11. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores by gender of Apprentices in Bakery Skills

after Training in Dreyfus Model 78

12. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills Scores between Male and Female

Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 80

13. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores between Young Adults and Older Adults

Apprentices in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 81

14. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills scores between Young Adults and

Older Adults Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 82

15. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and

Age of Apprentices in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 83

16. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills Interaction Effect Scores between

Gender and Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 84

xii

LIST OF FIGURE

CONTENT Page

1. Conceptual Relationship Between Independent Variable and both the Dependable

Variables\Intervening Variables of Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition 37

xiii

APPENDICES

CONTENTS Page

APPENDIX A Unemployment Rates by State (1999-2008) 105

APPENDIX B Unemployment Rates by Age, Group and Sector (1999-2008) 106

APPENDIX C Unemployment Rate by State and Gender (2010) 107

APPENDIX D Unemployment Rate by Level of Education, Age, Gender and

Sector (2010) 108

APPENDIX E Unemployment Projections to 2015 109

APPENDIX F Time-Table of Weekly Training Activities of Dreyfus Model

Training on Bakery Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 110

APPENDIX G Time-Table of Weekly Training Activities of Dreyfus Model

Training on Soap Making Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 111

APPENDIX H Treatment Packages - The Detail of Dreyfus Model Training

Programme on Bakery Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 112

APPENDIX I Treatment Packages - The Detail of Dreyfus Model Training

Programme on Soap Making Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 120

APPENDIX J Dreyfus Model Bakery Skills Acquisition Test (DMBSAT) on

Acquisition for Apprentices 130

APPENDIX K Dreyfus Model Soap Making Skills Acquisition Test (DMSMSAT)

Skills Acquisition for Apprentices 137

APPENDIX L Marking Scheme 144

APPENDIX M Introductory Letter to Proprietor of Skills Acquisition Centre 146

APPENDIX N Introductory Letter to Apprentices at Skills Acquisition 147

APPENDIX O Reliability Test Analysis 148

APPENDIX P Sample Attendance Certificate 150

APPENDIX Q Pretest and Posttest Data Analysis 151

xiv

ABSTRACT

The main thrust of this study is on the effect of Dreyfus Model Training of career guidance on

Soap Making and Bakery Skills acquisition of apprentices for employment in Niger State. The

model is divided into five stages: Novice, Advance Beginner, Competence, Proficient and

Expert. Eight research questions and eight null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significant

guided this work. The research design adopted for the study was the quasi experimental non

equivalent group in which a total of 168 apprentices were purposively sampled from four skills

acquisition centres in Minna. The two instruments used for collection of data from the

respondents were Bakery Skills Acquisition Test (BSAT) and Soap Making Skills Acquisition

Test (SMSAT), each instrument consist of 20 items segmented into five stages. The instrument

was validated by three experts in Guidance and Counselling, Science Education and Counselling

Psychology out of which two are from University of Nigeria, Nsukka and one from Ibrahim

Badamasi Babangida University Lapai, Niger State-Nigeria. The reliability of the instrument in

terms of internal consistency was based on a trial test conducted at Skills Acquisition Section of

Women Day College Minna with a sample size of 60 respondents, using the Cronbach Alpha

Statistics with an index of 0.81 for the BSAT instrument and 0.80 for the SMSAT instrument.

Four skills acquisitions centres were purposively sampled for both experimental group and the

control group. The experimental group for soap making skills is located at Chanchaga Skills

Acquisition Centre Minna while the control group is located at Saint Clement Skills Acquisition

Centre Minna. Whereas, the experimental group for bakery skills is located at Talba Youths

Skills Acquisition Centre Minna with the control group at Women Day Centre Minna. All the

four skills acquisition centres were pretested and post tested on the two instruments after

treatment by the researcher on Dreyfus Model Training. The data collected were analyzed using

mean, standard deviation and ANCOVA. The findings show that there was significant difference

between the mean achievement scores of apprentices after training on Dreyfus Model in soap

making and those without the training. Similarly, there was significance difference between the

mean achievement scores of apprentices after training on Dreyfus Model in bakery skills and

those without the training. Finally, there were no significant interaction effect scores differences

after training on Dreyfus Model in soap making skills and bakery skills of apprentices. These

findings were discussed alongside with their implications and recommendations. One

recommendation is for mass production of text books and learning materials for all levels and

forms of education. This will open a window of new opportunity to teachers and instructors of

skills acquisition centres to employ the Dreyfus Model training which has inherent advantage

because of its systematic approach to problem solving. Limitations encountered during the study

and suggestions for further studies highlighted.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

In Nigeria the birth of a child is heralded with fanfare and joy. The dream of any family is to

educate the child to acquire appropriate skills so as to contribute his quota to the development of

his society when employed. This view is further entrenched in the National Policy of Education

as encapsulated in one of the five main objective of Nigeria’s national development plan which

is the building of a land full of bright and opportunities for all citizens. To facilitate the

attainment of this objective, the skills acquisition at all levels had to be oriented towards meeting

the demands and aspirations for the common good of the society. In this direction, the

government operating the different levels of education is over burdened, especially with increase

in population to providing adequate infrastructural equipment and personnel for imparting the

required skills for national development. Therefore, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) goes

further to state that government welcomes and encourages the participation of local

communities, individual and other organizations that will lubricate the process of graduate

employment through the provision of learning materials in schools, establishment of institutions

and skills acquisition centres across the country (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).

An employed person is capable of effective participation in the development of the

society. According to International Labour Organization (ILO) as cited by European Union

Labour Force Survey (EULFS) (2006) employed persons are those aged 16-74years who during

the week of the survey performed work, even for just one hour in that week, for pay, profit or

family gain or were not at work but had a job or business from which they may be temporary

1

2

absent because of illness, holiday, industrial dispute and education\training. In another

perspective, Economic Concept (2012) sees employment as an engagement of a person in some

occupation, business, trade or profession. For the purposes of the work, employed person is any

person within the age range of 18-70years who works for himself or somebody during the period

of the survey. In Nigeria, 18 years is the entering point for voting in elections and entry to higher

institutions, while 70years is the highest retirement age in government sector in Nigeria. Self

employed implies working for yourself, family or employing others to work for you. While,

working for somebody connotes working for government, private organizations or individuals. In

Nigeria, the three tiers of government are the highest employer of labour followed by

multinational corporations and companies. However, the dream of any person if employed is to

effectively participate in the development of his society but the current state of graduate

unemployment turns the dream to a nightmare.

Unemployment signs are readily visible in our society but difficult to define as it is a very

complex phenomenon that involves issues related to that of lay-off workers, absentee employee

as a result of illness or students in school. The view point of unemployment in developed

countries varies from that of developing countries due to level of industrialization that

characterizes the society. According to International Labour Organization as cited by European

Union Labour Force Survey (2006), unemployed persons comprise persons aged 16-74 years

who are of three groups: (a) Without work during the week of the survey, that is neither had a

job nor were at work (for one hour or more) in paid employment or self-employment; (b)

currently available for work, that is, will be available for paid employment or self-employment

before the end of the two weeks following the week of the survey; (c) actively seeking work, that

is, had taken specific steps in the four week period ending with week of the survey to seek for

3

paid employment or self-employment or who found a job to start later, that is, within a period of

at most three months.

According to Rashma (2012) unemployment is a condition of joblessness for the period

of the survey. The joblessness should not be voluntary as some people avoid work due to

laziness. They are jobless not from necessity but from choice. This may include the idle rich and

poor persons who may not like to work. The same goes to the social parasite as beggars and

political thugs that are voluntarily jobless. Thus, unemployment is a case of involuntary failure to

get income-yielding and gainful work. The researcher’s operational definition of unemployment

is any person within the age range of 18-70 who is seeking for work but without acceptable

means of work during the survey period. Acceptable means of work in terms of legal status in

Nigeria and without criminal tendencies. The detail data on unemployment in Niger state and

other states in Nigeria base on different variables is illustrated by the National Bureau of

Statistics (see appendix A-E pages 120-124), Unemployment often leads to living below poverty

line that may due to the fact that the person lacks appropriate skills. Skills avail a person the

opportunity of employment in the labour market. The wages and emolument of the employed

person to a greater extent determines his socio-economic status or poverty line. Therefore, skills

are important to any labour market.

There exist divergent views as to what skills stand for, in the opinion of some scholars

skills enable people gain employment, Others feel everyone is born with one form of skill or the

other. According to European Union Programme (2011), skill is the ability to act in accordance

with well managed models of behavour, which enables the achievement of certain purpose or

aim. Furthermore, Skills can be both cognitive involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative

thinking and practical involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials tools and

4

instruments. Furthermore, in relation to competency in learning outcome, skill can be seen as the

practical learning outcome, knowledge as the learning input into skills development, attitude as

an acquired mode of behaviour influenced by internal and external motivation and characteristics

as a disposition related to innate talent.

In an attempt to provide an inter-disciplinary approach to the term skill, Green (2011)

asserts from political economy point of view that skill is a personal quality with three key

features namely: Productive, Expanded and Social (PES). In terms of being productive, skill is

productive of value in generating wealth when employed. Expandable implies that skills are

enhanced by training and development while social means that skills are socially determined.

This definition has a boundary which makes the concept functional for locating skill role in

economic, psychology and social systems. In economics it is significant to the changing

distribution of income while in sociology skills underpin class or stratification of the society and

in psychology as a human research practice.

In another opinion, Speelman (2005) Skills acquisition is seen as a specific form of

prolonged learning about a family of events. These come through many pairing of similar stimuli

with particular responses and in the process, a person can begin to develop knowledge

representation of how to respond to certain situations. This representation has some form of

privileged status in memory because they can be retrieved more easily and reliably than

memories of single events. Thus, any response that can be learned can potentially be refined with

practice given the right conditions. In addition, Speelman (2005) continues that the range of

behavior that can be considered to involve skills acquisition could potentially include all

responses that are not innate. In addition, skill is a task that is difficult to acquire which lead to

5

the notion that only those who have the patience to do simple things perfectly ever acquire the

skills to do difficult things easily.

Skills acquisition is a form of learning. The simple processes of skills acquisition

includes: observation, trial and error, practice, imitation, demonstration, listening, nasal

perception, tasting, reading, writing, and so forth either through formal education, non-formal

education and traditional education (Fafunwa, 2004). However, the complex processes of skills

acquisition are: interest, competition, cooperation, progress level and resting (Adeyemo, 1965

and Farrant, 2004). Thus, there is need for coordination between individual’s five senses and the

brain in order to acquire a skill.

The researcher views skills acquisition as an enriching inter play between the three

domains which are cognitive, psycho-motor and affective of individual towards increasing

productive capacity of the society. An enriched inter play implies the processes of acquiring

skills in school or out of school experiences. This is achieved by developing the learner’s innate

cognitive, manipulative abilities and attitude towards the needs of the society. These skills can

be acquired in a formal setting in the conventional schools or in an in formal setting as in a

master’s workshop, shade for example blacksmithing and pottery or in non formal setting as in

skills acquisition centres. There are dozens of these skills acquisition centre’s owned by

government, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) and individuals for apprentices in the

state that provide opportunities for skills acquisition in tailoring, soap making, knitting, food

production (like baking), welding, chalk and duster production, screen printing, paint

production, aquaculture and shoe making, among others.(Ministry of Youth and Strategy, 2013)

6

Youths are the apprentices that benefit mostly from these skills acquisition centers as they

are the bulk of the unemployed persons and if not engaged could lead to other vices in the

society like stealing. According to a report released by Economics Watch as cited by Agunbade

(2013), categorized youth into three groups these are: 15-19years (youngest adults); 20-24years

(young adults) and 24 > above (older adults). The apprentices in these skills acquisition centers

could be broadly divided into two; those aged 20years and below as young adults and above

20years as older adults.

In as much as various skills are acquired, those that satisfy the daily needs of the society

are bakery skills and soap making skills. While the former takes good care of the internal body

the latter takes care of the external body. However, the soaring price of bread and its sub-quality

due to the use of unaccepted ingredients such as preservatives and saccharine have deterred

people from taking bread which was once a staple food on different family’s table. Similarly, the

proliferation of local soap industries has seriously affected the quality of soap produced now.

The present day soap readily wastes away during use.

From the foregoing it is important to study the process of skills acquisition in soap

making and baking bread. The ingredients for the production of bread are flour, sugar, yeast, salt

and water among others. According to Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974) the specific skills

for baking of bread are creaming the yeast, mixing the dough, proving, firing, greasing and

baking in the oven. While the essential raw materials for soap are the fat, oil, lye and water. The

core skills in soap making are measurement, stirring, scenting, moulding, drying and cutting

(Deyo, 2008). However, there are certain skills that are useful for both, soap making and making

of bread which are often called the generic skills. The generic skills according to Human

Resources and Skills Development (2012) as regards documentation are; reading, document use,

7

oral communication, writing, and numeracy. While the thinking skills are; problem solving,

decision making, critical thinking, job task, planning, organization, use of memory and finding

solutions. Other skills are; working with others, computer use, continuous learning and note

taking. The complexity of life demands that these acquired skills needed to be refine on regular

basis.

There are several ways in which skills acquired can be refined. These ways of refining

skills lead to theories of skills acquisition. These theories can largely be grouped thus:

Refinement Strategy theories, Memory Retrieval theories and Blended theories. The Refinement

Strategy theories proposed that practice leads to performance improvement because practice has

the effect of refining procedures for performing a task. Examples of these theories are Anderson

Adaptive Control of Thought–Rational (ACT-R, 1983), Newell and Rosenblooms State of

Operator and Result (SOAR, 1982). In addition, the Connectionists Model involve network of

inter connected units, with each unit being activated by the firing pattern in units to which it is

connected. Once a unit is activated, it can pass on the activation to other unit (McClellard &

Rumelhart, 1986). While the Memory Retrieval theories viewed performance improvement as a

by-product of some consequences of practice. Some of these theories hold that practice leads to

greater knowledge for instance Logan’s INSTANCES theory (1988).

The Blended theories of skills acquisition have begun to blur the boundaries between

strategy refinement and memory retrieval performances as explanation of performance

improvement. Another model of this theory in skills acquisition is highlighted by Pena (2010) as

propose by two brothers Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus in 1980 named the Dreyfus Model of skills

acquisition which is a segment of this study. The original model has only five stages: which

include: Novice where the learner follows rules as they are given without context; Advance

8

Beginner in which the learner is limited to situational perception; Competence where the learner

develops perception of action in relation to goals; Proficient is the stage where learners develop

intuition to guide their decision and even able to develop their own rules. The Expertise stage is

where the learner develops analytical approach to a new problem.

These stages of Dreyfus model can be related to the process of bakery and soap making

skills acquisition in the sense that at novice stage the apprentice as a new comer learns the

utensils and equipment in the production of a final product while at advance beginner stage the

apprentice becomes conversant with the ingredients used in the skills acquisition centre for the

production of their products. At the competence stage the apprentice goes further to see that all

actions or procedures are directed towards a goal when learning the procedures in the production

of a final product of bread or soap. As the apprentice progresses to the proficient stage the

apprentices becomes familiar with practical processes of production of bread or soap and can

even guide other apprentices at the end. The individual can develop personal rules and

regulations based on peculiarities of circumstance. Finally, at the expertise stage the apprentice

can provide an analytical approach to common faults or problems in relation to the bread or soap

that is produced.

In any skill acquisition process, three variables are common and include: the instructor,

the skill and the apprentice. The apprentice could maximally attain the set goals with the active

participation of a guidance counsellor who offers career guidance to the apprentice. In the United

Kingdom, career guidance is usually referred to as career advice or career counselling (Institute

of Career Guidance, 2010). The focus of career counselling is generally on issues such as career

exploration, career change, personal career development and other related issues. It may include

wide spread professional activities which focus on supporting people in dealing with career

9

related challenges both preventively and in difficult situations (such as unemployment). Career

counsellors deal with different clients, such as adolescents seeking to explore career options,

experienced professionals contemplating a career change, parents who want to return to the

world of work after child bearing or people seeking for employment.

An elaborated and all encompassing definition of career guidance was collectively put

forward by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, World Bank,

European Community and adopted by Institute of Career Guidance (2010) to refer to services

and activities intended to assist individuals of any age and at any point throughout their life to

make educational, training and occupational choice and to manage their careers. Such service

may be found in Schools, Universities, Colleges, training institutions, public employment

service, work place, voluntary or community sector and private sector. The activities may take

place on an individual or group basis and may be face-face or at a distance (including helps line

and web based service). They include career information, counselling, interviews, career

education programmes (to help individuals develop their awareness, opportunity and career

management skill) task programmes to sample work options before choosing them, work search

programmes on the internet, and transition service from school to the word of work (Institution

for Career Guidance, 2010), Warwick institution for Employment Research, 2005) and Hansen,

2006).

Career guidance denotes offering advice and information about careers that helps

individuals’ especially young people, decides on a career and also teaches them to pursue their

chosen career. In addition, in developed countries most career service provides access to a

sophisticated career guidance computer software packages formerly called prospectus for

employment. In recent times resume template on online job portal are preferred because it is

10

easier and offers practical solution to recruitment agency, professional Curriculum vitae writers

or job search. In another vein, Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and

Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) in Australia (2004) views Career guidance as an inclusive term that

has been used to describe a range of interventions including career education and counselling,

that help people to move from a general understanding of life and work to a specific

understanding of the realistic life, learning and work options that are open to them. Career

guidance is often thought to incorporate career information, career education and career

counselling. Career guidance represent an organized system of social and professional work on

providing continuing help to the individual for the entire duration of his career development, free

choice of direction and orientation in education and professional activity, with the goal of

achieving a professional identity, in accordance with personal traits and the labour market

demand for specific occupation (Ivan, 2013).

In the opinion of the researcher, career guidance consists of providing a learning

environment in which an individual’s innate life skills develop to expert stage and be able to

train other apprentices to become expert for the labour market. The learning environment is

enlarging to include not only school but also workplace in which the labourer not only attains the

stage of expertise but encourage and train other apprentices to reach the stage of expertise

themselves. It has not been empirically established that Dreyfus Model can be used in career

guidance for skills acquisition although some of its identified uses are assessing progress in the

development of skills, helping to define a desired level of competence, supporting progress in the

development of skills and helping to determine when a learner is ready to train others in relation

to apprenticeship. While commenting on skills acquisition Pena (2010) asserted that the Dreyfus

Model has successfully been used to develop problem solving skills in medical education among

11

nurses. North (2008) is of the opinion that most people do not get beyond the competence stage

of the Dreyfus Model at most skills acquisition process including those in their everyday work.

This is basic human traits that do not like to expend energy once the outcome has been achieved,

and for most activities the outcomes is simply getting the job done.

Gender related difference is one factor that influences the outcome of learning or skills

acquisition. On one hand Olukayode (2008) showed that male students performed better than

their female counterpart in environmental education. Similarly, Oluwatoyin and Adesina (2007)

opined that there is significant difference between male and female achievement in mathematics.

On the other hand Gambari and Fabgemi (2008) reported no gender differences on performance

of pupils on comp graphics software in mathematics. Furthermore, Nsofor (2007) and Umeh

(2007) separately revealed that there is no significant difference in gender regarding achievement

of learners. Salahudeen (2012) finding revealed that age and gender difference was found to have

no significant effect on the mean achievement of the experimental group. These divergent views

on the influence of gender and age on learners provides the need to research on the place of

gender and age on the effect of Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skill acquisition of

apprentices in Niger State of Nigeria

Statement of the Problem

Globalization in terms of communication and automation in the labour market has led to

unemployment especially of youths who have not acquired any skill. Unemployment is a spring-

board for poverty and low standard of living in our society. In order to stem the ever increasing

low standard of living due to unemployment, skills acquisition centers have been established by

12

the three-tiers of government, Non-Governmental Organizations, (NGO’S) and individuals to

complement the conventional school system of primary, secondary and tertiary schools.

These skills acquisition centres avails apprentices with skills of baking, soap making,

knitting, shoes making and so on. They often employ familiar models such as Adaptive Control

of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) which lays emphasis on memory and regular practice in order to

refine or acquire new skills while, the State of Operator and Result (SOAR) places much

emphasis on memory inorder to acquire a new skill or modify the existing skill. On a similar path

the Dreyfus Model not only gives premium to memory and regular practice or procedure but

goes further to establish five stages in which a new skill is modified or acquired.

The Dreyfus model, in addition, provides the characteristics of each stage of the model

and how the apprentices can be assisted to graduate to each of the stages in the model from

simple to complex knowledge or skills. It also provide the apprentices with analyticd knowledge

to be able to identify and solve any problem that arise during or after the production of the

products; be it soap or bread. Therefore, the question that needs to be answered is, what is the

effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on skills acquisition of apprentices in skills

acquisition centres in Niger State of Nigeria.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study is to determine the effect of Dreyfus Model training in

skills acquisition of apprentices for career guidance in bakery and soap making skills.

Specifically, the study seeks to:

1. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

13

2. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition by gender of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

3. Determine the mean achievement scores differences in soap making skills acquisition of

young adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

4. Determine the mean achievement interaction scores in soap making skills acquisition

between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

5. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group.

6. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition by gender of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

7. Determine the mean achievement scores differences in bakery skills acquisition of young

adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

8. Determine the mean achievement interaction scores in bakery skills acquisition between

gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.

Significance of the Study

The findings of the study would be of immense significance to teachers at all levels of

education, stakeholders in education like curriculum planners and research agency, proprietors of

skills acquisition centres, counsellors and the academia.

Theoretically, the findings of the study will contribute to the catalogue of existing

literature on skills acquisition and open-up a new window of skills acquisition from the Dreyfus

14

model that has not been thoroughly explored in Nigeria relatively to other models. This is

because the Dreyfus model provides for stage by stage guidance of the apprentice by their

mentor\ counselor. The mean achievement scores of apprentices exposed to the Dreyfus Model

training of career guidance and those not exposed to the model when published in periodicals

like journals will enhance acceptability of the model.

The results of the study from the mean achievement scores of varying age and gender would

be significant to teachers or instructors at all levels of education especially those at the skills

acquisition centres because there is no level in which some students or learners are not expected

to acquire a skill. In addition, students are being exposed to skills in all subjects of their schools.

The findings of this study if published will be of use to stakeholder of education like

ministry of education who will bring to focus the Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skills

acquisition in their forum such as workshops and seminars. This is with a view of implementing

the result and content of the model to the teaching industry with particular reference to informal

education.

The result of the study when published in text-books and periodicals will make the

curriculum planners to see the significance of the Dreysfus Model to skills acquisition so that it

will be integrated into core curriculum of learners at the various level of education. This is with

particular to basic level of education so that the students acquire skills at an early age on bakery

and soap making skills.

The finding of the study will provide direction to research agency in the country to

organize various workshops and seminars in order to discuss the role of Dreysfus Model to

15

learning practical skills. In addition, to encourage other academicians to undertake research on

the model

By extension, proprietors of vocational and skills acquisition centre will be better

informed on the need to diversify the model of skills acquisition based on the mean achievement

scores of the Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skills acquisition in relation to bakery and

soap making. This will help establish the relationship between Dreyfus Model as well as

differences in results obtained and in the final analysis beef-up the quality of apprentices

produced from the skills acquisition centers.

Scope of the Study

The study would be delimited to the Dreyfus Model of skills acquisition which is discretely

divided into five stages i.e. Novice who only follows rules and regulation; Advance Beginner

with increase understanding of work environment; Competence captures the goal of each

activity; Proficient can perform all experimental procedures and Expert is capable of analytic

approach to faults detected in final product of soap or bread.. The study would focus on

determining the effect of the model on skills acquisition of apprentices in soap making and

bakery in relation to gender and age of apprentices. The geographical scope of the study is Niger

State, specifically at latitude 8*51’ to 11* 30’ and longitude 3*75’ to 7* 25’.

Research Questions

The following research questions guided the objectives of the study:-

1. What is the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group?

16

2. What is the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition by gender of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

3. What is the mean achievement scores differences in soap making skills acquisition of young

adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

4. What is the mean achievement interaction scores in soap making skills acquisition between

gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

5. What is the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices exposed to

Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group?

6. What is the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition by gender of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

7. What is the mean achievement scores difference in bakery skills acquisition of young adults

and older adult apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

8. What is the mean achievement interaction scores in bakery skills acquisition between gender

and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significant:

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean pre test and post test achievement scores of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and

those not exposed to the model of career guidance.

17

HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of males and females exposed

to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of career guidance.

HO3: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of young adults and older

adults exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of career

guidance.

HO4: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean scores by gender and age of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of

career guidance.

HO5: HO6: There is no significant difference in the mean pre test and post test achievement

scores of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery

and those not exposed to the model of career guidance.

HO6: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of males and females exposed

to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career guidance.

HO7: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of young adults and older

adults exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career

guidance.

HO8: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean scores of gender and age of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career

guidance

18

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, literature relating to the study has been reviewed under the following sub-

headings: conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of the

literature review.

� Conceptual Framework

• Concept of Employment

• Concept of Skills Acquisition

• Concept of Bakery Skills Acquisition

• Concept of Soap Making Skills

• Concept of Apprentices

• Concept of Career Guidance

• Conceptual Relationship

� Theoretical Framework

• Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (1980)

• Anderson ACT-R (1983)

• Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982)

18

19

• Career Guidance Theories:

• Self-Efficacy Theory

• Accident Theory

� Review of Empirical Studies

• Career guidance and Skill Acquisitions

• Gender and Performance

• Gender and Skill Acquisition

• Age and Skill Acquisition

� Summary of Literature Review

Conceptual Framework

Concept of Employment

The economic active population comprises both employed and the unemployed person. In

terms of employment, the European Union Labour Force Survey (2006) asserts that the

employed persons are those aged 16-74 years who during the survey week performed work even

for just one hour a week for pay, profit or family gain or were not at work but had a job or

business from which they were temporarily absent because of illness, holidays, industrial dispute

and education/training. It is pertinent to state that at Work means any work for pay or profit

during the survey week, even for as little as one hour. Pay includes cash payment in goods or

services rather than only money whether payment was received in the week the work was done

20

or not. Also counted as working, is a person who receives wages for on the job training such as

apprentices.

Employment is also viewed as remunerated work which complies with statutory

requirement with regard to employment protection, legislation or pay related social insurance.

Where work is the undertaking of organized task which may attract some form of remuneration

but which is not general employment protection legislation as it is the case with job (Atlas

Project 2012). While adding it’s voice to the term Employment, Economic Concept (2012) sees

employment as the engagement of a person in some occupation, business, trade or profession.

The notion of desiring to be employed can be explained by taking three established facts:

Working hours per day; Wages rate and a man’s state of health

A multi-disciplined approach to the term employment was put-forward by Fudge, Tucker,

and Vosko (2002) as sociological, legal and statistical. Sociological as it affects the control of the

means of production, autonomy and ownership in which employers are the bourgeoisie, the self-

employed as the petit bourgeoisie and the employees as the proletarians. While the legal concept

connotes the statutory regime of collective bargaining, benefit from insurance, pension and

protection from common laws and legislations. The statistical approach, delved into the process

in which determined how the amount of wages are calculated sometimes from hourly, to weekly

and even monthly.

However, closely related to employer and employee in terms of employment is the

concept of self-employment. A person is considered self-employed if: he has procured

machineries or equipment for setting up an office, farm or business; an advertisement of the type

of business office or professional office and works his own small business farm or office even

21

for personal consumption but has a national index attached to it (European Union Labour Force

Survey 2006).

On the issues of work and job as it relates to employment, examples abound where a

person is at work but without job or a person on job but without work as follows:-

Conscripts: - The persons (s) performed work for pay or profit which does not go to them, thus

do not have a job.

Maternity/Paternity leave: - Although not at place of work discharging duties but have a job, as

they are still employed since the leave of absence is agreed on based on legislation.

Parental leave: - Is taken to help bring-up children by parents due to certain problems as opposed

to maternity or paternity leave during birth. Here the couple is not at work but on job.

Unpaid family workers: - Works for the family without direct profit or pay. Therefore, works

without a job.

Lay-offs:- They do not work but are on job due to agreement with the employer.

Long- term absence: - this could be due to sickness or disaster thus the employee is absent from

work but still on job as he is on the pay roll of the employer.

However, self-employed persons with a business, farm or professional practice are also

considered to be working in any one of these conditions. A person works in his own business or

professional practice for the purpose of earning a profit; even if the enterprise is failing to make a

profit. A person spends time on the operation of a business, professional practice or farm even if

no sale or service were rendered. A person stills in the process of setting up a business, farm or

professional practice.

22

The data on employment is generated from survey whose indexes is calculated using

employment levels and therefore is also from household survey. Hence household survey

provides greater comparability of labour market trends across countries than establishment

survey, although both types of survey are used to measure employment. The establishment

survey provides a highly reliable gauge of monthly change in form pay roll employment, while

the household survey provides a broader picture of employment including agriculture and self

employment. (United States Bureau of Labour Statistics 2012). The researcher’s operational

definition of employment is any person within the age range of 18-70 years who works for

himself or works for somebody during period of the survey. In Nigeria, 18 years is the entering

point for voting in elections and entry to higher institutions, while 70years is the highest

retirement age in government sector in Nigeria. Self employed implies working for yourself,

family or employing others to work for you. While, working for somebody connotes working for

government, private organizations or individuals. In Nigeria, the three tiers of government are

the highest employer of labour followed by multinational corporations and companies.

Concept of Skills Acquisition

There exist varied typologies regarding skills in different literature. One common

typology is put forward by European Union (2011), as generic skills and specific skills. Generic

skills are those that increase the value of a person across the labour market, such as in

companies, sectors and occupation, while, specific skills are those skills that increase the value

of a person only within the company, sector and occupation where he or she acquired it.

Therefore, leaving the company leads to the devaluation of all specific skills since they do not

apply in other companies, sectors and occupation.

23

The existence of purely generic or specific skills is very rare in real life. Moreover,

drawing the line between generic and specific skill is made difficult because it depends on

institutional and structural conditions of the market that is on its extent or type of competition.

The difference between generic and specific skills depends on the context.

Another typology of skills based on content are hard skills and soft skills. Hard skills are

described as skills which are easily observed and or measured, easily trained and closely

connected with knowledge examples are specific technical knowledge, computer skills and

knowledge of laws, rules and regulations. Soft skills are behavioural and non-job specific skills

called intangible skill which are hardly measured and closely connected with attitude. This

communication, creativity, team work, conflict management, tone management, making

presentations and negotiating and leadership.

Apart from skills based on context and content, a contemporary, Green (2011), favoured

the typology between cognitive, interactive and physical skills. Cognition skill is the term

applied to areas requiring thinking activities such as reading, writing, problem-solving,

numeracy, Information Technology, learning new skill and so on. Interactive skills cover all

forms of communication (including most type of management activities, and horizontal

communication with co-workers, clients and customers) and other activities needed to elicit co-

operative working and engagement with customers and supplies, including emotional and

aesthetic labour. Physical skills compose all forms of strength and dexterity activities in our

place of work.

Skills acquisition is a form of learning. In the opinion of the researcher it could be

divided into simple processes of skills acquisition and complex processes of skills acquisition.

24

The simple processes of skills acquisition includes: observation, trial and error, practice,

imitation, demonstration, listening, nasal perception, tasting, reading, writing, and so forth either

through formal education, non-formal education and traditional education (Fafunwa 2004).

However, the complex processes of skills acquisition are: interest, competition, cooperation,

progress level and resting (Adeyemo 2004 and Farrant 2004). Thus, there is need for

coordination between individual’s five senses and the brain in order to acquire a skill.

The researcher views skills acquisition as an enriching inter play between the three

domains which are cognitive, psycho-motor and effective of individual towards increasing

productive capacity of the society. An enriched inter play implies the processes of acquiring

skills in school or out of school experiences. This is achieved by developing the learner’s innate

cognitive, manipulative abilities and attitude towards the needs of the society. These skills can

be acquired in a formal setting in our conventional schools or in an in formal setting as in a

master’s workshop, shade for example blacksmithing and pottery or in non formal setting as in

skills acquisition centers’.

Concept of Bakery Skills

The term cooking entails applying heat to food with the main effect of making the food taste

better, easily digested in the body and also to kill harmful organisms that are present in the food.

In order to achieve the process of cooking three methods have been evolved namely through

heating in water, oil or dry air. The process of heating in water includes boiling, stewing and

steaming of food material. In oil, it is basically frying the food material; while that of dry heat

consists of roasting and baking, which is the prime concern of this study. In baking the food

material is heated-up in a closed container called oven. Foods that are cooked in this process

25

includes bread, cakes and pastries and flour is the basic ingredient in their production. Bakery

skills are the methods and technique employed in baking. (Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie

1974)

There are several utensils in bakery. In this connection; Miller (1978), identified some of

the bakery utensils and equipment to include measuring utensils like dry measuring cups, liquid

measuring cups and weighing machines. Others are mixing utensils such as mixing bowl, mixing

spoon, Rubber scraper and wire whisk. Cutting and chopping utensils are cutting board, bread

knife, Chef’s knife, peeler and utility knife. Others are cooling rack, timers, spatula, cooking

fork, turner, flour and sugar dredger, rolling-pin or knead, baking tray and oven. A typical recipe

for bread includes: 500g, flour 15g, flour 255mils, water, I teaspoon of sugar, 25g, fat 50 mils

of milk1, whole egg. The types of flours are White flour, Whole wheat and Cassava flour.

The ingredients for making bread, the recipe and bakery skills are similar in the works of O’

Reilly-Wright (1979) and Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974). The ingredients for making

bread are flour, liquid, yeast, sugar, salt, fat, egg and temperature. The plain white flour which

gives a large loaf of good quality is mostly used. This is better than the whole-wheat flour whose

dough is too sticky for kneading.

The flour when mixed with liquid is called dough which form gluten that expands when

carbon dioxide is released by yeast. The commonest liquid is water and milk. The milk adds to

the quality of bread, although it tends to increase the price of production. The yeast is an

important ingredient that can be mixed with sugar and carbohydrate to increase the rate of

production of carbon dioxide that is required for leavening of the dough.

26

The sugar provides good taste for the bread, in addition to helping in the action of yeast

to produce leavening. However, too much sugar acts as preservative and the dough delays rising.

The salt control action of yeast and strengthens the gluten formed as well as provides flavour to

bread. Fat improves bread quality, by giving it pleasant flavor, tender and delays staling. It may

be mixed with the dough or rubbed on the surface. Egg is like the fat which is optional in bread

making but adds to the flavour and nutritional value. Finally, a warm environment is essential for

the container of the dough, the flour and the liquid allow for the proper functioning of the yeast.

An important ingredient in baking apart from flour is the raising agent. O’Reilly-wright

(1979), identified these as some raising agents in baking: baking powder, cream of tartar and

bicarbonate of soda, vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, yeast and palm wine, over ripe bananas.

The baking power: consist of an acid called cream of tartar; an alkaline called bicarbonate of

soda and starch substance like rice in these proportions: 100g cream of tartar; 50g bicarbonate of

soda and 50g rice flour. The rice flour absorbs any moisture and prevents powder from getting

damp and lumpy. As moisture is added to baking powder the acid and alkaline continue to

release gas called carbon-dioxide that the makes the bread raise, however, little quantity should

be added to cakes.

The yeast (saccharomyces cerevisial): are small sized organisms which have the

characteristics of rapid multiplication under a suitable condition including moisture (water),

sugar and slight temperature of 270c

-290c

within a short period of time. In this condition yeast

grows fast, giving-off carbon dioxide which make the bread mixture (dough) rise. Note that

above 540c temperature the yeast is killed, while cold temperature retards yeast activity. The

proportion of yeast to flour is as follows: 15g yeast to 300g flour and 50g yeast to 2 ½ kg flour.

Palm wine and banana: palm wine usually contain large quantity of yeast and most suitable for

27

commercial bread-making as it is more economical. The same goes for over-ripe bananas if left

to ferment as they share the same characteristics with yeast. The cream of tartar/and bicarbonate

of soda as well as vinegar and bicarbonate of soda are better used for cake production.

Baking Skills: - Essentially these skills: creaming the yeast, setting the sponge, mixing the

dough, kneading, rising, greasing, shaping, proving and baking aid the quality and quantity of

bread production.

Creaming the Yeast:- In a clean bowl, add sugar to the yeast and then cream the mixture together

until it liquefies, before, adding warm liquid like water or milk. This stimulates the activity of the

yeast.

Setting the sponge:- The creamed yeast bowl is sprinkle with flour and left for 10 minutes in a

warm environment. Note that it should be covered with damp cloth. The process activates the

yeast by producing little bubbles in the flour.

Mixing the dough:- The sponge substance containing the yeast, sugar and flour is mixed either

with hand, wooden spoon or machine. There is need to add enough water. It is important to have

an elastic dough.

Kneading:- This could be done on pastry board and a knead (pestle like organ) or an electrically

powered kneading machine. This ensures that the dough is smooth and free from cracks and

lumps.

Rising technique:- The dough that is kneaded is taken back to the mixing dough container. The

kneaded dough is covered with damp cloth to prevent skin crack of the dough. Then, the full

process of fermentation is allowed to take place which makes the dough to rise.

28

Greasing : - The baking trays, tins or pans should be washed thoroughly and dried in the sun or

otherwise. They are then cleaned with cloth and greased with oil includes, butter, palm oil,

coconut oil among others. It ensure that the bread do not stick to the container at the end of

production.

Shaping : - The risen dough is kneaded again for 2-3 minutes, then cut to varying size and shape

before putting into baking containers.

Proving technique: - The dough should be left in the baking containers in an warm environment.

This is significant to allow the dough to rise again at least double its original size.

Firing technique: - This is done in clay room where burn fire is used or a metal container for

electricity. The baking environment is fired for a long period.

Baking:- The baking time is usually 35-45 minutes. The cooked bread will rise many time the

dough size and exhibits a golden brown colour. The baking period varies because of the

temperature of the oven, size of the loaf and the type of the crust desired. If a soft crust or surface

is desired the bread top should be brushed with fat.

Other useful skills associated with baking have been identified by Human Resources and

Skills Development Canada (2012), bakers requires documentation skills as; reading, computer

use, oral communication, writing, and numeracy. While the thinking skills are; problem solving,

decision making, critical thinking, job task, planning, organization, use of memory and finding

solutions.

There are several out lets in which the end products can be dispensed to the target population.

According to Firsch (2013) it could take one of these forms: Business catering - supply meals or

29

snacks for corporate meeting, lunch, training sessions, conference and parties; Social event

catering - supply food for private affairs like wedding, holidays and dinners; Industrial catering -

providing for large institutions like schools, prison, factories, airlines and Mobile catering -

discharging from vans, parking lots, festival, fairs or market.

Concept of Soap Making Skills

Soap is a materials used in cleaning or washing away dirt from clothes, utensils and other

belongings. Soap are commonly produced from fats/oil and ashes from woods. The method and

techniques of producing this soap is called soap making skills which could be made locally or in

industries. The properties of good soap are: they must be firm and produce good lather; the lather

should have clean power; it should be soluble even in cool water for easy washing; the colour

and contents of the soap should not be harmful to our belongings. The common forms of soap in

the market are black African soap, soda soap, Sunlight soap, key or bar soap, flakes soap and

power soap. Nsa (2000) identified two broad types of soap that is the soft soap and the hard soap.

The soap making skills has been with man as early as the 16th

century. The work of Johnston,

Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974); Deyo (2008) Fisher (2013) and Lelihan(2013) elaborated that

basic soap is created when fats such as coconut oil, olive oil, palm oil, Shea-butter oil, tallow

(beef) and lard (pork) among others are mixed with lye (ashes or sodium hydroxide or caustic

soda) that has been dissolved in water. The chemical reaction that occurs when these two

ingredients are stirred together changing them into soap is called Saponification. This shows that

the basic process of making soap is fairly uncomplicated using the cold process. Fats are useful

in cleaning and oil for suds such that a combination of fats and oil makes the best soap. Nsa

30

(2000) explained that soap clean by solubilization, soily dirt which will not dissolve in water can

be dissolved in the soap water.

The recipe for soap is lye, water, oil, fat, scent and colourant. Some of the equipments are

containers, pans, spatulas, cups, molds, and knives. The specific skills for soap making are

measurement, mixing, observation, stirring, scenting, cutting, drying, cooking, timing and

moulding.

There are three common way of producing soap as identified by Nsa (2000) and Lelihan

(2013) as follows: Hot method:-this involves the process of boiling up the mixture of oils in large

open pans with a solution of caustic soda. In addition, a process called salting out is applied in

the method to extract glycerol. Cold method:-the soap is produced without heating the raw

materials of soap thus the glycerol is not removed. Melt and pour:-where premade soap are

melted and molded again to avoid waste of soap particles.

The detail procedure in making soap involves the following:-

Mix the required amount of water and lye together in a plastic container continue to stir in one

direction until the lye is fully dissolved in the water. Allow it to cool to 1000f.

In the second step, in another container preferably pan; melt the specified amount of vegetable

oil or fats in a pot. Then remove from heat and allow for cooling to 1000f.

Thirdly, pouring in a slow and steady form, add the lye water to the oil and stir continuously.

In the fourth step, cools the mixture for about an hour, until it becomes a thick mixture.

The fifth step is molding the soap in a desired mold, by pouring into it. Then cover the mold with

plastic material and insulate with a blanket and allow for 24hours.

31

Finally, for better results, dry the bar soap for two to three weeks before using.

Skills for Soap Making:-

Stirring: - it is better to stir your mixture in a circular motion, one or two rotations only at a time.

This will prevent excessive bubbles in your soap.

Cooking: The firing of the soap should be done in such a way as not to allow it to burn. If it

burns it often result to a bad odour and discolours the soap.

Molding: Allow the mixture to cool down before pouring into the mold. This will prevent

warping your molds. Also breakable mold or wiring-away mold should not be used as it warp the

soap.

Drying: The process of drying the soap should take at least two-three weeks. However, if the

soap is not dry, the soap will not come-up easily from the mold. Therefore, compress again in a

freezer for 10 minutes and then try to remove the soap again.

Colouring: it is better to use colour during the mixing process. This will ensure thorough and

proper integration of colouring substance to the soap. Care should be taken not to use food

colouring. This can stain the body or clothes.

Scents: This is best done below the flash point of scent which is 120f, this is the point at which

the scent can burn-off

The generic skills for soap making are writing, reading and recording among others. While

commenting on soap industry today, Deyo (2008) opined that the rebirth of soap making at

domestic level is due to economic crunch on people of the society and the ever increase in the

cost of soap. The homemade soap can be improved to last longer while in use than the present

32

commercial soap. In addition, the colour, scent, size and shape of the local soap can be modified

to customers taste.

A simplified and common method of producing bar soap even at home from locally

procured raw materials or chemicals in the open market is put forward by Ndubuisi (2012), with

standard measurement as: Caustic soda two spoonful, Soda ash half kilogramme, Palm Kernel

Oil (pko) two litres, Sodium silicate two spoonful, Perfume 30mls, and Colour to taste. The

caustic soda performs the function of stain remover, soda ash is a foam agent, pko is useful for

saponification while sodium silicate is for smoothening. The perfumes gives scent while colour

is for colouring. However, other apparatus necessary during soap making procedure are:

Containers, Hand gloves, Source of heat and Matches.

In the first place use a pair of hand gloves preferably new, before starting the chemical

procedure so that the chemical may not come in contact with the body. This is to prevent small

burn or irritations. Then, dissolve the caustic soda and soda ash separately in water in two

containers. Then, heat up the pko with the colourant. At three separate intervals add caustic soda,

soda ash and sodium silicate with perfume. Transfer the thick saponification material to the mold

and allow for solidifying. Finally, cut and package according to taste.

Concept of Apprentice

There are several definitions of apprentices’ all views are based on perspective. The

apprentice is seen as a learner within an actual physical context of practice (Pratt 1998 in

Wikipedia 2012). An apprentice, work side by side with an expert in order to learn a specific task

(Barab and Hay 2001 in Wikipedia 2012). Apprentice is also seen as a teaching method utilized

by educators to teach students how to solve problems, understand task, perform specific task and

33

deal with difficult situations (Colleen, Brown and Newman 1989 in Wikipedia 2012). In

summary, students work very closely with an expert at learning a specific skill.

Historically, 0ver time people have been transferring skills from one generation to

another in form of apprenticeship. Four thousand years ago the Babylonians code of Hammurabi

provided that artisans teach their craft to youth. The records of Egypt, Greece and Rome from

earliest times reveal that skills were still being passed on in this fashion. Today, annually there

are nearly one-half million registered apprentices in training in the United States of American.

This is because rapid change in industries requires a large body of skilled workers who are able

to carry out technical specification and who can supervise skilled members of the work force as

well as the issues of skills development that take a long time to actualized.(Washington State

Department of Labour and Industries 2013)

The three main goals of apprenticeship are; Guidance in orientation in which the learner

use skills learned from the expert in order to successfully solve a problem. The learner

recognizes task, problems or situation and knows how to handle them. The learner is able to

perform at acceptable level as he learn basic skills not restricted to novice level but working with

an expert to perform at acceptable level.

The phases of apprenticeship include modeling, approximating, fading, self-directing and

generalization (Wikipedia 2012). Apprenticeship is argued as a model that belongs in the past

and that it has been overly romanticized ( Grabb and Lazerson 2007 in Fuller and Unwin 2008)

Concept of Career Guidance

The concept of career guidance has often interchanged with vocational guidance or

occupational guidance. According to Omotosho (1998), it goes beyond a set of services

34

performed by a trained professional to encompass a philosophical based commitment to help

individual fully develosp their potentialities, move towards career maturity, achieve a planful

approach to their educational and occupational alternatives and make decisions wisely.

Egbochuku (2008), vocational guidance is a process of helping an individual to choose an

occupation or career, prepare for it, enter it and progress in it. Omeje (2007), it is a process that

help an individual to become purposeful and effective in life or in a career related behaviour.

In the opinion of the researcher career guidance consist of providing a learning environment

in which individual innate life skills develop to become an expert and be able to generate expert

in the labour market.

Thus, career guidance activities are categorized into five specialties according to Hansen

(2006) as viewed by International Labour Organization includes:

Career Information: all the information necessary to plan for, obtain and keep

employment. It includes but is not limited to information on occupation, skills, and career paths.

It is the corner stone to the career guidance services.

Career education: is delivered in both educational and community organization by

teachers, counsellors and resource person. It provides for skills to education, training and tools to

plan a career.

Career counseling: it is a face to face relationship between the counselor and the client to

help clients clarify their aims and aspiration in career life; manage career transition both planned

and unplanned.

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Employment counseling: help people clarify their immediate employment goal, access to

job and skills training opportunities; and lean skill needed to look for and maintain employment

such as. Curriculum Vitae or resume writing and interview skills.

Job placement: awareness and referring people to job vacancies. This is often for both

government and private sectors. Some Colleges and Universities offer job placement service for

students.

The approaches to career guidance in school today are identified as follows: Learning

centered approach, Developmental approach, Student centered approach and Universal approach.

The learning centered approach goes beyond providing mere information counselling to

integration or building career into college course. It could be taken as a subject which may be

optional or integrated into each subject of the school through the efforts of curriculum planners.

Developmental approach entails tailoring the content of career education and guidance to the

developmental stage that students find themselves in, and including career education classes and

experiences through schooling, not just at one point. While the student centered approach

incorporate learning from experience through self-directed methods by learning from significant

others such as employers, parents, alumni and older students. Finally, adopting a universal

approach in terms of career education and career guidance in all schools and integrating it in all

programmes of the schools.

An integral aspect of career guidance in schools is career development which entails the

series of changes that an employee undergoes in the labour market in a career. Saqa (2009)

added that the values of career guidance includes: ensuring effective learning as its stress on the

synergy between education and training that will yield a better result in terms of investment

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made on employee; effective labour market as people will find jobs on career paths that utilize

potentials and meet their own goal and contribution to social equity by providing equal

opportunities for people including disadvantage groups such as the handicapped and low income

family.

Conceptual Relationship

The flow chart is on correlational relationship that illustrates the inputs and output in Dreyfus

Model of skills acquisition in a schematic diagrammed. The inputs are clearly the apprentices

who are of varying age and gender. In addition, the masters that train the apprentices in the work

environment from the novice stage through the advance beginner to the competent and proficient

and terminating at the expert stage. Note that, there is wastages through drop out of apprentices

before graduation at the expert stage. Thus, this drop outs are likely to be recycle at a later date.

However, the graduates at the expert stage are the output who enters the labour market as self-

employer of themselves and others can go a step by becoming employer of other workers.

Although, some graduates at the expert stage could become employee when in capable of self-

employment.

37

DREYFUS MODEL OF SKILLS ACQUISITION

APPRENTICE

(MALE AND FEMALE)

SOAP MAKING SKILLS BAKERY SKILLS

(MASTER A) (MASTER B)

NOVICE NOVICE

ADVANCE ADVANCE

BEGINNER BEGINNER

COMPETENT COMPETENT

PROFICIENT PROFICIENT

EXPERT EXPERT

SELF EMPLOYED

EMPLOYER

EMPLOYEE

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Theoretical Frameworks

Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (1980)

The Dreyfus model of skills acquisition was first published as a five-stage model of the

mental activities involved in directed skill acquisition by Stuart Dreyfus and Hubert Dreyfus

in1980. They stated that in acquiring a skill by means of instruction and experience, the student

normally progresses through five developmental stages which is designated as novice, advance

beginner, competence, proficient and expertise. As a student becomes skilled, he depends less on

abstract principle and leans more on concrete experience. At each stage of training the

appropriate issues involved in facilitating skill acquisition is addressed.

There are two divergent approaches to learning a skill; either through imitation or trial

and error or through an instructor or instruction manual. The later approach is adopted by

Dreyfus model because of its efficiency as demonstrated in aircraft skills of flying as a learning

process by students. The stages of the model are: -

Stage1: NOVICE

The task environment of the learner is divided into features and rules. The feature is the

context-free environment which the learner can freely recognize without benefit of experience as

non-situational. The learner is then given rules for determining an action on the basis of these

features. To improve, the novice needs monitoring either by self observation or instructional

feedback as to bring his behavior closer to the rule.

39

Stage 2: ADVANCE BEGINNER

As the learner is exposed to various experiences that is, actually coping with the real

situation in the environment, it leads to advance beginner. The learner notes or an instructor

points out recurrent meaningful component pattern or guidelines in his brain.

Stage 3: COMPETENCE

The competence stage is achieved through increased practice which exposes the learner

to a wide variety of typical whole situation. Each whole situation for the first time has a meaning

and is relevant to the achievement of a long term goal. Now aspects are less important to the

whole situation as recognized by the brain. The memorized principle by the brain is called a

maxim which is use to determine the appropriate action in a situation.

Stage 4: PROFICIENT

Up to this stage, the performer needed some sort of analytical principles, in form of

rules, guidelines or maxims to connect his experience of general situation to a specific action.

This is the trial stage in the step-wise improvement of mental processing as the experience

situation is so vast that normally each specific situation immediately dictates an intuitively

appropriate action. As he almost master the skills, he becomes capable of supervising others and

developing his own rules.

Stage 5: EXPERTISE

The mastery stage is achieved when the learner no longer needs principle, can cease to

pay conscious attention to his performance and can let all the mental energy previously used in

40

monitoring his performance go into almost instantaneously, the appropriate perspective and

associated actions.

The training implications of the stages of the model includes the fact that, it facilitates

advancement to next stage, and help to avoid the temptation of introducing intricate and

sophisticated aids. Besides, it does not impede advancement to higher level and prevents

regression to a lower level.

These stages of Dreyfus model can be related to the process of bakery and soap making

skills acquisition in the sense that at Novice stage the apprentice as a new comer learns the

utensils and equipment in the production of a final product while at Advance Beginner stage the

apprentice becomes conversant with the ingredients used in the skills acquisition centre for the

production of their products. At the Competence stage the apprentice goes further to see that all

actions or procedures are directed towards a goal when learning the procedures in the production

of a final product of bread or soap. As the apprentice progresses to the Proficient stage the

apprentices becomes familiar with practical processes of production of bread or soap and can

even guide other apprentices at the end. The individual can develop personal rules and

regulations based on peculiarities of circumstance. Finally, at the Expertise stage the apprentice

can provide an analytical approach to common faults or problems in relation to the bread or soap

that is produced.

The existing quantum of data on unemployment in Nigeria is very worrisome; especially

one note that, unemployment is a password to poverty which government attempted to

ameliorate through the establishment of skills acquisition centres. Surprisingly, as these centres

increased so also is the degree of unemployment increasing. In order to change this sordid tide of

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unemployment, now more than ever before is the time to experiment the Dreyfus Model which

has not receive much attention around the world including Nigeria.

Anderson ACT- R Model of skills Acquisition (1983)

ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought–Rational) is a cognitive architecture mainly

developed by John Robert Anderson at Carnegie Mellon University in 1983. Like any

architecture ACT-R aims to define the basic and irreducible cognitive and perpetual operation

that enables the human mind to acquire a skill. In theory each task that the human performs

should consist of a series of these discrete operations. Most progress on basic assumption which

is inspired by cognitive neuroscience and they describe as a way of specifying how the brain

itself is organized in way that enables individual processes models to produce cognition.

It has been used to capture how human solve complex problems like model human

behaviour in driving, flying and computer application. In schools, these system use an internal

ACT-R model to mimic the behaviour of a student and personalize instruction and curriculum,

trying to “guess” the difficulties that students may have and provide focused help.

Historically, it was Allen Newell who inspired John Robert Anderson to develop the

model. Its root can be traced back to the original Human Association Memory (HAM) model of

memory, described by John Robert Anderson and Gordon Bowes in 1973. The HAM model was

later expanded into the first version of the ACT theory in 1983. He later devoted himself to

exploring and outlining a mathematical approach to cognition and he name Rational Analysis in

the year 1990. Thus the mode was modified to include R and is known as ACT-R. The model

modification in terms of development which started with ACT-R 1.0 has reached ACT-R 6.0

which was re-written including significant improvement on coding language by 2005. The model

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explain how human recalls “Chucks” of information from memory and how they solve problems

by breaking them down into sub goal and applying knowledge from memory of the brain as

needed.

The ACT-R was developed to model problem solving, learning and memory as well as

used by researcher of cognition psychology. The model consists of production rule and

principles:-

Production Rule: A fundamental characteristics of ACT-R is that it is a production theory. The

basic premise of a production system theory is that a cognition skill is composed of conditional

statements known as production rule. A production rule is statements that describe an action

which should be taken if a condition are met, sometimes referred to as a condition-action pair.

However, cognition task are achieved by stringing together production rules, and applying them

to working memory. Such a collection of production rules is referred to as production. When a

production rule is applied, it is said to be fired.

Principle: There are two different categories of long-term memory namely: declarative and

procedural. Declarative memory consists of facts that exist while procedural memory consists of

an individuals knowledge of how to do things such as ability to drive a car. Declarative

knowledge is represented by units called chunks. Procedural knowledge is presented by

production, which are called collection of production rules. Thus, the model represents chunks

and production that could be represented in design form.

The model ACT-R supports three fundamental types of learning which are generalization,

discrimination and strengthening. Generalization in which production become broader in their

range of application; discrimination in which production become narrow in their range of

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application and strengthening in which some productions are applied more often. New

productions are formed by the conjunction or disjunction of existing productions.

The model is useful in the application of wide variety of memory effect, high order skills

and producing intelligent tutors. The following are the principles of the model: identify the goal

structure of the problem space; provide instruction in the context of problem solving; provide

immediate feedback on errors; minimize working memory load; adjust the “grain size” of

construction with learning to account for the knowledge compilation process and enable the

student to approach the target skill by successive approximation.

The ACT-R model has some form of relevance to this research at hand as it is tailored on

skills acquisition as a cognitive architecture of learning in stages. The model depends on brain to

recall experience in learning how to fly, drive and so forth. Although the existing research differ

with ACT-R in the fact that it is skill acquisition base on guidance orientation.

Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR Model of Skills Acquisition (1982)

The SOAR Model which originally stood for (State, Operator And Result) is similar to

ACT- R model of cognition architecture by John Robert Anderson. It has a simple representation

of problem solving as the application of an operator to a state to get a result. In this linear

application, the operator is the individual, who identifies the problem he wants to solve as state

and through manipulation of the environment obtains his result which is solution to the problem

identified.

Historically, SOAR is a cognitive architecture, created by John Laird, Allen Newell and

Paul Rosenblooms at Carnegie Mellon University. Since its beginning in 1982 and its

presentation in a paper in 1987, it has been widely used by researchers to model different aspect

44

of human behaviour. It uses appropriate knowledge such as procedural, declarative and episodic.

While symbolic processing remains the core mechanism in the architecture, recent versions of

the theory incorporate non-symbolic representation and processes, including reinforcement

learning, imagery processing and emotion modeling.

The SOAR model has undergone series of modifications through years from SOAR-1 in

1982, SOAR-2-in 1983, SOAR-3 in 1984, SOAR-4 in 1986, SOAR-5 1989 and SOAR-6 1992.

The model is a system capable of exhibiting a wide range of problem solving strategies through

the combination of (multiple) problem space and production system. The Goal, problem spaces,

states and operators are well symbolized in the production systems working memory of the brain

in skills acquisition. The Processing of memory as it relates to skills acquisition was driven by an

elaboration-decision-application cycle. In this process of memory development, the control

knowledge was brought to bear during the elaboration phase via the parallel firing of production,

with the results being integrated together during the decision phase via a voting scheme. Since,

its initial development SOAR-1 has been used as a basis for experiment in skills acquisition.

SOAR model is architecture for human cognition expressed in the form of a production

system. The principal element in SAOR is the idea of a problem space: all cognitive acts are

some form of search task. The memory is unitary and procedural; there is no distinction between

procedural and declarative memory as it is in ACT-R. Therefore, chunking (memory) is the

primary mechanism for learning and represents the conversion of problem solving acts into long

term memory. The occasion of chunking is an impasse and its resolution is the problem solving

process. Some of the uses of SOAR includes; providing interpretations for response time data,

verbal learning task, reasoning task, mental models, skills acquisition, configuring computer

systems and formulating algorithms.

45

As a theory of learning, SOAR specifies or confirms a number of principles: as follows:-

all learning arises from goal-directed activities, specific knowledge is acquired in order to satisfy

goal (needs); learning occurs at a constant rate-the rate at which impasse occur while problem

solving (average of 0.5 chunk/second) and transfers occur by identical element and highly

specific (c.f. Thorndike) transfer can be general if the productions are abstract. Rehearsal helps

learning provided it involves active processing (that is creation of chunks) and chunking is the

basis for the organization of memory.

The SOAR model is related to the present research at hand as it focuses on skills

acquisition as a cognitive architecture of learning in stages. The model depends on the brain

to recall experience in learning how to manipulate computer, train teachers and so forth.

Although the existing research differ with SOAR in the sense that it is skill acquisition with

guided approach.

Career Guidance Theories

The choice of a particular skill to be acquired by an apprentice that will eventually

culminate into a Career is guided by factors. These factors actually aided in the development of

career theories some of which are identified by Gikopoulou (2008). There are two fundamental

career theories that are relevant to the study at hand, which are:

� Accident Theory and

� Self-Efficacy Theory

Accident Theory:- This belongs to the group of Non- Psychological Theories (1969). This

theory was propounded by Crites (1969) in the broad classification of career development

46

theories into two as psychological theories and Non- psychological theories. These theories hold

sway that the individual choice of a vocation is shrouded with unseen circumstances. Therefore,

the individual is plotted on a fix in terms of planning for a career the future is unpredictable. This

is because the future is very dicey and pregnant with lots of uncertainties. Infact, this is a replica

of what most people in present community are force to grabble with, this explains why many

students could not answer the question as to which career or occupation will they will pursue.

The common answer is until the labour market presents an opportunity or chance. This clearly

indicated that such a student is basing the argument or choice base on accident theory of non-

psychological factors. This is because the turn-over from schools is high and the vacancy for

employment is seemingly shrunk by automation and globalization.

Self-Efficacy Theory:- The merger between self-efficiency theory as propounded by Krumboltz

et-al (1975) and expectancy theory as propounded by Raynor and Entin (1982) forms the

decision-making theory (1982). This theory is based on Keynesian economic theory which states

that an individual choice of career depicts the variable of profit maximization and minimizes loss

to the barest minimum. The maximization is not localized to factor of money alone but includes

other variables as security, prestige, status, mobility, environment and opportunity. Thus, self-

efficacy is base on the fact that individual feel capable of performs a given behaviuor or skill.

Krumboltz (1977) proposes a seven stage career decision-making model as thus, (DECIDES):

1. Define the problem: recognizing the decision;

2. Establish the action plan: refining the decision;

3. Clarify the values: examining (self-observations and world-view generalizations);

4. Identify alternatives: generating alternatives;

5. Discover probable outcomes: gathering information;

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6. Eliminate alternatives: assessing information

7. Start action: planning and executing this six step sequence of decision-making

behaviours.

Most apprentices are in that environment not by design but a factor of accidental factor which is

an aspect of non-psychological theories of career development. While, the choice of bakery and

soap skills is guided by self-efficacy theory that they could acquire such a skill if given the

opportunity.

Review of Empirical Studies

Career Guidance and Skills

Okonkwo and Obineli (2010) study sought to identify the need for appropriate career

choice development among secondary school adolescents\students in Anambra state. The survey

research design was adopted in the study and three research questions were formulated. The

population of the study consisted of 285 Secondary School Guidance Counselors from 266

Secondary Schools under the Management of Post Primary Schools Service Commission

(PPSSC). The stratified random sample technique was used to sample 100 counsellors from the

entire population. The instrument for data collection was the questionnaire and responses were

analyzed using the mean and the ranking orders. The result of the findings revealed that adequate

information/guideline needed to be given to adolescents in order to enable them live a positive

life in the society. Also the factors that influence appropriate career choice development in

adolescents includes: interest, intelligent, aptitude and personality. This is a cognitive skill of

learning for students which is similar to apprentices’ skills acquisition.

48

In another dimension Bello and Abdullahi (2010) study is an investigation of doctors and

nurses perception of the need for counselors in medical settings such as hospitals, health centre

and primary health care centre’s in Zaria of Kaduna State. The design of the study is the survey

and one research question and two hypotheses were drafted for the study. The sample consist of

all 119 male and 80 females respondents who are 86 doctors and 113 nurses. The questionnaire

title doctors and nurses perception of the need for counselors in medical setting (DNPNCMS)

was the instrument used for data collection.. The data were analyzed using percentages and chi-

square. The results indicated high positive perception of the need for counselling in medical

settings. In addition, there is no gender difference in perception between doctors and nurses for

the need of counsellors in medical settings. This is cognitive skills of the respondents which is

similar to this work.

Aihie and Ohanaka (2010) aim of the study was to determine the influence of

environment, personality and opportunity factors on career choice of secondary schools students

in Benin City, Edo state of Nigeria. The research design is the survey. Three research questions

and one hypothesis guided the study. The population of the study was 492 randomly selected SS

II students made-up of 242 males and 250 females. The Questionnaire was used for data

collection that was analyzed using percentages and t-test. Results revealed that adolescent

perceive personality as the most important factor influencing their career choice. The male

students were significantly more influenced by the factors than female. The finding is as an

interactive skill which is also found in soap making and bakery skills acquisition.

49

Gender and Performance

Furthermore, Omwirhiren (2005) examined the effect of class size on gender and

academic performance in tertiary school in Zaria city of Kaduna State. The descriptive survey

was adopted for the study and three hypotheses were developed. A total of 325 students

chemistry students were purposively sample of NCE I of Federal College of Education, Zaria

constituted the sample size for the study. The scores of the students performance in a large and

small class in the session examination was analyzed using statistical tool of mean and analysis of

variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 levels of significance. The males in the large class performed

significantly better than females in the small class. However, the males and females in the small

class performed equally well; hence gender has no effect on students in small class. This is a

cognitive and physical skills of the respondents similar to the present work on skills acquisition.

Moreover, Aweriale (2006) studied how gender affects performance in physics,

elaborately, the purpose was to find out through experimentation, if male and female students

taught under the same condition with the paper/opaque projector will differ in their performance

in physics in Auchi Polytechnic of Edo State. The experimental design was adopted for the study

and guided by three hypotheses. The systematic random method of sample was used to select a

sample size of 50 from 400 students of the population. To achieve the purpose of the study a test

of performance level in physics (TOPLIP) was designed and used both for the pre-test and the

post-test of the subjects used in the study. The teaching was carried out for a period of four hours

per week for four weeks. The scripts were marked with marking scheme on a four point scale

devised for the study. The one way analysis of variance ANOVA was used to ascertain the

homogeneity of variance while the Z- test was employed to determine the existence of a very

significant difference in performance between male and female students. The findings indicated

50

that there was no significant different (P> 0.05) in performance between male and female

students taught with the paper/opaque projector. This is both cognitive and physical dexterity

skills similar to those skills in bakery and soap making skills acquisition.

In a similar vein Iliyasu and Rilwan (2006) examined the place of gender and school type

differences in agricultural science achievement at Senior Secondary School Certificate

Examination within Bauchi metropolis in Bauchi State. The research design was quasi

experiment and four hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study. The data was collected

from SSCE result of 2001-2004 from the sampled school. A total of 9,603 candidate’s results

were used that are systematically selected from five secondary schools. The null hypotheses

formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significant using the t-test analysis. The results obtained

showed that although there were differences between the achievement of boys and girls and

between students of single sex and that of co-education school, the difference were insignificant

among the variables observed. The achievement in agricultural science does not depend on

gender or school type. This is both cognitive and psycho-motor skills that are essential in bakery

and soap making skills.

On another work Nwanosike (2006) investigated the effect of school location and gender

differences on students’ performance in agricultural science at SSCE level in Owerri and

environment of Imo State. The sampled schools are single and mixed schools located in both

Urban and Rural areas. The data for students SSCE results over a period of 5 years from 1995-

1999 were collected through random sampling of 12 senior secondary schools under Imo State

Examination Board. Simple descriptive percentage and spearman rank correlation co efficient

were used to analyze data. The result from the study revealed that 74.9% fail Agricultural

Science with male performing better with (41.5%) than females with (33.4%). A moderated

51

correction co efficient of 0.06 indicated that gender is a determination factor in student

achievement in Agricultural Science subject. This is also cognitive skill similar to that of

dreysfus model training.

The place of gender and performance was equally studied by Oye and Odekunle (2010) in

which the main purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of using a national language

(Yoruba) to teach mathematics at Junior Secondary School (J.S.S II) level in Ilorin metropolis of

Kwara State. In all five secondary school were randomly selected from the 22 secondary school

in Ilorin metropolis while 100 students were also randomly sampled from each of the five

schools making 500 students as the target population for the study. Two instruments developed

and used for the study (a) Demonstration Teaching Procedure (DIP) and (b) Mathematics Test

Association (MTA). In DIP the researcher used Yoruba language to teach experimental group

and normal English to teach the control group. Each group was taught for 25 hours. At the end,

the test of assimilation constructed by the researcher was administered to each of the group. The

result of the analysis showed that there is no significant difference in the performance of male

and female students taught mathematics using Yoruba language. Related to the present work as it

is a communication skills that complement bakery and soap making skills

In the same direction Alfa (2012), analyses gender differences in the quality and quantity of

NCE graduate produced from centre for continuing (CCE) College of Education from 2003/2004

to 2007-2008 academic sessions in Minna of Niger State. Three research questions and two

hypotheses were set and treated. The descriptive statistics and chi-square procedure were used

for analysis of data collected. The result revealed that there was significant difference in the

quantity of male and female NCE students that graduated from the centre with masculine

superiority in science and technical education and feminine superiority in arts related courses.

52

There was no significant difference in the quality of male and female students that graduated

from the centre.

Furthermore, Umar (2012) work is designed to determine the effect of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) has on the performance of students in Junior Secondary

School Integrated Science in Kaduna metropolis of Kaduna State. The research design consisted

of experiment, non-equivalent control group, pretest and post-test. The population of the study

consist of 161 J.S.S I students. The instrument for data collection is the Integrated Science

Interest Inventory (IISI) consist 50 items. The data analysis used the mean and ANOVA. The

study revealed that boys taught integrated science with ICT had a high mean than girls.

In addition, Raji and Oyedun (2012) examined the role of practical work on gender in physics

achievement in three educational zones of Niger state. The sample for the study consisted of 360

students randomly selected from 10 secondary schools. A pre-test, post-test experimental group

research design was adopted for the study. Infact, five schools each for experimental and control

group was selected. A Physics Achievement Test (PAT) was the instrument used for data

collection. The finding of the study revealed that gender has no effect on physics achievement of

secondary school students who are taught by means of practical work

Age and Skills Acquisition

Salahudeen (2012) investigated the effectiveness of Computer Instructional Packages on

learning of mathematical concepts of longitude and latitude among secondary schools in Minna

metropolis of Niger State. The research adopted the pre-test, post-test, and experimental and

control group design. A random sample of one hundred and twenty (120) students was drawn

from four schools. Administered to the students was 20 multiple test items, the data collected

53

was analyzed using mean, t-test and ANOVA. The finding revealed that gender and age

difference was found to have no significant effect on the mean achieved of the experiment group.

Still on the same outlook, Ewumi (2010) examined age, gender and vocational interest as

predictors of senior secondary school adolescent’s career aspiration with implication for

vocational counselling in Ijebu-Ode LGA of Ogun State. The Subjects for the study were 375 of

which 200 female and 175 male drawn from co-education senior schools (SS3). The instrument

for data collection was the Self-Evaluation of Vocational Interest (SEVI) and the responses were

subjected to multiple regression statistical analysis. The result revealed significant composite

contribution of age, gender and vocational interest to students’ vocational aspiration with

vocational interest independently predicting students’ vocational aspiration.

Furthermore, Amusan and Olanisinmi (2011) study focuses on the effect of age, gender

and level of educational training on organization of behaviour of Nigerian Police in Egba

Division of Ogun State. A total of 200 randomly sample police officers from constable to

assistant police commissioner. The sample population consists of 84 female and116 males. The

instrument for data collection was the questionnaire analyzed using the t-test and ANOVA. The

result illustrated that age and level of education impacted significantly in organizational

citizenship education scores of participants.

Gender and skills Acquisition

Kalgo (1997) study was aimed at finding out the performance/competency level of

Primary IV pupils in literacy skill in Kebbi State. To this end, a random sample of 768 pupils

was used. A literacy skill test which consisted of five sections (A-E) was constructed, validated

and administered to pupils. The simple frequency, mean and standard deviations were used for

54

analysis of the data. It was generally found that Primary IV girls performed better than the boys

in literacy.

Inekwe (1997) the paper comprises two investigation of secondary school/remediation

students difficulties in Algebra and geometry in Kaduna state. The second study is worthy of

mention which comprises eight schools and sample 31 students from each school that makes 248

pupils of both girls and boys. The schools are drawn from federal, state and science based

schools. The three instruments for data collection are Geometric Visual Perception Test (GVP),

Geometric Proportional Reasoning Test (GLR) and Geometric Logical Reasoning Test (GLR).

The person’s product moment correction matrix and the t-test was use for data analysis. The

result revealed a significant difference in skills of geometric proportional reasoning between

boys and girls.

Akinpelu (1998) main purpose of the study was to examine the academic achievement

and self-concept of male and female learning impaired students in Nigeria. The sample

procedure adopted was purposive comprises 566 respondents of which 364 male and 202 female

with learning-impaired secondary school students identified in various part of the country. The

instrument for data collection is the Adolescent Personal Data Inventory (APDI) and JSCE

result. The data collected were analyzed using the t-test. The result show that male learning

impaired student did not achieve better than that female counterparts.

On the other hand Aremu and Ajanaku (2010) studied the influence of gender difference

in qualitative practical analysis among chemistry students in College of Education Oro of Kwara

State. In all 100 final year chemistry student were randomly selected. Qualitative Analysis

Practical Achievement Test (QAPAT) was used as the instrument for data generation. The data

55

collected was subjected to T-test and ANOVA statistics. Findings shows that gender do not have

influence on students academic achieve in qualitative analysis of practical skills.

Ogunbiyi, Joseph and Olukayode (2006) in the study sought to investigate the affect of

cooperative learning strategy and gender on student’s achievement in environmental education

concept in social studies among a sample of Nigeria Junior Secondary School students in

Abeokuta, Ogun State. Fifty respondents were randomly selected from two co-educational

schools. The study is experimental in nature. A pre-test, post test, control group quasi-

experimental design was used for the study. The students were exposed to three week teaching.

The treatment was administered and the scored analyzed use t-test statistics. The result showed

that female students performed better than male counterparts.

In another work Umeh (2007) investigated the influence of Socialization on achievement

in Secondary School Social Studies in Minna metropolis of Niger State. Three hypotheses were

formulated. A total of 313 were randomly sampled. This composed of 144 girls and 169 boys. A

test retest method was used to test for reliability of the instrument. The researcher developed the

test items for pre-test and post-test. The data were analyzed and the findings showed that the

female students taught with socialization method outperformed their male counterparts.

Similarly, Gambari, Gana and Kutigi (2012) in the study investigated the effect of

Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI) packages on performance of Senior Secondary Student on

English Language (Oral English) in Minna of Niger State. The instrument is the computer

assisted instructional and the conventional method and the treatment period of 4 weeks was

administered on stratify random sample population of 20 males and 20 females which made up

of forty senior secondary school student from two school. The Oral-English Achievement test

56

(OAT) made of 50 items was use for both pre-test and post-test. The t-test was employed for data

analysis. The finding indicated there was no significant difference in the post-test performance

scored of male and female student taught with CAI packages.

The study was conductrd by Ismail, Solasoye, Bernice, Olayede, and Olawale (2012)

with a purpose of ascertaining the gender differences in entrepreneur skills acquisition among

students in Lagos State. The study employed the survey design method. The subjects of the study

were a total of 110 entrepreneurial students selected through random sampling across two

institutions. The instrument for data collection was a self-administered questionnaire and the data

collected was analyzed using the chi-square. Based on the analysis the findings were reached that

the marketing related value with regard to choice of entrepreneurial skills has nothing to do with

being a male or female.

In another study by Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) carried out an investigation on how

gender influenced student’s attitude towards their own attitude and how they relate to computer

skills from Canadian universities of North America. The study used the extensive survey design.

The subjects of the study were 906 students graduating from bachelor level in arts, liberal arts

and humanities selected through stratified random sampling. The basic instrument for data

collection is interview through phone, face to face and focus groups. The data collected were

analyzed through t-test scores. However based on the analysis the results obtain shows that there

is a significant differences as found in bibliographies, graphic programme, web site creation and

non conceptual understanding of Information Technology where males were to have higher skills

than females. Although in generic computer skills both male and females have high level

competence.

57

Furthermore, Danjuma, Hussaini, and Nasiru, (2011) studied the role of skills

acquisition and capacity building on women economic empowerment in Birnin Kebbi town of

Kebbi State. The study employed the descriptive survey design. The subjects were 225 graduates

of Women Day Centre Birnin Kebbi that were purposively sampled. The instrument for data

collection was the structured and unstructured interview. The data collected was analyzed using

the spearman rank correlation coefficient. The findings revealed that there is a low positive

correlation between skill acquisition and women economic empowerment and a high positive

correlation between capacity building and women economic empowerment.

Summary of Literature Review

The literature review was segmented into three namely, conceptual framework,

theoretical framework and empirical studies. The conceptual framework delved mainly on

terminologies and typologies of employment. The skills acquisition can be viewed from context,

content and contemporary approaches which applied to both bakery skills such as: mixing,

kneading, firing, shaping, and so forth. While, soap making skills includes: stirring,

measurement, molding, drying, among others. Similarly, career guidance encompassed all aspect

of development in and out of school. In addition apprentices can take the form of formal and

informal dimension. All these literatures played a significant role in understand and enriching the

present research but none attempted to relate it to any model of skill acquisition or career

guidance for counsellee.

The theoretical framework reviewed three models of skills acquisition and two theories of

career guidance. The three models of skills acquisition are the Dreyfus model, (1980), Anderson

ACT-R (1983) and Newel and Rosen Bloom SOAR (1982) as they are all cognitive architecture

58

of learning in stages. Dreyfus model can be differentiated with ACT-R and SOAR models with

its emphasis on guided skills acquisition. The career guidance theories include non psychological

theories specifically accident theory that career could be chosen by chance. As well as decision

making theories that tends to maximize profit and minimize lost in career with particular

reference to self-efficacy theory that individual feels could acquire a named skill.

The empirical studies reviewed the existing variation in gender and age as it relates to

performance and skills acquisition of an individual. Although all literature concord that guidance

is a useful tool to skill acquisition but not a single work relate it to Dreyfus model training of

skills acquisitions or soap making skills or bakery skills. Therefore, the present research seeks to

elucidate on the effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on soap making and bakery

skills acquisition with the intervening variables of gender and age.

59

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the procedures and techniques that was subsequently employed to,

collect and analyze data for the study. These are elaborated under the sub-headings: design of the

study, area of the study, population, sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data

collection, validation and reliability of instrument, experimental procedure, control of extraneous

variables, method of data collection and method of data analysis.

Design of the Study

The quasi-experiment using the non-equivalent group of pre-test and post-test design was

adopted. There is no randomization of the respondents and the existence of treatment and control

group that are subjected to pre-test in order to establish a baseline data to work with before the

posttest after the treatment (Ibrahim, 2006).

Table 1: The format of research design for the study

Group Pre-Test Treatment Post-Test

Experiment group 01 x1 02

Control group 01 x2 02

Note: 01 = pre test; 02= post test; X1= Dreyfus model; x2 = conventional method

59

60

Area of the Study

The area of the study is Niger State situated in the middle belt (north central) of Nigeria.

It shares boundaries with Republic of Benin (West), Kebbi State (North West), Zamfara State

(North), Kaduna State (North East) Kogi State (South), Kwara State (South West), and the

Federal Capital Territory (South East). It lies on latitude 3:20 East and Longitude 11.30 North. It

is a melting pot of ethnic groups from Nigeria but is dominated by Nupe, Hausa and Gwari tribes

with a population figure of 3.95 million in the 2006 National population census. The state

comprises 25 Local Government Areas with a land mass of 86.000km2 in about 8.6million

hectares constituting about 9.3% of the total land area of the country, making it the largest state

in Nigeria (Niger State Government, 2008).

The justification for choosing Niger State is based on largely on the level of

unemployment among youths and its attendant consequences of criminal acts which tends to

slow down the rate of development. In addition its centripetal location geographically in Nigeria

as such people from all parts of Nigeria abound and live peacefully irrespective of religious,

political and cultural differences. Thus, dissemination of knowledge and skills to all parts of the

country will be fast as it is the largest state in Nigeria and shares boundary with many states.

Population of the Study

The population of the study comprise of over 3,358 registered unemployed youths

captured in the various skills acquisition centre in Niger State. (Ministry of Youth and Strategy,

2013, and Ministry of Women and Gender Affairs, 2014) There are over Seventy-five (75) Skills

Acquisition Centres in the state with the Ministry of Women and Gender Affairs, Mass Literacy

Agency and Ministry of Education all having at least one in each of the twenty-five (25) Local

61

Government Areas of the state. This is with exception of skills acquisition centres controlled by

NGO’S and local governments. They train mainly graduates and drop-outs from secondary

schools and tertiary institutions that are either male or female all in different age brackets.

Sample and Sampling Technique

The sample for the study was 168 youths. Purposive sampling technique was used to

select the skill acquisition centers. The chanchaga skills acquisition center with 45 apprentices

was the experimental group for soap making skills while the experimental group for bakery skills

is located at Talba Vocational Training and Skill Acquisition scheme at the Minna Youth Centre

with 53 apprentices. However, the Women Day Center Minna forms the control group with 39

apprentices for bakery skills acquisition, alongside St. Clement skills acquisition center at Dutsen

Kura Minna with 31 apprentices as control group for soap making. The population of apprentices

in each of the centres is below 60 youths, which is a manageable size for experimental purposes

for the researcher. Therefore, youths were selected into the programme. Thus, the entire sample

population was 168 apprentices.

Instruments for Data Collection

The instruments for the collection of data for the research is the Bakery Skills Acquisition

Test (B.S.A.T) (see appendix J pages 138-144) and Soap Making Skills Acquisition Test

(S.M.S.A.T) (see appendix K pages 145-1521.Theses instruments developed by the researcher

was used to elicit information from the apprentices on their level of attainment in the skills

acquisition processes for skills acquisition in soap making and bakery. Each of the instrument is

divided into Section A and Section B, while section A seeks for background information of the

apprentices, Section B is divided into five Clusters each representing a stage in skills acquisition.

62

Each cluster captures the varying degree in the level of attainment in skills acquisition.

Therefore, each of the two instruments of bakery skills and soap making skills consists of a total

twenty questions and four questions for each stage of the five clusters. This Multiple Choice

questions were used to determine the level of attainment of the apprentice. In each item the

apprentice scores correct, 5 marks was awarded making a total of 100 marks for each of the

instruments. The summative or aggregate score was used to determined the achievement score

for each of the apprentices.

Validation of the Instruments

The face validity of the instrument was done by a team of three experts from two

Nigerian Universities. One expert from Science Education Department of University of Nigeria,

Nsukka, the second expert from the Educational Foundations Department of University of

Nigeria, Nsukka and the third expert from the Department of Counselling Psychology of Ibrahim

Badamasi Babangida University Lapai-Niger State Nigeria. Their observations have been taken

as input and necessary corrections effected as suggested before producing the final copy of the

instrument. All the experts were assumed to have separately and collectively certified that the

instrument have the required face validity (see Appendix O pages 158-183, Appendix P pages

184-200, and Appendix Q pages 201-220).

Reliability of the Instrument

A trial-test was conducted on a sample population of 60 students at skills acquisition

section of Women Day College Minna, Niger State to determine the reliability of the instrument.

However, a split-half test procedure was used to test for stability. The data collected was used to

determine the internal consistency of the instrument using the Cronbach Alpha statistics which is

63

applied to an instrument that is not dichotomously scored. The reliability of the scoring guide

was determined using Kindalls coefficient of concordance (W). The result obtained was 0.81 for

BSAT and SMSAT was 0.80 which is high enough these made the instruments reliable. The

calculation of the coefficient was with the aid of Computer Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences (SPSS) (See Appendix M page 221).

Experimental Procedure:

Prior to the commencement of the experiment, the researcher visited the centre to seek

for official permission and familiarization of the environment. Later, there was series of contacts

between the researcher, the instructor and the apprentices. This was expected to last for 8 weeks

(see Appendix F page 117 and Appendix G 118). This period should be long enough for

acquiring soap making skills and bakery skill. The pretest was conducted on the first week of the

experiment while the post-test was done on the last week of the experiment. The researcher

offered the necessary guidance to the experimental group once a week (see Appendix H pages

119-126 and Appendix I pages 127-137). The control group was exposed to instruction by a

master using the conventional method and demonstration technique but without separating the

learning experience into Dreyfus Model of skills acquisition which is divided according to five

stages.

Control of Extraneous Variables

The following measures were adopted to control extraneous variables that may introduce

bias to the study:

64

Initial Group Difference: - In an attempt to eliminate the errors of non-equivalence arising from

the non-randomization of the subjects, the researcher used the analyses of variance (ANCOVA)

for data analysis. This corrected the initial difference among the research subjects.

Apprentices Interaction: - The treatment and the control group that was composed were not from

the same skill acquisition centre, this is to ensure the treatment and control group do not mix to

exchange ideas..

Effect of Pre-test and Post Test: - The time lapse between the pre-test and post-test was 8 weeks.

This was considered high enough to disallow the pre-test score from affecting the post-test

scores. The pre-test items were not only shuffled but different colours (blue and pink) papers and

size (pocket size) was used for the post test.

Method of Data Collection

The researcher administered the instruments on the apprentices with the assistance of

their instructors who acted as research assistants. The experimental group was engaged for 8

weeks with guidance on the segments and stages of skills acquisition. The apprentices were

accommodated in classroom and are allowed to enter with only writing material. The researcher

reiterated the ethics of examination to the apprentices and the research assistants. The

instructions and the purposes of the day’s session was further highlighted. The apprentices were

given only 30 minutes to attempt the questionnaire. At the end of the session the instrument was

collected and scored by the researcher out of 100%.

65

Method of Data Analysis

The raw data collected from each apprentices summated or aggregate score in the pretest

or posttest was analyzed using mean and standard deviation in answering the research questions.

The results obtained were used for rejection or accepting the research questions formulated.

While the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for testing of the research null

hypotheses formulated.

66

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

This chapter presented the results and statistical analysis in accordance with nine research

questions and nine hypotheses that guided the study. Each of the researched question and the

tested hypothesis results were presented in a tabular form below: -

Research Question 1

What is the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance and those with control group?

Table 1: Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after

Training in Dreyfus Model and those in Control Group.

Groups

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Experimental Group 45 37.44 77.00 39.5

Control Group 39 38.46 56.28 17.82

Note: - All figures rounded up to two decimal places

Table 1 showed that at pretest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean

achievement score of 37.44. While, the control group had overall mean achievement scores of

66

67

38.46.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the

closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean

achievement score of 77.00. While, the controlled group had overall mean achievement score of

56.28.Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on

level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the

experimental group is 39.55 as opposed to 17.82 of the controlled group, which was a clear

indication that there was a difference in the variability of their scores judging from the disparity

of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is significant can only be proven

by a tested hypothesis.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question one is:

HO 1: There is no significant difference between the mean pre-test and post-test

achievement score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap

making and those not exposed to the model for career guidance.

68

Table 2: Summary of ANCOVA in the mean pre-test and post-test scores between soap

making apprentices after training and those without training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

45451.60 3 15150.53 113.74 .000 Rejected

Within

Group

21844.70 164 133.20

Total 67296.28 167

The result shown in Table 2 indicated that treatment as a main factor had significant

effect on apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills in apprentices. This is

due to the fact that the F value of 113.74 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have

significance of .000 levels because it is lower than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested.

This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 113.74 is significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .000 is less than .05. Hence, the

researcher rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative. Therefore, there was

significance difference between the mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

69

Research Question 2

What is the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition by gender of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?

Table 3: Mean Achievement scores by Gender of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after

Training in Dreyfus Model.

Experimental Group

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Male 26 36.16 76.35 40.19

Female 19 39.21 77.89 38.68

Table 3 revealed that at pretest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 36.16.While, the female apprentices in the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 39.21. There was not much difference in the variability of

their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean

achievement score of 76.35. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 77.89. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on

both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;

the gain score of the male and the female is close with 40.19 and 38.68 respectively, which

indicated that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the

70

closeness of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can

only be proven by a tested hypothesis.

The corresponding hypothesis for the research questions two is:

H0 2: There is no significant difference between the mean score of males and females

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career

guidance.

Table 4: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills scores by gender (males and

females) apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model.

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

26.326 1 26.326 234 .631 Accepted

Within

Group

4843.674 43 112.644

Total 4870.000 44

The result shown in Table 4 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant

effect on male and female apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills. As a

result the F value of 234 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance of

.631 levels which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore shows

that at 0.05 the F-value of 234 is not significant.

71

The Table shows that the exact probability level .631 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significance difference between

the mean pretest and post test achievement score of the male and female apprentices exposed to

Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to the model

for career guidance

Research Question 3

What is the mean achievement score difference in soap making skills acquisition of

young adults and older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career

guidance?

Table 5: Mean Achievement Scores Between Young Adults and Older Adults Apprentices

in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model

Experimental Group

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Young Adults 14 40.27 78.95 38.68

Older Adults 31 35.38 75.58 40.19

Table 5 illustrated that at pretest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 40.27. While, the older adults had overall mean achievement

score of 35.38.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the

closeness of their standard deviation.

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However, at posttest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 78.95. While, the older adults had overall mean achievement score of

75.58.Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on

level of performance too on both groups. This is because; the gain score of the young adults and

the older adults is close with 38.68 and 40.19 respectively, which indicated that there was no

much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the closeness of the gain score. To

ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can only be proven by a tested

hypothesis.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question three is:

HO 3: There is no significant difference between the mean score of young adults and

older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making

for career guidance.

Table 6: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills scores between young adults’ and

older adults’ apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model.

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

124.706 1 124.706 1.130 .294 Accepted

Within

Group

4746.294 43 110.356

Total 4870.000 44

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The result shown in Table 6 indicates that treatment as a main factor has significant effect

on young adults and older adults’ apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills.

As a result the F value of 1.130 in respect of treatment as a main effect is shown to have

significance of .294 levels which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This

therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 1.130 is not significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .294 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the

mean pretest and post test achievement score of young adults and older adults apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career guidance

Research Question 4

What is the mean achievement score difference in soap making skills acquisition between

gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?

Table 7: Mean Achievement Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and Age of

Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.

Experimental Groups

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Gender 45 37.68 77.00 39.32

Age 45 37.82 77.00 39.18

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Table 7 manifested that at pretest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental

group had overall mean achievement score of 37.68. While, apprentices performance by age had

overall mean achievement score of 37.82.There was not much difference in the variability of

their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 77.00. While, apprentices performance by age had overall

mean achievement score of 77.00. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on

both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;

the gain score of the gender group is 39.32 as opposed to 39.18 of the age group, which was a

clear indication that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from

the disparity of the gain score. Only a tested hypothesis can determine whether the observed

difference is not significant.

The corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question four is:

HO 4: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean score by gender and age of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career

guidance.

75

Table 8: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills interaction effect scores by gender

and age of apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

151.032 3 50.344 .452 .717 Accepted

Within

Group

9588.968 86 111.500

Total 9740.000 89

The result shown in Table 8 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant

effect on performance by gender and age of apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap

making skills. This is because the F-value of .452 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown

to have significance level of .717 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is

tested. This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .452 is not significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .717 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significance interaction effect

between the mean pretest and post test achievement score by gender and age of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

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Research Question 5

What is the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices exposed

to Dreyfus model training for career guidance and those in the control group?

Table 9: Pretest and Posttest Mean Achievement Scores of Apprentices in Bakery Skills

after Training in Dreyfus Model and those in the Control Group

Groups

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Experimental Group 53 36.44 79.67 43.22

Control Group 31 28.21 47.05 18.85

Table 9 displayed that at pretest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean

achievement score of 36.44. While, the control group had overall mean achievement score of

28.21.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the

closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean score of

79.67. While, the control group had overall mean achievement score of 47.05.Therefore, the

treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on level of performance too

of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the experimental group is 43.22 as

opposed to 18.85 of the control group, which was a clear indication that there was a difference in

the variability of their scores judging from the disparity of the gain score. To ascertain whether

the observed differences is significant can only be proven by a tested hypothesis.

77

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question five is:

HO 5: There is no significant difference in the mean pre-test and post-test achievement

score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and

those not exposed to the model for career guidance.

Table 10: Summary of ANCOVA in the mean pre-test and post-test between bakery skills

apprentices after training and those without training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000 Rejected

Within

Group

30361.368 164 185.925

Total 96757.143 167

The result shown in Table 10 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant

effect on apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills in apprentices. This is because

the F-value of 119.548 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance level

of .000 levels which is lower than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore

shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 119.548 is significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .000 is less than .05. Hence, the

researcher rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative. Therefore, there was significant

78

difference between the mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices exposed to

Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model

for career guidance

Research Question 6

What is the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition by gender of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?

Table 11: Mean Achievement Scores by Gender (Male and Female) Apprentices in Bakery

Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.

Experimental Group

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Male 32 35.96 79.11 43.14

Female 21 37.11 80.00 42.90

Table 11 exhibited that at pretest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 35.96. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 37.11. There was not much difference in the disparity of their

scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean

achievement score of 79.11. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 80.00. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on

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both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;

the gain score of the male and female is close with 43.14and 42.90 respectively, which indicated

that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the closeness of

the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can only be

proven by a tested hypothesis.

The corresponding hypothesis that addresses research questions six is:

HO 6: There is no significant difference between the mean score of males and females

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills for career

guidance.

80

Table 12: Summary of ANCOVA in bakery skills scores between males and females

apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

3.654 1 3.654 .024 .877 Accepted

Within

Group

6516.346 43 151.543

Total 6520.000 44

The result shown in Table 12 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant

effect on male and female apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills. This is

because the F-value of .024 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance

level of .877 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore

shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .024 is not significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .877 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the

mean pretest and post test achievement score of male and female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus

Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model for

career guidance

81

Research Question 7

What is the mean achievement score difference in bakery skills acquisition of young

adults and older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?

Table 13: Mean Achievement Scores Between Young Adults and Older Adults Apprentices

in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.

Groups

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Young Adults 23 39.21 82.63 43.12

Older Adults 30 34.42 77.51 43.08

Table 13 indicated that at pretest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 39.21. While, the older adults of the experimental group had

overall mean achievement score of 34.42.There was not much differences in the variability of

their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had overall

mean achievement score of 82.63. While, the older adults of the experimental group had overall

mean achievement scores of 77.50. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on

both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;

the gain score of the young adults is 43.42 as opposed to 43.08 of the older adults, which was a

clear indication that there was a difference in the variability of their scores judging from the

82

disparity of the gain scores. To ascertain whether the observed differences is significant can only

be proven by a tested hypothesis.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question seven is:

Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference between the mean score of young adults and

older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills

for career guidance.

Table 14: Summary of ANCOVA in bakery skills scores between young adults and older

adults apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

289.079 1 289.079 1.995 .165 Accepted

Within

Group

6230.921 43 144.905

Total 6520.000 44

The result shown in Table 14 indicated that treatment as a main factor has effect on young adults

and older adults’ apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills. This is because the F-

value of 1.995 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance level of .165

which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore shows that at

0.05 the F-value of 1.165 is not significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .165 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the

83

mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training

on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model for career guidance

Research Question 8

What is the mean achievement score difference in bakery skills acquisition between

gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?

Table 15: Mean Achievement Interaction Effect Scores Between Gender and Age of

Apprentices in Bakery Skills After Training in Dreyfus Model.

Groups

N

Pretest

X

Posttest

X

Mean Gain

Gender 53 36.53 79.71 43.18

Age 53 36.82 80.07 43.25

Table 15 pointed-out that at pretest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental

group had overall mean achievement score of 36.53. While, the apprentices performance by age

had overall mean achievement score of 36.82. There was not much difference in the variability

of their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.

However, at posttest, apprentices by gender group had overall mean achievement score of

79.71. While, by age group the apprentices had overall mean achievement score of 80.07.

Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on level of

performance too of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the apprentices by

84

gender is 43.18 as opposed to 43.25 of the apprentices performance by age, which was a clear

indication that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the

disparity of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can

only be proven by a tested hypothesis.

A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question eight is:

HO 8: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean score of gender and age of

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery for career

guidance.

Table 16: Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and

Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model

Variables Sum of

squares

Df Mean

Squares

F Sig. Decision

Between

Group

292.733 3 97.578 .658 .580 Accepted

Within

Group

12747.267 86 148.224

Total 13040.000 89

The result shown in Table 16 indicated that treatment as a main factor has interactive

effect by gender and age of apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills in

apprentices. This is because the F-value of .658 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to

85

have significance level of .580 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested.

This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .658 is not significant.

The Table shows that the exact probability level .580 is higher than .05. Hence, the

researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant interaction effect

between the mean pretest and post test achievement score by gender and age of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

Summary of the findings:

1. There was significant difference between the mean achievement score of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

2. The gain score of the male experimental group is higher than the male of the control

group when exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making skills for

career guidance.

3. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of the male and

female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and

those not exposed to the model for career guidance

4. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of young adults

and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap

making and those not exposed to the model for career guidance

86

5. There was no significant interaction effect of treatment by gender and age of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

6. There was significant difference between the mean achievement score of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance.

7. The gain score of the male experimental group is higher than the male of the control

group when expose to Dreyfus Model training in bakery skills acquisition for career guidance.

8. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of male and

female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and

those not exposed to the model for career guidance

9. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of young adults

and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery

skills and those not exposed to the model for career guidance

10. There was no significant interaction effect of treatment by gender and age of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to

the model for career guidance

87

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, the discussions of the major findings of the study, conclusion, their

educational implications and recommendations including suggestions for further study and

summary of the study are presented.

Discussions of Results

The discussions were organized under the following sub-headings:

1. Influence of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery

skills.

2. Effects of Gender on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills.

3. Effects of Age on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills.

4. Interaction Effect of treatment on Skills Acquisition by Gender and Age in soap making

skills and bakery skills.

Influence of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills

The results from the study showed that the experimental group achievement score is

higher than that of the control group in soap making skills acquisition after employing Dreyfus

model of career guidance. In addition, Table 11 depicted that there is significant difference in

mean achievement between the experimental group and control group in soap making skill

acquisition when exposed to Dreyfus Model of career guidance. Similarly, the experimental

group achievement score is higher than that of the control group in bakery skills acquisition

when exposed to the Dreyfus model of career guidance as shown in Table 5. Furthermore, Table

102

87

88

15 indicated that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement between the

experimental group and controlled group in bakery skills acquisition when exposed to Dreyfus

Model of Career guidance.

The apprentices of the experimental group did better than those of the control group

because the Dreyfus model exposed them to analytical approach to acquisition of skills and

expectation at the five stages of the model. The apprentice were able to learn systematically or in

stages, names of the instruments\apparatus, uses, minor repairs and substitution, ingredients\

reagents, procedure in the production of final product; performing practical activity and finally

provide answer to common faults in production either in soap or bakery skills.

The result of this study is in conformity with the earlier research findings on the place of

guidance in order to acquire a skill as in Okonkwo and Obineli (2010) Bello and Mustapha

(2010) Aihie and Ohanaka (2010). This is because whatever the kind of skill an individual is

acquiring, a to put someone a right is important.

Effect of Gender on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills

One major finding from the research is that there is no significant difference in mean

achievement between male and female of the experimental group exposed to Dreyfus model of

skills acquisition in soap making as depicted by analysis of variance in Table 12. In hypothesis

two, on the same token Table 16 showed the analysis of variance based on hypothesis seven that

there is no significant difference in achievement score between male and female apprentice of

the experimental group in bakery skills acquisition.

The result findings corroborate the work of Gambari, Gana and Kutigi (2012); Ismail,

Solasoye, Bernice, Olayede and Olawale (2012); Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) and Kutigi

89

(2011). However, other researchers that contradicted earlier are Inekwe (1997), Ogunbiyi, Joseph

and Olukayode (2006), Umar (2007) and Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) could be influence by

environmental factors.

Effects of Age on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills

The results of hypothesis three as shown on table 12 which is ANOVA statistics indicated

that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement between young adults and older

adults in the experimental group in soap making skills acquisition. Similarly, the result of

hypothesis eight as exhibited by table 17 which is an ANOVA statistics revealed that there is no

significant differences in the mean achievement between young adults and older adults in the

post test experimental group in bakery skills acquisition.

These results are in agreement with other research conducted by Salahudeen (2012) and

Aremu and Ajanaka (2010) this is because interest and other factors influence learning than age

especially at the youthful stage when the brain is matured. Contrary to aforementioned study,

Amusan and Olamisinmi (2011) and Ewumi (2010) see the relevance of age to attainment could

be due to the sampling technique and the methodology or gender of the instructor.

Interaction Effect of treatment on Skills Acquisition by Gender and Age in soap making

skills and bakery skills

The tested hypothesis five as revealed by ANOVA statistics on Table 15 indicated that

there is no significant difference in the interaction effect of the mean achievement between

gender and age of apprentices in soap making skills of the experimental group. This is similar to

the result of hypothesis nine as reflected on Table 20 on ANOVA, it showed that there is no

90

significant difference in the interaction effect of the mean achievement between gender and age

of apprentices in bakery skills acquisition of the post test experimental group.

The moderating variables of age and gender with respect to either soap making and

bakery skills acquisition after treatment by the researcher do not show significant interaction

effect on the mean achievements. Indicating that variability in age and gender do not exert

significant influence on the apprentices in the skills acquisition that is studied.

Conclusion

Deducing from the foregone findings and discussion of the study, one can conclude the

following: The results of achievement score of post test experiment group are significantly

different from the post-test controlled group in both soap making and bakery skills acquisition.

The achievement score from the posttest of the experimental group indicate no significant

difference between male and female is both soap making and bakery skills acquisition. The

achievement mean score of post test of the experimental group exhibit no significant differences

between young adults and older adults in soap making and bakery skills acquisitions. Finally, the

interaction effect between age and gender achievement mean score is not significant for both

soap making skill and bakery skill acquisition.

Implications of the findings

From the findings of the study, the researcher deduced a couple of far reaching

implications for students, teachers, curriculum planners, research agency, proprietors and

guidance counsellors. The study provided empirical evidences of the effectiveness of Dreyfus

Model of skills acquisition on soap making skills and bakery skills. The apprentices in these

91

centres exposed to Dreyfus Model in acquiring either the soap making skills or bakery skills

performed better than those not exposed to the Dreyfus Model. The findings of the study showed

the need to expose apprentices in skills acquisition centres the significance of the Dreyfus

Model.

Furthermore, the findings of the study have illustrated the interaction effect of Dreyfus

Model on soap making skills and bakery skills acquisition of apprentices which is strongly built

on guidance oriented approach in each of the five stages of the model. This will strengthen the

role of guidance counsellors not only in skills acquisition centres but also in formal institutions

of learning. This will enhance the success of proprietors of skills acquisition centres.

Moreover, the result also shows that exposing apprentices to Dreyfus Model of skills

acquisition in soap making and bakery is faster to reaching the expert stage of skills acquisition.

Thus, curriculum planners to incorporate the Dreyfus Model as technique in acquiring skills

when opportunity avails in modifying curriculum for learners at both formal and non formal

school settings.

In addition, the result of the study shows that gender and age does not significantly

influence acquisition of skills both in soap making and bakery, this will allow for the continued

diversity in profession that are hitherto age or gender sensitive. Especially, where research

agency publish these result to the academia including learners and their instructors.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study the following recommendations have been proffered:

92

1. The academia should produce learning materials for all level of education so that the Dreyfus

Model could be explored for maximum benefit of the educational system.

2. The teacher or master should employ the Dreyfus model as it is guidance oriented in

providing systematic approach to problem solving.

3. The stakeholders’ of education should provide resources for effective brain storming of the

Dreyfus model in workshops, seminars and other educational for the development of

education.

4. The proprietors of skills/vocational acquisition centre will find the Dreyfus model as a useful

tool in enhancing the quality of its apprentices in the centre.

5. The Dreyfus model will also increase the quantity of apprentice produce within a short

period.

Limitations of the Study

The Dreyfus Model has not been thoroughly explored by researchers not only in Nigeria

but across the globe. This explains why there is hardly any textbook with adequate background

or research on the model. These materials merely mentioned the model and provide scanty

knowledge about it.

The present work on Dreyfus model training as regard its effect on soap making ad

bakery skills revolves much on the informal sector of education as that is where the apprentices

are classified. Most researches in institutions lays emphasis on formal system of education be it

primary, post-primary and tertiary institutions at the detriment of the informal and non-formal

education. It is this factor that breeds the shortage of empirical studies in this research work.

93

The empirical studies in this literature reviewed are only extract from the formal system

of education. In which the broad definition of skill is taken to include the skills of communicate,

practical dexterity, interaction, cognitive etc.

Suggestions for Further Study

Based on the findings as well as the limitations of the study, the following areas are

suggested for further research:

1. The study can be replicated in other environment with different cultural background.

2. The Dreyfus model can also be researched in conventional school setting.

3. The dependable variables used in the Dreyfus model of the present study can also be changed

and studied.

4. The sample size of the study could also be altered and studied.

5. A comparable study of Dreyfus model with other models of skills acquisition can be studied.

Summary of the Study

The study investigated the effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on soap

making and bakery skills acquisition of apprentices for employment in Niger State. Specifically,

the objectives of the study were to:

1. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

2. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of male

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

94

3. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of female

apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

4. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of young adults

and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

5. Determine the mean achievement interaction effect scores in soap making skills

acquisition between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career

guidance.

6. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance and those in the control group..

7. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of male apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

8. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of female apprentices

exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

9. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of young adults and

older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

10. Determine the mean achievement interaction effect scores in bakery skills acquisition

between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.

With regard to these objectives, a total of eight research questions were generated

alongside eight hypotheses which were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

The reviewed literature is segmented into conceptual framework, theoretical framework

and review of empirical studies. The conceptual framework delved into employment, skills

acquisition, bakery skills, soap making skills, apprentices, career guidance and the conceptual

95

relationship between these concepts that are demonstrated in a diagrammatic schema. The

theoretical framework dwelt on the models of Dreyfus model (1980).Anderson Act-R (1983) and

the Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982) and an overview of career guidance theories. Then

review of empirical studies on skills acquisition with career guidance was on, age, gender and

performance.

The research design of the study was quasi-experiment using the non-equivalent group of

pre-test and post-test design comprising the controlled and experimental group that is treated

with the Dreyfus Model of Skill acquisition in career guidance of employment. A total of 168

apprentices were sampled and the research instruments was developed by the researcher and

validated by experts. The mean and standard deviation was used to answer the research question

while the ANOVA was employed to test the hypotheses.

Thus, the result from the research questions and hypotheses revealed ten findings among

other things that the experimental group achievement scores is better than the control group. In

addition the achievement scores between gender or age is not significant and finally there is no

significance interaction effect in scores of the apprentices.

Finally, discussion of the results as it relates to literature review was done. In addition, to

advancing educational implications including exposing apprentices and learners at all levels of

education to counselling for effective skills acquisition. Recommendations to ministries and

parastatals or educational schools were made among others to organize workshops and seminars

for their learners to enhance skills acquisition. Then, a suggestion for further research based on

the findings was made.

96

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105

APPENDIX A

Table: 1 Unemployment Rates by State (1999-2008)

SSS 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Abia 9.65 4.2 16 14.8 11.4 9.7 7.9 13.5 25.1 14.5

Adawama 11.15 46.8 18.2 12.9 11.9 16.7 21.4 17.9 21.5 29.4

Akwa ibom 9.45 14.2 17.4 12.3 14.4 14.4 14.4 15.4 18.0 34.1

Anambra 4.05 21.2 5 6.6 9.1 9.5 9.8 10.3 14.9 16.8

Bauchi 5.8 48.2 15.1 10.4 20.5 25.1 29.7 23.9 20.5 37.2

Bayelsa 3.4 3.9 7.5 3.5 7.1 14.0 20.9 16.0 21.9 41.5

Benue 4.25 23.8 12.9 8.2 4.8 11.7 18.6 10.8 7.9 8.5

Borno 3.45 4.8 8.2 6.4 0.8 3.6 6.3 5.8 12.5 27.7

Cross river 6.15 14.2 9.8 7.9 12.0 11.6 11.1 16.9 32.8 14.3

Delta 9.6 7.9 16.3 14.9 17.1 10.8 4.5 13.8 22.9 18.4

Ebonyi 3.4 3.9 13.1 2.8 16.7 11.9 7.0 10.9 7.9 12

Edo 3.4 12.6 9.9 4.8 3.1 6.5 9.9 8.6 14.8 12.2

Ekiti 10.15 17.9 14.3 17.5 8.2 7.9 7.5 8.7 11.4 20.6

Enugu 11.75 21.2 16 15.2 16.5 22.0 27.4 20.0 14.1 14.9

Gombe 5.8 48.2 8.9 13.4 7.6 15.2 22.8 15.6 16.9 32.1

Imo 13.15 27.2 32.5 19.9 22.1 19.3 16.5 21.5 28.3 20.8

Jigawa 3.25 14.3 14.5 6.1 20.5 19.8 19.1 21.6 27.0 26.5

Kaduna 6.75 19.5 6.9 8.4 19.6 15.9 12.1 14.1 8.7 11.6

Kano 8.7 22.3 26.8 12.8 25.9 22.5 19.1 19.4 10.1 27.6

Katsina 5.55 2 23.7 10.4 20.3 22.1 23.8 19.3 10.9 37.3

Kebbi 6.65 31 29.4 12.3 19.8 19.9 19.9 15.2 1.3 12

Kogi 13.8 4.4 16.1 19.9 14.9 11.8 8.7 12.5 14.6 19

Kwara 5.2 13.3 12.5 8.8 5.4 4.2 2.9 7.5 17.7 11

Lagos 8.8 4.8 5.3 8 25.6 16.1 6.5 15.5 13.7 19.5

Nassarawa 1.5 3.8 2 1.6 5.1 6.9 8.7 8.1 11.8 10.1

Niger 3.85 3.8 4.6 6.3 6.7 3.5 0.2 3.6 4.2 28

Ogun 5.3 4.8 4.9 9.2 1.3 1.9 2.5 2.3 3.6 8.5

Ondo 9.8 17.9 20.1 16.8 7.3 6.8 6.2 6.7 6.7 14.9

Osun 0.75 5.7 7.5 1 0.4 1.2 1.9 2.7 7.2 12.6

Oyo 6.7 2.4 5.4 7 0.8 3.1 5.3 4.3 8.1 14.9

Plateau 9.1 7.9 4 11.8 0.4 1.6 2.8 2.9 6.8 7.1

Rivers 3.4 3.9 22.8 6.6 15.3 11.2 7.0 25.0 66.4 27.9

Sokoto 2.8 40.6 5.7 4.1 4.9 4.5 4.1 6.4 12.3 22.4

Taraba 11.85 34.4 18.1 16.8 23.8 13.6 3.4 14.0 15.2 26.8

Yobe 10.95 24.6 12 15 12.1 10.1 8.0 13.6 24.4 27.3

Zamfara 23.95 40.6 22.4 46.4 71.5 61.3 51.1 50.8 19.1 13.3

FCT (Abuja ) 11.85 3 10.4 14.4 5.3 5.9 6.5 16.4 47.8 21.5

Nigeria 8.15 13.1 13.6 12.6 14.8 13.4 11.9 13.7 14.6 19.7

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, General Household Survey Report (1999-2008)

106

APPENDIX B

Table 2: Unemployment Rates by Age Group and Sector (1999-2008)

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, General Household Survey Report (1999-2008)

Years

15-24 25-44 45-59 60-64 All groups

Na

tion

al

Urb

an

Ru

ral

Na

tion

al

Urb

an

Ru

ral

Na

tion

al

Urb

an

Ru

ral

Na

tion

al

Urb

an

Ru

ral

Na

tion

al

Urb

an

Ru

ral

1999 12.8 30.4 9.0 2.2 3.4 1.9 1.1 1.5 1.0 3.4 8.3 2.4 8.2 8.4 7.7

2000 15.9 26.4 13.6 2.0 3.4 1.7 0.9 1.6 0.8 3.8 8.3 2.9 13.1 13.3 12.6

2001 29.3 36.4 26.3 14.6 10.0 16.6 10.3 8.4 11.1 13.4 16.0 12.3 13.6 12.7 14.0

2002 27.5 29.0 26.8 11.1 6.5 13.0 7.4 5.9 9.5 11.7 11.8 11.7 12.6 8.7 14.2

2003 32.1 33.8 31.3 14.7 18.1 13.2 10.7 11.6 10.3 13.4 13.5 13.4 14.8 10.9 16.4

2004 28.9 31.2 27.9 11.4 10.0 12.0 7.7 4.5 9.0 10.1 4.8 12.4 13.4 9.5 15.0

2005 34.2 34.6 34.0 11.3 9.3 12.2 6.6 4.1 7.7 9.7 11.2 9.0 11.9 10.1 12.6

2006 30.8 31.9 30.3 8.8 5.1 11.1 4.8 1.6 6.7 7.3 4.0 8.3 13.7 10.2 14.6

2007 30.7 31.9 30.2 8.5 4.7 11.0 4.5 1.0 6.6 7.1 3.3 8.3 14.6 10.9 14.8

2008 41.6 49.9 39.6 17.0 16.3 17.3 11.5 10.0 12.1 16.7 18.2 16.2 19.7 19.2 19.8

107

APPENDIX C

Table 3: Unemployment Rate by State And Gender

Unemployment Rate

State Male Female Both Sexes

ABIA 19.3 23.9 21.6

ADAMAWA 19.6 27.4 23.0

AKWA-IBOM 26.0 25.5 25.8

ANAMBRA 18.6 23.6 21.3

BAUCHI 17.3 43.8 29.7

BAYELSA 22.6 18.9 20.7

BENUE 24.4 26.3 25.4

BORNO 22.3 32.2 26.5

CROSS RIVER 18.8 22.0 20.4

DELTA 26.6 27.7 27.2

EBONYI 20.9 19.7 20.3

EDO 16.5 17.6 17.1

EKITI 13.8 14.2 14.0

ENUGU 12.7 16.9 15.0

GOMBE 16.9 43.5 29.2

IMO 29.1 30.5 29.9

JIGAWA 18.8 42.3 28.6

KADUNA 18.7 36.2 25.7

KANO 16.7 39.5 25.7

KATSINA 18.3 40.9 27.8

KEBBI 9.4 32.6 17.6

KOGI 22.7 17.6 20.1

KWARA 17.0 17.9 17.5

LAGOS 6.2 9.1 7.6

NASARAWA 15.3 29.7 21.6

NIGER 8.3 33.0 19.4

OGUN 10.5 9.3 9.9

ONDO 13.1 14.9 14.1

OSUN 16.2 18.0 17.2

OYO 8.9 8.8 8.8

PLATEAU 10.2 18.8 14.4

SOKOTO 27.9 44.3 32.4

TARABA 18.7 25.3 21.6

YOBE 33.0 48.9 39.0

ZAMFARA 22.2 48.6 33.4

FCT 10.4 21.2 15.2

Sector

URBAN 13.3 17.1 15.2

RURAL 19.9 29.2 2.2

National 17.7 24.9 21.1

Source: National Bureau of Statistics Household and Micro Enterprise Survey ( 2010)

108

APPENDIX D

Table 4: Unemployment Rate by Level of Education, Age, Gender and Sector

Educational Level

Nigeria

URBAN RURAL TOTAL

Both Both Both

Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes

BELOW PRIMARY

PRIMARY

JSS

VOCATION/

COMMERCIAL

SSS

NCE/OND/NURSING

BA/BSC/Bed/HND

MSC/MA/MAdm

12.4 13.7 13.2 24.8 30.0 27.5 21.5 23.7 22.7

10.3 14.7 12.7 18.0 25.8 21.7 15.6 21.9 18.7

13.4 16.9 15.2 22.6 29.4 25.6 19.5 24.2 21.7

10.7 18.5 14.4 21.6 27.5 24.5 15.2 22.4 18.7

14.2 17.3 15,6 27.2 30.3 28.4 21.2 23.4 22.1

18.3 19.5 18.9 25.3 28.0 26.2 21.9 22.7 22.2

19.1 26.7 21.7 29.5 34.0 30.8 22.6 28.8 24.6

10.1 14.3 11.1 19.4 27.0 20.9 12.6 17.5 13.7

Age Group

15-24

25-34

35-44

45-54

55-64

32.2 30.9 31.5 36.7 38.0 37.3 35.6 36.1 35.9

16.4 19.0 17.8 21.2 31.0 26.5 19.5 26.7 23.3

8.5 13.8 11.0 14.5 26.8 20.3 12.3 21.8 16.8

8.6 11.7 10.0 13.5 22.4 17.1 11.8 18.2 14.4

10.6 13.1 11.6 16.5 21.9 18.3 14.6 18.4 16.0

National 13.3 17.1 15.2 19.9 29.2 24.2 17.7 24.9 21.1

Source: National Bureau of Statistics Household and Micro Enterprise Survey ( 2010)

109

APPENDIX E

TABLE 5 NEW ENTRANTS INTO ACTIVE LABOUR FORCE, PROJECTED TO 2015

Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2010)

110

APPENDIX F

TIME-TABLE OF WEEKLY TRAINING ACTIVITIES OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING ON

BAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE

WEEKS TIME DURATION TRAINING ACTIVITIES

1 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Introduction of the programme and pre-testing the

instrument.

2 10:00am-11:00am One hour Utensils and equipment of baking procedures.

3 10:00am-11:00am One hour Ingredients for baking products.

4 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours General procedures for baking.

5 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Practical display of baking skills to produce bread

with instructor as guide to apprentices.

6 10:00am-01:00pm Three hours Group and individual presentation of baking skills

by apprentices to produce bread.

7 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Common faults and corrections of the faults of the

bread produced.

8 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Evaluation and post-testing the instrument.

111

APPENDIX G

TIME-TABLE OF WEEKLY TRAINING ACTIVITIES OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING ON SOAP

MAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE

WEEKS TIME DURATION TRAINING ACTIVITIES

1 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Introduction of the programme and pre-testing the

instrument.

2 12:00noon-01:00pm One hour Utensils and equipment of soap making procedures.

3 12:00noon-01:00pm One hour Ingredients for soap making product.

4 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours General procedures for soap making.

5 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Practical display of soap making skills to produce

soap with instructor as guide to apprentices.

6 02:00pm-05:00pm Three hours Group and individual presentation of soap making

skills by apprentices to produce bread.

7 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Common faults and corrections of the faults of the

soap produced.

8 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Evaluation and post-testing the instrument.

112

APPENDIX H

TREATMENT PACKAGES

THE DETAIL OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING PROGRAMME ON SOAP MAKING SKILLS

ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE

SESSIONS OBJECTIVES CONTENT COUNSELLOR’S

ACTIVITIES

APPRENTICE’S

ACTIVITIES

STRATEGIES MATERIALS EVALUATION

SESSION

1

On completion of the

session the apprentice

will know the purpose of

the counsellor’s

intervention programme:

- to facilitate

and improve

on the quality

of skills

acquisition.

The counsellor

highlights the

ground rules:

- Punctuality

- Regularity

- Days of

meeting and

time

- Duration

- Vibration or

Switch off

handset

- Co-

operation

- Mode of

The counsellor

employs lecture

cum demonstration

methods to explain

the ground rules

and purpose of the

counsellor’s

intervention.

These includes:

- Attentiveness

- Ask questions

- Answer

questions

Encourage

active

participation of

apprentices.

Printed version

of ground rules

and objectives

of counselling

intervention

strategically

pasted in the

classroom

Books, charts and

pictures on skills

acquisition (types

and benefits).

The counsellor

will ask

questions to

determine the

extent to which

the objectives are

being achieved.

Take home

assignment as to

compose a

minute song on

ground rules or

an objective of

113

conduct

- Reinforces

for positive

contribution

The purpose of

counsellor’s

intervention.

Plan to issue

certificate of

attendance with

remarks.

Two minutes

break midway

the session for

interpersonal

discussion.

the programme.

SESSION

2

At the end of the session

the apprentices should:

- List the utensils and

equipment of soap

making skills

acquisition.

- Explain the

functions and

improvisation of the

utensils and

equipment of soap

making

The utensils and

equipment of

soap making

such as:

= dry measuring

cup

= liquid

measuring cup

= pot

= weighing

machine

The counsellor

takes a roll call and

recaps the ground

rules together with

the apprentices.

Highlights the

five stages of

Dreyfus model of

skills acquisition.

List and show the

Listen

attentively.

Observe the

utensils.

Touch and feel

the utensils

Ask questions.

Answer

counsellor’s

Pause

questions will

intermittently be

used during the

session

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

The utensils and

equipment of soap

making.

Chart summary of

the five stages of

Dreyfus Model.

Chart of the soap

making utensils

The counsellor

ask questions to

know the

apprentices level

of understanding.

Extended essay

given in tabular

form on utensils

114

- Discuss the

maintenance of the

utensils and

equipment of soap

making procedure.

= mixing bowl

= mixing spoon

= rubber scraper

= knife

= mold

= pan

= timers etc

The functions of

soap making

utensils and

improvisation.

The

maintenance of

soap making

utensils.

apprentices the

soap making

utensils.

Explain the

functions of the

soap making

utensils and

improvisation

procedure..

Discuss the simple

maintenance

strategies of the

utensils.

.

question.

Start writing the

extended essay.

and equipment.

and functions.

SESSION By the close of the

session the apprentice

The ingredients List the common

ingredients soap

Observe and Guided The sample Five minutes

115

3 should be able to:

- State the basic

ingredients use in soap

making.

- Discuss the role of

each of the

ingredients in the

production of soap.

- Explain the

implication of using

too little or too

much of each

ingredient.

of soap such as:

= lye.

= ashes

.= sodium

hydroxide

= Heat

= Water

= fats:

= tallow (fat of

beef)

= lard (fat of

pork)

= oils:

= palm oil

= Shea butter

oil

= coconut oil

= olive oil

The role of the

ingredient in

soap making

Implication of

making.

Show the texture

and nature of the

ingredients of

soap making to

apprentices.

Discuss the role

of each of the

ingredients to

soap making

procedure.

Explain the

implication of

varying quantity

of the ingredient

to soap making.

manipulate

ingredients of

soap making.

Interaction with

other apprentice

Ask questions

Answer questions

Continue the

extended essay.

Observation of

the apprentices

centre

questions will

be employed to

illustrate all the

point in this

session.

A brief

excursion to be

taken to a

nearby

apprentices

centre.

(actual) ingredients

of soap making

Chart depicting the

ingredients of soap

making.

snap test will be

administered.

116

too much or too

little ingredient

in soap making.

SESSION

4

At the end of the session

the apprentices Should

be able to:

- List the procedures

involve in soap making.

- Discuss the stages in

producing soap.

- Describe in detail the

procedures in producing

soap.

The procedure

of baking bread;

= mixing the lye

and water

together.

= melting

chosen type of

water in a pan

on fire.

= pouring the

lye mixture and

liquid fat

together.

= cooking the

mixture

together.

= moulding the

soap mixture in

mold.

= drying the

mold soap.

Using lecture cum

demonstration

method to explain

the soap making

procedure.

Observe the soap

procedure

demonstrated by

the instructor.

Demonstrate

some aspect of

soap making

procedure.

Ask questions

Answer questions

Continue the

extended essay.

Presentations

questions will

be use to

introduce the

session

Two minutes

break midway

the session for

interpersonal

discussion.

.

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

Utensils\equipment

of baking and

ingredients.

The counsellor

asks the

apprentices

questions on the

session to know

the extent on

which the

objectives are

achieved.

117

SESSION

5

On completion of the

session the apprentice

should be able to:

- list the soap making

skills in the

production of soap.

- State the skills in the

order as they occur

during production of

soap.

- Demonstrate at least

four skills in soap

production.

Specific soap

making skills:

= mixing.

= stirring

= cooking

= moulding

= drying

= colouring

= scenting

Generic soap

making skills:

=Reading

=writing

=oral

communication

=numeracy

=note taking

=problem

solving =critical

thinking

=decision

making

=planning and

Demonstrate

both the generic

and specific

skills of soap

making.

Guide the

apprentices to

demonstrate

some specific

and generic

skills of soap

making.

Demonstrate

some specific and

generic skills of

soap making.

Asking

questions.

Answering

questions.

Listening

attentively to the

counsellor’s

explanations

Interaction with

other apprentice

Continue the

extended essay.

Welcome test

to arouse the

interest of the

apprentices.

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

A brief

excursion to be

taken to a

nearby

apprentices

centre.

Utensils\equipment

of soap making and

ingredients.

The counsellor

asks summary

questions.

Take home

assignment to

prepare them for

next session.

118

organization

=use of memory

SESSION 6 At the end of the session

the apprentice should be

able to:

- Demonstrate

in a

group the skills

of soap

production.

- Discuss and display

individually soap

making skills in

production of soap.

- explain some

common mistakes in

the display of soap

making skills and

how it can be

corrected.

Specific soap

making skills:

= mixing.

= stirring

= cooking

= moulding

= drying

= colouring

= scenting

Generic soap

making skills:

=Reading

=writing

=oral

communication

=numeracy

=note taking

=problem

solving =critical

thinking

Guide the

apprentices to

demonstrate

specific and

generic skills of

baking bread.

Group practical

demonstration of

bakery skills on

soap production.

Individual

practical

demonstration on

production of

soap.

Asking

questions.

Answering

questions.

Listening

attentively to the

counsellor’s

explanations

Continue the

extended essay.

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

Drill

questions to

motivate the

concentration

of the

apprentices.

Utensils\equipment

of soap making and

ingredients.

Drill questions

to determine the

level of

understanding of

the session.

The class urged

to dramatize

some aspect of

acquisition of

skills in soap

production.

119

=decision

making

=planning and

organization

=use of memory

SESSION 7 At the end of the session

the apprentice should be

able to:

- mention the

common faults

in soap

production.

- describe analytically

the cause of the

common faults in

soap making.

- explain in detail

how the common

faults can be

corrected or

avoided.

Common fault

in soap produce:

= burnt soap

= soft soap

= crack soap

= soap stick to

mold.

= poor foaming

soap

= stain soap

= unscented

soap

Lecture cum

demonstration

method on

common fault

of soap

produced.

Observation of

the

demonstration.

Listen

attentively to the

counsellor.

Dramatization

and songs about

the programme.

Dramatization

and songs by

the apprentices.

Demonstration

using power

point by the

counsellor.

Utensils\equipment

of soap making and

ingredients.

Summary

questions to

determine the

level of

understanding of

the session.

SESSION 8

At the end of the session the

apprentice should be able to

- Recap the soap making skills

of soap production in relation

to Dreyfus Model of skills

acquisition.

The summary of

Dreyfus Model.

Termination.

Entertainment.

Discuss briefly the

Dreyfus Model in

relation to soap

making skills.

Listen attentively to

the counsellor.

Dramatization and

songs about the

programme.

Dramatization and

songs by the

apprentices.

Demonstration

using power point by

the counsellor.

Power point apparatus

such as computer,

projector and screen.

Certificates for

apprentices.

Remarks and

suggestions by the

apprentices on the whole

programme.

120

APPENDIX I

TREATMENT PACKAGES

THE DETAIL OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING PROGRAMME ON BAKERY SKILLS

ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE

SESSIONS OBJECTIVES CONTENT COUNSELLOR’

S ACTIVITIES

APPRENTICE’S

ACTIVITIES

STRATEGIES MATERIALS EVALUATION

SESSION 1 On completion of

the session the

apprentice will

know the purpose

of the

counsellor’s

intervention

programme:

- to facilitate

and improve

on the quality

of skills

acquisition.

The counsellor

highlights the

ground rules:

- Punctuality

- Regularity

- Days of

meeting

and time

- Duration

- Vibration

or Switch

off handset

- Co-

The counsellor

employs lecture

cum

demonstration

methods to

explain the ground

rules and purpose

of the counsellor’s

intervention.

These includes:

- Attentiveness

- Ask questions

- Answer

questions

Encourage

active

participation of

apprentices.

Printed version

of ground rules

and objectives

of counselling

intervention

strategically

pasted in the

Books, charts

and pictures on

skills

acquisition

(types and

benefits).

The counsellor will

ask questions to

determine the

extent to which the

objectives are being

achieved.

Take home

assignment as to

compose a minute

song on ground

rules or and

objective of the

121

operation

- Mode of

conduct

- Reinforces

for positive

contributio

n

The purpose of

counsellor’s

intervention.

classroom

Plan to issue

certificate of

attendance with

remarks.

Two minutes

break midway

the session for

interpersonal

discussion.

programme.

SESSION 2 At the end of the

session the

apprentices

should:

- List the

utensils and

equipment of

baking skills

acquisition.

- Explain the

functions and

The utensils

and equipment

of baking such

as:

= dry

measuring cup

= liquid

measuring cup

= oven

= weighing

The counsellor

takes a roll call

and recaps the

ground rules

together with the

apprentices.

Highlights the

five stages of

Dreyfus model of

Listen attentively.

Observe the

utensils.

Touch and feel the

utensils

Ask questions.

Answer

Pause questions

will intermittently

be used during

the session

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

The utensils

and equipment

of baking.

Chart summary

of the five

stages of

Dreyfus Model.

The counsellor

ask questions to

know the

apprentices level of

understanding.

Extended essay

given in tabular

122

improvisation

of the

utensils and

equipment of

baking.

- Discuss the

maintenance

of the

utensils and

equipment of

baking

procedure.

machine

= mixing bowl

= mixing spoon

= rubber

scraper

= wire whisk

= cutting board

= knife

= cooling rack

= baking tray

= knead

= timers etc

The functions

of bakery

utensils and

improvisation.

The

maintenance of

bakery utensils.

skills acquisition.

List and show

the apprentices the

bakery utensils.

Explain the

functions of the

bakery utensils

and improvisation

procedure..

Discuss the simple

maintenance

strategy of the

utensils.

.

counsellor’s

question.

Start writing the

extended essay.

Chart of the

bakery utensils

and equipment.

form on utensils

and functions.

123

SESSION 3 By the close of

the session the

apprentice should

be able to:

- State the

basic

ingredients use in

baking of bread.

- Discuss the

role of each

of the

ingredients in

the

production of

bread.

- Explain the

implication

of using too

little or too

much of each

ingredient.

The ingredients

of baking such

as:

=Flour.

=Yeast

.=Palm wine

=Heat

=Water

=Milk

=Salt

=Egg

=Butter(fat)

=Sugar

=Over ripe

Banana

=Baking

powder

The role of the

List the common

ingredients in

baking.

Show the texture

and nature of the

ingredients of

baking to

apprentices.

Discuss the role

of each of the

ingredients to

baking

procedure.

Explain the

implication of

varying quantity

of the ingredient

to baking.

Observe and

manipulate

ingredients of

baking.

Interaction with

other apprentice

Ask questions

Answer questions

Continue the

extended essay.

Observation of

the apprentices

centre

Guided

questions will be

employed to

illustrate all the

point in this

session.

A brief

excursion to be

taken to a

nearby

apprentices

centre.

The sample

(actual)

ingredients of

baking

Chart depicting

the ingredients

of baking.

Five minutes snap

test will be Admin-

istered.

124

ingredient in

baking

Implication of

too much or too

little ingredient

in baking.

SESSION 4 At the end of the

session the

apprentices

Should be able

to:

- List the

procedures

involve in the

baking of bread.

- Discuss the

stages in

producing bread.

- Describe in

detail the

procedures in

baking of bread.

The procedure

of baking

bread;

=Creaming the

yeast

=setting the

sponge

=mixing the

dough

=kneading

=rising

technique

=greasing

=proving

technique

=firing

technique

Using lecture

cum

demonstration

method to explain

the baking

procedure.

Observe the

baking procedure

demonstrated by

the instructor.

Demonstrate some

aspect of baking

procedure.

Ask questions

Answer questions

Continue the

extended essay.

Presentations

questions will be

use to introduce

the session

Two minutes

break midway

the session for

interpersonal

discussion.

.

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

Utensils\equip

ment of baking

and

ingredients.

The counsellor asks

the apprentices

questions on the

session to know the

extent on which the

objectives are

achieved.

125

=baking

SESSION 5 On completion of

the session the

apprentice should

be able to:

- list the baking

skills in the

production of

bread.

- State the

skills in the

order as they

occur during

production of

bread.

- Demonstrate

at least four

skills in the

bread

production.

Specific baking

skills:

Creaming the

yeast

=setting the

sponge

=mixing the

dough

= kneading

=rising

technique

=greasing

=proving

technique

=firing

technique

=baking

Generic baking

skills:

=Reading

=writing

=oral

Demonstrate

both the

generic and

specific skills

of baking

bread.

Guide the

apprentices to

demonstrate

some specific

and generic

skills of baking

bread.

Demonstrate some

specific and

generic skills of

baking.

Asking questions.

Answering

questions.

Listening

attentively to the

counsellor’s

explanations

Interaction with

other apprentice

Continue the

extended essay.

Welcome test

to arouse the

interest of the

apprentices.

Reinforcement

of positive

contribution.

A brief

excursion to be

taken to a

nearby

apprentices

centre.

Utensils\equip

ment of baking

and

ingredients.

The counsellor

asks summary

questions.

Take home

assignment to

prepare them for

next session.

126

communication

=numeracy

=note taking

=problem

solving

=critical

thinking

=decision

making

=planning and

organization

SESSION 6 At the end of the

session the

apprentice should

be able to:

- Demonstrat

e

in a

group the

skills of

bread

production.

- Discuss and

display

individually

bakery skills in

production of

bread.

- explain some

common

Specific

baking skills:

Creaming the

yeast

=setting the

sponge

=mixing the

dough

= kneading

=rising

technique

=greasing

=proving

technique

=firing

Guide the

apprentices

to

demonstrat

e specific

and generic

skills of

baking

bread.

Group practical

demonstration of bakery

skills on bread

production.

Individual practical

demonstration on

production of bread.

Asking questions.

Answering questions.

Listening attentively

to the counsellor’s

explanations

Continue the

extended essay.

Reinforceme

nt of positive

contribution.

Drill

questions to

motivate the

concentration

of the

apprentices.

Utensils\equipment

of baking and

ingredients.

Drill questions

to determine the

level of

understanding of

the session.

The class urged

to dramatize

some aspect of

acquisition of

skills in bread

production.

127

mistakes in the

display of

bakery skills

and how it can

be corrected.

technique

=baking

Generic

baking skills:

=Reading

=writing

=oral

communicati

on

=numeracy

=note taking

=problem

solving

=critical

thinking

=decision

making

=planning

and

organization

=use of

memory

SESSION 7 At the end of the

session the

apprentice should

be able to:

Common

fault in bread

produce:

Lecture

cum

demonstra

tion

method on

Observation of the

demonstration.

Listen attentively to the

Dramatizati

on and

songs by

the

Utensils\equipment of

baking and

Summary

questions to

determine the

level of

understanding of

128

- mention

the

common

faults in

bread

production.

- describe

analytically the

cause of the

common faults

in baking.

- explain in

detail how the

common faults

can be

corrected\avoid

ed

= burnt bread

= undone

bread

= bad taste of

bread

= bread stick

to tray during

removal.

= too light

bread

produced

= too heavy

bread

produced’

common

fault of

bread

produced.

counsellor.

Dramatization and

songs about the

programme.

apprentices

.

Demonstrat

ion using

power

point by

the

counsellor.

ingredients. the session.

SESSION 8

At the end of the

session the

apprentice should

be able to

- Recap the

bakery skills of

bread

production in

relation to

Dreyfus Model

of skills

acquisition.

The

summary of

Dreyfus

Model.

Termination.

Entertainmen

t.

Discuss

briefly the

Dreyfus

Model in

relation to

bakery

skills.

Listen attentively to

the counsellor.

Dramatization and

songs about the

programme.

Dramatizati

on and

songs by

the

apprentices

.

Demonstrat

ion using

power

point by

the

counsellor.

Power point

apparatus such as

computer, projector

and screen.

Certificates for

apprentices.

Remarks and

suggestions by

the apprentices

on the whole

programme.

129

APPENDIX J

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIAN, NSUKKA

BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION TEST (BSAT)

ON SKILLS ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES IN NIGER STATE OF

NIGERIA

SECTION A

PERSONAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT

Instruction:-Please fill in the spaces provided and tick one response that agrees

with your characteristics.

Name of centre:-…………………………………………………

Date:-…………………………………………………………….

Gender: Male

Female

Age: 20yrs or below

Above 20yrs

SECTION B

ATTAINMENT TEST QUESTIONS (ATQ)

Instruction: - This section has five sub-sections with four multiple questions in

each section making a total of twenty question in all. Please, tick one alternative

from a-e that best answer the question.

130

SUB-SECTION A: – NOVICE

1. Which of these is not needed during baking process?

a. Timer

b. Knife

c. Mixing spoon

d. Cutting board

e. Darkness

2. The place or instrument where bread is baked is called

a. Cooker

b. Small room

c. Fire

d. Oven

e. Container

3. The container for baking bread is called………………..

a. rack

b. tray

c. pan

d. rubber

e. plate

4. The instrument for smoothing the dough is called………………

a. pestle

131

b. knead

c. rod

d. spatula

e. plate

SUB-SECTION B: - ADVANCE BEGINNER

5. In absence of yeast _________________can be used

a. sugar

b. palm wine

c. alcohol

d. damp cloth

e. banana

6. All the following add flavour to bread except

a. salt

b. sugar

c. flour

d. water

e. margarine

7. The most important ingredient for baking is

a. Sugar

b. Yeast

c. Water

132

d. Flour

e. Milk

8. Which of these ingredient greatly aid rising of flour?

a. Sugar

b. Yeast

c. Temperature

d. Water

e. Flour

SUB-SECTION C: - COMPETENCE

9. Which of these is not a baking Skill?

a. Kneading

b. Mixing

c. Setting sponge

d. Greasing

e. Holding

10. The method of cooking food in dry heat is called _____________

a. steaming

b. Baking

c. Frying

d. Boiling

e. Stewing

11. The baking pan is greased as to prevent

a. Burning of bread on pan

133

b. Sticking of bread on pan

c. Drying of bread on pan

d. Shaping of bread on pan

12. Thorough mixing is done to ensure ___________

a. better bread

b. good taste of bread

c. an elastics dough

d. good look in bread

e. good price of bread

SUB-SECTION D: - PROFICIENT

13. Chopping bread can be replaced by

a. black board

b. white chalk board

c. flat surfaces

d. marker board

e. mat

14. The rolling pin for kneading can be replaced by ____________

a. spoon

b. fork

c. pestle

d. mortar

e. wood

134

15. Wood for firing the oven can be replaced by any except ________

f. coal

g. charcoal

h. stove

i. electricity

j. papers

16. The cooling rack can be replace by___________________________

a. Table

b. flat wooden surface

c. ply wood

d. clean non conducting surface

e. clean conducting surface

SUB-SECTION E: - EXPERT

17. All bread stick to the baking tray because___________

a. Too much heat

b. Poor greasing

c. No heat

d. Little heat

135

e. Constant opening of oven door.

18. The kneading of dough is difficult may be due to all except ________

a- Too much sugar

b- Too much water

c- Whole wheat flour

d- Poor mixing

e- White flour

19. All these gives the bread bad taste except

a. No sugar

b. Too much yeast

c. No proper mixing

d. No salt

e. No proper baking in oven

20. The bread not done in the middle but burnt outside because of ______

a- No much convectional heat

b- No much radiation heat

c- No much conduction heat

d- No much reduction heat

e- No mechanical heat used

136

APPENDIX K

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIAN, NSUKKA

SOAP MAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION TEST (SMSAT)

ON SKILLS ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES IN NIGER STATE OF

NIGERIA

SECTION A

PERSONAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT

Instruction:-Please fill in the spaces provided and tick one response that agrees

with your characteristics.

Name of centre:-…………………………………………………

Date:-…………………………………………………………….

Gender: Male

Female

Age: 20yrs or below

Above 20yrs

SECTION B

ATTAINMENT TEST QUESTIONS (ATQ)

Instruction: - This section has five sub-sections with four multiple questions in

each section making a total of twenty question in all. Please, tick one alternative

from a-e that best answer the question.

137

SUB-SECTION A: – NOVICE

1. The soap is usually boiled in a _____________________

a- pan

b- pot

c- mould

d- scraper

e- cup

2. The soap chemicals are usually mixed in a ____________

a- mold

b- mould

c. container

d- spatula

e- pan

3. The instrument for cutting and shaping soap is ______________

a- knife

b- scraper

c- spoon

d- pan

e- machine

4. Aluminum should not be used for mold because it leads to______

a- warp soap

b- non-scent soap

138

c- non-colorant soap

d- soft soap

e- hard soap

SUB-SECTION B: - ADVANCE BEGINNER

5. Soap is produced by mixing fat/oil with _____________

a- Iye

b- water

c- colour

d- scent

e- wax

6. Soap is basically used for_____________

a- decoration

b- selling

c- washing

d- trading

e- conservation

7. Which of these is not an ingredient for soap making?

a- Palm oil

b- Water

c- Fats

d- Olive oil

e- Ashes

139

8. How many times is the soap boil on fire?

a- once

b- twice

c- thrice

d- four times

e - five times

SUB-SECTION C: - COMPETENCE

9. The bar soap should be dried for ________

a- 1-2 weeks

b- 4-6 weeks

c- 3-4 weeks

d- 2-3 weeks

e- 10 weeks

10. Why cook the product of saponification ________

a- to make it thick

b- to make it watery

c- to make it solid

d- to make it dark in colour

e- to make it light in colour

11 ____________is done to ensure thorough mixing

a- cooking

b- washing

c- stirring

140

d- cutting

e- cleaning

12. The stirring of the soap mixture should only be ____________

a- circular form

b- two directions

c- one direction

d- clockwise and anti clockwise

e- all direction

SUB-SECTION D: - PROFICIENT

13. In absent of colourant from market, colour can be extracted from

___________________

a- plants

b- animals

c- food

d- clothes

e- stones

14. During insulation of soap the blanket can be replaced with _________

a- shining clothes

b- dark clothes

c- black clothes

d- thick clothes

e- white clothes

141

15. When will you use a freezer on your soap

a- Difficult to remove from mold

b- Too soft

c- unscented soap

d- uncoloured soap

e- short bar soap

16. Where there is no mixing bowl a clean container such a ______ is used.

a- bucket

b- plate

c- bottle

d- spoon

e- folk

SUB-SECTION E: - EXPERT

17. The warping of the soap produced is an indication of

a- Pouring mixture very fast in the mold

b- pouring mixture slowly in the hold

c- mold is old

d- mixture hot while putting in mold

e- mold is dirty

18. The soap produced contain bubble spaces means

a- too much water

b- two much lye

c- too much fat

142

d- mixing is wrong

e- stirring is wrong

19. The soap stains cloths and the body means

a- early colouring

b- plant colouring

c- food colouring

d- delay in colouring

e- synthetic colouring

20. The bar soap wastes away easily is a sign of

a- Drying in the sun

b- Drying in the shade

c- short period of drying

d- long period of drying

e- no boiling or cooking

143

APPENDIX L

MARKING SCHEME FOR BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION

TEST (BSAT)

PRE TEST

MULTIPLE TEST QUESTIONS (20 ITEMS X 5MARKS= 100 %)

1. B

2. D

3. D

4. B

5. E

6. D

7. B

8. B

9. E

10. B

11. B

12. C

13. C

14. C

15. E

16. D

17. B

18. E

19. E

20. A

144

MARKING SCHEME FOR SOAP MAKING SKILLS

ACQUISITION TEST (SMSAT)

PRE TEST

MULTIPLE TEST QUESTIONS (20 ITEMS X 5MARKS= 100 %)

1. B

2. C

3. A

4. A

5. A

6. C

7. E

8. A

9. D

10. A

11. C

12. C

13. A

14. D

15. A

16. A

17. A

18. E

19. C

20. C

145

APPENDIX M

Department of Educational Foundation

Faculty of Education,

University of Nigerian, Nsukka

Date:……………………..

Dear Apprentice,

DREYFUS MODEL OF CAREER GUIDANCE ON SKILLS ATTAINMENT

SCALE QUESTIONAIRE

The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above address and is conducting a

research on Effect of Dreyfus Model of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition of Apprentices in

Niger State of Nigeria.

The researcher’s objective is to determine the quality and stage of skills acquisition in

accordance with Dreyfus model of career guidance. Therefore, your candid response to the

attached questionnaire will help the study. The information you provide will be use for study

alone and will be treated as confidential.

Your co-operation and sincerity is most kindly required.

Thanks.

Sincerely

Musa Abdullahi

Reg.No PG\Ph.D\11\58880

146

APPENDIX N

Department of Educational Foundation

Faculty of Education,

University of Nigerian, Nsukka

Date:……………………..

Dear Apprentice,

DREYFUS MODEL OF CAREER GUIDANCE ON SKILLS ATTAINMENT

SCALE QUESTIONAIRE

The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above address and is

conducting a research on Effect of Dreyfus Model of Career Guidance on Skills

Acquisition of Apprentices in Niger State of Nigeria.

The researcher’s objective is to determine the quality and stage of skills

acquisition in accordance with Dreyfus model of career guidance. Therefore, your

candid response to the attached questionnaire will help the study. The information

you provide will be use for study alone and will be treated as confidential.

Your co-operation and sincerity is most kindly required.

Thanks.

Sincerely

Musa Abdullahi (Researcher)

147

APPENDIX O

149

SKILLS ACQUISITION ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.

Certificate of Attendance

This is to certify that:

_______________________________________________________________

Has successfully attended Dreyfus Model Research Study as Experimental Group/Control Group for a period of eight week

From 4th April, 2014 to 23rd May, 2014

___________________ Researcher

MUSA ABDULLAHI Ph.D Student Guidance and Counselling

150APPENDIX Q Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation

PreMConSMS 16 15.00 60.00 600.00 37.5000 13.03840

PreFConSMS 23 15.00 65.00 900.00 39.1304 13.11247

posMConSMS 16 30.00 75.00 880.00 55.0000 12.11060

PosFConSMS 23 35.00 80.00 1315.00 57.1739 11.94933

PreMExSMS 26 20.00 55.00 940.00 36.1538 11.25235

PreFExSMS 19 20.00 55.00 745.00 39.2105 10.44339

PreYAConSMS 26 20.00 65.00 1055.00 40.5769 12.59579

PreYAExSMS 14 20.00 55.00 765.00 40.2632 9.64274

PosYAConSMS 26 40.00 80.00 1505.00 57.8846 10.50458

PosYAExSMS 14 60.00 95.00 1500.00 78.9474 9.65789

PreOAConSMS 13 15.00 55.00 445.00 34.2308 13.04578

PreOAExSMS 31 20.00 55.00 920.00 35.3846 11.48243

PosOAConSMS 13 30.00 75.00 690.00 53.0769 14.22124

PosOAExSMS 31 60.00 95.00 1590.00 75.7143 10.87264

Valid N (Iistwise) 13

Descriptive Statistics

N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation

PreMConBS 12 15.00 70.00 485.00 30.3125 14.43015

PreFConBS 19 5.00 60.00 615.00 26.7391 12.66785

PosMConBS 12 30.00 95.00 790.00 49.3750 15.37043

PosFConBS 19 20.00 90.00 1045.00 45.4348 14.53155

PreMExBS 32 20.00 65.00 935.00 35.9615 13.78544

PreFExBS 21 15.00 60.00 705.00 37.1053 14.84324

PosMExBS 32 60.00 100.00 2065.00 79.4231 12.02721

PosFExBS 21 , 55.00 ·100.00 1520.00 80.0000 12.69296 .

PreYAConBS 22 10.00 70.00 755.00 29.0385 13.56608

PosYAConBS 22 25.00 95.00 1255.00 48.2692 15.99639

PreOAConBS 09 5.00 40.00 345.00 265385 13.28919

PosOAConBS 09 20.00 60.00 580.00 44.6154 12.32571

PreYAExBS 23 15.00 65.00 745.00 39.2105 15.02435

PosYAExBS 23 60.00 100.00 1570.00 82.6316 12.73320

PreOAExBS 30 15.00 60.00 895.00 34.4231 13.29112

PosOAExBS 30 55.00 100.00 2015.00 77.5000 11.51086

Valid N (Iistwise) 13

151

ANOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soa ANOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Control and Experimental Groups

ANCOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap making Skills Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PreConExpSMS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Cont SMS 39 38.4615 12.93475 2.07122 34.2686 42.6545 15.00 65.00

Exp SMS 45 37.4444 10.90362 1.62542 34.1686 40.7203 20.00 55.00

Total 84 37.9167 11.82728 1.29046 35.3500 40.4833 15.00 65.00

ANCOVA

PreConExpSMS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 21.613 1 21.613 .153 .697

Within Groups 11588.803 82 141.327

Total 11610.417 83

152

ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skill Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PosSMS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Cont SMS 39 56.2821 11.90521 1.90636 52.4228 60.1413 30.00 80.00

Exp SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00

Total 84 67.3810 15.21881 1.66051 64.0783 70.6836 30.00 95.00

ANCOVA

PosSMS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 8967.912 1 8967.912 71.702 .000

Within Groups 10255.897 82 125.072

Total 19223.810 83

153

Post Hoc Tests

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: PrePosCE

Scheffe

Mean

Difference 95% Confidence Interval

(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound

Pre Cont SMS Pre Exp SMS 1.01709 2.52495 .983 -6.1152 8.1494

Pos Cont SMS -17.82051* 2.61357 .000 -25.2032 -10.4379

Pos Exp SMS -38.53846* 2.52495 .000 -45.6708 -31.4061

Pre Exp SMS Pre Cont SMS -1.01709 2.52495 .983 -8.1494 6.1152

Pos Cont SMS -18.83761* 2.52495 .000 -25.9699 -11.7Q53

Pos Exp SMS -39.55556* 2.43310 .000 -46.4284 -32.6827

Pos Cont SMS Pre Cont SMS 17.82051* 2.61357 .000 10.4379 25.2032

Pre Exp SMS 18.83761 * 2.52495 .000 11.7053 25.9699

Pos Exp SMS -20.71795* 2.52495 .000 -27.8503 -13.5856

Pos Exp SMS Pre Cont SMS 38.53846* 2.52495 .000 31.4061 45.6708

Pre Exp SMS 39.55556* 2.43310 .000 32.6827 46.4284

Pos Cont SMS 20.71795* 2.52495 .000 13.5856 27.8503

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

PrePosCE

Scheffea,b

Subset for alpha = .05

VarPrePosCE N 1 '2 3

Pre Exp SMS 45 37.4444

Pre Cont SMS 39 38.4615

Pos Cont SMS 39 56.2821

Pos Exp SMS 45 77.0000

Sig. .983 1.000 1.000

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786.

b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used Type I error levels are not guaranteed

154

,~ ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills of Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PrePosCE

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Pre Cont SMS 39 38.4615 12.93475 2.07122 34.2686 42.6545 15.00 65.00

Pre Exp SMS 45 37.4444 10.90362 1.62542 34.1686 40.7203 20.00 55.00

Pos Cont SMS 39 56.2821 11.90521 1.90636 52.4228 60.1413 30.00 80.00

Pos Exp SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00

Total 168 52.6488 20.07416 1.54875 49.5911 55.7065 15.00 95.00

ANCOVA

PrePosCE

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 45451.579 3 15150.526 113.743 .000

Within Groups 21844.701 164 133.199

Total 67296.280 167

155

ANOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Males and Females Experimental Group

ANCOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Males and Females Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PosMFSMS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Males Exp SMS 26 76.3462 10.25258 2.01070 72.2050 80.4873 60.00 95.00

Fem Exp SMS 19 77.8947 11.09502 2.54537 72.5471 83.2424 60.00 95.00

Total 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00

ANCOVA

PosMFSMS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 26.326 1 26.326 .234 .631

Within Groups 4843.674 43 112.644

Total 4870.000 44

156

ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Young Adult and Old Adult Experimental Group

Descriptives

PosYOadSMS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Y Adult SMS Exp 14 78.9474 9.65789 2.21567 74.2924 83.6023 60.00 95.00

Old Adult SMS Exp 31 75.5769 11.07492 2.17197 71.1037 80.0502 60.00 95.00

Total 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00

ANCOVA

PosYOadSMS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 124.706 1 124.706 1.130 .294

Within Groups 4745.294 43 110.356

Total 4870.000 44

157

Multiple Comparisons

Homogeneous Subsets

NumMFYOSMS

Scheffea,b

Subset for

alpha= . 05

VarMFYOBS N 1

Old Adult SMS 26 75.5769

Male SMS 26 76.3462

Female SMS

19 77.8947

Y. Adult 19 78.9474

Sig. .585

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 21.956.

b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.

Dependent Variable: NumMFYOSMS

Scheffe

(I) (J) VarMFYOSMS VarMFYOSMS

Mean 95% Confidence Interval

Difference (I-J)

Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound

M?le SMS Female SMS -1.54858 3.18698 .971 -10.6368 7.5396

Y. Adult SMS -2.60121 3.18698 .881 -11.6894 6.4870

Old Adult SMS .76923 2.92863 .995 -7.5822 9.1207

Female SMS Male SMS 1.54858 3.18698 .971 -7.5396 10.6368

Y. Adult SMS -1.05263 3.42590 .992 -10.8221 8.7169

Old Adult SMS 2.31781 3.18698 .912 -6.7704 11.4060

Y. Adult SMS Male SMS 2.60121 3.18698 .881 -6.4870 11.6894

Female SMS 1.05263 3.42590 .992 -8.7169 10.8221

Old Adult SMS 3.37045 3.18698 .773 -5.7177 12.4586

Old Adult SMS Male SMS -.76923 2.92863 .995 -9.1207 7.5822

Female SMS -2.31781 3.18698 .912 -11.4060 6.7704

Y. Adult SMS -3.37045 3.18698 .773 -12.4586 5.7177

158

a. b.

ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Gender and Age of Experimental Groups

Descriptives

NumMFYOSMS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Male 26 76.3462 10.25258 2.01070 72.2050 80.4873 60.00 95.00

Female 19 77.8947 11.09502 2.54537 72.5471 83.2424 60.00 95.00

Y. Adult 14 78.9474 9.65789 2.21567 74.2924 83.6023 60.00 95.00

Old Adult 31 75.5769 11.07492 2.17197 71.1037 80.0502 60.00 95.00

Total 90 77.0000 10.46127 1.10271 74.8089 79.1911 60.00 95.00

ANCOVA

NumMFYOSMS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Siq.

Between Groups 151.032 3 50.344 .452 .717

Within Groups 9588.968 86 111.500

Total 9740.000 89

159

c. ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PreConExpBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00

Expt BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00

Total 84 32.6190 14.27940 1.55801 29.5202 35.7179 5.00 70.00

ANCOVA

PreConExpBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 1418.339 1 1418.339 7.501 .008

Within Groups 15505.470 82 189.091

Total 16923.810 83

160

ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PosBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00

Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

Total 84 64.5238 21.13666 2.30620 59.9369 69.1107 20.00 100.00

ANCOVA

PosBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 22225.055 1 22225.055 122.675 .000

Within Groups 14855.897 82 181.169

Total 37080.952 83

161

ANCOVA Comprison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PrePosCEBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00

Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00

Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00

Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

Total 168 48.5714 24.07040 1.85707 44.9051 52.2378 5.00 100.00

ANCOVA

PrePosCEBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Siq.

Between Groups 66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000

Within Groups 30361.368 164 185.130

Total 96757.143 167

162

r

Post Hoc Tests

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: PrePosCEBS

Scheffe

Mean

Difference 95% Confidence Interval

(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound

Pre Cont BS Pre Exp BS -8.23932 2.97673 .057 -16.6478 .1692

Pos Cont BS -18.84615* 3.08121 .000 -27.5498 -10.1425

Pos Exp BS -51.46154* 2.97673 .000 -59.8700 -43.0530

Pre Exp BS Pre Cont BS 8.23932 2.97673 .057 -.1692 16.6478

Pos Cont BS -10.60684* 2.97673 .007 -19.0153 -2.1983

Pos Exp BS -43.22222* 2.86845 .000 -51.3249 -35.1196

Pos Cont BS Pre Cont BS 18.84615* 3.08121 .000 10.1425 27.5498

Pre Exp BS 10.60684* 2.97673 .007 2.1983 19.0153

Pos Exp BS -32.61538* 2.97673 .000 -41.0239 -24.2069

Pos Exp BS Pre Cont BS 51.46154* 2.97673 .000 43.0530 59.8700

Pre Exp BS 43.22222* 2.86845 .000 35.1196 51.3249

Pos Cont BS 32.61538* 2.97673 .000 24.2069 41.0239

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

PrePosCEBS

Scheffea,b

Subset for alpha = .05

VarPrePosCE N 1 2 3

Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051

Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444

Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513

Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667

Sig. .057 1.000 1.000

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786.

b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.

163

ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Young Adult and Old Adult Bakery Skills Experimental Group

Descriptives

ExpYAdBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Yg Adult Exp BS 23 82.6316 12.73320 2.92120 76.4944 88.7688 60.00 100.00

Old Adult Exp BS 30 77.5000 11.51086 2.25747 72.8507 82.1493 55.00 100.00

Total 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

ANCOVA

ExpYAdBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 289.079 1 289.079 1.995 .165

Within Groups 6230.921 43 144.905

Total 6520.000 44

•

164

ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery skills Males and Females Experimental Group

Descriptives

ExpMFBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Male Exp BS 32 79.4231 12.02721 2.35873 74.5652 84.2810 60.00 100.00

Fem Exp BS 21 80.0000 12.69296 2.91196 73.8822 86.1178 55.00 100.00

Total 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

ANCOVA

ExpMFBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 3.654 1 3.654 .024 .877

Within Groups 6516.346 43 151.543

Total 6520.000 44

165

ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups

Descriptives

PrePosCEBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00

Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00

Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00

Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

Total 168 48.5714 24.07040 1.85707 44.9051 52.2378 5.00 100.00

ANCOVA

PrePosCEBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000

Within Groups 30361.368 164 185.130

Total 96757.143 167

166

Post Hoc Tests

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: PrePosCEBS

Scheffe

Mean

Difference 95% Confidence Interval

(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound

Pre Cont BS Pre Exp BS -8.23932 2.97673 .057 -16.6478 .1692

Pos Cont BS -18.84615* 3.08121 .000 -27.5498 -10.1425

Pos Exp BS -51.46154* 2.97673 .000 -59.8700 -43.0530

Pre Exp BS Pre Cont BS 8.23932 2.97673 .057 -.1692 16.6478

Pos Cont BS -10.60684* 2.97673 .007 -19.0153 -2.1983

Pos Exp BS -43.22222* 2.86845 .000 -51.3249 -35.1196

Pos Cont BS Pre Cont BS 18.84615* 3.08121 .000 10.1425 27.5498

Pre Exp BS 10.60684* 2.97673 .007 2.1983 19.0153

Pos Exp BS -32.61538* 2.97673 .000 -41.0239 -24.2069

Pos Exp BS Pre Cont BS 51.46154* 2.97673 .000 43.0530 59.8700

Pre Exp BS 43.22222* 2.86845 .000 35.1196 51.3249

Pos Cont BS 32.61538* 2.97673 .000 24.2069 41.0239

*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

PrePosCEBS

Scheffea,b

Subset for alpha = .05

VarPrePosCE N 1 2 3

Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 ..

Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444

Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513

Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667

Sig. .057 1.000 1.000

Means for, groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786. b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed. F the group sizes is used

167

ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Males, Females, Young and Old Adults Experimental Groups Bakery Skills.

Descriptives

PosMFYOBS

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

Males Exp 32 79.4231 12.02721 2.35873 74.5652 84.2810 60.00 100.00

Fem Expt 21 80.0000 12.69296 2.91196 73.8822 86.1178 55.00 100.00

YAdult Expt 23 82.6316 12.73320 2.92120 76.4944 88.7688 60.00 100.00

Old Adult Exp 30 77.5000 11.51086 2.25747 72.8507 82.1493 55.00 100.00

Total 106 79.6667 12.10441 1.27592 77.1314 82.2019 55.00 100.00

ANCOVA

PosMFYOBS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 292.733 3 97.578 .658 .580

Within Groups 12747.267 86 148.224

Total 13040.000 89

clxviii

clxviii

d. e.

Post Hoc Tests

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable:

PosMFYOBS

Scheffe

Homogeneous

Subsets PosMFYOBS

cheffea,b

Subset for

alpha= . 05

VarMFYOBS N 1

Old Adult 30 77.5000

Male Exp 32 79.4231

Fem Exp 21 80.0000

Y. Adult Exp 23 82.6316

Si .585

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.

a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 21.956.

b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.

Mean

(I) (J) Difference 95% Confidence Interval

VarMFYOBS VarMFYOBS (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound

Male Exp Fem Exp -.57692 3.67453 .999 -11.0554 9.9016

Y. Adult Exp -3.20850 3.67453 .858 -13.6870 7.2700

Old Adult Exp 1.92308 3.37666 .955 -7.7060 11.5522

Fem Exp Male Exp .57692 3.67453 .999 -9.9016 11.0554

Y. Adult Exp -2.63158 3.95000 .931 -13.8956 8.6325

Old Adult Exp 2.50000 3.67453 .927 -7.9785 12.9785

Y.Adult Exp Male Exp 3.20850 3.67453 .858 -7.2700 13.6870

Fem Exp 2.63158 3.95000 .931 -8.6325 13.8956

Old Adult Exp 5.13158 3.67453 .585 -5.3469 15.6101 Old Adult Exp Male Exp -1.92308 3.37666 .955 -11.5522 7.7060

Fem Exp -2.50000 3.67453 .927 -12.9785 7.9785

Y. Adult Exp -5.13158 3.67453 .585 -15.6101 5.3469

clxix

clxix

ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Experimental Soap Making Skills and Bakery Skills

Descriptives

POsSMSBS

ANCOVA

POsSMSBS

Sum of

Squares df ' Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 160.000 1 160.000 1.236 .269

Within Groups 11390.000 88 129.432

Total 11550.000 89

95% Confidence Interval for

Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum

SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1 G07 60.00 95.00

BS 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00

Total 90 78.3333 11.39190 1.20081 75.9473 80.7193 55.00 100.00