Determining village extent and layout utilizing geophysical survey and excavation at the...

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Determining village extent and layout utilizing geophysical survey and excavation at the Mississippian site of Cane River, North Carolina Ashley Schubert Museum of Anthropological Archaeology, University of Michigan [email protected] Timothy Horsley Horsley Archaeological Prospection, LLC Department of Anthropology, Northern Illinois University [email protected] Geophysical techniques can help to clarify the extent of a site and show spatial relationships between structures, therefore guiding research and excavation strategies. When monuments and larger structural elements are absent, feature density can be a reliable proxy for occupation areas and village boundaries. Utilizing a combination of magnetometry and groundpenetrating radar survey at the Cane River site in North Carolina, we were able to locate borrow pits, storage pits, structures, and hearth features that are not readily detected using traditional archaeological methods. Subsequent coring and excavations over these geophysical anomalies provided evidence for continuity in village layout and allowed us to sample a variety of feature types, illuminating temporal and spatial patterns in community activities. This research has implications for understanding regional variability in Mississippian community social practices throughout the Appalachian Summit of North Carolina. Keywords: Geophysics, Mississippian, integrated survey Introduction [2] During the panregional social transformation of the Mississippian period (A.D. 900 to 1500), the overall tempo and extent of culture change was highly variable. Mississippianization across the Southeast is now regarded as a very heterogeneous process, in which varied Mississippian cultural practices were integrated within local structures (Anderson 1994; Beck and Moore 2002; Cobb 2015; Griffin 1943, 1992; Hally 1994; King 2003a; Meyers 2002; Ward and Davis 1999; Woodall 1999). These structural transformations are archaeologically visible in contexts where people reconstituted Mississippian practices within community and household domains, including the built environment. [3] Changes to the built environment include the creation of public spaces and structures, such as the Mississippian mound and plaza complex, and illuminate how communities perpetuate social relationships and inscribe new meanings at various scales (Beck et al. 2007; Bigman et al. 2011; Cobb and King 2005; Connerton 1998; Joyce and Hendon 2000; Pauketat and Alt 2005; Pluckhahn 2010). Archaeologists studying Mississippian groups in the South Appalachian area have extensively documented the incorporation of Mississippian practices, demonstrated through patterned changes in community structure, architectural patterns, and domestic activities within and between households (Beck and Moore 2002; Boudreaux 2007; Hally 2008; Hally and Kelly 1998; King 2003b; Meyers 2011; Polhemus 1987; Rodning 2004, 2009; Sullivan 1995). [4] The Pisgah culture within the Appalachian Summit of North Carolina is considered part of the South Appalachian Mississippian regional tradition due to the predominant

Transcript of Determining village extent and layout utilizing geophysical survey and excavation at the...

Determining  village  extent  and  layout  utilizing  geophysical  survey  and  excavation  at  the  Mississippian  site  of  Cane  River,  North  Carolina  

 Ashley  Schubert  Museum  of  Anthropological  Archaeology,  University  of  Michigan  [email protected]    Timothy  Horsley  Horsley  Archaeological  Prospection,  LLC  Department  of  Anthropology,  Northern  Illinois  University  [email protected]    Geophysical  techniques  can  help  to  clarify  the  extent  of  a  site  and  show  spatial  relationships  between  structures,  therefore  guiding  research  and  excavation  strategies.  When  monuments  and  larger  structural  elements  are  absent,  feature  density  can  be  a  reliable  proxy  for  occupation  areas  and  village  boundaries.  Utilizing  a  combination  of  magnetometry  and  ground-­‐penetrating  radar  survey  at  the  Cane  River  site  in  North  Carolina,  we  were  able  to  locate  borrow  pits,  storage  pits,  structures,  and  hearth  features  that  are  not  readily  detected  using  traditional  archaeological  methods.    Subsequent  coring  and  excavations  over  these  geophysical  anomalies  provided  evidence  for  continuity  in  village  layout  and  allowed  us  to  sample  a  variety  of  feature  types,  illuminating  temporal  and  spatial  patterns  in  community  activities.  This  research  has  implications  for  understanding  regional  variability  in  Mississippian  community  social  practices  throughout  the  Appalachian  Summit  of  North  Carolina.  Keywords:  Geophysics,  Mississippian,  integrated  survey    Introduction  [2]  

During  the  pan-­‐regional  social  transformation  of  the  Mississippian  period  (A.D.  900  to  1500),  the  overall  tempo  and  extent  of  culture  change  was  highly  variable.    Mississippianization  across  the  Southeast  is  now  regarded  as  a  very  heterogeneous  process,  in  which  varied  Mississippian  cultural  practices  were  integrated  within  local  structures  (Anderson  1994;  Beck  and  Moore  2002;  Cobb  2015;  Griffin  1943,  1992;  Hally  1994;  King  2003a;  Meyers  2002;  Ward  and  Davis  1999;  Woodall  1999).  These  structural  transformations  are  archaeologically  visible  in  contexts  where  people  reconstituted  Mississippian  practices  within  community  and  household  domains,  including  the  built  environment.  [3]  Changes  to  the  built  environment  include  the  creation  of  public  spaces  and  structures,  such  as  the  Mississippian  mound  and  plaza  complex,  and  illuminate  how  communities  perpetuate  social  relationships  and  inscribe  new  meanings  at  various  scales  (Beck  et  al.  2007;  Bigman  et  al.  2011;  Cobb  and  King  2005;  Connerton  1998;  Joyce  and  Hendon  2000;  Pauketat  and  Alt  2005;  Pluckhahn  2010).  Archaeologists  studying  Mississippian  groups  in  the  South  Appalachian  area  have  extensively  documented  the  incorporation  of  Mississippian  practices,  demonstrated  through  patterned  changes  in  community  structure,  architectural  patterns,  and  domestic  activities  within  and  between  households  (Beck  and  Moore  2002;  Boudreaux  2007;  Hally  2008;  Hally  and  Kelly  1998;  King  2003b;  Meyers  2011;  Polhemus  1987;  Rodning  2004,  2009;  Sullivan  1995).  [4]       The  Pisgah  culture  within  the  Appalachian  Summit  of  North  Carolina  is  considered  part  of  the  South  Appalachian  Mississippian  regional  tradition  due  to  the  predominant  

carved  wooden  paddle-­‐stamped  surface  finish  on  its  pottery  (Dickens  1970,  1976;  Holmes  1903).  Other  features  such  as  substructure  platform  mounds  and  items  with  Southeastern  Ceremonial  Complex  motifs  offer  additional  evidence  of  interaction  with  other  South  Appalachian  Mississippian  groups  in  Tennessee  and  Georgia  (Dickens  1970,  1976;  Ferguson  1974).  Pisgah  settlements  range  from  small  farmsteads  to  large,  nucleated  villages,  the  latter  often  having  a  palisaded,  circular  layout  with  rectangular  houses  surrounding  a  central  plaza  (Dickens  1970,  1976).    The  Early  Pisgah  sub-­‐phase,  from  AD  1000-­‐1250  (Dickens  1976:198;  Eastman  1994a,  1994b),  predates  the  Mississippian  expansion  into  the  Appalachian  Summit,  while  the  Late  Pisgah  sub-­‐phase  is  radiocarbon  dated  from  AD  1250-­‐1450  (Dickens  1976:198;  Eastman  1994a,  1994b),  although  the  recent  discovery  Pisgah-­‐style  ceramics  in  association  with  Spanish  artifacts  at  the  Berry  site  in  Burke  County,  North  Carolina,  suggests  that  Pisgah  ceramics  were  produced  into  the  16th  century  (Rob  Beck,  personal  communication  2014).  

[5]Changes  in  community  organization  similar  to  Mississippian  developments  elsewhere  have  already  been  observed  in  several  Pisgah  communities,  most  notably  the  platform  mound  constructed  at  the  Garden  Creek  site  (Cobb  2015;  Dickens  1970,  1976)  and  the  palisade  fortifications  surrounding  Garden  Creek  and  the  smaller  village  at  Warren  Wilson  (Ashcraft  1996;  Moore  2002).    [6]  While  these  Mississippian  features  are  found  at  these  Late  Pisgah  sites,  some  have  argued  that  the  terrain  and  soil  composition  of  the  Appalachian  Summit  would  severely  limit  maize  agriculture  (Purrington  1983).    The  Pisgah  culture  is  thus  an  important  research  focus  because  it  represents  a  preexisting  cultural  tradition  that  adopted  Mississippian  practices  at  a  relatively  late  date  (after  A.D.  1200)  in  a  comparatively  marginal  environment  less  conducive  to  intensive  exploitation  of  resources  that  facilitated  sociopolitical  structures  of  Mississippian  polities  (Dickens  1978;  Ward  1965).    In  order  to  better  understand  the  diversity  of  Mississippian  lifeways  and  identities,  this  project  will  analyze  the  community  structure  at  the  Cane  River  site  in  comparison  to  the  Warren  Wilson  site,  and  other  neighboring  Mississippian  societies  during  the  later  end  of  the  Pisgah  phase  (AD  1200-­‐1600).  

Geophysical  techniques  are  particularly  useful  for  this  type  of  study,  because  they  can  help  to  clarify  the  extent  of  a  site  and  show  spatial  relationships,  therefore  guiding  research  and  excavation  strategies  (Horsley  et  al.  2014).  When  monuments  and  larger  structural  elements  are  absent,  feature  density  can  be  a  reliable  proxy  for  occupation  areas  and  village  boundaries.  Utilizing  complementary  techniques  of  magnetometry  and  ground-­‐penetrating  radar  at  the  Cane  River  site  in  North  Carolina,  we  were  able  to  locate  a  variety  of  feature  types  that  are  not  readily  detected  using  traditional  survey  methods.    The  Cane  River  Site  [7]  

The  Cane  River  site  (31Yc91)  is  located  on  a  rise  above  the  tributary  of  the  Nolichucky  River  in  Yancey  County,  NC.  In  1989  and  1990  salvage  excavations  behind  a  local  middle  school,  led  by  Dr.  David  Moore  with  the  North  Carolina  Office  of  State  Archaeology,  uncovered  an  18x25m  area  (450  square  meters)  along  the  edge  of  the  prehistoric  village.  These  excavations  revealed  one  rectangular  structure,  7-­‐8m  in  length  and  4m  in  width;  portions  of  three  palisade  lines,  totaling  50m  in  length;  and  approximately  80  features.  The  assortment  of  excavated  features  included  several  large  daub  borrow  pits,  the  bottoms  of  several  hearth  basins  and  storage  pits.    [8]  This  site  provides  a  unique  perspective  on  Pisgah  lifeways  given  its  intermediate  village  size  and  

unusual  upland  location  outside  of  a  large  river  valley.  Additionally,  recent  radiocarbon  dates  reveal  that  the  site  was  occupied  between  ca.  AD  1290  and  1610,  making  it  contemporaneous  with  mound  construction  at  the  Garden  Creek  site  (ca.  AD  1423)  and  likely  coeval  with  the  Warren  Wilson  village  site.    

In  order  to  sample  a  wider  range  of  public  and  domestic  activities  at  the  Cane  River  site,  in  June  2013  we  conducted  magnetometer  and  ground-­‐penetrating  radar  surveys  of  the  known  Cane  River  village  and  surrounding  areas.  [9]  Guided  by  the  results  of  this  geophysical  survey,  four  months  of  subsequent  excavations  exposed  an  additional  53  square  meters  of  the  site  (across  8  different  units),  targeting  several  different  types  of  magnetic  and  radar  anomalies.    Given  the  degree  of  plowing  across  the  site,  no  intact  living  surfaces  were  identified.  However,  multiple  discrete  subsurface  features  and  postholes  were  still  intact  below  the  0.3-­‐m  modern  plough  zone.  These  features  included  four  hearths  (two  of  which  were  superimposed),  one  area  of  sheet  midden,  and  nine  borrow  or  storage  pits  (several  of  which  were  quite  deep  and  stratified).  Additionally,  my  crew  and  I  excavated  over  a  hundred  postholes,  many  of  which  had  clear  alignments  for  structures  or  palisade  walls,  along  with  two  pairs  of  overlapping  entrance  trenches  that  were  identified  from  a  structure.      Overview  of  the  Geophysical  Results  and  Excavations    [10]  In  total,  the  magnetic  gradiometer  survey  was  completed  over  ~3.5  ha  (~33,450  square  meters),  including  portions  of  the  Cane  River  Middle  School’s  baseball  field,  football  field  and  adjoining  areas,  and  on  approved  portions  of  the  adjoining  private  property  A  Bartington  Grad601-­‐2  dual  fluxgate  gradiometer  was  used  to  collect  readings  at  0.125m  intervals  along  transverses  spaced  0.5m  apart.  Data  processing  was  undertaken  using  TerraSurveyor  and  was  limited  to:  (i)  initial  clipping  of  the  values  to  reduce  the  effect  of  intense  ferrous  responses  on  subsequent  processes;  (ii)  sensor  destripe;  and  interpolation  to  a  resolution  of  0.125m  x  0.25m  in  order  to  smooth  the  appearance  of  the  data  and  aid  the  interpretation  of  anomalies.  The  goals  of  this  survey  were  to  determine  the  extent  and  preservation  of  the  archaeological  site  originally  identified  and  partially  excavated  below  the  football  field  in  1989-­‐90.  Many  domestic  activities,  specifically  those  involving  fire  and/or  organic  material,  can  locally  enhance  the  magnetic  properties  of  soils  (see  Aspinall  et  al.  2008:21–28),  resulting  in  a  very  clear  magnetic  contrast  of  in-­‐filled  features  with  the  surrounding  clay  soils,  which  have  a  relatively  magnetically  homogenous  background.  The  size,  shape,  strength,  and  form  of  a  magnetic  anomaly  can  be  used  to  make  inferences  about  the  feature  causing  the  anomaly.  In  the  magnetometer  results  presented  here,  strong,  positive  magnetic  anomalies,  (shown  in  black),  are  likely  caused  by  features  associated  with  burning  (e.g.,  hearths  and  pits  containing  burnt  material).  Negative  magnetic  anomalies,  (shown  in  white),  are  usually  less  common,  indicating  areas  where  the  soil  is  less  compact  or  even  absent.    In  some  areas,  intense  bipolar  responses  (due  to  iron  metal  and  therefore  suggesting  later  historic  or  modern  activity)  largely  obscure  the  results.    Overall,  the  areas  on  the  recreational  playing  fields  and  landscaped  areas  surrounding  them  are  heavily  altered  and  disturbed  by  modern  debris  or  plowing.    The  areas  for  the  fields  were  likely  stripped  and  leveled  off  for  fill  in  other  areas.  The  large  rectangular  area  from  the  1989-­‐90  excavations  on  the  football  field  is  visible  in  contrast  to  the  lines  of  the  irrigation  system  put  in,  (producing  the  distinct  negative  linear  anomalies).    Within  the  football  field,  a  few  areas  appear  to  have  large  archaeological  features  still  preserved  

beneath  the  irrigation  system,  however  accessing  them  for  excavation  or  auguring  would  be  difficult  given  the  risk  of  damaging  the  irrigation  pipes.      

However,  the  field  to  the  north  of  the  football  field,  currently  utilized  for  pasture,  has  many  potential  archaeological  signatures.    This  area  of  high  activity  indicates  that  the  majority  of  the  village  occupation  was  to  the  northeast  of  the  previously  identified  palisade  lines.  Focusing  in  on  this  triangular  field  north  of  the  school  football  field,  the  dark,  positive  band  running  east-­‐west  is  an  old  road  cut  and  is  not  of  interest  to  our  study    The  areas  with  [bipolar  signatures  are  from  historic  metal  –  likely  pipes  sunk  into  the  ground.    On  the  east  side  (far  right  of  the  triangular  field),  the  surrounding  magnetic  signature  of  the  horse  barn  largely  obscures  the  magnetic  contrast  at  the  edge  of  the  field.    Despite  this,  there  were  many  archaeological  features  worth  exploring.     [11]  For  the  GPR  survey,  a  Sensors  and  Software  Noggin  and  SmartCart  system  with  a  250  MHz  antenna  was  used  to  survey  a  total  of  60x30m  area  (1800  square  meters).    The  GPR  profiles  were  closely  spaced  at  0.25m  apart,  with  individual  traces  recorded  at  0.05m  intervals.    For  the  results  presented  here,  data  treatment  comprised  the  application  of  a  dewow  filter,  gain  correction,  background  removal  and  a  bandpass  Butterworth  filter  to  limit  the  frequency  response  to  between  160-­‐500  MHz,  prior  to  the  production  of  amplitude  time-­‐slices.  This  high  resolution  GPR  survey  demonstrates  the  additional  detail  and  enhanced  interpretation  that  can  be  made  with  closely  spaced  profiles;  however,  the  reduced  rate  of  coverage  meant  that  only  five  of  the  eight  excavation  areas  had  both  magnetometer  and  GPR  data.  Those  five  excavation  areas  are  outlined  in  this  rendering,  presented  in  10cm  depth  slices,  from  surface  to  1  m  below  the  ground  surface  [12-­‐22].  This  final  rendering  shows  the  GPR  from  40-­‐60cmbs  at  50%  transparency  over  the  magnetometer  data.  Comparison  between  the  two  data  sets  shows  that  some  features  have  been  detected  with  both  methods,  while  others  are  visible  in  either  only  the  magnetometer  or  GPR  results.  Since  these  complementary  geophysical  techniques  are  measuring  different  properties,  these  differences  help  inform  us  about  the  nature  of  the  causative  features.      Area  B  [23]  Area  B  is  a  5x3m  unit  placed  over  several  possible  circular  pit  features  identified  in  the  magnetometer  survey.    [24]  The  magnetic  anomalies  measure  around  1m  in  diameter  and  between  10-­‐16nT  in  strength.  Excavation  revealed  3  circular  pit  features  and  one  possible  burial  (left  undisturbed)  and  a  line  of  palisade  postholes  to  the  west  and  a  palimpsest  of  various  postholes  to  the  east  of  the  line  of  pit  features.    This  corresponded  closely  with  the  magnetometer  data.    [25]  Oddly  enough,  these  were  not  detected  at  the  same  location  by  both  geophysical  methods.  The  purple  color  in  the  GPR  data  indicates  high  amplitude  reflections;  this  correlates  to  a  distinct  interface  between  materials,  such  as  a  compacted  layer  or  change  in  soil  type.    [26]  Two  of  the  three  strong  reflections  correlate  to  boundaries  of  recognized  pit  features  from  the  excavation,  while  one  more  ambiguous  amplitude  is  off-­‐set  from  the  center  pit  feature.  [27-­‐28]  Thus,  the  magnetometer  seemed  to  be  responding  to  the  more  magnetic  fill  of  these  larger  daub  borrow  pit  features  along  the  palisade  line,  while  the  GPR  results  reflect  changes  in  soil  composition  within  or  along  the  boundaries  of  these  pit  features.        

Area  C  [29]  Area  C  is  a  3x3m  unit  also  placed  over  several  [30]  possible  circular  pit  features  identified  in  the  magnetometer  survey.  These  magnetic  anomalies  again  measured  around  1m  in  diameter  and  between  8-­‐17nT.  [31]  Excavation  revealed  3  pit  features,  two  overlapping  to  the  south,  and  several  postholes.  [32]  At  the  base  of  plow  zone  (20-­‐30cmbs  in  the  GPR  data),  there’s  a  strong  radar  reflection  in  the  upper  western  edge  of  Feature  5.  Again,  this  is  likely  due  to  a  change  in  soil  composition,  but  precisely  how  it  relates  to  the  feature  is  unclear.  The  GPR  reflection  may  be  caused  by  a  contrast  in  fill  material  rather  than  the  base  of  the  pit  itself.  [33]  These  larger  pits  also  appear  to  be  within  close  proximity  to  a  line  of  palisade  postholes  and  were  likely  used  as  daub  borrow  pits  [34]  and  then  in-­‐filled  with  refuse  over  time    Area  D  [35]  Area  D  is  a  1x2m  unit  placed  over  a  [36]  positive  magnetometer  response  that  was  revealed  to  be  the  base  of  a  hearth.    [37]  While  the  magnetometer  data  for  this  feature  was  obscured  by  the  linear  signature  of  the  road  cut  and  the  intense  response  due  to  near-­‐surface  iron  metal,  [38]  the  GPR  detected  a  broader  area  of  compaction  roughly  4m  across,  interpreted  as  the  basin  of  a  structure  (visible  from  30-­‐50cmbs).    [39]  Most  of  the  hearth  was  destroyed  by  plowing,  but  the  outline  of  the  feature  corresponded  well  with  the  outline  of  the  compact  soils  in  the  ground  penetrating  radar  survey,  and  likely  indicates  the  location  of  a  sunken  floor  surface.      Area  F  [40]  Area  F  is  a  7m  unit  placed  over  a  roughly  2  meter-­‐wide,  weakly-­‐positive  magnetic  anomaly,  around  8nT  in  strength,  [41]  on  the  western  half  of  the  unit,  as  well  as  a  discrete  GPR  at  30-­‐50cmbs  at  the  eastern  edge  of  the  unit.    Initially  this  1x2m  unit  revealed  just  postholes  but  it  also  caught  the  edge  of  an  entrance  trench.    [42]  After  exposing  more  surface  area  under  the  plow  zone,  two  overlapping  pairs  of  entrance  trenches  were  visible,  along  with  associated  postholes.    While  postholes  aren’t  usually  identifiable  with  the  geophysical  methodologies  employed  here  these  trenches  are  likely  visible  in  the  magnetometer  data  because  these  two  sets  of  entrance  trenches  were  rebuilt  in  approximately  the  same  place  and  were  in-­‐filled  with  burned  material.    A  similar,  weak-­‐positive  magnetic  anomaly  is  also  visible  to  the  west,  indicating  possible  another  structure  that  these  entrance  trenches  are  opening  up  to.    [43]  This  reflection  in  the  GPR  data,  (of  course,  on  the  edge  of  the  survey  area!),  shows  the  entrance  trenches  opening  next  to  into  a  slightly  subterranean  structure  (less  than  3  meters  across);  this  is  possibly  a  compact  surface  in  front  of  the  house  where  people  were  walking  and  there  was  frequent  activity.    [44]  No  floor  surface  from  an  associated  structure  could  be  established  in  excavation,  but  the  burnt  material  in  the  entrance  trenches  and  some  of  the  deeper  postholes  likely  caused  this  broader  signature  in  the  magnetometer  results,  [45]  while  it  seems  the  GPR  may  have  been  detecting  the  compact  soils  surface  of  the  adjacent  house  floor.    [46]  Two  areas  farther  east,  outside  of  the  GPR  coverage,  were  also  excavated  beneath  the  plow  zone  to  target  additional  specific  magnetic  anomalies.          

Area  E  [47]  Area  E  is  a  2x2m  unit  placed  over  one  very  large,  strong  positive  anomaly  in  an  area  with  few  other  archaeological  anomalies.    The  anomaly  measures  in  excess  of  30nT  and  is  roughly  circular,  around  1.4m  in  diameter.  [48]  Excavation  revealed  a  very  deep  (53cm  below  the  plow  zone),  steep-­‐sided  storage  pit  with  a  possible  burial  overlapping  the  northern  edge  and  a  few  scattered  postholes.  [49]    The  particularly  strong  positive  magnetic  response  is  likely  due  to  the  thicker  archaeological  deposits  within  this  pit,  and  such  anomalies  should  help  us  to  identify  similar  features  elsewhere  in  the  magnetometer  data    Area  G  [50]Area  G  is  5x2m  unit  placed  over  several  large,  strongly-­‐positive  anomalies  (8-­‐24nT  in  strength)  in  the  magnetometer  survey,  [51]  within  a  generally  very  high  activity  area.    [52]  Two  overlapping  hearth  features  and  three  overlapping  pit  features  were  identified,  along  with  several  dozen  postholes.  The  location  of  these  features  corresponded  very  well  with  the  magnetometer  responses  [53]  and  the  hearth  features  indicate  the  location  of  a  house  structure  that  was  used  long  enough  to  warrant  a  rebuilt  central  hearth  basin  in  the  approximately  same  location.  [54]      Considering  the  Site  Organization  

[55]  The  Pisgah  record  at  Cane  River  offers  a  unique  opportunity  to  assess  the  nature  and  extent  of  structural  persistence  and  transformation  associated  with  community  layout  and  organization.    The  Cane  River  village  appears  to  extend  over  approximately  1.5  hectares  and  have  a  semi-­‐circular  layout,  similar  to  the  Warren  Wilson  site  and  other  Mississippian  communities.    Two  sections  of  palisade  lines  are  identified,  possibly  indicating  one  defensive  line  or  perhaps  multiple  lines  –  so  it  is  unclear  if  the  site  expanded  or  contracted  over  time.    While  one  palisade  line  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt  or  replaced  in  the  same  orientation,  the  distance  between  the  two  palisade  lines  in  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  village  are  similarly  spaced  in  comparison  to  the  outer  double-­‐palisade  at  Warren  Wilson.    Five  buildings  identified  from  posthole  patterns  and  hearth  locations  (outlined  here  in  blue)  surround  a  central  area  of  the  village  that  is  relatively  magnetically  quiet,  indicating  a  central  plaza.    The  structure  located  along  the  western  boundary  of  this  plaza,  identified  by  the  previously-­‐shown  entrance  trenches,  is  possibly  a  public  or  special  use  structure,  given  the  lack  of  an  associated  hearth  or  storage  pit  features  or  one  half  of  two  adjoining  houses  (perhaps  a  winter  and  summer  home).  

[56]  Previous  work  at  the  Warren  Wilson  site  has  demonstrated  that  the  multiple  palisades  represent  an  evolution  in  site  size,  either  through  expansion,  contraction,  or  both  (Moore  2002).    Yet  despite  the  construction  of  four  or  more  defensive  palisades,  the  village  at  Warren  Wilson  maintained  the  same  basic  placement  and  configuration.    Similarly,  the  Cane  River  community  layout  demonstrates  elements  of  a  consistent  structure.  A  reconstructed  palisade  line  along  the  southwestern  edge  and  the  rebuilt  pair  of  entrance  trenches  show  architectural  continuity  and  similar  placement.    Additionally,  the  overlapping  hearth  features  within  the  northwestern  structure  show  at  least  one  household  was  occupied  in  the  same  location  for  an  extended  period  of  time  and  the  deep  and  adjacent  overlapping  storage  pits  support  this  interpretation.  [57]  This  display  of  a  consistent  village  plan,  that  includes  a  central  public  square  ground  with  surrounding  

domestic  structures  all  enclosed  within  multiple  palisade  lines,  is  observed  in  other  South  Appalachian  Mississippian  communities  such  as  the  King  site  in  northwestern  Georgia  and  the  Town  Creek  site  in  central  North  Carolina  (Hally  2008;  Boudreaux  2007).      

[58]  This  specific  case  study  illustrates  that  geophysical  surveys  and  their  results  are  incredibly  valuable  in  providing  the  location  of  subsurface  features  for  excavation,  as  well  as  answering  specific  archaeological  questions  related  to  site  extent  and  spatial  organization.    Ground-­‐truthing  was  essential  to  confirm  and  support  the  initial  geophysical  interpretations,  but  integrating  excavation  results  with  the  geophysical  survey  map  is  helping  us  to  better  identify  and  interpret  other  features  with  similar  signatures.  This  is  allowing  us  to  extrapolate  site-­‐wide  patterns  of  activity  and  behavior  at  Cane  River  and  highlights  the  benefits  of  doing  an  initial,  extensive  geophysical  survey.    Subsequent  research  questions  and  strategies  are  also  informed  by  this  overall  site  plan.    The  next  phase  of  research  will  work  to  address  additional  questions  such  as  the  growth  and  development  of  these  Pisgah  village  settlements  and  a  more  detailed  understanding  of  the  timing  of  events  at  these  sites.    This  data  has  the  potential  to  make  significant  inroads  in  our  understanding  of  the  Mississippian  historical  trajectory  in  the  Appalachian  Summit.  Although  analysis  of  excavated  materials  is  ongoing,  with  this  accumulated  knowledge  of  site  structure,  the  Cane  River  archaeological  project  can  contribute  to  an  important  discourse  regarding  regional  community  organization  and  variability  at  the  Mississippian  frontier.                                                      

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