Discou

rse An

alysis

Discou

rse An

alysis

Some p

relimi

nary n

otes

Some p

relimi

nary n

otes

prepared byprepared byRommel Chrisden R. SamaritaRommel Chrisden R. Samarita

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse AnalysisAn attempt to understand the

term

discourse + analysis = discourse analysis

Discourse AnalysisDiscourse AnalysisSome important questions

1.What is discourse?2.What is analysis?3.What is discourse analysis?

Consider this…Consider this…“For at least ten years now, discourse has been a fashionable term. In scientific texts and debates, it is used indiscriminately, often without being defined. The concept has become vague, either [1] meaning almost nothing, or [2] being used with more precise… meanings in different contexts” (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002, p. 1).

And this…And this…“…the term discourse is notorious for the arguments surrounding it and the confusion it can cause. A major source of potential confusion is that the meaning of the term tends to vary quite significantly depending on the academic discipline and the theoretical preferences of the person who uses it” (Cameron, 2001, p. 10).

Why is discourse Why is discourse vaguevague??Deborah Cameron (2001)

establishes that in almost all literatures on discourse analysis, discourse is frequently interchanged with (arguably) related, yet different terms, such as conversation, talk, text, and genre.

In other words,In other words,discourse = conversation

discourse = talkdiscourse = textdiscourse = genre

The question is: Which is which? Inevitably, there lies a difference.

If discourse is If discourse is vaguevague, , then then

discourse analysis must be discourse analysis must be vaguevague, too., too.discourse analysis = conversation

analysisdiscourse analysis = analysis of talk

discourse analysis = text/ual analysis

discourse analysis = genre analysisAgain, the question is: Which is which? Inevitably, there lies a difference.

ConversationConversation, , talktalk, , texttext and and discoursediscourseDeborah Cameron (2001, pp. 9-11)

Terms Descriptionconversation describes a broad range of

interaction, characterized by informality, spontaneity, and egalitarian relationships

talk refers only to spoken language-use

text refers to a sequence of sentences that form a larger whole (Cameron, 2001); inferring from talk, it refers to language-use in written form

discourse refers to language use in any medium or channel (may it be written or spoken)

Genre Genre and and discoursediscourseSwales (2004) and Bhatia (2004)

Terms Descriptiongenre refers to the discourse in

both academic and professional contexts, principally, characterized by the participants’ shared communicative convention/s and purpose/s

Yule’s take on Yule’s take on discoursediscourse

George Yule (2010) defines discourse as “language beyond the sentences” and that he furthers that “the analysis of discourse [thus, discourse analysis] is typically concerned with the study of language in texts and conversations” (p. 142).

To problematize YuleTo problematize YuleDiscourse as “language beyond

sentences”Yule’s definition stems from the practice of examining languages

in two (2) approaches:Sentence linguistics VS Discourse

analysis(Cook, 1989)

To problematize YuleTo problematize YuleCook (1989, p. 12)

Sentence linguistics data

Discourse analysis data

1. Isolated sentences

1. Any stretch of language felt to be united

2. Grammatically well-formed

2. Achieving meaning

3. Without context 3. In context4. Invented or idealized

4. ObservedThe analysis of discourse, then, is only limited to those linguistic data that went beyond a single sentence.

Why is Yule’s Why is Yule’s definition definition vaguevague??Some important questions

1.Could a sentence be a discourse in itself?

2.Could a phrase be a discourse, given that, structurally, it has not reached the sentence level?

3.Absurdly speaking, could a word or a letter become a discourse?

Why is Yule’s Why is Yule’s definition definition vaguevague??H. Widdowson (1995) is of the

position that “a text [it, being a discourse] can be smaller than a sentence” (as cited in Cameron, 2001, p. 12). Linguistic units, such as words and phrases, as explained by Cameron (2001), possess potential narratives (or interpretations) that go beyond a sentence. Interpretations, she adds, depend on context and real-world knowledge.

Widdowson’s take on Widdowson’s take on discoursediscourse

Defining Defining discoursediscourseTaking into account the varying viewpoints on discourse, it would be appropriate then to define discourse as “the language in use” (Brown & Yule, 1983, p. 1), (1) in both spoken and written forms, and that (2) it encompasses all linguistic units, that is—those within and beyond the sentence level.

Defining Defining discourse discourse analysisanalysis

Discourse analysis is the study of discourse along with its formal and functional aspects. It could be interpreted as (1) method, or (2) theory, in the context of Linguistics, Literature, and Social Science research (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002; Cameron, 2001).

ReciprocityReciprocityCook (1989) raises the concept of

reciprocity (simply, the potency of interaction [and interruption] in a discourse) to classify discourse according to types.

Reciprocal Non-reciprocal

discourse discourse

AssessmentAssessmentDetermine whether the given items are reciprocal or non-reciprocal.

1.a TV news broadcast2.a church service3.a message beamed into outer space in search of intelligent life

4.a letter5.testimony in court

Assessment, cont.Assessment, cont.6. a TV phone-in7. Hamlet8. an inaugural address by a Head of State

9. a chat with your next door neighbor10. a lecture*This assessment is adapted from Cook (1989, p. 61).

A list of A list of discourse discourse typestypesrecipe joke anecdote

letter advertisement reportchat seminar manifestosong novel noticesquabbleconsultation signspeech story articlelecture manual chequemenu row prescription

*The lis

t is a

dapted

from

Cook

(1989, p

. 95)

More More discourse typesdiscourse typeslabel poemmessage notetoast argumentbiography sermonessay jinglewarrant ticketwill conversationtelegramnewspaper *T

he lis

t is a

dapted

from

Cook

(1989, p

. 95)

Important concepts Important concepts (Yule, 2010)(Yule, 2010)

1.Interpreting discourse2.Conversational analysis3.The Co-operative principle4.Background knowledge

Interpreting Interpreting discoursediscourse

Cohesion VS CoherenceCohesion refers to the unity or

organization of text. In cohesion, we ask: IS EVERYTHING CONNECTED?

Coherence, on the other hand, refers to the meaningfulness of the text, as in DOES IT MAKE SENSE?

Interpreting Interpreting discoursediscourseSpeech events

Speech events are synonymous to discourse types. However, the term encompasses (1) the role/s of speaker/s in the communicative event, and (2) their relationships.

Conversational Conversational analysisanalysisTurn-taking

In examining conversations, turn-taking is always assumed and grounded. That is speakers take turns in speech events. The assumption is: “If one is to speak, then the other must listen.” If the speaker finishes/completes his/her turn, then the listener could now take his/her turn to speak.

The Co-operative The Co-operative PrinciplePrincipleThe Gricean Maxims

Maxims of Relation Be RELEVANT. Quality Be TRUTHFUL. Do not lie. Quantity Be INFORMATIVE.Say the right amount of information.

Manner Be CLEAR and ORDERLY.

Let’s

watch

videos

!

Let’s

watch

videos

!

““If violation is a crime, If violation is a crime, then they must be in prison, then they must be in prison,

now.”now.”

The Co-operative The Co-operative PrinciplePrinciple

HedgesHedges are expressions that signal one’s uncertainty and/or doubt on matters within the speech event.

e.g. As far as I know…Correct me if I’m wrong… I’m not sure, but I think…Probably, possibly, likely…

The Co-operative The Co-operative PrinciplePrincipleImplicatures

Implicatures refer to the implied meaning/s in a speech event. Inferential skills are central to understanding implicatures.

e.g. A: Will you go the the party tonight?B: I have my finals tomorrow.

Meme t

ime!

Meme t

ime!

““You will get them, You will get them, If you know something about If you know something about

them!”them!”

Background knowledgeBackground knowledgeSchemas

Schema is one’s practical knowledge of the speech event.

e.g. In the classroom setting, we know that there are teachers, students, staff, rooms, facilities, materials, and others. These items constitute our classroom schema.

Background knowledgeBackground knowledgeScripts

Scripts refer to the series or sequence of actions that one un/knowingly undertake in a speech event.

e.g. A typical script when taking medicine: Fill measure cup to line and repeat two to three hours.

ReferencesReferencesAitchison, J. (1995). Linguistics: An

Introduction. London: Hodder and Stoughton Educational.

Brown, G. & Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cameron, D. (2001). Working With Spoken Discourse. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hudson, G. (2000). Essential Introductory Linguistics. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, Inc.

ReferencesReferencesHatch, E. (1992). Discourse and Language

Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jorgensen, M. & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Swales, J. (2006). Worlds of Genre—Metaphors of Genre. Retrieved on November 11, 2013 from http://wac.colostate.edu/books/genre/chapter1.pdf

Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Thank

you!

Thank

you!

Rommel Chrisden R. SamaritaRommel Chrisden R. Samarita