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1. Difficulties and coping strategies of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrant students.......................... 1

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Document 1 of 1 Difficulties and coping strategies of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrant students Author: Yeh, Christine; Inose, Mayuko ProQuest document link Abstract: A study was conducted to investigate mental health concerns and coping strategies in a sample of 274Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrant junior high and high school students. Korean students tended toutilize religious practices as a coping strategy more than did Chinese and Japanese students. Links: Linking Service Full text: Headnote ABSTRACT Headnote An exploratory study was conducted to investigate mental health concerns and coping strategies in a sample of274 Chinese, Japanese, and Korean immigrant junior high and high school students. Participants responded totwo open-- ended questions relating to difficulties associated with coming to the United States and attendantcoping strategies. Data were coded into several categories, and chi-square and logistic regression analyseswere conducted. Results indicated that the most common problem across all three Asian immigrant groups wascommunication difficulties. The most frequently reported coping strategy was the use of social supportnetworks. In addition, Japanese students were more likely to experience interpersonal problems than were theirChinese and Korean counterparts. Korean students tended to utilize religious practices as a coping strategymore than did Chinese and Japanese students. The implications for research and counseling are discussed. In 1999, there were approximately 10.9 million Asians in the United States (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000),and it is expected that Asians will number 20 million by the year 2020 (Ong &Hee, 1993). In terms of specificethnic groups, 24% are Chinese, 12% are Japanese, and 11% are Korean, representing almost half of the totalAsian population in the United States (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1993). Additionally, 66% of Asians in theUnited States were born in another country (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1993). Hence, it is assumed that alarge number of Asian immigrants are youth who are attending schools throughout the U.S. Although researchers contend that immigrant youth demonstrate distinctive psychological problems and requireemotional support (Chiu &Ring, 1998; James, 1997), they rarely utilize mental health services (James, 1997).Munroe-Blum, Boyle, Offord, and Kates (1989) report that immigrant children utilize mental health servicesconsiderably less often than do nonimmigrant children. Researchers believe that lack of culturally sensitivemental health services partially contributes to these underutilization patterns (James, 1997; Sue &Sue, 1999). Since research has demonstrated that coping strategies differ across cultures (Cross, 1995; Olah, 1995; Yeh&Wang, 2000), it can be assumed that immigrant youth would utilize coping strategies that differ from thoseused by nonimmigrant students. Moreover, immigrant youth are more likely to experience psychologicalproblems such as depression, low self-esteem, anxiety, and loneliness (James, 1997). Hence, it is essential toidentify the difficulties individuals experience when they come to the United States, and the coping strategiesthey would use, in order to develop culturally relevant services for immigrant youth. Considering the fact that alarge number of Asian immigrants reside in the United States, it is imperative for school counselors to recognizetheir diverse psychological problems and indigenous coping strategies. There is little information regarding Asian immigrants, especially school-aged youth (Chiu &Ring, 1998;Florsheim, 1997). A possible explanation for the dearth of research is a "model minority" myth, which leadsresearchers to overlook the psychological problems of Asian immigrant youth (Chiu &Ring, 1998; Florsheim,1997). Consequently, practitioners may fail to provide effective interventions to Asian immigrant students,

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assuming that they are well-adjusted. In fact, many Asian immigrant youth exhibit major adaptive problems suchas school drop out, juvenile delinquency, and gang involvement (Chiu &Ring, 1998; Lee &Zhan, 1998; Sue,Sue, Sue, &Takeuchi, 1995). In spite of such problems, Asian immigrants tend to be reluctant to utilize mental health services (Atkinson,Lowe, &Matthews, 1995; Uba, 1994). There are several reasons for this. First, they may be unfamiliar with theconcept of mental health services (Sue &Sue, 1999). Moreover, for many Asian cultural groups, revealingpersonal concerns to others can cause shame for the whole family (Sue, 1994). Thus, discussing personalproblems with others may be deemed culturally stigmatizing. The concept of culture shock (Oberg, 1960) refers to feelings of anxiety people experience when they areunable to utilize problem-solving strategies they had employed in the past. Culture shock triggers strain andfeelings of discomfort, and can result in psychological maladjustment (James, 1997). Immigrant youth mayexperience extreme culture shock as they encounter unfamiliar values, behaviors, and norms (Lynch, 1992).They also may experience a sense of loss as a result of having left their country of origin, community, and socialsystem (James, 1997). As a result, they may become frustrated, irritated, depressed, withdrawn, and lethargic(Lynch, 1992). To complicate matters, it is extremely difficult for Asian immigrant youth to express their feelingsdue to linguistic barriers (Lynch, 1992) and also since Asian culture de-emphasizes emotional expression (Uba,1994). In addition, Asian immigrant youth may experience a variety of stressors in the school environment, includingracial discrimination, racial/ethnic stereotyping, language barriers, and intergroup conflicts and tensions (Chiu&Ring, 1998). For example, a student with a foreign accent may feel stigmatized when speaking in class.Furthermore, Asian immigrants, who usually come from racially homogeneous countries, may find beingstereotyped and discriminated against very confusing. These problems occur during an already challengingdevelopmental period in which adolescents in general experience numerous physiological and emotionalchanges (Levy-Warren, 1996). In order to reach out to Asian immigrant youth, we need to recognize their particular psychological problemsand coping strategies. For example, James (1997) argues that the parents of immigrant youth are more open tocounseling for their children within the school environment than elsewhere (e.g., traditional mental healthservices). Understanding the experience and indigenous coping strategies of Asian immigrant youth would helpcounselors to provide culturally appropriate services. Thus, based on previous theory and research, wedeveloped the two following research goals: (1) to explore problems that Asian immigrant youth may experiencewhen coming to the United States and (2) to determine how they cope with these problems. METHOD Participants The sample consisted of 274 Asian immigrant students from several junior high (7-8th grades) and high schools(9-12th grades) located in a metropolitan area of the East Coast: 114 (41.6%) were Chinese, 113 (41.2%) wereKorean, and 47 (17.2%) were Japanese. They ranged in age from 12 to 18 years, with a mean age of 15.96 (SD= 1.68). All of the participants were born in an Asian country, and they reported that they had been in the U.S.for an average of 5.04 years (SD = 4.20). In terms of gender, 144 (52.6%) were female and 130 (47.4%) weremale. Instruments The data were collected separately during a larger investigation of the cultural adjustment and mental health ofAsian immigrants. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire that gathered information on age,gender, grade, ethnic background, number of close friends, and time in the U.S. In addition, participants wereasked about their coping attitudes and counseling experience using two open-ended questions. The firstquestion asked, "Since coming to the United States, what types of difficulties have you experienced?" Thesecond question asked, "How have you coped with these difficulties?"

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Coding The participants' answers were read several times by the researchers and a team of three graduate researchassistants, who coded them for main themes and patterns using the discovery-oriented exploratory approach(Hill, 1990a, 1990b). Each went through a portion of the responses and sorted them into newly determinedcategories. All of the coding schemes were combined into a preliminary categorization system that was thenused on a large section of the data. After considerable discussion, a new iteration began in which each sectionof the data was recoded to empirically ground the new categories. Each section underwent several discussionsand iterations leading to the final determination of the coding system. The categories developed to describe the problems experienced by the sample were as follows: unfamiliaritywith customs and values, communication difficulties, academics/career, interpersonal relationships,discrimination, intergenerational conflicts, loneliness, and miscellaneous problems. In addition, the followingcategories were generated to represent various coping strategies endorsed by the sample: impulsive behavior(excessive drinking, eating, smoking, drug use), religious practices, endure, keep to self, confrontation, seeksocial support, seek professional support (from teacher or counselor), academic orientation, creative activities,and miscellaneous coping practices. The raters coded a randomly selected set of 20 protocols from eachsection and achieved a high overall level of interrater reliability (Cohen's kappa = .96). Disagreements aboutcoding categories were resolved through discussion. Data Analyses This study first examined cultural adjustment difficulties and coping strategies among a sample of Japanese,Korean, and Chinese junior high and high school students. Second, we explored differences across ethnicgroups. Due to the exploratory nature of the investigation, frequency tables were calculated to determine themost common problems associated with immigration and the most frequently used coping strategies across thethree groups. Further, chi-square analyses were used to assess general differences across the groups. Thiswas followed by logistic regression analyses (to accommodate the categorical dependent variables) todetermine how the groups differed. RESULTS Cultural Adjustment Difficulties

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References REFERENCES References Atkinson, D. R., Lowe, S., &Matthews, L. (1995). Asian American acculturation, gender, and willingness to seekcounseling. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 23, 130-138. Atkinson, D. R., Whiteley, S., &Gim, R. H. (1990). Asian-American acculturation and preferences for helpproviders. Journal of College Student Development, 31(2), 155-161. References Berry, D. S., &Pennebaker, J. W. (1993). Nonverbal and verbal emotional expression and health.Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 59(1), 11-19. Chiu, Y.-W., &Ring, J. M. (1998). Chinese and Vietnamese immigrant adolescents under pressure: Identifyingstressors and interventions. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29(5), 444-449. Cross, S. E. (1995). Self-construals, coping, and stress in cross-cultural adaptation. Journal of Cross-CulturalPsychology, 26(6), 673-697. Florsheim, P. (1997). Chinese adolescent immigrants: Factors related to psychosocial adjustment. Journal of

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Youth and Adolescence, 26(2), 143-163. Fukuhara, M. (1989). Counseling psychology in Japan. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 38(4),409-422. Hamaguchi, E. (1985). A contextual model of the Japanese: Toward a methodological innovation in Japanstudies. Journal of Japanese Studies, 11, 289-321. References Hernandez, M., &McGoldrick, M. (1999). Migration and the family life cycle. In B. Carter &M. McGoldrick (Eds.),The expanded family life cycle: Individual, family, and social perspectives (3rd ed., pp. 169-184). Boston: Allyn &Bacon. Hill, C. E. (1990a). Explanatory in-session process research in individual psychotherapy: A review. Journal ofConsulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 288-294. Hill, C. E. (1990b). Is individual therapy process really different from group therapy process?: The jury is still out.Counseling Psychologist, 18(1), 126-130. Homma-True, R. (1997). Japanese American families. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guidefor clinicians (pp. 114-124). New York: Guilford Press. Huang, L. N. (1997). Asian American adolescents. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guide forclinicians. (pp. 175-195). New York: Guilford Press. References James, D. C. S. (1997). Coping with a new society: The unique psychosocial problems of immigrant youth.Journal of School Health, 67(3), 98-102. Kim, S. C. (1997). Korean American families. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guide forclinicians (pp. 125-135). New York: Guilford Press. Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Lee, E. (1997). Chinese American families. In E. Lee (Ed.), Working with Asian Americans: A guide for clinicians(pp. 46-78). New York: Guilford Press. Lee, L. C., &Zhan, G. (1998). Psychosocial status of children and youths. In L. C. Lee &N. W. S. Zane (Eds.),Handbook of Asian American psychology (pp. 137-163). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Levy-Warren, M. H. (1996). The adolescent journey. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. References Lynch, E. W. (1992). From culture shock to cultural learning. In E. W. Lynch &M. J. Hanson (Eds.), Developingcross-cultural competence: A guide for working with young children and their families (pp. 19-34). Baltimore,MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. Markus, H. R., &Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. Markus, H. R., Mullally, P. R., &Kitayama, S. (1997). Selfways: Diversity in modes of cultural participation. In U.Neisser &D. Jopling (Eds.), The conceptual self in context: Culture, experience, and self-understanding (pp. 13-61). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Marsella, A. (1993). Counseling and psychotherapy with Japanese Americans: Cross-cultural considerations.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(2) 200-208. References Munroe-Blum, H., Boyle, M. H., Offord, D. R., &Kates, N. (1989). Immigrant children: Psychiatric disorder,school performance, and service utilization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(4), 510-519. Oberg, K (1960). Culture shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, 7, 177-182. Olah, A. (1995). Coping strategies among adolescents: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 491-512. Ong, P., &Hee, S. J. (1993). Twenty million in 2020. In The state of Asian Pacific America (pp. 11-24). Los

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Angeles: Leadership Education for Asian Pacifics and UCLA Asian American Studies Center. Sue, D. W. (1994). Asian-American mental health and help-seeking behavior: Comment on Solberg et al.(1994), Tata and Leong (1994), and Lin (1994). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 292-295. Sue, D. W., &Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. Sue, S., Sue, D. W., Sue, L., &Takeuchi, D. T. (1995). Psychopathology among Asian Americans: A modelminority? Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 1(1), 39-51. Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520. Uba, L. (1994). Asian Americans: Personality patterns, identity, and mental health. New York: Guilford Press. U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2000). 2000 census of populations. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice. References U.S. Department of Commerce. (1993). We the Americans: Asians. Washington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice. Yeh, C. J. (1996). A cultural perspective on interdependence in self and morality: A Japan-U.S. comparison.Dissertation Abstracts International, 57(2), 162B. Yeh, C. J. (2000). Depathologizing Asian-American perspectives of health and healing. Asian American andPacific Islander Journal of Health, 8, 138-149. Yeh, C. J., &Huang, K (1996). The collectivistic nature of ethnic identity development among Asian-Americancollege students. Adolescence, 31, 645-661. Yeh, C. J., &Hwang, M. (2000). Interdependence in ethnic identity and self Implication for theory and practice.Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 420-429. Yeh, C. J., &Wang, Y. W. (2000). Asian American coping attitudes, sources, and practices: Implications forindigenous counseling strategies. Journal of College Student Development, 41(1), 94-103. AuthorAffiliation Christine Yeh and Mayuko Inose AuthorAffiliation The authors contributed equally to the manuscript and are listed in random order. They thank Lillian Chiang,Sunna Jung, Yaowen Chang, Kazu Iwata, Michele Jhun, and Lisa Chin for their assistance with data collection. Mayuko Inose, Teachers College, Columbia University. Reprint requests to Christine Yeh, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College,Columbia University, 525 West 120th Street, New York, New York 10027. Electronic mail may be sent tocy101@columbia.edu. Subject: Mental health; Aliens; Middle school students; Secondary school students; Asian Americans; Grief;Emotions; MeSH: Adolescent, China -- ethnology, Female, Humans, Japan -- ethnology, Korea -- ethnology, LogisticModels, Male, Questionnaires, Adaptation, Psychological -- physiology (major), Asian Americans -- psychology(major), Emigration & Immigration (major), Students -- psychology (major) Publication title: Adolescence Volume: 37 Issue: 145 Pages: 69-82 Number of pages: 14

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Publication year: 2002 Publication date: Spring 2002 Year: 2002 Publisher: Libra Publishers Incorporated Place of publication: Roslyn Heights Country of publication: United States Publication subject: Children And Youth - About, Psychology, Education, Medical Sciences--Psychiatry AndNeurology ISSN: 00018449 CODEN: ADOLAO Source type: Scholarly Journals Language of publication: English Document type: PERIODICAL Accession number: 12003292 ProQuest document ID: 195939337 Document URL: http://0-search.proquest.com.ignacio.usfca.edu/docview/195939337?accountid=14674 Copyright: Copyright Libra Publishers Incorporated Spring 2002 Last updated: 2011-04-29 Database: ProQuest Research Library

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