ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Depositional environments and facies developmentof the Cenomanian–Turonian Galala and Maghra el Hadidaformations of the Southern Galala Plateau(Upper Cretaceous, Eastern Desert, Egypt)

Markus Wilmsen • Emad Nagm

Received: 6 June 2011 / Accepted: 10 November 2011 / Published online: 3 December 2011

� Springer-Verlag 2011

Abstract The Cenomanian–Turonian (Upper Cretaceous)

Galala and Maghra el Hadida formations of the Southern

Galala Plateau in Wadi Araba (northern Eastern Desert,

Egypt) represent marine depositional systems developing in

response to the early Late Cretaceous transgression at the

southern margin of the Neotethyan Ocean in tropical

paleolatitudes. A facies analysis (litho-, bio- and microfa-

cies) of these successions shows the presence of 22 facies

types (FTs, six are related to the Galala Formation, while the

Maghra el Hadida Formation is represented by 16 FTs). The

Galala Formation was deposited in a fully marine lagoonal

environment developing in response to a latest Middle to

early Late Cenomanian transgression. The rich suspension-

and deposit-feeding macrobenthos of the Galala Formation

indicate meso- to eutrophic (i.e., green water) conditions.

The facies types of the uppermost Cenomanian–Turonian

Maghra el Hadida Formation suggest deposition on a

homoclinal carbonate ramp with sub-environments ranging

from deep-subtidal basin to intertidal back-ramp. Major and

rapid shifts in depositional environments, related to (rela-

tive) sea-level changes, occurred in the mid-Late Cenoma-

nian, the Early–Middle Turonian boundary interval, the

middle part of the Middle Turonian and the Middle–Late

Turonian boundary interval.

Keywords Late Cretaceous � Microfacies � Biofacies �Lithofacies � Eastern Desert � Egypt

Introduction

Upper Cretaceous successions are well exposed in north-

eastern Egypt and represented by marine siliciclastics,

mixed with carbonate rocks or interfingering with pure

limestones at many localities in Sinai and in the north

Eastern Desert (Fig. 1a). The facies analysis and recon-

struction of depositional environments of these rocks have

been the topics of the papers by Kuss and Schlagintweit

(1988), Kora and Genedi (1995), Luning et al. (1998),

Bauer et al. (2002, 2003, 2004) and Saber et al. (2009) for

Sinai, and Ismail and Seleim (1968), Metwally et al. (1995),

Abd Elshafy et al. (2002) and Abd Elshafy and Abd Ela-

zeam (2010) for the north Eastern Desert. The few studies

on the north Eastern Desert mainly focused on the extreme

northern part and the eastern exposures of the Galala pla-

teaus (close to the Gulf of Suez), while only a few studies

dealt with the exposures of the western part, which is dif-

ficult to reach (e.g., Kuss 1986). Therefore, the present work

aims to study the depositional environments of a very well

exposed Cenomanian–Turonian sequence at a site in the

western part of the southern Galala Plateau (Wadi Ghonima

area) that has not yet been studied. Based on detailed bed-

by-bed logging and sampling of two sections followed by

microfacies analyses, we try to interpret the depositional

environments during the Late Cenomanian–Late Turonian.

The data can be placed in the newly established, high-res-

olution biostratigraphic framework (Nagm et al. 2010a, b)

and provide a basis for detailed reconstructions of the facies

development of the study area.

M. Wilmsen (&)

Senckenberg Naturhistorische Sammlungen Dresden,

Museum fur Mineralogie und Geologie, Sektion Palaozoologie,

Konigsbrucker Landstr. 159, 01109 Dresden, Germany

e-mail: markus.wilmsen@senckenberg.de

E. Nagm

Geology Department, Faculty of Science,

Al-Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt

e-mail: emad.nagm@yahoo.com

123

Facies (2012) 58:229–247

DOI 10.1007/s10347-011-0280-2

Geological setting and stratigraphic framework

The Southern Galala Plateau is located in the northern

part of the Egyptian Eastern Desert (Fig. 1a). This area

is bounded in the north by Wadi Araba and in the east

by the Gulf of Suez. It extends westward to the central

Eocene limestone plateau and southward to the northern

end of Wadi Qena. The study area has a NE–SW

direction, following the direction of a regional Syrian

Arc anticline structure. The Syrian Arc, one of the most

important structural features in northern Egypt (Said

1990), can be traced from Syria to the central Western

Desert of Egypt, via Sinai and the northern part of the

Eastern Desert. The Galala plateaus, representing a major

branch of the Syrian Arc in the Eastern Desert, are

characterized by Late Cretaceous uplift in the north and

subsidence further to the south. Folding and/or uplift of

the Syrian Arc began in post-Cenomanian times (Aal and

Lelek 1994) and reached its first acme during the Late

Cretaceous (Kuss et al. 2000; Rosenthal et al. 2000). A

second major Syrian Arc uplift in Eocene times with

several Early Eocene tectonic pulses in the Galala

Fig. 1 Geographic and geologic framework of the study area. a Present day. b Paleogeographic position of the study area with indication of

localities of the two measured sections in a. c Lithostratigraphy of the mid-Cretaceous in the north Eastern Desert

230 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

Mountains was recently discussed in detail by Hontzsch

et al. (2011). During the early Late Cretaceous, Egypt

was situated at the southern margin of the Neotethys at

ca. 5� northern paleo-latitude (Fig. 1b; Philip and Floquet

2000). The Cenomanian–Turonian interval represents

probably the most widespread Cretaceous transgression

in northern Egypt, with maximum flooding during Early

Turonian times (e.g., Sharland et al. 2001).

In the study area, the exposed succession starts with a

continental sandstone unit (Malha Formation, Lower Cre-

taceous–Middle Cenomanian?), transgressively overlain by

the Cenomanian Galala Formation (Fig. 1c). The Galala

Formation reaches 95 m in the Wadi Ghonima area (Nagm

2009). It is characterized by shallow-marine, open-

lagoonal deposits (silty marls, marls, oyster shell beds,

nodular fossiliferous limestones). The upper boundary of

Fig. 2 Stratigraphic

distribution of (micro-) facies

types in the East Wadi Ghonima

section. Dotted lines represent

facies discontinuities (for a key

to the symbols, see Fig. 3)

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 231

123

the Galala Formation is characterized by a major uncon-

formity at the base of the overlying Maghra el Hadida

Formation. The measured thickness of the Maghra el

Hadida Formation is about 120 m. This formation starts

with a brown, fine- to medium-grained calcareous sand-

stone unit of variable thickness (Wadi Ghonima Member).

The succeeding succession of the Maghra el Hadida For-

mation is characterized by an increase in carbonate content,

represented by yellow–brown, soft marls interbedded with

fine-grained wacke- to packstones containing a highly

diverse upper Upper Cenomanian to Lower Turonian

ammonite assemblage (Nagm et al. 2010a). The Middle

Turonian part consists of thick, poorly fossiliferous,

yellowish marls with upward increasing silt content, punc-

tuated by occasional intercalations of medium- to coarse-

grained sandstone beds with hummocky cross-stratification.

The topmost part of the Maghra el Hadida Formation consists

of fossiliferous marly limestones with Upper Turonian

ammonites (Nagm et al. 2010a).

The biostratigraphy of the area is based on the rich

ammonoid assemblage (Nagm et al. 2010a, b). It allows

assigning an early Late Cenomanian age to the Galala

Formation and a mid-Late Cenomanian to early Late

Turonian age for the Maghra el Hadida Formation.

Sections and methods

For this study, two sections of the Galala and Maghra el

Hadida formations exposed at the footwalls of the northern

slope of the Southern Galala Plateau in Wadi Araba (Eastern

Desert) have been measured and sampled in great detail.

These are the East Wadi Ghonima and Wadi Ghonima sec-

tions (Figs. 2, 3). The East Wadi Ghonima (Fig. 2) section is

located at N 28� 510 3400 E 32� 090 2500. At this locality, the

most complete upper Middle Cenomanian–Turonian suc-

cession is exposed. The total thickness of this section is

215 m. The second section is measured at Wadi Ghonima (N

28� 510 1900 E 32� 080 4800; Fig. 3). It is 3 km west of the East

Wadi Ghonima section. The measured thickness of this

section is 145 m (from the Malha Formation to the top of the

Middle Turonian within the Maghra el Hadida Formation).

Fig. 3 Stratigraphic

distribution of (micro-) facies

types in the Wadi Ghonima

section. Dotted lines represent

facies discontinuities

232 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

Table 1 Facies types of Galala Formation

FT Name Description Interpretation, remarks

1 Thick-bedded silty marl Greyish-green, fine-grained, thick-bedded, soft silty

marl; silt content is higher in the lower part of the

Galala Formation with occasional silt- to fine-

grained sandstone intercalations. Upwards, the

marls become more clayey

Represents the bathymetrically deepest depositional

environment of the Galala Formation, considered

as deep-lagoonal sediment, deposited below the

lagoonal (storm) wave-base

2 Bioturbated calcareous

algae–mollusc packstone

(Fig. 4a–c)

Fine- to coarse-grained, recrystallized mollusc

fragments (bivalves and gastropods) dominate;

abundant halimedacean and dasycladalean algae

such as Halimeda sp., Neomeris mokragorensisRadoicic and Schlagintweit and Trinocladus divnaeRadoicic are characteristic, too (for more details

see Bucur et al. 2010). Spines and corona

fragments of echinoids as well as small oyster

fragments (foliated shell structure) are accessory

components. Bioturbation fabrics indicated by

circular swirls (Fig. 4b), by orientation of the

components in distinct directions (Fig. 4a) and by

the generally inhomogeneous fabric. Late-

diagenetic selective dolomitization of burrows

possible

Warm, shallow, fully marine environment with low

to moderate water energy and considerable

infaunal activity (packstone fabric, presence of

echinoids as well as halimedacean and

dasycladalean algae, strong bioturbation). The

abundance and preservation of calcareous algae

suggests autochthonous occurrences; thus they can

be used for the characterization of the depositional

environment (very shallow-marine, light-saturated,

warm-water setting; e.g., Wray 1977; Bucur and

Sasaran 2005, Bucur et al. 2010; Granier in press)

3 Bioturbated mollusc–

dasycladalean wackestone

(Fig. 4d–e)

Similar to FT2, but differs in finer grain size, mud-

dominance (i.e., wackestone fabric), and rarity of

halimedacean algae (Halimeda sp.). Dasycladalean

algae (Neomeris mokragorensis Radoicic and

Schlagintweit and Trinocladus divnae Radoicic)

common. Fine-grained, recrystallized bioclasts of

molluscs and foraminifera (miliolids) occur while

bryozoa (Fig. 4, close-up in d), small oyster

fragments and echinoid spines are rare (for details

on the calcareous algae see Bucur et al. 2010).

Generally inhomogeneous fabrics due to

bioturbation with late-diagenetic selective

dolomitization

Fully marine, shallow, warm-water environment

(lagoonal setting) based on the presence of

dasycladalean algae, echinoids and bryozoa;

bioturbated wackestone fabrics indicate low water

energy and considerable infaunal activity

4 Muddy oyster rudstone with

superficial ooids

(Fig. 4f–g)

Characterized by abundant, large and thick oyster

shells (foliated structure). Most shells show intense

borings (Entobia isp.; Fig. 4f, g). Superficial ooids,

fine- to coarse-grained, recrystallized bivalve and

gastropod fragments as well as halimedacean and

dasycladalean algae (the same species as in FT2)

are common, too. Encrusting colonial serpulids as

well as spines and corona fragments of echinoids

rare

Shallow, fully marine lagoonal environment with

moderate water energy (presence of echinoids as

well as dasycladalean and halimedacean algae,

muddy rudstone fabrics). Superficial ooids indicate

that the local water energy was just high enough to

move the smallest grains (Flugel 2004), while the

formation of (large) bioclasts was mainly related to

bioerosion

5 Foraminifera-bearing

rudist–Chondrodontafloat- to rudstone

(Figs. 4h, 5a)

Characterized by large and thick-shelled rudist

(Eoradiolites liratus) and Chondrodonta shells.

Different benthic foraminifera [e.g.,

Pseudolituonella reicheli Marie, Textularia sp.,

Quinqueloculina sp., Pseudorhipidionina cf.

casertana (de Castro), Cuneolina ex gr. pavoniad’Orbigny, Praealveolina cretacea d’Archiac]

common. Oyster fragments, echinoderm debris,

and dasycladalean algae occur, small recrystallized

gastropods and halimedacean algae rare. Some of

the rudist shells are bored (Entobia isp.),

preferentially the originally aragonitic layers

Shallow, normal marine lagoonal environment with

moderate water energy (muddy shell fabric with

large rudist fragments). Some of the rudists and

Chondrodonta shells are in life-position,

suggesting that the beds originally have been

bivalve banks affected by bioerosion and episodic

storm reworking

6 Fenestral foraminifera

wackestone (Fig. 5b)

Characterized by birdseyes (irregular and oval in

shape, millimeter-sized, filled with blocky calcite)

and benthic foraminifera (miliolids and Textulariasp.). Small bioclasts rare

Low-energy, restricted lagoonal (inter- to supratidal)

environment with potentially weakly increased

salinities

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 233

123

Table 2 Facies types of the Maghra el Hadida Formation

FT Name Description Interpretation, remarks

7 Thick-bedded, fine-

grained marl

Brownish-yellow, thick-bedded, soft marl with very thin

limestone bands (component-poor micro-bioclastic

wackestone); ammonites abundant, especially in the upper

Upper Cenomanian and Lower Turonian part of the

formation; bioturbation common

Bathymetrically the deepest part of the

formation (fine grain size, abundant

ammonites); a basinal sediment deposited

well below storm wave-base

8 Ammonite–filament-

bearing planktic

foraminiferal

wackestone (Fig. 5c)

Planktonic foraminifera abundant; most foraminifers non-

keeled, keeled ones very rare. Commonly with filaments and

small ammonites; echinoderm debris and other

microbioclasts rare. Bioturbation indicated by

inhomogeneous distribution of components

Open-marine, deep subtidal (i.e., distal outer

ramp) environment with low energy, below

storm wave-base

9 Bioclastic wackestone

with filaments

(Fig. 5d)

Dominated by fine- to medium-grained, recrystallized mollusc

fragments (gastropods and bivalves). Some filaments and

echinoderm debris as well as rare ostracods occur. Burrows

filled with fecal pellets and inhomogeneous distribution of

components are evidence of strong bioturbation

Open-marine, outer ramp environment with

low-energy below normal storm wave-base

10 Bioclastic planktic

foraminiferal

packstone (Fig. 5e)

Characterized by abundant planktonic, non-keeled

foraminifera. Filaments, fragments of other bivalves as well

as small oyster shells also common. Echinoderm debris and

ammonites rare. Bioturbation indicated by inhomogeneous

distribution of components

Open-marine, subtidal deposit indicating low-

to moderate-energy below or close to normal

storm wave-base

11 Bioclastic peloidal

wackestone (Fig. 5f)

Dominated by fine peloidal grains with a few accessory

recrystallized bivalve shell fragments and coprolites.

Bioturbation indicated by a general inhomogeneous fabric;

late-diagenetic selective dolomitization of burrows

Characterizes a normal marine, subtidal

environment, slightly below normal storm

wave-base, with low water energy

(wackestone fabrics)

12 Fine-grained peloidal

packstone

Can be subdivided into two subtypes: fine-grained peloidal

packstone with and without crustacean microcoprolites

FT 12A: Fine-grained

peloidal packstone

(Fig. 5g)

Characterized by abundant, densely packed, fine-grained

peloids as well as rare ammonites and planktic foraminifera.

Bioturbation indicated by patchy distribution of components

Characterizes subtidal conditions with

moderate water energy, close to the storm

wave-base. Water depth was shallower than

for FTs 7–10

FT 12B: Fine-grained

peloidal packstone,

with coprolites

(Fig. 5h)

Similar in fabric and components to FT12A, but differs in

containing abundant and diverse types of crustacean

microcoprolites such as Palaxius caucaensis (Blau et al.) and

Palaxius isp. (for more details see Senowbari-Daryan et al.

2009)

Commonly, crustacean coprolite-rich facies

indicates restricted, peritidal conditions (e.g.,

Wilmsen and Neuweiler 2008; Wilmsen et al.

2010a). However, based on the interfingering

with open-marine facies (FT8–10), a

subtidal, fully marine setting (transition outer

to middle ramp) is inferred

13 Muddy, bioturbated

mollusc float- to

rudstone (Fig. 6a–c)

Dominated by large mollusc fragments (bivalves, gastropods

and ammonites), some bored by clionid sponges (Entobiaisp.; Fig. 6c); embedded in a packstone matrix of fine- to

medium-grained, recrystallized mollusc shell fragments and

debris of small oysters as well as spines and corona

fragments of echinoids. Benthic foraminifera (textulariids)

and crustacean microcoprolites rare. Different packing

densities of large mollusc fragments result in float- and

rudstone fabrics with lateral gradation in thin-sections.

Bioturbation indicated by circular swirls (Fig. 6b), general

inhomogeneous distribution of components, and rotated

components (overturned geopetal fabrics, Fig. 6a). Late-

diagenetic selective dolomitization of burrows possible.

Highly fossiliferous, yielding abundant Lower Turonian

ammonites and bivalves

Fragmentation of shells due to bioerosion and/

or storm reworking. A subtidal setting above

storm wave-base is inferred, subject to

episodically increased water energy (sea-

floor reworking by storms, concentration of

shells)

14 Phosphorite-bearing,

muddy bivalve

rudstone (Fig. 6d–e)

Characterized by fine- to coarse-grained, mostly recrystallized

bivalve fragments and fine- to medium-grained phosphorite

particles; some of the bivalves with prismatic shell structure,

many bored. Small, recrystallized gastropod shells and

echinoderm debris are accessory components. Benthic

foraminifera (textulariids), serpulids and lithoclasts are rare

Slightly condensed, subtidal deposit above

normal storm wave-base; fragmentation of

shells partly related to bioerosion, partly to

episodically elevated water energy (storms)

234 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

For accurate logging, a modified Jacob staff has been

used (Sdzuy and Monninger 1985). Carbonate and silici-

clastic rocks have been analyzed in the field using a hand

lens and classified according to their depositional fabrics as

well as grain size and composition. Ninety samples have

been collected from characteristic microfacies recognized

in the field in order to fully characterize these by thin-

section analyses (Flugel 2004).

Table 2 continued

FT Name Description Interpretation, remarks

15 Bioclastic bivalve

pack- to rudstone

(Fig. 6f–g)

Densely packed, bioclastic packstone or muddy rudstone

characterized by concentrations of small- to medium-sized,

thin-shelled, recrystallized bivalves; shells occasionally in

convex-up position with shelter porosity (Fig. 6f) or

concentrated in cm-sized burrows. Oyster fragments and

small recrystallized gastropods also common. Fine glauconite

grains and echinoderm debris are accessory components,

small lithoclasts rare. Crystal silts in voids and shelters in

rudstone fabrics (Fig. 6g)

Shallow subtidal (inner ramp) deposit

characterized by high-energy conditions

(shell concentrations of disarticulated,

convex-up oriented bivalve shells). Densely

packed shells in burrows are tubular

tempestites formed by storm-wave pumping

of shelly material into open burrows

(Tedesco and Wanless 1991)

16 Bioclastic mollusc

packstone (Fig. 6h)

Characterized by abundant fine- to coarse-grained,

recrystallized mollusc fragments (bivalves and gastropods).

Small foliated oyster fragments as well as spines and corona

fragments of echinoids common. Some lithoclasts, a few

colonial encrusting serpulids, and rare ostracods present.

Sorting is moderate to good

Characterizing a fully marine environment

above fair-weather wave-base with

moderately high water energy (packstone

fabrics)

17 Peloidal bivalve

packstone (Fig. 7a)

Dominated by abundant fine- to coarse-grained, recrystallized

bivalve fragments and fine peloidal grains with accessory

oyster fragments; recrystallized gastropod fragments and

phosphatic remains as well as calcified cyanobacteria

(Cayeuxia?) rare. Bioturbation fabrics (inhomogeneous

distribution and circular orientation of components) present

Indicating a fully marine, relatively shallow

environment (e.g., calcified cyanobacteria)

with moderately high water-energy

(packstone fabrics) and considerable infaunal

activity (shallow subtidal inner ramp setting)

18 Halimedacean

packstone (Fig. 7b–c)

Characterized by abundant, well preserved, in part densely

packed halimedacean algae (Halimeda cf. elliotti Conard and

Rioult; see Bucur et al. 2010 for more details; their density

differs within and from one thin-section to another, and

wackestone fabrics exist). Spines/corona fragments of

echinoids and fine-grained, recrystallized mollusc fragments

(bivalves and gastropods) common. Small oyster fragments,

ostracods, bryozoans, and serpulids rare. Bioturbation fabrics

present (inhomogeneous; Fig. 7c) with late-diagenetic

selective dolomitization of burrows

Characterizing a shallow-marine, light-

saturated, warm-water environment

(abundant and well preserved halimedacean

algae; cf. Wray 1977; Bucur and Sasaran

2005; Bucur et al. 2010; however, modern

Halimeda live and calcify at depths up to

100 m; cf. Granier in press). A fully marine,

lagoonal back-ramp setting without

restriction is inferred

19 Homogenous mudstone

(Fig. 7d)

Characterized by the nearly complete absence of skeletal or

non-skeletal grains, except for rare fragments of bivalve

shells and thin-shelled ostracods

Low-energy lagoonal back-ramp setting,

maybe represented by intertidal mudflats

20 Bio- and lithoclastic

grainstone (Fig. 7e–f)

Well sorted bio- and lithoclastic grains common with rare

pisoids. Echinoderm debris and a few superficial ooids occur;

benthic foraminifera rare. Sorting very good

Reflects high-energy conditions, representing a

transgressive lag onlapping and infilling the

relief of a mid-Turonian sedimentary

unconformity

21 Thick-bedded, fine- to

medium-grained

sandstone (Fig. 7g)

Meter-thick units with bed thicknesses from medium to very

thick. Characterized by variegated, friable, fine- to medium-

grained ferruginous quartz sandstones with moderate to good

sorting but poor rounding of grains; nodular fabrics

(bioturbation) as well as plant debris and larger wood

fragments present. Occasional sandstone pebbles and trough-

cross bedding

Channel fills of marginal rivers and estuaries

(lively colors and bioturbation; lenticular

stratigraphic architectures are well visible in

the field, cf. Nagm 2009)

22 Sharp-based, medium-

to coarse-grained

sandstone (Fig. 7h)

Represented by thin intercalations (cm-dm) of brownish,

medium- to coarse-grained, quartz-rich sandstone with \ 5%

opaque minerals and calcareous matrix; sorting good but

rounding much less so. Beds with sharp bases, hummocky

cross-stratification or parallel-lamination, and normal grading

into thick-bedded marly sediments (FT7)

Siliciclastic tempestites; hummocky cross-

stratification (HCS), parallel-lamination (PL)

and normal grading indicate ground-touching

storm waves and offshore-directed backflow

currents in a storm-dominated open shelf

setting (mid- to outer ramp), slightly above

(HCS) or below storm wave-base (PL)

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 235

123

Facies analysis

The facies analysis of the Cenomanian–Turonian Galala

and Maghra el Hadida formations is based on microfacies

investigation of 90 thin-sections, supplemented by field

observations of features such as bedding, sedimentary

structures, and fossil content (macrofossils, trace fossils).

The classification scheme used is that of Dunham (1962)

with the modifications by Embry and Klovan (1972). Based

of the composition and texture, the investigated thin-sec-

tions have been grouped into 22 different (micro-) facies

types, which are briefly described in the following

(Tables 1, 2) and illustrated in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7. Thin-section

photomicrographs are shown according to their original

stratigraphic orientation, i.e., up-section corresponds to the

page top. All scale bars equal 2 mm and abbreviations are:

EWG, East Wadi Ghonima; WG, Wadi Ghonima.

(Micro-) facies types (FT) of the Galala Formation

The Galala Formation is characterized by a predominance of

muddy facies types (bioturbated wacke- to packstones and

float- to rudstones) with an abundance of bivalves (especially

oysters) and calcareous algae (for the latter see Bucur et al.

2010). Gastropods, irregular echinoids, and benthic forami-

nifera are common, too. Noteworthy is the lack of open-

marine taxa such as ammonoids and planktic foraminifera.

Inhomogeneous fabrics can be related to infaunal activity

(bioturbation). Primarily aragonitic shells are usually re-

crystallized while calcitic shells (e.g., oysters and rudists) are

often heavily bored by clionid sponges. The six facies types

of the Galala Formation are summarized in Table 1.

(Micro-) facies types (FT) of the Maghra el Hadida

Formation

The sedimentary facies of the Maghra el Hadida Formation

are likewise dominated by muddy facies types, but their

depositional setting fundamentally differed from that of the

Galala Formation. Large parts of the Maghra el Hadida

Formation are represented by thick-bedded, fine-grained

marl with thin, fossiliferous limestone beds (fine-grained

wackestones) containing abundant open-marine biota

(planktic foraminifera, ammonoids, filaments), thus certi-

fying deeper and open-marine deposition below storm

wave-base. Intercalations of packages of skeletal and non-

skeletal pack- and muddy rudstones with oysters, gastro-

pods, serpulids, and calcareous algae testify intermittent

shallow-water deposition, with smooth facies transitions

between deeper and shallower facies. Sandstone interca-

lations indicate the presence of emergent source areas. The

16 facies types of the Maghra el Hadida Formation are

summarized in Table 2.

Depositional environments

Taking into account all facies data (microfacies, lithofa-

cies, biofacies), it is possible to develop meaningful

depositional models for the investigated succession. Based

on the observed differences in facies and the fact that both

formations are separated by a major unconformity (Nagm

2009; Nagm et al. 2010b), two models, one for the Galala

(lagoonal system) and one for the Maghra el Hadida For-

mation (homoclinal carbonate ramp), have been developed

(Fig. 8). Broadly similar facies models for the Cenoma-

nian–Turonian of Sinai and Jordan have been presented by

Bauer et al. (2002, 2003) and Schulze et al. (2005), while

Saber et al. (2009) and Abdel-Gawad et al. (2011) descri-

bed rudist-dominated carbonate sequences at Abu Roash

(north Western Desert) and the northern Sinai.

Galala Formation

During Cenomanian times, the study area was situated at

the southern margin of the Neotethyan Ocean. A marine

transgression is documented at the base of the Galala

Formation by the superposition of marine sediments on

non-marine (variegated and unfossiliferous) sandstones of

the Malha Formation. This Cenomanian transgression (in a

broad sense) has been recorded in many countries around

the world, indicating its eustatic origin, e.g., Kassab (1991,

1994), Kassab and Ismael (1994) from Egypt, Busson

(1972), Collignon and Lefranc (1974) from the Saharan

Platform, Abdallah and Meister (1997) from central

Tunisia, Meister et al. (1992), Meister and Abdallah (1996)

from West Africa, and Floquet (1984), Hancock and

Kauffman (1979), Wilmsen (2003), Wilmsen and Niebuhr

(2010), and Wilmsen et al. (2010b) from Europe. In Egypt,

the Cenomanian transgression proceeded from north to

south and flooded the southern margin of the Neotethys

time-transgressively. Nagm (2009) and Nagm et al.

(2010b) suggested, based on ammonoid biostratigraphy,

that the Galala Formation of the Wadi Araba area is of

latest Middle and early Late Cenomanian age, thus corre-

sponding to Cenomanian depositional sequence 5 (DS Ce

5; Robaszynski et al. 1998; Wilmsen 2003). The sea-level

rise of that depositional sequence had a significant mag-

nitude (see heading ‘‘Facies development’’ below).

Fig. 4 Upper Cenomanian microfacies of the Galala Formation.

Scale bar = 2 mm. a–c FT2, bioturbated calcareous algae–mollusc

packstone. a Sample 080217-3, EWG section. b Sample 080216-6,

WG section. c Sample 080217-6, EWG section. d–e FT3, bioturbated

mollusc–dasycladalean wackestone; bryozoa inset in d. d Sample

080217-15, EWG section. e Sample 080216-10, WG section. f–g FT4,

muddy oyster rudstone, with superficial ooids. f Sample 080217-12,

EWG section. g Sample 080217-13, EWG section. h FT5, forami-

niferal rudist–Chondrodonta float- to rudstone; sample 080213-2, WG

section

c

236 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 237

123

238 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

The facies types of the upper Middle?—lower Upper

Cenomanian Galala Formation suggest a fully marine,

lagoonal environment. Only FT6 (fenestral foraminifera

wackestone) may indicate some sort of environmental

restriction (net-evaporation?). The lagoonal character of

the sediments is evident by the lack of open-marine biota

such as ammonoids and planktic foraminifera, abundance

of calcareous algae and oysters as well as by the predom-

inance of muddy facies types (Fig. 8a). The fact that the

Galala Formation continues with similar facies and

equivalent age far to the south of the study area (e.g., Wadi

Qena; Bandel et al. 1987) suggests that it does not repre-

sent a single lagoon, but a wide, epeiric shelf with several

sheltered sites such as the study area (also in the Sinai,

time-equivalent deposits are of shallow-water origin; e.g.,

Bauer et al. 2002, 2003; Saber et al. 2009). The barrier

sheltering the study area from the open ocean in the north is

not known but may be represented by transgressive barrier

islands (e.g., FitzGerald et al. 2006). This interpretation is

supported by the presence of potential tidal inlet channel

fills in the lower part of the Galala Formation at Wadi

Ghonima associated with heterolitic siliciclastic facies of

tidal origin (Nagm 2009; Fig. 3). However, also the

inherited (i.e., pre-transgression) topography may be

responsible for the sheltered setting of the Galala Forma-

tion in Wadi Araba.

The basal part of the Galala Formation is represented by

thick silty marl (FT1) overlying a thin transgressive lag

(Fig. 2). This facies type was deposited, as sea-level rose,

below the (lagoonal) storm wave-base in a deep-lagoonal

environment (Fig. 8a). The calcareous algae-rich wacke- to

packstones of FT2 and FT3 as well as the oyster/rudist/

Chondrodonta-rich float- to rudstones (FT4 and FT5) were

deposited in progressively shallower parts of the lagoon

(Fig. 8). Warm water with normal salinities and low to

moderate water energy at very shallow (light-saturated)

water depths is indicated by the high content of euphotic

and stenohaline organisms (halimedacean and dasyclada-

lean algae, potential photozoans such as rudists, echinoids;

Flugel 2004; Granier in press). FT4 and FT5 are interpreted

as shallow-lagoonal bivalve banks (Fig. 8a), variably

reworked by storms and/or affected by strong bioerosion.

Bored hardgrounds at the top of limestone beds of FT4 and

5 even suggest emersion and rapid lithification, succeeded

by boring during renewed submergence (Nagm 2009).

FT1–5 are often stacked in thickening- and coarsening-

upward-cycles that may be interpreted as shallowing-

upward cycles indicating repeated flooding (FT 1) and

progressive infilling (FT 2–5) of the lagoon by prograda-

tion of the marginal facies into the lagoon (Fig. 8a). The

rich suspension- and deposit-feeding macrobenthos of the

Galala Formation (bivalves, gastropods, echinoids; Nagm

2009) indicate eutrophic conditions (‘‘green water’’; cf.

Brasier 1995) that may account for the lack of hermatypic

corals and patch reefs. Nevertheless, the lagoonal carbon-

ate factory mainly consisting of heterotrophic biota (espe-

cially bivalves) and calcareous algae was productive

enough to fill the available accommodation space easily.

Nagm (2009) estimates mean accumulation rates of 100 m/

myr for the Galala Formation.

The topmost part of the Galala Formation documents a

slightly restricted environment with elevated salinity and

very low water energy, indicated by fenestral wackestone

fabrics (inter- to supratidal) with an impoverished fauna

with only few benthic foraminifera (miliolids). The top-

most greenish marls of the Galala Formation are devoid of

macrofauna and may indicate a progressive cut-off of the

study area from the open sea in the late part of the early

Late Cenomanian (late highstand of depositional sequence

Cenomanian 5).

Maghra el Hadida Formation

The Galala and Maghra el Hadida formations are separated

by a major erosional unconformity, which correlates with a

global mid-Late Cenomanian sequence boundary (SB Ce 5;

Robaszynski et al. 1998; Wilmsen 2003; Nagm 2009). In

response to the sea-level fall, fluvial channels have been

cut into the lagoonal sediments of the Galala Formation,

represented by the thick sandstones of FT21 at the base of

the Maghra el Hadida Formation (Wadi Ghonima Member

of Nagm 2009). The infilling of the incised channels is

already related to the succeeding eustatic sea-level rise of

the latest Cenomanian which is known to have been of

significant magnitude (tens of meters; e.g., Voigt et al.

2006; Wilmsen et al. 2010b). This rise rapidly flooded the

study area and initiated the deposition of carbonate sedi-

ments of the Maghra el Hadida Formation. The most

appropriate model for the carbonates of the Maghra el

Hadida Formation appears to be a very low-gradient

homoclinal carbonate ramp with a lagoonal shoreline (cf.

Burchette and Wright 1992). The absence of a slope or a

shelf-break is corroborated by the lack of resedimented

deposits and smooth facies transitions from one facies type

Fig. 5 Microfacies of Upper Cenomanian Galala Formation and

Lower Turonian Maghra el Hadida Formation. Scale bar = 2 mm.

a FT5, foraminiferal rudist–Chondrodonta float- to rudstone; sample

080213-2, WG section. b FT6, fenestral foraminifera wackestone;

sample 080216-9, WG section. c FT8, Ammonite–filament planktic

foraminifera wackestone (close-up of non-keeled planktic foraminifer

is 300 microns wide); sample 080217-18.5, EWG section. d FT9,

Bioclastic wackestone, with filaments; sample 080217-41.5, EWG

section. e FT10, bioclastic planktic foraminifera packstone; sample

080217-19, EWG section. f FT11, bioclastic peloidal wackestone;

sample 080217-34, EWG section. g FT12A, fine-grained peloidal

packstone; sample 080215-6, WG section. h FT12B, fine-grained

peloidal packstone, with coprolites; sample 080215-7, WG section

b

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 239

123

240 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

to the other. The observed facies types suggest a depositional

environment ranging from deep-subtidal (FT7–10) to inter-

tidal (FT19; Fig. 8b). The ramp system observed in the study

area is part of the large epicontinental shelf which charac-

terized the Turonian of northern and central Egypt following

the latest Cenomanian–Early Turonian sea-level rise. In

Sinai, platform drowning and the development of intra-shelf

basins have been reported (Bauer et al. 2003). Local modi-

fications of the depositional profile may result from syn-

sedimentary movements related to ‘‘Syrian Arc’’ tectonics

(e.g., Bauer et al. 2002, 2003; Abdel-Gawad et al. 2011).

The bathymetrically deepest part of the ramp (FT7) is

represented by deep subtidal thick-bedded, fine-grained

marl with very thin, fossiliferous limestone bands contain-

ing abundant ammonites (Fig. 8b). The fine-grained, muddy

facies types FT8–10 are likewise rich in open-marine biota

(planktic foraminifera, ammonoids, filaments) and thus

certify a deep subtidal outer ramp setting below storm wave-

base. The peloidal wacke- to packstones of FT11–12, in part

with mass occurrences of crustacean microcoprolites

(FT12b) indicate slightly elevated water energy (grainy

fabric), and their deposition probably occurred around the

storm wave-base (Fig. 8b). Their intercalation into, and

interfingering with, open-marine facies rules out a restricted,

peritidal setting for these peloidal sediments as often

reported in the literature (e.g., Gazdzicki et al. 2000; Fursich

et al. 2003; Wilmsen and Neuweiler 2008; Wilmsen et al.

2010a). It is suggested that the concentration of peloidal

sediment occurred in response to weak bottom currents and/

or strong infaunal activity (the sediments are pervasively

bioturbated).

The shelliness of facies types 13–14 suggests a deposi-

tion above storm wave-base in a mid-ramp setting

(Fig. 8b). The concentration and partly also the breakage of

shells must be attributed to ground-touching storm-waves

(e.g., overturned geopetal fabrics, nested fabric of shells).

However, also bioerosion may have played a role. The

muddy matrix indicates intervening low-energy (post-

storm) conditions. The presence of ammonoids shows

open-marine and that of gastropods and oysters more

shallow-marine influences. The strong bioturbation as well

as the taphonomic alteration of shells (bioerosion) and the

presence of authigenic minerals (phosphate) may suggest

initial condensation of these deposits.

Facies types 15–19 have been deposited in the inner

ramp zone (Fig. 8b). They consist of densely packed

skeletal and non-skeletal (peloidal) material (FT15–17).

Oysters, gastropods, serpulids, and calcareous algae testify

a shallow-water setting, and shells are occasionally placed

in stable convex-up position. Influence of storms is evident

by tubular tempestites (Tedesco and Wanless 1991; FT15)

which form by storm-wave pumping and infilling of open

burrows by coarse-grained skeletal material. Tubular tem-

pestites have been recorded from Recent (Tedesco and

Wanless 1991) and fossil shallow-water settings (e.g.,

Wilmsen 2000). Back-ramp sediments consist of lagoonal

halimedacean algae wacke- to packstones (FT18) and

sterile mudstones (FT19), most probably representing

intertidal mudflats (Fig. 8b).

Facies type 20 is a lag sediment formed by transgressive

reworking of meteoric components (pisoids) and the lithi-

fied substrate (lithoclast) followed by their mixing with

contemporaneous bioclasts. It is only preserved in formerly

open burrows and depressions of a transgressive surface

fused with a mid-Turonian sequence boundary and thus

cannot be placed in the facies model (Fig. 8b). The sharp-

based sandstone beds of FT 22 represent tempestites that

document the existence of a (southern) siliciclastic source

area during the deposition of the carbonates of the Maghra

el Hadida Formation. Nagm (2009) estimates mean accu-

mulation rates of 42.5 m/myr for the Maghra el Hadida

Formation which is a mean value for hemipelagic car-

bonate systems (Wilmsen 2003; Wilmsen et al. 2005).

Facies development

The facies development of the Galala and Maghra el

Hadida formations is very important for understanding the

environmental changes and (relative) sea-level variations

in the study area during the Late Cenomanian–Turonian

(Fig. 10). The Galala Formation records a major trans-

gression that transferred the study area from a terrestrial

into a shallow marine environment. According to the bio-

stratigraphic data of Nagm et al. (2010a, b), this shift

occurred in the latest Middle to early Late Cenomanian.

This event is thus contemporaneous to the widespread

pelagization of the shelf seas in northwestern Europe

(Wilmsen et al. 2005), showing the inter-regional (i.e.,

eustatic) nature and magnitude of this early Late Ceno-

manian sea-level rise. The latter is also demonstrated by

the regional distribution of the Galala Formation and its

equivalents: its deposition across non-marine or emergent

areas indicates a shift of the paleo-coastline from north of

the study area to Wadi Qena (minimum 200 km; unpubl.

data of the authors; see also Bandel et al. 1987). Sedi-

mentation of the Galala Formation could cope with the

Fig. 6 Lower Turonian microfacies of the Maghra el Hadida

Formation. Scale bar = 2 mm. a–c FT13, Muddy, bioturbated

mollusc float- to rudstone. a, b Sample 080217-25, EWG section.

c Sample 080215-2, WG section. Note overturned geopetal fabric in

a. d–e FT14, phosphorite-bearing, muddy bivalve rudstone; sample

080216-16, WG section. f–g FT15, bioclastic bivalve pack- to

rudstone. f Sample 080216-22, WG section. g Sample 080217-31,

EWG section. h FT16, bioclastic mollusc packstone; sample

080216-17, WG section

b

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 241

123

242 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

creation of accommodation space and stayed within

lagoonal environments throughout (Fig. 10). Rich benthic

communities (Nagm 2009) testify favorable environmental

conditions with largely normal salinities and meso- to

eutrophic nutrient levels.

A sea-level fall in the mid-Late Cenomanian shifted the

coastline rapidly northward and exposed the Galala For-

mation. This fall (sequence boundary Cenomanian 5) is

recorded from many Cretaceous basins elsewhere (e.g.,

Robaszynski et al. 1998; Wilmsen 2000, 2003; Kuhnt et al.

2009). Fluvial channels have been eroded into the lagoonal

sediments of the Galala Formation (Figs. 9, 10) and

became re-filled during the succeeding transgression

(sandstones of FT21 of the Wadi Ghonima Member of the

Maghra el Hadida Formation; the lenticular nature of these

sandstone bodies has been demonstrated by Nagm 2009

and Nagm et al. 2010b). This transgression can be dated as

mid- to late Late Cenomanian (Nagm et al. 2010a, b) and

had a considerable magnitude of a few tens of meters based

on the rapid environmental shift from nearshore to outer

ramp (Fig. 10). Voigt et al. (2006) and Wilmsen et al.

(2010b) suggested a few tens of meters of eustatic rise in

that interval based on the analyses of facies and onlap

pattern onto basement rocks in central Europe. In the study

area, this rise led to the establishment of an open-marine

ramp system dominated by carbonates (Maghra el Hadida

Formation above its basal Ghonima Member). In the

Late Cenomanian and Early Turonian, the sediments of

the Maghra el Hadida Formation are dominated by

Fig. 7 Turonian microfacies of the Maghra el Hadida Formation.

Scale bar = 2 mm. a FT17, peloidal bivalve packstone; sample

080217-43, EWG section. b–c FT18, halimedacean packstone.

b Sample 080217-29. c Sample 080217-28; EWG section. d FT19,

homogenous mudstone; sample 080216-24, WG section. e–f FT20,

bio- and lithoclastic grainstone with rare pisoids; sample 080217-35,

EWG section. g FT21, fine- to medium-grained quartz sandstone;

EWG section. h FT22, medium-grained quartz sandstone, with

abundant ferruginous material; sample 080217-38, EWG section

b

Fig. 8 Depositional environments of the Galala Formation (a) and the Maghra el Hadida Formation (b)

Facies (2012) 58:229–247 243

123

open-marine facies types (FT7–14; Figs. 8, 10), in accor-

dance with the Early Turonian sea-level highstand (e.g.,

Sharland et al. 2001).

A shallowing episode in the Lower–Middle Turonian

boundary interval is well reflected by inner-ramp facies

types and a paleokarst horizon (Figs. 9, 10; Nagm 2009). In

the Middle Turonian, offshore marls (FT7) predominate

again, punctuated by a significant shallowing event in the

middle part of the Middle Turonian (Fig. 10; FT19–20).

The intercalation of a 6-m-thick package of sharp-based,

medium-grained sandstone (FT 21) at the Middle–Upper

Turonian boundary is again evidence of a major drop in

sea-level, potentially associated with renewed emersion

(Figs. 2, 10). Throughout the lower part of the Upper

Turonian, inner and mid-ramp facies types prevail, sug-

gesting that (relative) sea-level stayed lower than in the

Early and Middle Turonian (Fig. 10).

In a nutshell, major and rapid shifts in depositional

environments occurred in the mid-Late Cenomanian, the

Early–Middle Turonian boundary interval, the middle part

of the Middle Turonian, and the Middle–Late Turonian

boundary interval (Fig. 10). They are related to regressive–

transgressive facies developments that occurred in response

to large-scale sea-level changes (Nagm 2009) and are

associated by incised fluvial channels, paleokarst horizons

and/or reworked hardgrounds. Depositional cycles of sim-

ilar ages are known from many contemporaneous succes-

sions in Sinai, Jordan, and elsewhere (e.g., Gale 1996;

Luning et al. 1998; Wiese and Wilmsen 1999; Schulze

et al. 2005; Wendler et al. 2010) but a discussion of the

sequence stratigraphy of the Cenomanian–Turonian of the

study area is beyond the scope of the present paper

(Wilmsen and Nagm, in prep.).

Conclusions

The Cenomanian–Turonian (Upper Cretaceous) Galala and

Maghra el Hadida formations, exposed at the footwalls of

the northern slope of the Southern Galala Plateau in Wadi

Araba (northern Eastern Desert, Egypt), represent marine

depositional systems developing in response to the early

Late Cretaceous transgression at the southern margin of the

Neotethyan Ocean in tropical paleolatitudes.

Fig. 10 Facies development of the Late Cenomanian–Late Turonian in

the study area (absolute ages after Gradstein et al. 2004). Abbreviations:

M. = Metoicoceras; V. = Vascoceras; W. = Wrightoceras

Fig. 9 Field aspects of important facies shifts. a Variegated lagoonal

marls of the uppermost Galala Formation are erosionally truncated at

the base of medium-grained sandstones (Ghonima Member) of the

overlying Maghra el Hadida Formation (East Wadi Ghonima section

at 148 m; Jacob staff is 1.5 m long); this unconformity is of mid-Late

Cenomanian age and corresponds to the global sequence boundary

Cenomanian 5. b Paleokarst in the Maghra el Hadida Formation of

Wadi Ghonima section at 120.5 m; this surface can be dated as

Lower–Middle Turonian boundary interval (hammer is 28 cm long)

244 Facies (2012) 58:229–247

123

A detailed facies analysis of the successions, including

litho-, bio- and microfacies analyses, resulted in the rec-

ognition of 22 characteristic facies types that have been

used to characterize the depositional environments of the

two formations. Based on the fact that both formations

represent different stages in the flooding of the southern

Tethyan margin and that they are separated by a major

sedimentary unconformity, two separate depositional

models have been developed.

The Galala Formation, represented by six facies types,

was deposited in a fully marine lagoonal environment

developing in response to a latest Middle to early Late

Cenomanian transgression. The lagoonal character of the

sediments is evident by the lack of open-marine biota such

ammonoids, the abundance of calcareous algae and oysters,

and the predominance of muddy facies types. The rich

suspension- and deposit-feeding macrobenthos of the

Galala Formation indicates meso- to eutrophic (i.e., green

water) conditions.

After subaerial exposure of the Galala Formation in

the mid-Late Cenomanian, a major transgressive facies

development occurred during the late Late Cenomanian

and resulted in the development of an open-marine car-

bonate system, represented by the marls and limestones

of the uppermost Cenomanian–Turonian Maghra el

Hadida Formation. The 16 facies types of the formation

suggest deposition on a homoclinal carbonate ramp with

sub-environments ranging from deep-subtidal (ammo-

noid-bearing basinal marls) to lagoonal–intertidal back-

ramp (halimedacean packstones and homogenous

mudstones). The absence of a slope or a shelf-break is

corroborated by the lack of resedimented deposits and

smooth facies transitions from one facies type to the

other.

The lagoonal system of the Galala and the ramp system

of the Maghra el Hadida formations in the study area are

part of the large epeiric shelf, which characterized the Late

Cenomanian–Turonian of northern and central Egypt fol-

lowing the Late Cenomanian–Turonian sea-level rises.

Local modifications of the depositional profile may result

from pre-transgression topography (Galala Formation) or

syn-sedimentary movements related to ‘‘Syrian Arc’’ tec-

tonics (Maghra el Hadida Formation). However, major and

rapid shifts in depositional environments, indicated by

incised fluvial channels, paleokarst horizons and/or

reworked hardgrounds, occurred in the mid-Late Ceno-

manian, the Early–Middle Turonian boundary interval, the

middle part of the Middle Turonian and the Middle–Late

Turonian boundary interval. These shifts can be related to

strong (relative) sea-level falls that may be contempora-

neous to sequence boundaries known from Cretaceous

basins elsewhere.

Acknowledgments The paper greatly benefited from the insightful

reviews of Prof. Dr. B. Granier (Brest) and Prof. Dr. J. Kuss (Bre-

men). We also acknowledge the editorial work of Prof. Dr. F.T.

Fursich (Erlangen). Furthermore, we thank Prof. Dr. Abdel-Galil

Hewaidy (Al-Azhar University, Egypt) and Prof. Dr. Mohamed F.

Aly (Cairo University, Egypt) for their cooperation during fieldwork.

Financial support by the German Research Foundation (DFG grant

WI 1743-6/1 to MW) is gratefully acknowledged and this paper is a

contribution to the aforementioned project. EN acknowledges support

by the Egyptian Missions Sector (High education ministry) for a stay

in Germany.

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