DEDICATION

1

DEDICATION

I dedicate this Master’s thesis to my late father, Mr. FRANCIS DOTSE DEFOR, who instilled in

me the discipline and the sense of excellence that has led to the accomplishment of this task.

2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very grateful to the Almighty God for His inspiration

My sincere thanks go to my thesis supervisor Mr. Thierry Di Constanzo and to the Head of the

International Relations Programme Mr. Majid Bouzar for their immense support.

I am thankful to my internship supervisor Madam Florence Butegwa for her guidance and the

entire staff of UN Women Liaison office to the AU and UNECA for their encouragement

A special thanks goes to Ruth Meena (Professor emeritus), University of Dar es Salaam for her

constant support and for authorizing the use of her gender analysis diagram.

To Maria-Pia (FAO policy advisor to the AU), Muila Chigaga (ILO regional gender specialist)

and Mr Adama Coulibaly (Chief of Agricultural Production Systems Section, Food Security and

Sustainable Development Division, ECA), I say a big thank you for your valuable contributions.

My deepest gratitude goes to Dr Marco Quinones, Mr Seifu Assefa, Mr Dereba Bekele, Mr

Dejene Abasha and Mme Mestefaker Alebachew (Ethiopia Ministry of agriculture and rural

development) and Mme Caritas Kayilisa (Rwanda Ministry of agriculture and animal resource

gender coordinator) for their immense support.

Finally, to all my proof readers for their comments and diverse contributions, God richly bless

you.

3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ 3

LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................... 6

LIST OF DIAGRAMS ............................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................ 11

1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................11

1.2 Problem Statement ..........................................................................................................14

1.3 Aim of the Study ..............................................................................................................15

1.4 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................16

1.5 Methodology ....................................................................................................................16

1.6 Structure of the Document ...............................................................................................17

CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................................... 18

2.0 AFRICA’S AGRICULTURE-LED DEVELOPMENT AGENDA .....................................18

2.1 Background .....................................................................................................................18

2.2 NEPAD and Africa’s agriculture-led Development ...........................................................18

2.2.1 NEPAD’s Principles and Governing Structure ................................................................... 19

2.2.2 The Goals and Objectives of NEPAD ................................................................................. 21

2.3 The State of Agriculture in Africa: Potentials, Challenges and Policy Strategies ..............21

2.3.1 Potential of the Agricultural Sector in Africa ....................................................................... 21

2.3.2 Agricultural Challenges and Disabling Policy Strategies ................................................. 22

2.4 The Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) ..................25

2.4.1 The Maputo declaration: CAADP Objectives and Principles ........................................... 26

2.4.2 Structure and Pillars of the CAADP ..................................................................................... 27

2.4.3 Institutional Actors and their roles in CAADP Implementation ........................................ 29

2.4.4 The CAADP Implementation process and compact country’s statuses ........................ 30

2.4.5 CAADP Implementation at the National Level ................................................................... 31

2.4.6 CAADP Monitoring and Evaluation framework .................................................................. 31

2.5 CAADP Achievements and Gaps since Adoption ............................................................33

4

2.6 Food Security: An Illusion in Africa ..................................................................................36

2.6.1 Addressing Food Insecurity in Africa: The Framework for African Food Security

(FAFS) ................................................................................................................................................ 38

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................... 40

3.0 CAADP THROUGH A GENDER LENS: THE CASE OF ETHIOPIA AND RWANDA ....... 40

3.1 Key Conceptual Issues ...............................................................................................40

3.1.1 Gender Mainstreaming Strategy .......................................................................................... 40

3.1.2 Gender Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 41

3.2 Gender Analysis in the Programme/ Project Cycle Management (PCM) ..........................42

3.3 Analytical Framework ......................................................................................................44

3.4 Definition of Terms ......................................................................................................45

3.5 Agricultural profile and Gender Relations in Case Study countries ..................................46

3.5.1 Country profile and the role of Agriculture in Rwanda ...................................................... 46

3.5.2 Gender Relations: Status of Women ................................................................................... 47

3.5.3 Country Profile and the Role of Agriculture in Ethiopia .................................................... 48

3.5.4 Gender Relation: The Status of Women ............................................................................. 49

3.5.5 Gender and Agriculture ......................................................................................................... 49

3.6 Data Analysis and Key Findings ......................................................................................51

3.6.1 Agricultural policy and Programme Documents Reviewed .............................................. 51

3.6.1.1 CAADP Compact .......................................................................................................... 51

3.6.1.2 Policy and Investment Framework (PIF) ......................................................................... 53

3.6.1.3 The Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) in Ethiopia................................................ 54

3.6.1.4 Intensification and Development of Sustainable Production System in Rwanda ...... 56

3.6.1.5 Framework for African Food Security (FAFS) ................................................................ 57

3.6.1.6 Concluding Remark ............................................................................................................ 58

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 59

4.0 Discussion of the Results and Findings of the Gender Integration Analysis ............................ 59

4.1 International and Regional frameworks on Women’s Human rights and gender equality .59

4.2 Can Africa ever feed itself? ..............................................................................................62

4.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................63

4.4 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................66

4.5 Recommendations ...........................................................................................................67

5

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 69

Text in French /Texte en français .......................................................................................................... 75

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 75

Plan Détaillé .............................................................................................................................................. 81

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 84

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................... 90

6

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AFSI L’Aquila Food Security Initiative

AGRA Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa

AGP Agricultural Growth Programme

AgGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic Product

AU African Union

AUC African Union Commission

BPFA Beijing Platform for Action

CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme

CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women

CFS Committee on World Food Security

CIP Crop Intensification Programme

COMESA Common Market for Easter and Southern Africa

DHS Demographic Health Survey

DPA Department of Political Affairs

DSA Department of Social Affairs

DAW Division for the Advancement of Women

DREA Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture

EAC East African Community

7

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

FAFS Framework for African Food Security

FCSA Federal Civil Service Agency

FEWS NET Famine Early Warning Systems Network

GAFSP Global Agriculture and Food Security Programme

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GFRP Global Food Crisis Response Programme

GHI Global Hunger Index

GNI Gross National Income

HDI Human Development Index

HLTF High-Level Task Force

HSG Heads of States and Government

HSGIC Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee

ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development

INSTRAW International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement

IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification of Women

IPM Integrated Pest Management

8

LO Liaison Office

MAP Millennium Partnership for Africa’s Recovery Programme

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

M&E Monitoring and Evaluation

MINAGRI Rwandan Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources

NAI New African Initiative

NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development

NPCA NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency

NPRSP National Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

OAU Organization of African Unity

OSAGI Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement

of Women

PCM Project Cycle Management

PIF Policy and Investment Framework

PSTA Strategic Plan for the Transformation of Agriculture

RCM Regional Coordination Mechanism

RECs Regional Economic Communities

ReSAKSS Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System

SADC South African Development Community

SDGEA Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa

9

SROs Sub-Regional Offices

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

TYCBP Ten Year Capacity Building Programme

TWC Technical Working Committee

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UN United Nations

UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa

UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women

WFP World Food Programme

WTO World Trade Organization

10

LIST OF DIAGRAMS

DIAGRAM 1 : NEPAD Organisational Structure ................................................................................. 20

DIAGRAM 2: Actors and Institutions in CAADP Implementation Process ..................................... 30

DIAGRAM 3 : Agriculture Expenditure in Africa .................................................................................. 34

DIAGRAM 4 : Progress towards the 6 Percent Annual Growth ........................................................ 35

DIAGRAM 5 : Gender Analysis Process .............................................................................................. 42

DIAGRAM 6 : Project Cycle Management ........................................................................................... 43

11

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

The concept of Security gained a new definition at the end of the cold war from the early 1990s,

shifting from the protection of the state and its territorial integrity from external military threats to

the preservation and protection of life and dignity of individual human begins. Challenging the

state-centric notion of security, the proponents of the concept of human security focused on the

individual as the main referent object of security1.The scope of human security was redefined

and broadened to include security threats in seven areas namely: economic security which

requires an assured basic income - usually from productive and remunerative work, or in the

last resort from some publicly financed safety net, Food security which ensures that all people

at all times have both physical and economic access to basic food, health security that

guarantees a minimum protection from diseases and unhealthy lifestyles, environmental

security which aims at protecting people from the short and long-term ravages of nature, man

made threats in nature and the deterioration of the natural environment, personal security that

seeks to protect people from physical violence, whether from the State or external States, from

violent individuals and sub- State factors, from domestic abuse and predator adults, community

security with the aim of protecting people from the loss of traditional relationships and values

and from sectarian and ethnic violence, Political security which ensures that people live in a

society that honours their basic human rights and ensuring the freedom of individuals and

groups from government’s attempts to exercise control over ideas and information2 . The 2005

human development report argue that “individual freedoms and rights matter a great deal, but

people are restricted in what they can do with that freedom if they are poor, ill, illiterate,

discriminated against, threatened by violent conflict or denied a political voice” therefore,

achieving human security have to include not only protecting people but empowering people to

fend for themselves3. It has also been argued that, there can be no meaningful discussion on

human security without first discussing gender equality as no society can ever prosper half-

liberated and half chained. Thus, women’s security is a precondition for human security4

1 BAYLIS John et al, 2008, the globalization of world politics, Oxford University Press, New York, p. 492

2 UNDP, New dimension of security, 1994, human development report 1994, New York, pp. 24-33

3 Institute of Development Studies, National Human Development Reports and the Human security framework,

April 2006, Sussex, p. 5 4 HAQ Khadija, Human Security for Women, in TEHRANIAN Majid (ed.), 1999, Worlds Apart: Human Security and

Global Governance, I.B. Tarauris & Co, London, p. 96

12

UN Women, the United Nation’s (UN) entity for gender equality and the empowerment of

women was established in July 2010 by the UN General Assembly Res 64/289 as part of the

UN reform agenda to bring together resources and mandates for greater impact. It merges and

builds on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system which focused

exclusively on gender equality and women’s empowerment namely: Division for the

Advancement of Women (DAW), International Research and Training Institute for the

Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and

Advancement of Women (OSAGI) and United Nations Development Fund for Women

(UNIFEM). UN Women is mandated to support inter-governmental bodies, such as the

Commission on the Status of Women, the African Union (AU), Regional Economic Communities

(RECs) and other institutions in their formulation of policies, global standards and norms for

gender equality. To help Member States implement these standards; standing ready to provide

suitable technical and financial support to those countries that request it, forge effective

partnerships with civil society and to hold the UN system accountable for its own commitments

on gender equality, including regular monitoring of system-wide progress5.

UN Women Liaison Office (LO) to the African Union and the United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa (UNECA) works to build the capacity for human rights programming,

gender mainstreaming and monitoring within the AU. Its priority areas includes increasing

women’s leadership and participation, ending violence against women and girls, engaging

women in all aspects of peace and security, enhancing women’s economic empowerment and

making gender equality central to national development planning and budgeting. With its three-

year strategic programme which aims at promoting the AU’s leadership and the accountability

for women’s rights in Africa, the Liaison Office supports the capacity for the integration of

gender equality in the work of four departments of the AU Commission namely: Department of

Social Affairs (DSA), Department of Political Affairs, Peace and Security Council and

Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture6 (DREA). UN Women’s mandate7 puts it in a

unique position to mobilize sister UN organizations for a coherent response on women’s rights

and gender equality which also constitutes one of the crosscutting issues to be mainstreamed

throughout the Regional Coordination Mechanism (RCM).

5 http://www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/, About UN Women, (retrieved October 1, 2012)

6 UN Women, Briefing notes: UN Women Liaison Office to AU and UNECA, June 2011, Addis Ababa

7 Cf.: Appendix 1, Terms of Reference: UN Women Liaison Office to the AU and UNECA

http://www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/

13

The RCM, the United Nations mechanism for enhancing the UN system–wide coherence,

coordination and cooperation at the regional and sub-regional levels require UN Agencies,

Programmes and Funds working at the regional level to deliver as one, in promoting

development in Africa and in support of the AU and its New Partnership for Africa’s

Development (NEPAD) programmes. The RCM also provides a mechanism for the

implementation of the Ten Year Capacity Building Programme (TYCBP) for the AU and

operates under nine major thematic clusters8 with several Sub Clusters corresponding to the AU

priority areas9.

In line with its mandate and the spirit of the RCM, UN Women, the co-convener of the Gender

and Development sub cluster of the Social and Human development Cluster has developed a

partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the UN (FAO), World Food Programme (WFP), African Union Commission

Department Rural Economy and Agriculture (AUC DREA) and African Union Commission

Women Gender and Development Directorate (WGDD) to engender the Comprehensive African

Agriculture Development Programme of the AU-NEPAD.

It was to support UN Women’s work on policy advocacy on the rights of women and the

coordination of the UN system for gender equality and the empowerment of women that I

undertook a five months internship with the UN Women liaison office to the AU and UNECA

from the April to the September 2012. The Liaison Office works with the AU and its organs,

including the RECs namely: South African Development Community (SADC), Intergovernmental

Authority on Development (IGAD), Common Market for Easter and Southern Africa (COMESA),

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community

(EAC) to integrate gender equality and women’s rights concerns in policies and programmes.

To this end, it tracks relevant AU policy decisions, debates and also shares strategic information

with UN Women African Section and Sub-Regional Offices (SROs).

My internship insofar as its mission, was to support UN Women to collect data and prepare

policy briefs for the Peace and Security Council and other strategic partners which includes

organs and departments of the AU. After undergoing a gender Audit training, the scope of my

8 Industry, Trade Market Access, Infrastructure Development, Governance, Environment Population and

Urbanization, Social and Human Development, Agriculture, Food Security and Rural Development, Science and Technology, Advocacy and Communication, Peace and Security 9 Cf.: Appendix 2 , Declaration on Enhancing UN-AU Cooperation: Framework for the Ten Year Capacity Building

Programme for the AU, 2006

14

responsibility was expanded to include not only a gender analysis and review of Cluster and

Sub Cluster annual work plans, multi annual business plans and other strategic documents but

also institutional analysis from a gender perspective. This translated into UN Women’s

coordination and realisation of the first gender audit of RCM which begun with the Social and

Human Development Cluster and the Governance Cluster. The background study of the

Agriculture Food Security and Rural Development Cluster, the next candidate for the RCM Audit

revealed the length and breadth of the Rome–based UN Agencies’ engagements with the

African Union towards the enhancement of agriculture productivity and the achievement of food

security in Africa within the framework of the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development

Programme (CAADP)

1.2 Problem Statement

Food security, at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels is said to have

been achieved when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to

sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy

and active life10. Latest available data from the FAO says the total number of undernourished

people in the world is estimated to have reached 1023 million in 2009 and was expected to

decline by 9.6 % to 925 million in 2010. Developing countries account for 98 % of the world’s

undernourished people and have a prevalence of undernourishment of 16 %11. At 239 million,

the proportion of undernourished people remains highest in Sub-Saharan Africa after Asia,

making about 30 % of the population in 2010 but with varying progress at the country

level12.The most recent update issued by the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS

NET) indicate some 16 million people still remain food insecure in Sudan, South Sudan,

Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti and Rwanda13.

A widely-used food security framework proposes that food security will be achieved when there

is sufficient food available, when people have access to it, and when it is well utilised.

This implies that, the absence of any of these pillars: (availability, access and utilisation) renders

a household or a country food insecure which in turn results in states of hunger and

malnutrition. Looking at food security from the perspective of agricultural production availability,

10

World Bank, FAO, IFAD, Gender in Agriculture, 2009, World Bank, Washington, p.11 11

FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2010, Rome, p. 8 12

Ibid.: p.10 13

http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm, East African food security improves: early warning report, (retrieved October 8, 2012)

http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm

15

at the Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) forum held from the 26th-28th of

September 2012 in Arusha, Tanzania, the chairmen Dr. Kofi Annan, the former UN Secretary

General stated “We can’t increase food production at the speed and scale we need without

mobilizing the continent’s all-too-often neglected army of small-holders, their needs and

realizing their potential must remain at the heart of all our discussions14”. Concrete evidence

indicates women constitute the majority of these small-holder farmers. The FAO reports Sub

Saharan Africa (SSA) women produce up to 80 % of the basic foodstuff, provide about 70 % of

all the agriculture labour force and produce about 90 % of the food15 but despite their crucial

involvement, these women who represent the backbone of the agricultural sector do not have

equal access to key productive resources including land, agricultural inputs, extension services

and credit facilities etc, leaving them with the challenge of having to do so much with very little.

The 2011 state of food and agriculture published by the FAO again argues that, closing the

gender gap in agriculture would generate significant gains for the sector and for the society. If

women had the same access to productive resources as men, they could increase yields on

their farms by 20-30 % which could raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-

4 % and this could in turn reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12-17 %16.

Consequently, is gender equality in the agricultural sector one of the usual human right issue or

a pre-requisite for the survival of the entire human race?. The attainment of food and nutritional

security in Africa will require a critical attention to women’s equal rights with men in agricultural

policies and programmes than ever before. African leaders have made several commitments to

protect and promote fundamental human right which includes women’s human rights but to what

extent has this commitment translated into concrete actions in agricultural sector policy

formulation and programming?

1.3 Aim of the Study

The purpose of the study is to ascertain the gender sensitivity of (CAADP) the continental

framework for the restoration of agricultural productivity and food security in Africa and how it

14

http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201209/94656.php, DOMFE Kofi Adu, African green revolution catalyst to global food security, ( retrieved October 2, 2012)

15 http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4805E/v4805e03.htm, FAO, Women's role and access to agricultural extension

services in Sub-Saharan Africa, (retrieved November 4, 2012) 16

FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture, 2011, 2010-2011 Report, Rome, p. 5

http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201209/94656.php

http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4805E/v4805e03.htm

16

has influence the development of gender sensitive agricultural sector policies in compact

countries in East Africa, with a special focus on Ethiopia and Rwanda.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study will particularly focus on:

Analysing the gender sensitivity of CAADP

Examining the extent to which gender is mainstreamed in the national agricultural

policies and programmes developed in line with CAADP

Making recommendations to help mainstream gender equality in the CAADP

1.5 Methodology

The reflections in this dissertation were guided by review of existing literature on the state of

agriculture and food security in Africa as well as international instruments on gender equality

ratified by African leaders and those adopted by the AU at the regional level. Gender equality as

a human rights issue is embedded in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

including women’s human rights which obliges all leaders from United Nations Member States

to ensure the protection and promotion of the fundamental human rights of their citizens. In

addition to the Universal Declaration, a number of Conventions and Protocols have been signed

and ratified towards the protection of human rights in general and women’s human rights in

particular. African leaders are bound in one way or the other by some if not all the instruments

on gender equality, agricultural policies of some selected countries will be assessed against the

standards identified therein with regards to women empowerment.

The study combined review of existing literature and case studies of agricultural policies and

programmes in Rwanda and Ethiopia. The choice of this geographical location - East and horn

of Africa – was motivated by the fact that this sub-region constitutes one of the most food

insecure regions on the continent. Ethiopia and Rwanda were sampled for this study based on a

well-defined criteria including 1) CAADP Compact country in East Africa with actionable policy

and investment framework 2) Beneficiaries of the Global Agriculture and Food Security

Programmes (GAFSP). A convenient sampling method was adopted given the researchers’

presence in Ethiopia at the time of the study. In view of this, the study is based on a detailed

case study of Ethiopia and the assessment of some strategic documents from Rwanda. The

17

analysis and conclusions therefore included findings from a series of focus group discussions

on the situation of women in agriculture, held with farmer’s associations in three different

districts in Sabata Awash municipality of the Oromiya region, the region with the most dominant

agricultural activities in Ethiopia.

1.6 Structure of the Document

The paper is structured around four chapters. Following this introductory chapter, the second

chapter presents the CAADP. It outlines its origin and unique features and characteristics as a

home-grown African development initiative, principles, structure and objectives as well as

achievements. The chapter also draws attention to some gaps which includes persistent food

insecurity in Africa despite CAADP’s achievements. Chapter three establishes an analytical

framework and focus on the gender integration analysis of CAADP focusing on its Framework

for African Food Security (FAFS) and some strategic agricultural policy and programme

documents from the case study countries. Chapter four discuses the findings from the gender

integration analysis by summarizing the various international and regional instruments that form

the basis of African leader’s commitment to the protection and promotion of women’s human

rights and gender equality for that matter. It also brings out the linkages between gender

inequality and food insecurity in Africa. The chapter finally draws conclusions and provides

recommendations for engendering the CAADP.

18

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 AFRICA’S AGRICULTURE-LED DEVELOPMENT AGENDA

2.1 Background

While the rest of the world's economy grew at an annual rate of close to 2 % from 1960 to 2002,

growth performance in Africa has been dismal. From 1974 through the mid-1990s, growth was

negative, reaching negative 1.5 % in 1990- 1994. As a consequence, hundreds of millions of

African citizens have become poor: one half of the African continent lives below the poverty line.

In Sub-Saharan Africa, per capita GDP is now less than it was in 1974, having declined over 11

%. In 1970, one in ten poor citizens in the world lived in Africa and by 2000, the number was

closer to one in two. That trend translates into 360 million poor Africans in 2000, compared to

140 million in 197517. Poverty was described in the 1995 UNDP report as having a woman`s

face given the fact that women constitute about 70 % of the world’s 1.3 billion poor population.18

To add to this, severe food crisis hindered human development and productivity, figures for

1997-1999 showed some 200 million people or 28 % of Africa`s population were chronically

hungry and about 28 million people in Africa were facing food emergency due to drought, floods

and strife of which some 25 million needed emergency food and agricultural assistance19. After

several years of economic stagnation, poverty and hunger, African leaders decided to take the

destiny of the continent in their own hands and find a sustainable solution to the woes of Africa.

This determination led to the creation of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD)

2.2 NEPAD and Africa’s agriculture-led Development

NEPAD was birthed from the merger of the Millennium Partnership for Africa’s Recovery

Programme (MAP) and the Omega Plan, two strategic plans aimed at regenerating Africa’s

economic growth. The MAP was a comprehensive plan, initiated by Presidents Abdelaziz

Bouteflika (Algeria), Presidents Olusegun Obasanjo (Nigeria) and Thabo Mbeki (South Africa).

This plan embraced several facet of development, including conflict resolution, governance,

investment, aid, and debt. The Omega Plan developed by President Abdoulaye Wade of

Senegal also focused on four priority sectors: Agriculture, Education, Health, and Infrastructure.

17

http://www.nber.org/digest/jan04/w9865.html, LES Picker, The Economic Decline in Africa, (retrieved May 20, 2012) 18

UNDP, The Revolution for gender equality, 1995, Human Development Report, New York, p.4 19

NEPAD, CAADP framework document, July 2003, Midrand, p.1

19

The merger of the MAP and the Omega Plan led to the New African Initiative (NAI) which

ultimately became the New Partnership for Africa’s Development. NEPAD was adopted by

African Heads of States and Governments of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in Zambia

in 2001 and was ratified by the AU in 2002 to address Africa’s development challenges in a new

paradigm. It represents “a pledge by African leaders based on a common vision and a firm and

shared conviction, that they have a pressing duty to eradicate poverty and to place their

countries, both individually and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development

and, at the same time, to participate actively in the world economy and body politic”20.

As a home-grown strategic framework, NEPAD was developed to implement the economic

vision of the AU for the socio-economic development of Africa. On the one hand, it represent a

compact between the leaders and the people of Africa and on the other hand a call from African

leaders to the international community and the development partners for that matter, to partner

with Africa in her own development based on her own development agenda and action plan.21

The main NEPAD objectives are to eradicate poverty, put Africa on a sustainable growth and

development path, halt the marginalization of Africa and accelerate the empowerment of

women.

2.2.1 NEPAD’s Principles and Governing Structure

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development is governed by a number principle which

includes an emphasis on good governance and accountability as a fundamental requirement for

peace, security and sustainable political and socio-economic development. It stresses on

African collective ownership and leadership which requires broad participation by all sectors of

the society, forges domestic and international partnerships, and ensures that all partnerships

are geared towards the Millennium Development Goals. Finally, it anchors Africa’s development

on its resources and the resourcefulness of its people.

NEPAD’s governance structure constitutes the Heads of State and Government Implementation

Committee (HSGIC), the Steering Committee, the Secretariat, and Special Task Teams as

portrayed in diagram 1 below.

20

NEPAD, NEPAD framework document, October 2001, Abuja, p.1 21

http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/nepad/,New Partnership for Africa’s Development, ( Retrieved October 15, 2012)

http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/nepad/

20

DIAGRAM 1 : NEPAD Organisational Structure

Source: Zimmermann et al

Operationally, NEPAD employs a regional approach to developing Africa through the promotion

of regional and sub-regional integration through intra-African trade and investment as well as

the provision of essential public goods while focusing on eight sectoral priorities namely:

infrastructural development, human resource development, agriculture, the environment,

culture, science and technology, market access and resource mobilization.

The agricultural component of the NEPAD framework received immediate attention from African

leaders due of the urgent need for Africa to utilize its full potential to increase its food and

agricultural production and to guarantee sustainable food security and ensure economic

prosperity for its people22. Africa’s agricultural sector accounted for about 60% of the total labour

force, 20 % of total merchandise exports and 17 % of GDP23 but the sector could barely meet

22

AU, Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security, Assembly/AU/Decl.7 (II), 2003, Addis Ababa, 23

Op cit. : NEPAD, CAADP framework document, p.1

21

the continent’s demand for food. The share of Africa in world exports also dropped, from 8 % in

1971-1980 to some 3.4 % in 1991-200024. From a surplus food exporter, Africa was reduced to

a net importer of food with an estimated food import of about US$18.7 billion in 200025 .

Recognizing that agriculture has been and will be the mainstay of most African economies,

NEPAD took the lead in revitalizing the sector to reduce food insecurity and poverty pursuant to

its overall vision.

2.2.2 The Goals and Objectives of NEPAD

NEPAD’s specific vision for the agricultural sector is to maximize its contribution to the African

economy, liberating the continent from dependence. The goal for the sector is that of an

agricultural-led development that eliminate hunger, reduces poverty and food insecurity,

increase the share of Africa in world exports and put the continent on a higher economic growth

path within an overall strategy of sustainable development26 To achieve this goal, NEPAD with

the support with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) developed

the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), as a framework to

accelerate development of the agricultural sector in the continent.

2.3 The State of Agriculture in Africa: Potentials, Challenges and Policy Strategies

2.3.1 Potential of the Agricultural Sector in Africa

As mentioned earlier, the fact that agriculture plays a dominant role in Africa’s economy cannot

be disputed. In Sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture accounts for about 30 % of the GDP, 40% of

export value and around 70-80 % of employment27. The importance of the sector again stems

from the fact that, about 70 % of Africans and approximately 80% of the continent’s poor, whose

purchasing power represent a driver of demand for manufactured and industrial goods and

services lives in rural areas and depend mainly on agriculture for their livelihood28. Despite rapid

24

ECA, Africa review report on agriculture and rural development, August 2007, Addis Ababa, p. 8 25

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y6831e/y6831e-02.htm, FAO, Comprehensive African Agriculture Development

Programme, (retrieved October 15, 2012)

26 Ibid.

27 ZIMMERMANN Roukayatou et al, 2009, Agricultural policies in Sub-Saharan Africa: German Development

Institute, Bonne, p. 34 28

Op. cit.: ECA, Africa review report, p. 8

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y6831e/y6831e-02.htm

22

urbanization proceeding at an annual rate of 4.9% over the past decades, the sector still

remain the main source of income for about 90% of rural population in Africa29

Regardless of certain weaknesses of the agricultural sector, some African countries are

endowed with some comparative advantages and for that matter have the potential to compete

globally in terms of the production of certain commodities. According to some evidence from

FAO, African countries represent 50% of top 20 countries, in terms of the Share of total

agriculture/total exported merchandise; (Guinea-Bissau (91.44%), Malawi (81.06%), Benin

(75.11%), Gambia (74.39%), Chad (64.75%), Burkina Faso (61.03%), Ghana (53.71%),

Ethiopia (49.59%), and Côte d'Ivoire (49.59%) 30 . A major source of raw materials for

agriculturally-based local manufacturers, agricultural inputs also accounts for some two-thirds of

manufacturing value-added in most African countries. Given its large share in most economies

in Sub-Saharan Africa, growth in the agricultural sector can make significant contributions to the

general economic growth. Thus a vibrant agricultural sector is fundamental for Africa’s overall

economic growth. A healthy agricultural sector will mean more jobs, more income and more

food for the poor and as incomes increase, households would be in the position to save more

and spend more which will in turn stimulate growth and investment in other sectors and

ultimately reduce hunger and poverty. The International monetary Fund assures that

agricultural growth has effective leverage on the rest of the economy, especially in the early

stages of the economic transformation and can generate employment, intensive patterns of

development favourable for the poor31.

2.3.2 Agricultural Challenges and Disabling Policy Strategies

A World Bank report published in 2002 showed that in 2001, about 47% of African population

was living below the international poverty line. About 70% of those living on less than US$1 a

day are located in rural areas thus establishing poverty as a rural phenomenon in the region32.

This majority is generally unable to meet basic food and other needs due the continuous poor

performance of the sector agriculture. The share of Africa in world exports dropped steadily,

from 8% in 1971-1980 to some 3.4 % in 1991-2000. On the list of 20 top agricultural and food

commodity importers in 2004, in terms of the total agriculture share in total merchandise

29

Ibid.: p.7 30

Ibid.: p.8 31

Op. cit.: ZIMMERMANN et al, p.37 32

Op. cit.: ECA, Africa review report, p.7

23

imported, 60 % are from SSA: Djibouti (77.39 %),Mauritania (71.85 %), Gambia (71.08 %),

Guinea-Bissau (58.73 %), DR. Congo (52.82 %), Benin (44.51 %), Congo (43.48 %), Eritrea

(30.30 %), Senegal (29.60 %), Liberia (29.44%), Angola (27.50%) and Niger (26.14%).Africa`s

agricultural trade with the rest of the world has moved from a handsome surplus in the 1960s

and 1970s to a burgeoning deficit since the 1980s. The region’s share of global agricultural

exports and imports were 3.4 % and 4.1 % in 2003, respectively33.

Africa’s agriculture sector is faced with a number of obstacles that hinders it from performing in

a way that will enable the sector fulfill its role. Agriculture is threatened by increasing land

degradation through nutrient depletion related to population pressure and land-use intensity. It is

estimated that nutrient depletion accounts for about 7% of the agricultural share in the average

GDP of SSA with national values ranging up to 25%.34 Farmers in Africa traditionally relied on

extended fallow periods of between ten and fifteen years following a two to three year

production cycle to maintain crop yields and soil fertility. This was feasible while population

densities remained low. It was possible to maintain fallows and increases aggregate agricultural

production concurrently by extending lands under cultivation. However annual population

increase of nearly 3% since the mid-1940s have made it increasingly difficult to maintain soil

quality and increase production using these extensive techniques. Soil fertility depletion is

considered by some scientist as the most fundamental impediment to agricultural growth and

major reason for decreasing trends in food production in Sub-Saharan Africa35. Estimates of

yield losses from soil erosion in Sub-Saharan Africa range widely, from 2% to 40%, making land

degradation there the worst in the world36.

Sub-Saharan Africa’s poor agricultural performance is again attributed to unsuitable conditions

for irrigation, according to FAO, access to water and irrigation is a major determinant of land

productivity and stability of yields. Sub-Saharan Africa’s agricultural water remains

underdeveloped, of a cultivated area of 197 million hectares, only 7 million hectares is equipped

for irrigation, with a further 2 million hectares under some other form of water management.

Overall, this area amounts to only 23 % of the 39 million hectares that is believed to be

33

Ibid.: p.8 34

http://www.biw.kuleuven.be/aee/clo/idessa_files/Drechsel2001.pdf, DRECHSEL Pay et al, Population density, soil nutrient depletion, and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, (retrieved October 18, 2012) 35

Op. cit. : ZIMMERMANN et al, p.39 36

UNDP, Towards a food secure future, 2012, African human development report, 2012, New York, p.58

http://www.biw.kuleuven.be/aee/clo/idessa_files/Drechsel2001.pdf

24

physically suitable (though not necessarily economically viable) for irrigation37. Additionally, very

little use of productivity enhancing inputs, particularly mineral fertilizer explains the lagging

agricultural productivity. Concrete evidence has shown the extent to which the use of fertilizer

can boost productivity. As of 2002, the average intensity of fertilizer use in Sub-Saharan Africa

was only 8 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) of cultivated land, much lower than in other developing

regions.38 According to Morris Michael et al, in 1970, Sub-Saharan Africa used less than 5kg/ha

while other developing regions used more than 15 kg/ha. Current use also stands at only 9

kg/ha, down from highs of 11−12 kg/ha representing a sharp contrasts with the more than 50

kg/ha used in Latin America and more than 80 kg/ha in Asia39. Crop yields remain far below

average yields in other parts of the world due to the inadequate use of productivity enhancing

practices and technologies - mechanization and the use of agro-chemicals including pesticides.

With regards to mechanization, the continent has an average of only 13 tractors/100 km2 of

arable land, versus the world average of 200 tractors/100 km240.

Aside the unfavourable natural environments in many cases, to a large extent by man-made

weaknesses of the socio-economic and political environment of agriculture which prevailed in

the last decades and partially continue up to the present. Macroeconomic policies such as

overvalued exchange rates, trade, and price policies strongly disfavored and continue to

disfavor internal terms of trade against agriculture 41 , under capitalization and low public

investments, a clear reflection of policy biases against the sector equally contributed to poor

service delivery in terms of agricultural research and extension services. Public spending on

agricultural research as a percentage of agricultural GDP (AgGDP) is considered adequate at

2% or more but studies have shown that average worldwide expenditure on agricultural

research is about 1% of AgGDP - over 2.5 % in developed countries, 0.6 % in developing

countries and 0.7 % in Africa42. Additionally, donor support for the agricultural sector also

declined from UD$6.0 billion in 1980 to UD$2.8 billion in 2006 and World Bank lending to

agriculture in general decreased from UD$7.76 billion in 1980 to UD$2.0 billion in 200443,

coupled with a number of unfavorable international market trends and trade policies which

37

MARK W. Rosegrant et al , 2009, irrigation: tapping potential, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Washington, p. 288 38

MORRIS Michael et al, 2007, Fertilizer Use in African Agriculture: Lessons Learned and Good Practice Guidelines, World Bank, Washington, p. 22 39


ECA, Challenges to agricultural development in Africa, 2009, Economic Report on Africa, p.126 41


Op. cit.: ECA, Challenges to agricultural development in Africa, p.124 43

Ibid. : p.124

http://www.google.fr/search?hl=fr&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Mark+W.+Rosegrant%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=2

25

drastically weakened Africa’s export earnings. In the early 1980s, SSA countries accounted for

about 2.56 % of total world exports. But, this share fell to 1.39 % by the late 1990s. While world

exports increased at an average annual rate of 6 % during 1980s, SSA exports grew by only 1

%.44 Agriculture and rural development related national policies and institutions exacerbated

Africa’s poor agriculture performance. Poor governance and corruption in key institutions

supporting agriculture either led to the collapse of many rural support organizations or

weakened them in terms of finances, human resources and performance45.

The above challenges clearly demonstrate the fact that the obstacles facing Africa’s agriculture

development is not just limited to technology and its related productivity issues. The political

dimension of the problem embedded in weak institution and unfavourable policy decisions

requires a critical attention. African leaders are therefore faced with the critical role of redefining

certain agricultural policies and trade initiatives to ensure agricultural growth, food security and

poverty alleviation. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) developed the

CAADP as a strategic framework to address these challenges.

2.4 The Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP)

CAADP is a framework that reflects the recognition that in Africa, agriculture is central to the

alleviation of poverty and hunger46.To foster agricultural development, NEPAD launched the

CAADP, a consensual framework for agricultural growth, poverty reduction and food and

nutritional security in Africa in 2003 but was gradually transformed from a “programme” to a

“framework” during its initial 2-3 years47. The initiative takes a continent-wide view but builds on

national and regional plans for agricultural development. It is a demonstration of African leader’s

commitment to bringing agriculture back to the center stage of economic development and

poverty alleviation by addressing issues of growth in the agricultural sector, food security and

rural development. It must be noted however that, CAADP is not a set of Supranational

programmes to be implemented by individual countries but a common framework that is

reflected in a set of key principles and targets established by the African Heads of States and

Government (HSG) to i) guide country strategies and investment programmes ii) allow for

regional peer learning and review and iii) facilitate the alignment and harmonization of

44

IFPRI, Market Opportunities for African Agriculture: An Examination of Demand-Side Constraints on Agricultural Growth, DSGD DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 1, 2003, Washington, p.5 45

Op cit. : ZIMMERMANN et al, p.41 46

NEPAD, Renewing the commitment to African Agriculture: CAADP Review report, March 2010, Midrand, p.1 47

Ibid.: p.1

26

development efforts 48 . iv) advocate for the restoration of Africa agriculture as a major

development driver v) harness African strategic thinking, positions and scenarios for the future.

2.4.1 The Maputo declaration: CAADP Objectives and Principles

With the fundamental goal of accelerating agricultural growth in the continent, CAADP has been

developed to promote interventions that respond to the widely identified crisis situation of

African agriculture - to improve the situation by enhancing investment in the agricultural sector

in Africa. Although having a continent-wide scope, the CAADP initiative is expected to be

implemented at the regional and national levels with the aim of helping African countries reach a

higher path of economic growth through an agriculture-led development, which eliminates

hunger, reduces poverty and food insecurity, and enables expansion of exports.” The

commitment to revitalize the agriculture in Africa is again reflected in the “Maputo Declaration”

adopted at the Second Ordinary Assembly of the African Union in July 2003, African Heads of

State and Government endorsed the “Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security in

Africa” (Assembly/AU/Decl. 7(II)) which contained several important decisions regarding

agriculture, By signing the Declaration, African HSG accepted CAADP as a vision for the

restoration of agricultural growth, food security, and rural development in Africa. As a

“brainchild” of the AU/NEPAD, the framework is said to emanate from and must be fully owned

and led by African leaders. In addition to this underlying principle and in line with the CAADP

vision, the Maputo Declaration sets key detailed principles and objectives to be achieved by the

year 2015:

Improving the productivity of agriculture to attain an average annual growth rate of 6 %,

with particular attention to small-scale farmers, especially focusing on women.

Attaining food security, in terms of both availability and affordability and ensuring access

of the poor to adequate food and nutrition

Allocating 10 % or more of their budget to agriculture.

Having a dynamic agricultural markets within countries and between regions

Having integrated farmers into the market economy and have improved access to

markets to become a net exporter of agriculture products.

Achieving a more equitable distribution of wealth.

48

http://www.slideserve.com/maeko/implementation-of-the-comprehensive-africa-agriculture-development-programme-caadpUNECA, Implementation of the comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme, (retrieved October 20, 2012)

http://www.slideserve.com/maeko/implementation-of-the-comprehensive-africa-agriculture-development-programme-caadpUNECA


27

Becoming a strategic player in agricultural science and technology development.

Practicing environmentally sound production methods and have a culture of sustainable

management of the natural resource base

2.4.2 Structure and Pillars of the CAADP

The original focus was to promote immediate interventions that best respond to the widely

recognized crisis situation of African agriculture. Thus, CAADP had been cast to deliberately

focus on investment in the three pillars that were deemed to make the earliest difference to

African agriculture’s dire situation: i) sustainable land use, ii) rural infrastructure and trade

related capacities, and iii) food security. However, at the request of Africa’s Agricultural

Ministers, a “Research and Technology” pillar was added and subsequently incorporated into

the CAADP main document49. The fundamental pillars recognized to constitute the solution to

provide immediate improvement of Africa’s agriculture, food security and trade balance include:

Pillar 1: extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water

control system. One of the obstacles hampering the productivity of agriculture in Africa was

identified to be the reliance on irregular and unreliable rainfall. Compared to other regions, the

percentage of arable irrigated land stood at 7 % and barely 3.7 % in sub Saharan Africa while

South America, East and South East Asia and South Asia stood around 10 %, 29 % and 41 %

respectively. Rain-fed agriculture obviously hinders high-yield crop varieties to achieve their full

production potential. In addition, 16 % of all soils were classified as having low nutrient reserves

compared to only 4 % in Asia; fertilizer productivity was estimated at some 36 % lower than in

Asia and 92 % lower than in other developing countries. Pillar one therefore calls on policy

makers to pay attention to the management and use of water for agriculture, to rapidly increase

the area equipped with irrigation and to build up soil fertility and the moisture holding capacity of

agricultural soils. This will not only provide farmers with opportunities to raise output on a

sustainable basis and contribute to a reliable food supply but also ensure better production for

commercial disposal which will in turn enhance the generation of economic surpluses required

for uplifting rural economies. The required investment for this pillar for the period of 2002 to

2015 is estimated at US$37 million to be complemented by operation and maintenance cost of

US$31 billion 50.

49

Op. cit. : ZIMMERMANNN et al, p.51 50

Op.cit.: NEPAD CAADP framework document, p.3

28

Pillar2: Improving rural infrastructure and trade-related capacities for market access

Lack of competiveness of local production vis-à-vis import and in export market presents

another challenge that African agriculture has to reckon with. This couple with the inadequate

infrastructural development further hinders market access, given the fact that about a fifth of the

population is landlocked. Less than a third of Africans live within 100km of the sea compared to

over 40% for other developing countries, Rail freight is also under 2% of the world total, marine

freight capacity is 11%, air freight is less than 1% and Power generation capacity per capita in

Africa is less than half of that in either Asia or Latin America. Pillar 2 also calls for investment in

better rural infrastructure- roads, storage, processing and marketing facilities to enhance

Africa’s competiveness through the reduction of cost of production. Investments required are to

the tune of US$ 89 billion for rural infrastructure and US$ 2.8 billion for trade related capacities

for improved market access51.

Pillar 3: Increasing Food Supply and reducing hunger

Addressing the pervasive hunger and malnutrition in Africa will require a twin approach of

providing safety nets and increasing agricultural production through the use of modern

productivity enhancement practices Policy makers are called upon under pillar 3 to create a

supportive policy environment as well as farm support services to unleash the potential of small

holder farmers and to build readiness and response capacity to natural and man-made

disasters. Raising the productivity of 15 million small farms through improved technology,

services, and policies was estimated to require US$7.5 billion with an additional US$42 billion

for the sub pillar on emergencies and safety nets52.

Pillar 4: Agriculture research, technology dissemination and adoption

Scientific and technological underpinning is indispensable to sustain productivity gains. To this

end, a long term pillar to support research, development and the promotion of the adoption had

to complement the three mutually reinforcing pillars whose aim is to achieve accelerated gains

in productivity through a)technology delivery systems that rapidly bring innovations to farmers

and agribusinesses b) the enhancement of the rate of adoption for the most promising available

technologies to support the immediate expansion of African production through the most

51

Ibid.: p.3 52

Ibid.: p.3

29

efficient linking of research and extension systems to producers. c) Renewing the ability of

agricultural research systems to efficiently and effectively generate and adapt new knowledge

and technologies. This pillar had a total estimation of US$4.6 billion53.

2.4.3 Institutional Actors and their roles in CAADP Implementation

CAADP's value as a framework steps from its capacity to assist countries to attain better and

more sustainable results from the agricultural development strategies and programmes that

have already been elaborated under PRSPs, SWAPs, etc. its aim is to add value to country

existing initiatives by helping the former to develop better investment programmes and to put in

place suitable implementation mechanisms and capacities. CAADP is operationalised through

five core institutions illustrated in diagram 2 below.

53

Ibid.: p.3

30

DIAGRAM 2: Actors and Institutions in CAADP Implementation Process

Source: AU/NEPAD Agency 2010a

2.4.4 The CAADP Implementation process and compact country’s statuses

CAADP is implemented at three different levels (continental, regional and national levels) for

different reasons. Given the aim of our study, the description of the implementation process will

focus more on the implementation at the country level but it is worth mentioning that CAADP

implementation at the continental level is to advocate and lobby for high level political

engagement, to ensure policy harmonization and coordination, to ensure that development

assistance is aligned with the CAADP principles and objective as well as mobilizing resources

and securing commitments by all partners. At the regional level CAADP implementation

provides the region with a single and unifying framework for programming and implementing

actions for the development of the agricultural sector with aim of i) preserving ownership and

leadership of the implementation process by the Regional Economic Communities, ii)

identifying regional priorities and iii) building the capacities of the RECs to coordinate the

process.

31

2.4.5 CAADP Implementation at the National Level

Although continental in scope, the translation of the concept and CAADP principles into

concrete actions is done at the regional and national level. CAADP forms an integral part of

national efforts to realize accelerated agricultural sector growth and related socio-economic

development. The principles underpinning implementation at the country level are i) avoiding

duplication of processes and building on ongoing efforts at the country level, b) aligning ongoing

efforts with the CAADP vision and iii) adding value to the national efforts where necessary.

National governments are expected to be at the center of CAADP implementation as drivers of

national policy priority-setting and public investment. While the coordination and facilitation of

the process rest with the RECs and the NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA).

CAADP implementation at the country level begins with an official launch by government after

the RECs sensitization and national government buy-in. National Focal Persons are appointed

to organize this launch during which a Technical Working Committee (TWC) is constituted to run

the CAADP process at the country level. A stocktaking process is initiated to assess the status

quo and future opportunities in the sector. The findings of the assessment feed into the CAADP

compact which outlines the country’s agenda for agricultural growth, poverty reduction and food

security. The compact represent a collective commitment to a shared vision for the agricultural

sector by stakeholders. The signing of the compact is followed by the formulation and the

design of a national investment plan which operationalises the compact’s strategy and

commitments which culminates into a high level business meeting to validate and endorse the

investment plan54.

2.4.6 CAADP Monitoring and Evaluation framework

As mentioned earlier, although having a continental, international and regional elements,

CAADP’s value is concretely determined at the national level. Thus, monitoring and evaluating

CAADP implementation and impact on programme reforms at the national level necessitated

the development of a Monitoring and Evaluation Framework. This system is “to assess the

stage at which countries are in the process, determine the reasons for their various progressing

paces, their constraints and opportunities as well as the roles of different stakeholders in the

process, including their capacities to undertake their roles”55. Particularly, to monitor countries

54

Cf.: Appendix 3, CAADP Compact countries and their stages of implementation. 55

BENIN Samuel et al, 2011, Monitoring African agricultural development processes and performance:

32

efforts towards achieving the 6% targeted growth rate and the 10% public investment

commitment as well as the general impact of the investment on the CAADP goal on hunger and

poverty56.To that end, the framework facilitates the regular assessment of the amount and type

of CAADP investments made, and whether and how the investments and related policies and

practices are raising growth and/or reducing poverty and hunger. These assessments are

analyzed, synthesized, and presented in the Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge

Support System’s (ReSAKSS) flagship publication - the Annual Trends and Outlook Report57.

The Monitoring and Evaluation ( M&E) framework is a valuable entry point for considering where

success can be identified and structured around: i) inputs - those things that are principally a

function of government and its development partners, finance, human resources, regulations

and policies as well as process Inputs which includes CAADP Pillars, Compacts, Investment

Plans, and Business Meetings etc. ii) Outputs - the desired consequences of inputs which

consists of more productive technology being made available, improved land and water

management, stronger markets for agricultural inputs and better functioning output markets. iii)

Outcomes - the principal measure of CAADP impact- increases in production, productivity, farm

employment and incomes, as well as broader economic outcomes such as increased

agricultural trade and national food security58,iv) Impact- the ultimate effect on goals and v)

Conditioning indicators which explains how observed changes could be attributed to

interventions 59 . Among other efforts, a set of key indicators 60 that are consistent with the

underlying logic of CAADP have been identified to help monitor processes, track progress in

meeting resource allocation commitments and achieving stated development targets, and help

answer questions related to the relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability of

CAADP as a driver of achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of halving poverty,

hunger, food and nutrition insecurity by 2015.61

A comparative analysis, IFPRI, Washington, p.27 56

http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf, BABATUNDE Omilola , 2010, monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation, (retrieved October 22, 2012) 57

Op. cit. : BENIN et al et al, p. 28 58

NEPAD Agency, CAADP in practice: highlighting the success, November 2010, p.16 59

Op. cit.: http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf, BABATUNDE Omilola , monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation, (retrieved October 22, 2012) 60

BENIN Samuel et al, 2010, ReSAKSS Working Paper No.6: Monitoring and Evaluating (M&E) System for the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), Washington DC, pp. 37-45 61Ibid. : p.1

http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf


33

2.5 CAADP Achievements and Gaps since Adoption

The report on the first CAADP review on the commitment to African agriculture mentioned

CAADP is undoubtedly recognized as being highly relevant to the goal of accelerating the

growth of the agricultural sector in Africa62. Another study on the achievements of CAADP since

its adoption also concluded that although relatively modest, CAADP has made positive impact in

five areas. CAADP has added value to the formulation of national agricultural policies by

contributing to more informed, purposeful and more incentive oriented policy strategies, has

promoted the generation of agricultural policies through an increasingly participatory and

inclusive policy process, harnessing the efforts of Africa’s agricultural experts at both individual

and institutional level, given the aid effectiveness agenda an added impetus in the agricultural

sector through better coordination of donor support and concrete evidence in agricultural growth

in Rwanda from under 1% in 2007- the compact year to over 10% in 200863.

An interview, conducted by the global donor platform secretariat, Mr. Martin Bwalya, head of

CAADP/NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA) stated that over 40 countries out of

the 54 AU Member States are currently engaged in CAADP implementation and at different

stages. Among these, 30 have already signed their national compact, a milestone in the

implementation process. 23 have further finalized their investment plans and already

implementing programmes along the identified priorities. Between 9-15 out of the 23 have had

very significant financing for some selected programmes in the investment plan64. Furthermore,

there is a moderate progress towards achieving the Maputo Declaration targets - Agriculture

spending is said to have nearly doubled between 2000 and 2005 at the continental level but in

2003, only 3.2% of countries allocated 10% or more of their budgets to agriculture, this

increased to 33.3% in 2006 before slightly falling to 25% in 2007, 9 countries increased their

allocations from less than 5% spending to 5‐10% spending. The 10% spending target has

however not been met on the continent but current spending ranges between 6%-8%65. (See

diagram 3 below)

62

NEPAD, CAADP review report : renewing the commitment to African agriculture, p.26 63

Op.cit. : NEPAD Agency, CAADP in practice: highlighting the success, p.27 64

Cf. : Appendix , interview with Mr. Martin Bwalya, head of CAADP/NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA) 65

http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf, BABATUNDE Omilola, monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation, (retrieved October 22, 2012)


34

DIAGRAM 3 : Agriculture Expenditure in Africa

With regards to the agriculture sector growth target, 20 countries have achieved the 6% target

or more compared to the 9 in 2002.

35

DIAGRAM 4 : Progress towards the 6 Percent Annual Growth

Source: Omilola

The overall CAADP goal of reducing poverty and hunger has also seen a moderate progress in

some countries 66 on track to halving only poverty by 2015. 6 countries including Angola,

Botswana, Egypt, Ghana, Mauritania, and Namibia are said to be on track towards achieving

both goals of MDG1 while only 4 countries – Algeria, Malawi, Sao Tome and Principe, and

Tanzania are on making some progress towards halving hunger by 201567. In spite of all the

success stories around CAADP it is obvious Africa is far from achieving food security.

66

Burkina Faso, Cameroun, Congo, D.R.C, Rep of Ethiopia, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Morocco, Senegal, Swaziland, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda. 67

Op.cit. :http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf, BABATUNDE Omilola, monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation, ( retrieved October 22, 2012)


36

2.6 Food Security: An Illusion in Africa

Rates of hunger and malnutrition have fallen in recent years in most parts of the world but those

of Africa have shown little improvement68. The prevalence of hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa is

the highest in the world, more than one in four Africans - close to 218 million people in 2006–

2008 are undernourished and food security is precarious69. The 2011 Global Hunger Index

(GHI), shows that global hunger has declined since 1990 but not dramatically and most of the

countries with the extremely alarming and alarming scores being from Sub-Saharan Africa70.

Although developing countries account for the worlds undernourished people, two-thirds live in

just 7 countries including Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia in Sub-Saharan Africa71.

Hunger in sub-Saharan Africa is as persistent as it is widespread and efforts to reduce hunger in

the region have been hampered by a range of natural and human-induced disasters, including

conflicts, the spread of HIV/AIDS and recent financial crises. Widespread hunger and

malnutrition in Africa determine and reflect deep poverty in the region. Currently 298 million

Africans (31 % of the continent’s population) live on less than $1 per day; in 1990, this figure

stood at 241 million, 19 % of the total72.Recent update from the Famine Early Warning Systems

Network (FEWS NET) indicate some 16 million people still remain food insecure in Sudan,

South Sudan, Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti and Rwanda73. The hungry and malnourished

tend to be located primarily in agricultural areas. Approximately 80% of hungry people live in

rural areas; half of them are smallholder farmers and 70% women74. Indeed, recent increases in

overall GDP growth rates in Africa track similar increases in agricultural GDP growth rates. The

fact that the number of people affected by poverty and hunger in Africa is increasing means that

agriculture is not meeting its potential as a driver for economic growth, and more and more

people are “falling out” of the growth process. It is clear that economic growth alone is not

sufficient to eliminate hunger75.

68

NEPAD, CAADP Pillar III: framework for African food security , 2009, Midrand p.3 69

Op. cit.: UNDP, Towards a food secure future p.9 70

IFPRI, Global Hunger Index, October 2011, Washington, p.5 71

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al390e/al390e00.pdf, FAO, Global hunger declining, but still unacceptably high, (retrieved October 28 2012) 72

Op. cit.: NEPAD, CAADP Pillar III: framework for African food security, p.9 73

http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm, East African food security improves: early warning report,( retrieved October 8, 2012) 74

FIAN international , international responses to the food crisis, 2009, Heidelberg , p.8 75

Op.cit.: NEPAD, CAADP pillar III, p.9

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al390e/al390e00.pdf


37

Recent figures indicate that the 2008 food crisis added 100 million more to the global hunger

estimate of which the majority are in Africa76. According to the Committee on World Food

Security (CFS), the dramatic rise of global food prices in early 2008 posed a major threat to

global food and nutrition security and caused a host of humanitarian, human rights, socio-

economic, environmental, developmental, political and security-related consequences.

Particularly, it presented challenges for low income food deficit countries, and severely affected

the world’s most vulnerable thereby threatened to reverse critical gains made toward reducing

poverty and hunger as outlined in the MDGs77. This called for global effort to mitigate the

underlying causes of food insecurity. Thus “ending hunger” has now been put at the top of the

international development agenda. A number of events and initiatives have increased the

political momentum for the global food security agenda which include: the establishment of the

High-Level Task Force on Global Food Security Crisis (HLTF) in 2008, which brings together

heads of the UN specialized agencies, programmes and funds and the Bretton-Woods

institutions. The HLTF is chaired by the UN Secretary General and aims to “promote a unified

response to the challenge of achieving global food security”, the L’Aquila Food Security Initiative

(AFSI) was also launched at the G8 Summit in L’Aquila, Italy in 2009 where 26 nations and 14

international organizations pledged US$22 billion over three years. This is an initiative that

seeks to support country-led plans through a strategic coordination of assistance for a

comprehensive approach towards a sustainable agricultural development in accordance t some

five key principles. During the 2009 World food Summit in Rome, participants again adopted a

Declaration which pledges renewed commitment to fight hunger and embraces the L’Aquila

principles. At the 2009 G20 Summit in Pittsburgh, the countries reaffirmed the call for a World

Bank-managed food security trust fund, leading to the creation of the Global Agriculture and

Food Security Programme (GAFSP), a multilateral mechanism to assist the implementation of

G20 pledge. Additionally, the World Bank Group also established the Global Food Crisis

Response Programme (GFRP) of US$1.2 billion fund in 2008 to provide immediate relief to

countries hard hit by high food prices78. Investing in African agriculture has been recognized as

being fundamental to the stability of the global food system, of the 83.2 million hectares of land

earmarked for agricultural investment worldwide, 56.2 million hectares are in Africa. At the 2012

G8 Summit, African governments and G8 leaders followed up on their commitments from

L'Aquila and launched the New Alliance for Food and Nutrition Security, a partnership with the

76

Ibid.: p.9 77

http://www.un-foodsecurity.org/background, FAO, the global food security crisis, (retrieved October 29, 2012) 78

http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/bankinitiatives.htm,World Bank, Food Crisis, (retrieved October 29, 2012)

http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/bankinitiatives.htm

38

private sector to reduce hunger and lift 50 million people out of poverty by investing more than

US$3 billion in Africa's agricultural economy79. The “L’Aquila” Joint Statement on Global Food

Security recognizes CAADP as an effective vehicle for ensuring that resources are targeted to a

country’s plans and priorities80

2.6.1 Addressing Food Insecurity in Africa: The Framework for African Food Security

(FAFS)

Addressing hunger and malnutrition in Africa is crucial to attaining the Millennium Development

and CAADP targets of reducing extreme poverty and hunger by 2015. The Framework for

African Food Security (FAFS) brings together identified key challenges to food security in Africa

and sets out four key elements to address these in ways that address policy change and

support the agricultural growth agenda in an integrated and multi-sectoral manner81. With a

special focus on vulnerable population, CAADP Pillar III draws together the central elements of

the CAADP vision to ensure that growing agricultural productivity, well integrated markets and

expanded purchasing power of vulnerable groups combine to eradicate hunger, malnutrition and

poverty. The FAFS aims to provide principles, recommended actions, coordination, peer review

and tools to guide national and regional policies strategies, investments, partner contributions

and advocacy to address the food security challenges in Africa82. In addition to the CAADP

principles, the Framework also promotes a number of principles peculiar to pillar III:

1) Protect the right to food for all citizens of Africa; 2) Focus on the chronically hungry and

malnourished, particularly women and children, in order to address short term crises and in the

long term integrate them into broad agricultural development; 3) Ensure that all parties and

players automatically seek to understand and address hunger and malnutrition; 4) Mainstream

considerations of human diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria and TB; 5) Ensure that

emergency responses promote growth and reduce chronic hunger (i.e. do no harm to the overall

CAADP Agenda); 6) Protect and promote the resilience of the livelihoods of the vulnerable; 7)

Ensure that gender dimensions of hunger and malnutrition are addressed; 8) Promote intra-

regional trade, particularly in food staples to raise food supply, food quality and moderate price

volatility; 9) Integrate regular review and broad-based dialogue to ensure successful

79

http://allafrica.com/stories/201210030068.html, ALEX. A, East Africa: Farming key to world stability (retrieved October 29, 2012) 80

G8, “L’Aquila Joint Statement on Global Food Security”, 2009, L’Aquila, p.5 81

NEPAD, CAADP Pillar III, p.2 82

Ibid.: p.4

http://allafrica.com/stories/201210030068.html

39

implementation of this Pillar; 10) Be in coherence with the MDGs, especially MDG1 to cut

extreme poverty and hunger; 11) Integrate lessons from success stories in cutting hunger and

malnutrition83.

83

Ibid.: p.4

40

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 CAADP THROUGH A GENDER LENS: THE CASE OF ETHIOPIA AND RWANDA

3.1 Key Conceptual Issues

3.1.1 Gender Mainstreaming Strategy

Gender Mainstreaming, the globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality is defined

by the United Nations Economic and Social Council as “the process of assessing the

implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or

programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making the concerns and

experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design, implementation,

monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal

spheres, so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated. The

ultimate goal of mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality"84. It is more of a means to an end

rather than an end in itself. Mainstreaming is not about adding a "woman's component" or even

a "gender equality component" into an existing activity, it means bringing the experience,

knowledge, and interests of women and men to bear on the development agenda85. To rectify

the consequences of past discrimination, mainstreaming can include gender-specific activities

and affirmative action, whenever women or men are in a particularly disadvantageous position.

Such interventions can target women exclusively, men and women together, or only men, to

enable them to participate in and benefit equally from development efforts. Mainstreaming can

reveal a need for changes in goals, strategies and actions to ensure that both women and men

can influence, participate in and benefit from development process which may lead to changes

in organizations including its structures, procedures and cultures thereby creating an

organizational environment which are conducive to the promotion of gender equality86. The

critical starting point is always a gender analysis which provides the basis for gender

mainstreaming.

84

UN, gender mainstreaming :an overview, 2002, New York, p.1 85

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm, ILO, Definition of Gender Mainstreaming, (retrieved November 9 , 2012) 86

Op.cit. : UN, gender mainstreaming, p. V

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm

41

3.1.2 Gender Analysis

Gender analysis is the systematic attempt to identify and examine key issues that contributes to

gender inequalities so that they can be properly addressed. It is defined as “the study of

differences in the conditions, needs, participation rates, access to resources and development,

control of assets, decision-making powers, etc., between women and men in their assigned

gender roles87”. Gender analysis provides information on the different gender roles at all levels,

the differences in access to and control over productive resources as well as the difference in

men and women’s priorities, needs and responsibilities. It helps to meet the needs and priorities

of the population in a more targeted manner by ensuring that all people affected by a situation

are acknowledged and their individual needs and vulnerabilities are taken into consideration88.

The gender analysis process is summarized in diagram 5 below.

87

EU Commission, one hundred words for equality: a glossary of terms on equality between women and men, 1998, Luxembourg, p.25 88

http://expert.care.at/downloads/careexpert/COe_GenderAnalysisGuidelines.pdf, CARE Österreich, Gender Analysis Guiding Notes, (retrieved November 9, 2012)

http://expert.care.at/downloads/careexpert/COe_GenderAnalysisGuidelines.pdf

42

DIAGRAM 5 : Gender Analysis Process

Source: Prof. Meena

3.2 Gender Analysis in the Programme/ Project Cycle Management (PCM)89

Project Cycle Management is a term used to describe the management activities and decision

making procedures used during the life-cycle of a project -including key tasks, roles and

responsibilities, key documents and decision options90

The PCM helps to ascertain the fact that projects are supportive of overarching policy objectives

of the donor agency and of development partners; relevant to an agreed strategy and to the real

problems of target groups/beneficiaries and that the programme objectives can be realistically

achieved within the constraints of the operating environment and capabilities of the

implementing agencies. It also ensures that benefits generated by projects are likely to be

89

Cf.: http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/publications/publications/manuals-tools/t101_en.htm for details on PCM 90

EU, Aid delivery methods: EU project cycle management guideline, Vol 1, March 2004, Brussels, p. 17

http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/publications/publications/manuals-tools/t101_en.htm

43

sustainable91. The Project Cycle Management comprises of five progressive phases as outlined

in diagram 6 below.

DIAGRAM 6 : Project Cycle Management

Source: EU Commission

The definition of gender mainstreaming highlights a number of requirements which includes

addressing the equality between men and women at every stage of the programme Cycle

Management, starting with the programming phase by addressing gender concerns in national

policy and National Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (NPRSP), and then at the identification

and formulation phase, through to the implementation, monitoring and evaluation. To achieve

this; at the identification phase, the project concept should be preceded by a context analysis

(see diagram above) aimed at revealing gender gaps as well as priorities that will address them

1) The gender analysis should ensure the articulation of gender equality objectives and should

lead to the identification of entry points for action that will help meet the gender equality

objectives 2) with clearly articulated targets 3). Strategies and resources to facilitate the

implementation of the intervention while ensuring activities will not contribute to existing gender

inequalities should be devised 4). Finally a gender sensitive Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E)

framework should be put in place with indicators to measure the extent to which gender equality

objectives are met and changes in gender relations have been achieved 5)92.

91

Ibid.: p.17 92

Supra.: Diagram 5, p.42

44

3.3 Analytical Framework

The assessment of the gender sensitivity of CAADP and its contribution towards the

development of gender sensitive national agricultural policies will be analysed through CAADP

implementation process at the national level as well as programmes developed to increase

productivity and food and nutritional security in the case study countries. It has been observed

as a general trend that national, regional or sub-regional priorities, or even the specific needs

and priorities of a community, are often defined without meaningful input from women93. The

chapter argues first of all that, in line with the aid effectiveness agenda, a sustainable people-

centered development driven by agriculture requires the participation of all stakeholders

including women in agriculture in the development of agricultural policy. Secondly, that no

agricultural productivity programme or project developed towards the achievement of food and

nutritional security in Africa cannot achieve this goal without first of all bridging the gender divide

in the agricultural sector. To this end, the assessment will focus on how CAADP fosters

participation of both men and women and encourage the use of data disaggregated by sex in

the formulation of the agricultural sector policies and the development of sector programmes.

The assessments will be based on the following indicators:

1. Gender sensitive evidence- based policy making , to be assessed by

Participation and consultation of stakeholders including farmer’s association with a

specific focus on women farmer’s associations during the national CAADP Processes in

Rwanda and Ethiopia.

The availability and use of sex disaggregated data and gender analytical information on

the situation of men and women farmers in these case study countries during policy

formulation.

2. Gender responsiveness of some programmes outlined in the Rwandan and

Ethiopian Policy and Investment Frameworks (PIF) to be assessed by

Attention to the double burdens of women in agriculture and how they are addressed to

enable them take advantage of and benefit equally from the programme.

Allocation of resources for the implementation of programmes aimed at bridging the

gender gap in the agricultural sector.

93

Op.cit.: UN, gender mainstreaming, p.5

45

Formulation of gender-sensitive strategies, activities and objectives with corresponding

gender-specific indicators for outputs, outcomes and M&E.

3.4 Definition of Terms94

Sex: Biological differences between men and women that are universal and usually determined

at birth. For example, only women can give birth; only men can determine the sex of their child.

Gender: Gender refers to the social differences and relations between men and women that are

learned, changeable over time, and have wide variations both within and between societies and

cultures. These differences and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through

the socialization process. They determine what is considered appropriate for members of each

sex. They are context-specific and can be modified

Gender equality: Gender equality, or equality between men and women, entails the concept

that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and

make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles and prejudices.

Gender equality means that the different behaviour, aspirations and needs of women and men

are considered, valued and favoured equally. It does not mean that women and men have to

become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on

whether they are born male or female.

Gender equity: Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and men, according to

their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but which

is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. Equity is a

means; equality is the goal.

94

Cf.: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/536/F932374742/web%20gender%20manual.pdf, ILO, A manual for gender audit facilitators, 2007, Geneva, pp. 127-138, (retrieved November 16, 2012)

http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/536/F932374742/web%20gender%20manual.pdf

46

Gender-aware/sensitive policies: policies that recognize that within a society, actors are

women and men, that they are constrained in different and often unequal ways, and that they

may consequently have differing and sometimes conflicting needs, interests and priorities.

Gender-blind: Gender-blind describes research, analysis, policies, advocacy materials, project

and programme design and implementation that do not explicitly recognize existing gender

differences that concern both productive and reproductive roles of men and women. Gender-

blind policies do not distinguish between the sexes. Assumptions incorporate biases in favour of

existing gender relations and so tend to exclude women.

Gender gap: The gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in terms of

their levels of participation, access to resources, rights, power and influence, remuneration and

benefits

Gender-neutral policies: Gender-neutral policies use the knowledge of gender differences in a

given context to overcome biases in delivery, to ensure that they target and benefit both

genders effectively in terms of their practical gender needs. Moreover, they work within the

existing gender division of resources and responsibilities

Women’s Empowerment: The process by which women become aware of sex-based unequal

power relationships and acquire a greater voice in which to speak out against the inequality

found in the home, workplace and community. It involves women taking control over their lives:

setting own agendas, gaining skills, solving problems and developing self-reliance.

3.5 Agricultural profile and Gender Relations in Case Study countries

3.5.1 Country profile and the role of Agriculture in Rwanda

Rwanda is a post-conflict country that has emerged from one of the most tragic events in

modern history. It is a landlocked country located in Central Africa, bordered to the East by

Tanzania, to the South by Burundi and to the West by the Democratic Republic of Congo to the

North by Uganda. Rwanda is considered to be among the smallest countries in Africa with a

total area estimated to be KM2 26,33895. Rwanda has a total population estimated at 8,128,553,

of which 3,879,448 are male, equivalent to 47.7% and 4,249,105 are female, equivalent to

95

http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/countryinfo/, UNDP, About Rwanda, (retrieved November 12, 2012)

http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/countryinfo/

47

52.3%96 majority of which resides in the rural areas. The country is densely populated with

about 320 inhabitants per one square kilometer97. Most of the population is young, with 43.8%

under 15 years of age. Adults older than 65 years are only 2.9% of the population98. Rwanda

has been recognized as one of the global and continental examples of fast economic growth

and successful post-war reconstruction, the country experienced a real GDP Growth of 8.2%

from 2010- 2011 and GDP per capita of US$540. Recent surveys have also shown that the

percentage of people living under poverty has dropped by almost 12% from 56.7% in 2006 to

44.9% in 2011 99 . Agriculture is one of two key growth engines for Rwanda, the sector

contributes about 36.0 % to the overall GDP, occupies about 79.5 % of the labor force and

generates more than 45.0 % of the country’s export revenues100 as well as 80% of the total

export revenues101

3.5.2 Gender Relations: Status of Women

The Rwandan society has been characterized by a patriarchal social structure, which has been

the basis of the unequal social relations, with more privileges granted to the male children

compared to the female ones102. Males are regarded as the heirs and the guarantors of the

perenniality of the family and the clan making females more vulnerable to discrimination despite

their reproductive, maternal and nurturing roles. That notwithstanding, the Rwandan culture

retains many positive pro-women values, particularly in management of household resources

and in decision-making at various levels. At the level of the economy, women participate in

economic activities at the rate of 56.4 % of which 57.3 % operate in rural areas and 51.3 % in

urban areas103. Particularly, out of the 56.4 % economically active women, 55.8 % are employed

and of this percentage, about 87.6 % of them are employed in the agricultural sector. With

regard to income, only 14.8 % of women have an income. About 15.7 % are remunerated at one

96

ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming Vol II, 2009, Addis Ababa, p.123 97

http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/rwanda.pdf AfDB, Gender Assessment: progress towards improving women’s economic status, (retrieved November 12 , 2012) 98

Op. cit.: ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming, p.123 99

Op. cit.: http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/countryinfo/, UNDP, About Rwanda, (retrieved November 12, 2012) 100

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRWANDA/Resources/Rwanda_Economic_Rwanda_Update_Spring_Edition_April_2011.pdf, World Bank, Rwanda economic updates, (retrieved November 13, 2012) 101

Government of Rwanda, Agriculture Sector Investment Plan 2009-2012, 2009, p.3 102

Op. cit.: ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming, p.124 103

Ibid. : p. 123

http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/rwanda.pdf


http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRWANDA/Resources/Rwanda_Economic_Rwanda_Update_Spring_Edition_April_2011.pdf


48

time in cash, and at other times in kind. About 12.4 % only get paid in kind and the majority of

57% are without any remuneration104.

Rwandan women have some benefit from social services but there still remains some gender

gap in the literacy rates, 76.9% women are literate compared to 80.4% men out of the total

number of 78.35% of literate adults105. According to the 2008 interim Demographic Health

Survey (DHS), 22 % of women and 18% of men have no education; 66 % of women and 68 %

of men have attained some primary schooling, and 12 % of women and 15 % of men attained

some secondary schooling or more106. Women in Rwanda have achieved greater economic

rights since 1990 including the right to inherit the property of their parents and to succeed their

late husbands107. With about 56 % share of women’s representation in parliament108 Rwandan

women participate actively in decision-making and also contribute to policy elaboration.

3.5.3 Country Profile and the Role of Agriculture in Ethiopia

The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, the second most populous country is located in

the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti and Somalia in the East, Sudan and South Sudan to

the West, Kenya to the South and Eritrea to the North. The country has nine regional States,

and two administrative cities- Addis Ababa City Administration and Dire Dawa Administration

Council. According to the 2007 population and housing census, Ethiopia has a total population

of 73,918, 505 with 37,296,657 male and 36,621,848 female109 of which about 86.3 % resides in

the rural areas110. Ethiopia is classified according to the World Development Indicators of 2006,

as one of the least developed countries in the world, with a per capita Gross National Income

(GNI) of 110.00 USD111.

The Ethiopian economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for 45 % of the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP) and employs close to 80 % of the labour force and generates about 80 % of

104

Ibid.: p.123 105

Op. cit. : http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/countryinfo/, UNDP, About Rwanda, (retrieved November 12, 2012) 106

Quoted in ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming, p.123 107

Ibid. : p.123 108

Op. cit.: http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/rwanda.pdf AfDB, Gender Assessment 109

Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Gender audit report, 2010, Addis Ababa, p.1 110

Op. cit. : ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming, p.55 111

Ibid.: p.55



49

export earnings112. A number of other economic activities, including marketing, processing, and

export of agricultural products also depend on the agricultural sector. Production as well as

majority of the commodity exports is provided by small-scale farmers.

3.5.4 Gender Relation: The Status of Women

Comparatively, women in Ethiopian are clearly in a disadvantageous position than men in all

religion, ethnic groups and in all respects. They benefit less from social services and hold

inferior positions in all economic, political, social, and cultural affairs113. Statistics show the

existence of more illiterate women than men with men making up 51% of illiterate adults

compared to 66% women. Data from the Federal Civil Service Agency (FCSA) on federal

government employees shows that women occupy only 18.3% of all professional and scientific

positions and 25% of administrative positions; women hold 71% of clerical and fiscal jobs and

51% of the custodial and manual jobs114. Their exercise of leadership and decision making is

only within women focused institutions that have little impact on wider community matters115.

With regards to their participation in politics, out of the 530 functional seats in parliament, only

117 or 22.1% are held by women116. Women prepare food, fetch water and collect fuel-wood,

care for the sick and the aged, in addition to assisting on the farm but men do not participate in

household tasks due of social norms and cultural taboos117.

3.5.5 Gender and Agriculture

Rural women play multiple roles in world agricultural systems; they are farmers, workers and

entrepreneurs but almost everywhere they face more severe constraints than men in accessing

productive resources, markets and services. This “gender gap “hinders their productivity and

reduces their contributions to the agriculture sector and to the achievement of broader economic

and social development goals118.

112

Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency, Compilation of statistics in Ethiopia, 2007, Addis Ababa, p.4 113

Op. cit. : ECA, Compendium for emerging good practices on gender mainstreaming p.55 114

Ibid. : p.55 115

Op. cit. : Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, p.1 116

Op. cit.: ECA, Compendium for emerging good practices on gender mainstreaming, p.56 117

Op.cit. : Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Gender audit report, p.1 118

Op.cit. : FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture, p.1

50

Ethiopian women are involved in the entire range of agricultural activities, doing practically

everything that the men do119 with the exception of land clearing and preparation. They are

involved in planting, weeding, harvesting, threshing, processing, storing, and marketing of farm

produce. Most tasks related to animal husbandry, dairy and poultry production are performed by

women. Majority of female agricultural workers are unpaid family members who are deployed

during peak agricultural seasons. It is estimated that the average Ethiopian woman has a

working day of 12-14 hours on farming and 3-4 hours a week on marketing activities. In the

peak agricultural season, women spend up to 10 hours a day in the field120. The heaviest

workload on women during the pre-harvest and harvest generally coincides with the period of

lowest household food availability aggravating the physical strain on them, especially if pregnant

or lactating121. Conventionally, only men have access to land; the Ethiopian Federal Constitution

(1995) and the Federal Land Administration Law (1997) provisions for women's access to land

that challenged the traditional practice have not yet been fully translated into action122. The 2009

African Women’s Report showed Ethiopian Women's access to land and credits, as well as

freedom to dispose own income are still extremely low. They are unable to access credit due to

lack of land titles and other collaterals. Agricultural extensions services work mostly with male

farmers and ignore women in the process of introducing agricultural technologies. Women are

underrepresented in agricultural cooperatives and have practically no voice in the decision–

making processes and management of the cooperatives due to their heavy reproductive

roles123. It is estimated that about 52.6 % of female households in Ethiopia learned about

improved varieties from the market and 47% of male households through the extension

service124.

The economy of Rwanda is mainly based on agriculture and women play the main roles in this

sector, up to 93 % versus 81 % of the men125. Despite the fact that women are highly engaged

in the agricultural sector, they are underrepresented as members and managers of agricultural

119

Cf. : Appendix 5, summary of focus group discussion with women farmers association in the jawwee multipurpose cooperative 120

Op.cit. : Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, gender audit report, p.2 121

Ibid.: p.2 122

Ibid.: p.2 123Cf.: Appendix 6, summary interview with the President of the Bonayyaa multipurpose cooperative

124http://www.unwomen.org.au/LiteratureRetrieve.aspx?ID=81467, UN Women, Securing the rights and

livelihoods of rural women in Africa in the context of food crises and climate change. (Retrieved November 20, 2012) 125

Op.cit. : ECA, compendium of emerging good practices on gender mainstreaming, p. 124

http://www.unwomen.org.au/LiteratureRetrieve.aspx?ID=81467

51

cooperatives and the design and delivery of agricultural extension services by government and

cooperatives fails to take into account the priorities and needs of women farmers126. They have

limited access to extension services due to financial constraints as well as time and mobility

challenges. Rwandan women have limited access to productive resources including financial

services; they constitute only 16 % of borrowers127. Lack of collateral and lack of control over

intra-household resources have been identifies as factors hindering Rwandan women from fully

benefiting from available micro-credit loans128

3.6 Data Analysis and Key Findings

3.6.1 Agricultural policy and Programme Documents Reviewed

The gender integration analysis helped to assess if the concerns of women as well as men are

integrated into key agricultural sector documents in the case study countries as well as the

guiding CAADP Framework for African Food Security (FAFS). The strategic Policy and

programme documents reviewed to ascertain the extent to which gender equality concerns were

integrated included the following:

Ethiopia and Rwanda’s CAADP Compacts

Ethiopia and Rwanda’s Policy and Investment Framework (PIF)

Rwanda’s Intensification of sustainable production system:

Ethiopia’s Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP): Agricultural Production and

Commercialisation

The Framework For Africa’s Food Security (CAADP Pillar 3)

3.6.1.1 CAADP Compact

CAADP implementation at the country level starts with an official endorsement of the CAADP

process by government; this endorsement leads to a stocktaking and diagnostic exercise in the

sector whose results feed into the CAADP country compact. The Compact outlines the country's

agenda for agricultural growth, poverty reduction and food and nutrition security, defines roles

and responsibilities for the various parties signing it and sets out, in broad terms,

126

Op.cit.: http://www.unwomen.org.au/LiteratureRetrieve.aspx?ID=81467, UN Women, Securing the rights and livelihoods of rural women in Africa in the context of food crises and climate change 127

Op.cit. : http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/rwanda.pdf AfDB, Gender Assessment 128

Ibid. :



52

implementation mechanisms, including coordination and oversight and resource mobilisation129.

Although the processes into the compact vary from country to country, there are some

similarities in the objectives for the CAADP compact for both Rwanda and Ethiopia. The

objectives include but not limited to the compact “setting the context for joint sector policy,

budgetary and investment dialogue and commitment to align and scale up long term

development assistance to the sector”. The compact is described as a strategic agreement on

joint and collaborative action on agriculture 130 and for that matter should reflect the

inclusiveness and the consensus of all stakeholders including both men and women farmers in

the agricultural sector on the goals outlined for the sector. The Ethiopian compact131 described

the CAADP implementation process, stating that the preparation of the stocktaking report

involved consultation with all nine regional governments, the private sector, civil society and

development partners under the leadership of the CAADP Focal Point Office in the Ministry of

Agriculture and Rural Development. The exercise led to the development of the compact after a

multi-stakeholder mid-term review of the formulation process. Rwanda was the first country to

sign the CAADP compact132 in 2007 before the development of the implementation guide. Thus,

the Rwandan compact does not mention the CAADP process and consequently failed to justify

stakeholders’ involvement in the process. That notwithstanding, a study on the impact of

CAADP on national agricultural policies in Rwanda, Ghana and Ethiopia concluded that among

other successes, agricultural policies in these countries are being generated through an

increasingly participatory and inclusive policy process133. In view of this, one may say that, in

line with the NEPAD/CAADP’s foundation principles which emphasize the “inclusive

participation” of all relevant sector players from within and outside the country right down to the

grassroots level. Ethiopia and Rwanda agricultural sector policy process had been inclusive to

some extent, given the consultations with a range of stakeholders. However, the policy process

cannot be said to be gender sensitive because Ideally, planning has to engage men and women

since both experience poverty and development differently hence their development needs are

different. But beyond engaging men and women there is also a need to make planners both

men and women on issues of impact on discriminatory practices. Nonetheless, the process

described did not explicitly reflect the gender balance of neither the group of planners

constituted nor the stakeholders consulted including the participation of women’s farmers

129

Op.cit. : NEPAD Agency CAADP in practice: highlighting the success, p.12 130

AU/NEPAD, post compact review: guidelines, 2010, p.3 131

Cf.: http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Ethiopia%20CAADP%20Compact.pdf, Ethiopia CAADP Compact 132

Cf.: http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Rwanda.pdf, Rwanda CADDP Compact 133

Op.cit. : NEPAD Agency, CAADP in practice: highlighting the success, p.29

http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Ethiopia%20CAADP%20Compact.pdf

http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Rwanda.pdf

53

association in the processes leading to the development of the compact. The Compacts made

some references to consultation with the Civil Society for example but Civil Society does not

necessarily mean that women’s farmers had any voice in the policy process even though the

entire agricultural agenda of the country in terms of the goals and priorities adopted concern

and affects them in diverse ways.

3.6.1.2 Policy and Investment Framework (PIF)

The next milestone following the signing of the CAADP country compact is the formulation of a

detailed national Investment plan – Policy and Investment Framework (PIF) - to operationalise

the compact. The Plan provides a framework for prioritisation and planning of the investment in

the sector. It is expected, among other things, to confirm priorities and their cost and to calculate

the financing gap, define how the Plan is to be implemented as well as the roles and

responsibilities of the public and private sector in the implementation134. The Ethiopian PIF is a

ten year road map for agriculture and rural development that identifies priority areas for

investment and estimates the funds to be provided by the Ethiopian government and its

development partners135. The goal of the PIF is to “contribute to Ethiopia’s achievement of a

middle income status by 2020” with the objective of sustainably increasing rural incomes and

national food security136. It is structured around four strategic objectives under four thematic

areas and focuses on a number of carefully outlined priority investment areas. The framework

identifies gender inequality and inequity as one of the crosscutting issues to be addressed as a

requirement for enhancing the value addition in the agricultural sector. Additionally, it mentioned

balanced participation of men and women in income generating activities as one of the

expected benefits to be derived from the present Policy and Investment Framework. However, a

critical analysis of the result framework137 of the PIF which summarizes the country policy

alignment, strategic objectives and their corresponding outcomes and indicators show gender is

not systematically incorporated into the framework. This conclusion is based on the fact that

none of the objectives have neither gender disaggregated outcomes nor indicators.

134

Op.cit NEPAD Agency, CAADP in practice: highlighting the success p.12 135 Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment Framework

2010-2020, September 2010, p.1

136 Ibid. : p.i (Executive Summary)

137 Cf.: Appendix 9, Ethiopian PIF logical framework

54

For Rwanda, the purpose of the PIF is to contribute to the sustainable food and nutritional

security, increase the incomes of national households and to secure national economic growth.

The investment plan aims to transform agriculture into a modern, professionally managed and

market oriented economic undertaking which is to be achieved through targeted investments

that creates a conducive environment for increase production138. It outlines the investment

requirements of the Ministry of agriculture’s medium term strategic plan providing provide the

Government of Rwanda and its development partners with a framework for planning and

financing interventions in the sector. The plan is structured around Rwanda’s Strategic Plan for

the Transformation of Agriculture II (PSTA II) which develops the country’s agriculture agenda

under four interrelated programs with 20 subprograms and 122 activities. Even though the

Investment plan mentions the fact that interventions will be designed in accordance with the

principles of the promotion of gender equality, this is not clearly reflected in the output indicators

provided in the PIF document. However, the logical framework139 for the PSTA II integrates

gender concerns with considerable gender sensitive indicators for certain sub programmes.

The PIF outlines programmes and projects aligned and anchored to the CAADP pillars which

constitute the priority intervention areas on which investment in the sector is to be focused. The

following section brings out the findings from the gender integration analysis of the Agricultural

Growth Programme and the Intensification and Development of Sustainable Production

Systems programme described in the Policy and Investment Framework of our respective case

study countries.

3.6.1.3 The Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) in Ethiopia

Devoting over more than a decade of policy attention to the agricultural sector, the poverty and

food insecurity continued to hamper the overall development process of Ethiopia. The urgent

need to address the problem led to the development of a comprehensive, value chain oriented

and a demand-driven Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP). The AGP seeks to increase

agricultural productivity and market access for key crop and livestock products in targeted

woredas (administrative units) with focused attention on women and youth.140. The programme

consists of two technical components covering 1) Agricultural production and commercialization

138

Op.cit. : Government of Rwanda, Agriculture Sector Investment Plan 2009-2012, p.3 139

Cf.: Appendix 10, PSTA II Logical framework 140

Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development , AGP Programme Implementation manual, March 2010, Addis Ababa, p.16

55

and 2) Small-scale rural infrastructure development and management. To these two is added a

management and Monitoring and Evaluation component.

For the purpose of analysis, the researcher looked at only the sub-component one141 of the

Agricultural Production and Commercialisation component of the AGP with a special focus on

interventions aimed at establishing and strengthening key public advisory services and farmer’s

organizations. It was discovered that gender is not systematically mainstreamed in this

programme. In the sense that, although, certain output indicators are gender related, gender

equality could not be said to have been a goal of the interventions undertaken. The output

indicators are first of all not specifically targeted to gender but forms part of others including

youth and other common interest groups. In addition to that, the indicators do not have

corresponding outcome which will eventually make it practically impossible to measure the real

impact of the projects on women and for that matter difficult to determine whether the project is

helping to achieve gender equality or not. Empirical evidences have shown that Ethiopian

women’s involvement in agricultural cooperatives is negligible 142 despite the fact that they

constitute the majority of the labour force in the sector. Unfortunately, the sub-component

studied gave no indication of attention to gender equity in the project. The 2011/2012 “AGP

annual implementation report” revealed an overwhelmingly low participation of women in all the

capacity building activities that were undertaken under the sub-component one of the

programme which aimed at strengthening key advisory institution and farmer’s organization.

Attention to gender roles and the specific needs of women would have necessitated the

reduction in the double burden of women to enhance their involvement and participation in the

capacity building activities as one of the programme’s targets. Clearly, gender equality was not

considered an issue in the background information provided and therefore confirms the fact that

gender analysis did not form part of the contextual analysis that led to the conceptualization of

the AGP. The inclusion of women as beneficiaries of a project cannot necessarily translate into

achieving gender equality in the society if the very issues underpinning gender equality are not

clearly identified and addressed appropriately.

The outcome indicators formulated for the M&E of the sub-component analysed included: i)

Percentage increase in the number of farmers getting advisory services in the AGP participating

communities ii) Percentage of farmers satisfied with the quality of service disaggregated by

type of service, gender, youth, crop, livestock and technology addressing women’s specific

141

Cf. : Appendix 11, AGP sub component one details 142

Cf. : Appendix 12, sample agricultural cooperative database, Ethiopia

56

constraints. This is not exhaustive enough to evaluate the gender related impact of the

programme without a fundamental gender analysis which could have possibly revealed the

need to ensure a gender balance of the service providers themselves. In the same light,

although disaggregated by gender, having just “number of famer’s organization formed’ as an

M&E indicator is not enough to provide the requisite socio-economic, legal and cultural

hindrances to women’s involvement and participation in these organizations.

3.6.1.4 Intensification and Development of Sustainable Production System in Rwanda

Rwanda’s Strategic Plan for Agricultural Transformation II and the PIF for that matter, focus

attention on four strategic programmes which includes 1) intensification and Development of

Sustainable Production Systems 2) Support to the professionalization of producers 3) Promotion

of Commodity Chains and Agribusiness Development 4) Institutional Development. The depth

of poverty in Rwanda necessitated giving urgent priority to the Intensification and Development

of Sustainable Production System component of the programme which has been earmarked to

receive half of the agricultural sector’s public resources. The programme is aimed at relieving

the physical constraints to the sector’s development, in the area of erosion control, water

capture and management structures, input use and food and nutrition security. These

challenges are also addressed under six sub-programmes but for the purpose of analysis, the

study focused only on the sub component five of the programme “ supply and use of agricultural

inputs” whose objective is to increase the adoption and usage rates of certified seeds as well as

fertilizer and other modern inputs for increased production.

Although identified as one of the prime policy levers to increase agricultural productivity,

evidence have shown that technology transfer capacity development do not usually target

women143. The sub programme analysed did not reflect any gender equality objective. The

continuous use of the collective term “farmers” blurred the articulation of the differences in the

needs and capacities of men and women farmers in terms of their access and use of these farm

inputs. This confirms the fact that no gender analysis was carried out to ascertain the gender

gaps in general and the situation of Rwandan women in particular with respect to the access

and use of farm inputs. The programme neither shows any evidence of availability of gender

sensitive output and outcome indicators. All the quantitative outputs provided are not

disaggregated by gender. This situation will obviously make the tracking and measurement of

the impact of the programme on women in terms of the enhancement of their access and use of

143

Op.cit.; World Bank, FAO, IFAD, Gender in Agriculture, World Bank, p.16

57

agricultural input difficult if not impossible. This is clearly confirmed in the 2010/2011 annual

implementation report of the Rwandan Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources

(MINAGRI). The report on “supply and use of agricultural inputs and mechanization” mentioned

a number of interventions including the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) whose objective is

to provide technical and practical knowledge about biotic constraints and to help farmers to

acquire and use the IPM methods to control pest and diseases themselves. Under this

intervention, 627 trainers and 25,381 farmers were trained respectively on the IMP techniques

but the number of female trainers and farmers trained were not mentioned. In the same light,

The Crop Intensification Programme (CIP), another initiative implemented under the sub-

program with the aim of boosting food security and the production of key staple crops, by

increasing productivity through facilitating the use of inputs as well as land consolidation, in

order to increase the amount of the farmer’s marketed production and provide an opportunity for

poverty reduction and food security. The report mentioned among other achievement under this

activity, the distribution of some 166,797 fertilizer subsidy vouchers but how many of these went

to women farmers could not be determined.

3.6.1.5 Framework for African Food Security (FAFS)

The FAFS is one of the framework documents developed for the four CAADP thematic Pillars144

and aims at providing principles, recommended actions, coordination, peer review and tools to

guide national and regional policies strategies, investments, partner contributions and advocacy

to address the food security challenges in Africa. It seeks to guide and assist stakeholders to

meet the objective of both CAADP pillar 3 as well as the broader African development agenda.

To achieve this, the framework brings together key challenges to food security in Africa and

outlines four strategic responses to address these challenges in a manner that calls for policy

change and support the agricultural growth agenda using an integrated and a multi-sectoral

approach.

Unfortunately, this thematic policy guide is completely gender neutral. The FAFS identified four

key challenges related to 1) Risk management 2) Inadequate food supply 3) Lack of income for

the vulnerable and 4) Hunger and malnutrition and poor diet quality but none of them reflected

any gender concerns even though they could all be given a gender interpretation. Agricultural

production clearly determines food availability, thus, the challenge related to inadequate food

supply for example cannot be addressed without addressing the factors underpinning low

144

Supra. : Chapter 1, pp. 26-28

58

agricultural productivity which includes unequal access to yield enhancing agricultural inputs by

men and women farmers. Nonetheless, none of the immediate, medium nor long term strategic

responses145 provided by the framework considers bridging the gender divide in access to farm

inputs as a solution to the inadequacy in food supply. Furthermore, concrete evidence have

indicated that maximizing the impact of agricultural development on food security entails

enhancing women’s roles as agricultural producer and potential change agents rather than just

the “victims”146 But the guiding principles147 underpinning the Framework for African Food

Security portrayed women only as the chronically hungry and the vulnerable thus undermining

the fact that improving the conditions and position of women in agriculture is tantamount to

unleashing agricultural production increase potential to which CAADP aspire. A gender neutral

policy framework of this kind, will but in all respect lead to the development of gender neutral

national policies aimed at achieving agricultural productivity and food security for that matter.

3.6.1.6 Concluding Remark

In a nutshell, one can conclusively say that, even though the case study countries strategic

documents aligned and anchored to CAADP principles mention some gender issues, gender

equality has not been treated with the requisite seriousness but has been considered “business

as usual” and has consequently not been systematically mainstreamed in these document in a

manner that will lead to concrete gender equality results in the agricultural sector.

145

Cf. : Appendix 13, detailed strategic response outlined 146

Op.cit.: World Bank, FAO, IFAD, Gender in Agriculture World Bank, p.17 147

Supra. : Chapter 2, pp. 36-37

59

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Discussion of the Results and Findings of the Gender Integration Analysis

4.1 International and Regional frameworks on Women’s Human rights and gender equality

This section examines the research findings in the light of the commitments made by African

leaders to protect and promote human rights in general and women’s human rights in particular.

Its compares and contrast the research findings with the scope of these commitments in order

to reveal the gaps as well as the entry point for the AU’s action. It also highlights the

implications of the findings on food security in Africa and beyond.

The study aimed at ascertaining the extent to which the CAADP framework integrated gender

equality concerns in a way as to ensure that national agricultural policy making process and

policy outcomes integrate gender equality concerns. The findings from one of CAADP’s

thematic Pillars “The FAFS” used for the purpose of our analysis, presented zero evidence of

gender mainstreaming in this regional Policy guide, contrary to the requirement by all UN

Member States and by extension the AU and its Member States. The AU and its Member States

have committed themselves to the protection and promotion of fundamental human Rights for

all but also to women’s human rights in order to ensure gender equality in their respective

societies. These commitments were made through the signing and the ratification of a number

of international and regional instruments on Human Rights, gender equality and women’s

empowerment which has diverse implications for women in agriculture.

At the international level, commitments to Human Rights and women’s human rights resulted

first of all from the ratification of Conventions and Declarations embodied in the International Bill

of Rights which constitute the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International

Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the International Covenant

on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and its two Optional Protocols 148 .The pervasive

discrimination against women despite the existence of these human rights treaties led to the

adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

148 Cf. : http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/InternationalLaw.aspx, International Human Rights

Law, (retrieved November 28, 2012)

http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/InternationalLaw.aspx

60

(CEDAW) by the UN General Assembly in 1979149. By ratifying this convention, state parties

acknowledged the fact that rural women play a key role in ensuring food security to their families

and communities but are discriminated as far as access to productive assets was concerned. In

view of this, the Article 14 requires member States to: “ take into consideration the particular

problems faced by rural women and the significant role they play in the survival of their families

and to eliminate discrimination them in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and

women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular, shall

ensure to such women the right: (a) to participate in the elaboration and implementation of

development planning at all levels; (b) to have access to adequate health care facilities; (c) to

benefit directly from social security programmes; (d) to obtain all types of training and education,

formal and non-formal including that relating to functional literacy as well as inter alia, benefit of

all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical proficiency; (e) to

organize self-help groups and cooperatives in order to obtain equal access to opportunities

through employment and or self employment; (f) to participate in all community activities; (g) to

have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and

equal treatment in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes. (h) to

enjoy adequate living conditions.” State parties to CEDAW are expected to report every four

years to the treaty monitoring body150 on the measures that they have taken to effect the

provisions of the convention

Considered as the operational plan to fulfill CEDAW, the Beijing Platform for Action151 (BPFA),

the outcome of the UN Fourth World Conference on Women was adopted in 1995 as an agenda

for women’s empowerment. The platform recognizes that equality of women and men is

necessary for social justice as well as for the achievement of peace and development.

Paragraph 229 requires governments and other actors to promote an active and visible policy of

mainstreaming a gender perspective in all policies and programmes to ensure that, before

decisions are taken, an analysis is made of the effects on women and men in addressing the

enjoyment of human rights. The platform identified twelve critical areas 152 that need to be

149

UN, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, December 1979, New York

150 Cf.: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination

against Women, (retrieved November 30, 2012) 151

Cf. : http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf, BPFA, (retrieved November 25, 2012) 152

Ibid.: p.16

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf

61

addressed to achieve measurable gains. Two of these, namely: the promotion of gender

equality in the management of natural resources and the inequality between men and women

in decision making at all levels directly impact on agriculture. Although not binding, the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) also enjoins governments in line with the MDG Goal 3,

to promote gender equality by eliminating gender disparities by 2015.

At the regional level, the AU Constitutive Act153 in its Article 4(L) states that the African Union

shall function in accordance with the promotion of gender equality”. To this end the AU has

taken a number of land-mark decisions to further deepen the commitment to the promotion of

women’s rights including: the adoption of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and

People’s Right on the Rights of Women154 in Africa in 2003 as a comprehensive human rights

instrument to address the specific needs and condition of women in Africa. To address issues of

development, Article 19 require State parties to: a) Introduce the gender perspective in the

national development planning procedures b) Ensure participation of women at all levels in the

conceptualization, decision-making, implementation and evaluation of development policies and

programmes c) Promote women’s access to and control over productive resources such as land

and guarantee their right to property d) promote women’s access to credit, training, skills

development and extension services at rural and urban levels in order to provide women with a

higher quality of life and reduce the level of poverty among women e) Take into account

indicators of human development relating to women in the elaboration of development polices

and programme.

Additionally, in July 2004, the AU Heads of States and Governments adopted the Solemn

Declaration155 on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA), an African owned instrument for the

promotion of gender equality that reaffirms African leader’s commitment to the AU Constitutive

Act as well as other existing international and continental instruments on human and women’s

rights. All these milestones culminated in the development of the AU gender Policy in 2009,

which seeks to establish a clear vision and guidance for gender mainstreaming process and to

influence policies on gender justices, non discrimination and fundamental human rights in

153

Cf. : http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/aboutau/constitutive_act_en.htm, AU Constitutive Act, (retrieved December 1, 2012) 154 Cf.: http://www.africaunion.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20the%20Rights%20of%20Wome

n.pdf, AU, Protocol to the African charter on human and peoples' rights on the rights of women in Africa, (retrieved December 1, 2012) 155

Cf. : Appendix 14, Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa

http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/aboutau/constitutive_act_en.htm

http://www.africaunion.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20the%20Rights%20of%20Women.pdf


62

Africa. Notwithstanding, the findings from the programme documents from Rwanda and

Ethiopia clearly show there is still a long way to go in terms of achieving gender equity in the

agricultural sector, regardless of Rwanda’s high level commitment to gender equality which is

evident in the percentage of women’s representation in political decision making arenas. From

a social justice perspective, the researcher argued that ensuring fairness and justice requires

putting measures in place to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that have

prevented women and men from sharing a level playing. However, despite all these

commitments, gender mainstreaming in the CAADP, the AU/NEPAD framework documents and

its related national agricultural policy and programme documents leaves very much to be

desired.

4.2 Can Africa ever feed itself?

Beyond the social justice argument, the researcher further argues that gender equity and

equality in the agricultural sector in African is a pre-requisite for Africa’s food sovereignty as well

as achieving global food security. The 2012 African Human Development Report emphasized

the fact that food insecurity still persists in Africa despite the substantial natural resources156. A

recent study has shown that Africa has around 600 million hectares of uncultivated arable land,

about 60 % of the global total157. The report further stated that progress in the economies hasn’t

had commensurate impact on malnutrition. Although Sub-Saharan Africa registered about 15%

growth in the Human Development Index (HDI) in 2000-2010, it recorded only 2% and 6%

decrease in child malnutrition compared to the more than 20% in Asia158. At the height of the

2011 food crisis at the Horn of Africa region, the UK Department for International Development

classified a large segment of Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia as Phase 4 and 5 on the Integrated

Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) scale159 meaning that 30 % of children were “acutely

malnourished” and 20 % of the population was entirely without food160. Surveys and analysis

conducted by FEWS NET in 2010 also showed that food security conditions were deteriorating

156

Op.cit. : UNDP, Towards a food secure future p. 29 157

http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/11/06/how-africa-could-feed-the-world/, Olusegun Obasanjo how can Africa feed the world, (retrieved November 6, 2012) 158

Op.cit. : UNDP, p.29 159

The IPC framework consolidates data about food security, nutrition and livelihood information to develop a situation analysis from which policy-makers and practitioners can implement a strategic response appropriate to the degree of food insecurity. The IPC categorizes the food security spectrum into five phases, ranging from Phase I (“generally food secure”) to Phase 5 (“famine/humanitarian catastrophe”) 160

http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Report_4412.pdf, NATO Civil-Military Fusion Center, food security in the Horn of Africa, (retrieved November 17, 2012)

http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/11/06/how-africa-could-feed-the-world/

http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Report_4412.pdf

63

to an extent that Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia appeared among the top five recipients of

emergency food aid in the world by 2011161.

The alarming increase in the global number of hungry and malnourished has led the FAO to

conclude that we were still far from achieving MDG 1 of halving the number of hungry people

worldwide by 2015162 and global agricultural activity is also not likely to produce enough food to

feed all the world’s inhabitants in some few years to come. According to the FAO estimations,

the world’s population will increase by 34% by 2050 reaching 9.1 billion and all of this population

increase will occur in developing countries. About 70% of the world’s population is also

estimated to be urban with increase in income levels. Feeding this large, more urban and richer

population will require a 70 % increase in food production – raising annual meat production by

over 200 million tonnes to reach 470 million tonnes and cereal production to about 3 billion

tonnes163. Africa has been recognized as having the potential to help feed itself and the rest of

the world. At the recent feeding the world summit in Geneva, Pascal Lamy, director general of

the World Trade Organisation (WTO) stated that Africa ……”hold the key to tomorrow’s global

food security164” thanks to its endowment in both natural and human resources. Paradoxically,

Africa doesn’t seem to be breaking away from its historical synonym to dehumanizing hunger

and malnutrition, thus the researcher concludes that achieving food security in Africa will

depend on increasing food production but increased food production will depend sine qua non

on the empowerment and the improvement in the conditions of women in agriculture in Africa.

4.3 Conclusion

The dissertation has investigated the pervasive food insecurity in Africa, specifically in East and

Horn of Africa and how gender inequality is contributing to Africa’s inability to curb this menace.

The prevalence of hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa has been identified as one of the highest in the

world with Democratic Republic of Congo and Ethiopia featuring among the seven countries that

make up the two-thirds of the worlds undernourished people. Evidence has shown that the

161

Ibid. :

162 http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/2, SASSON Albert, Food Security for Africa: an urgent

global challenge, in online journal Agriculture and Food Security, April 2012, 1:2, (retrieved November 26, 2012)

163 http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf,

How to feed the world in 2050, (retrieved November 17, 2012) 164

http://www.bioversityinternational.org/announcements/director_general_speaking_at_feeding_the_world_africa.html, Director General speaking at feeding the world Africa, (retrieved November 1, 2012)

http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/2

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf

http://www.bioversityinternational.org/announcements/director_general_speaking_at_feeding_the_world_africa.html


64

current economic growth in certain countries in Sub-Saharan Africa hasn’t had commensurate

impact on hunger and malnutrition; recent updates indicate some 16 million people in Sudan,

Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Djibouti and Rwanda. About 80% of the hungry people, half of whom

are smallholder farmers with women making approximately 70% live in rural areas. The 2011

food crisis at the Horn of Africa left about 20% of the Ethiopian, Somalian and Kenyan

population without food and 30% of the children acutely malnourished.

The CAADP, Africa’s consensual framework for agricultural growth, poverty reduction and food

and nutritional security in Africa has received international recognition as an African-led initiative

that is very relevant to the goal of accelerating the growth of agricultural sector to drive Africa’s

development. In terms of achievements, CAADP is said to have made positive impact on

agriculture in some five areas: it has added value to the national agricultural policy formulation

by contributing to more informed, purposeful and more incentive oriented policy strategies;

promoted the generation of agricultural policies through an increasingly participatory and

inclusive process; harnessed the efforts of Africa’s agricultural experts at both individual and

institutional level; given the aid effectiveness agenda an added impetus in the agricultural sector

through better coordination of donor support. Finally, as the first CAADP compact country,

Rwanda has seen concrete evidence in agricultural growth, moving from under 1% in 2007- the

compact year to over 10% in 2008. However, the overall CAADP goal of reducing poverty and

hunger hasn’t seen much progress.

This wide spread hunger and malnutrition and the increasing number of people affected reflect

the depth of poverty in the region and therefore leaves us to wander if agriculture is meeting its

potential as a driver of economic growth at all. Despite its potential, Africa’s agriculture, the

backbone of rural livelihood has not help to ameliorate the lives of the rural dwellers. Concrete

evidence from the World Bank showed about 47% of the African population live below the

international poverty line of which 70% are rural dwellers. The underperformance of Africa’s

agriculture has been attributed to a number of factors including: land degradation and increasing

soil nutrient depletion, unsuitable irrigation conditions, limited application of productivity

enhancing inputs and technologies as well as undercapitalization and unfavorable

macroeconomic policies. Particularly, the 2010 FAO State of Food and Agriculture argue that

gender inequality accounts for the Africa’s agriculture underperformance.

The study has shown that, women in spite of their multiple roles in the agricultural sector as

farmers, workers, entrepreneurs, processors and traders etc face severe constraints than men

65

in accessing productive resources including land, agricultural inputs, extension services and

credit. In Ethiopia for example, the Federal Constitution and the Federal Land Administration

Law provision for women’s access to land is yet to be implemented making men the sole “de

facto” land owners and land inheritors. Rwanda and Ethiopian women in agriculture are also

unable to access credit due to their lack of land titles and other collaterals. They are also not

targeted for agricultural extension services and have practically no voice in the decisions and

management of agricultural cooperatives.

Now returning to the question raised at the beginning of this study, “to what extent has African

leader’s commitment to the promotion of women’s rights and gender equality translated into

concrete actions in agricultural sector policy formulation and programming”? the study has

found that, in addition to the Conventions and Declarations embodied in the International Bill of

Rights, the AU and its Member states have ratified a number of International Instruments on the

promotion of women’s human rights and gender equality namely: the Convention on the

Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) whose 14th Article enjoin

State parties to take the particular problems faced by rural women and the significant role they

play in the survival of their families into account and to eliminate discrimination against them in

order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit

from rural development. Also, described as the action plan for CEDAW, Paragraph 229 the

Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA) requires “governments as well as other actors to promote an

active and visible policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective in all policies and programmes

to ensure that, before decisions are taken, an analysis is made of the effects on women and

men in addressing the enjoyment of human rights”. Not forgetting the Millennium Development

Goals of which the Goal 3 calls for the promotion and elimination of gender disparities by 2015.

The AU and its Member States have in line with the Article 4(L) of its Constitutive Act

undertaken certain landmark decision to deepen their commitment to these international

instruments. These milestones includes the adoption of the Protocol to the African Charter on

Human and People’s Right on the Rights of Women in Africa in 2003 as a comprehensive

human rights instrument to address the specific needs and condition of women in Africa. The

Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA), an African owned instrument for the

promotion of gender equality that reaffirms African leader’s commitment to the AU Constitutive

Act and other existing international and continental instruments on human and women’s rights.

Finally, the AU has harmonized all national efforts towards achieving gender equality in the

region into one AU gender policy but in spite of all these commitments, gender mainstreaming in

66

the CAADP, the AU/NEPAD framework documents and its related national agricultural policy

and programme documents still leaves very much to be desired.

One of the significant findings from the study is that the CAADP thematic pillar document “The

Framework for African Food Security “ is gender neutral and this might lead to the development

of gender neutral national policies aimed at achieving agricultural productivity and food security

in the respective CAADP compact countries.

Furthermore, the gender mainstreaming analysis of the national agricultural policy and

programme documents has shown that, systematic gender mainstreaming cannot be said to

have taken place in the policy formulation processes described in the national compacts of the

case study countries because ideally, planning for development has to engage men and women

because both experience poverty and development differently, and hence their development

needs are different. But beyond engaging men and women there is also a need to make

planners both men and women on issues of impact on discriminatory practices.

Notwithstanding, the processes described did not explicitly mention the gender balance of

neither the group of planners constituted nor the stakeholders consulted during the policy

formulation. Additionally, programmes and projects earmarked for investment in the respective

national Policy and Investment Frameworks of (PIF) did not systematically integrate gender

concerns.

Taken together, the study concludes that, African leaders have the responsibility to provide the

African people with a holistic security therefore; human security in African cannot be achieved

without security from the other seven areas which include threats against food security.

However, their current effort through the CAADP might not result in the achievement of the food

and nutritional security to which they aspire as long as women continue to suffer severe

discrimination in accessing productive resources required to unleash their productivity. This will

require translating gender equality commitments into concrete actions that will accelerate the

bridging of the gender divide in the agricultural sector.

4.4 Limitations of the Study

This study provides some evidence on CAADP with regards to gender mainstreaming in

agricultural policy and programme documents. However a number of limitations need to be

taken into consideration. First of all, due to time constraints, the researcher could not undertake

67

a baseline study to ascertain whether CAADP is really influencing national policy process before

proceeding to investigating how the gender neutrality of the framework could lead to the

development of gender neutral national policies. Secondly, the researcher wanted to do a

detailed situational assessment in Ethiopia but could not obtain the objective views of the rural

women interviewed due to language constraints. The researcher’s external translator had to rely

on the community leaders (all males) who translated leading questions to the women. Their

presence also deterred the women from speaking objectively and eventually withheld some

relevant pieces of information. Given the diversity in the level of the CAADP Compact countries,

this study, if replicated in more countries could provide broader answers than what has been

found so far, In view of this, it is recommended that further studies should be undertaken in

other countries but should be preceded by a baseline study on how CAADP is influencing

national policy processes.

In spite of its limitations, the findings suggest several courses of actions for the AU, the NEPAD

secretariat and all other institutions involved in the CAADP implementation process in order to

make CAADP more gender sensitive.

4.5 Recommendations

Boost the voice and active participation of rural women in the CAADP Country Compact

process. CAADP is said to provide an evidence-based planning but this evidence-based will be

questionable if the “knowledge inputs” that informs the investment decisions and planning do

not reflect the situation of women who play very critical roles in the agricultural sector. The

achievement of food security to which CAADP aspires will require a strong, participatory voice

of the poor women who are feeding Africa so that decisions can reflect their needs, conditions

and aspiration. Participation, which is synonymous to democracy and the freedoms of

association and expression, will in this regard be both a means and an end in itself.

The main CAADP framework document which spells out the process and scope of

CAADP for development in Africa should be revised to include gender equality and women’s

empowerment as one of the governing principles for which government commitment will be

monitored in the same as the 6% growth and 10% budget allocation.

Promote an enabling environment for gender sensitive policies, CAADP should help

harness political will at all levels to enact policies and institutional changes required for the

68

ratification of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of

Women in Africa. This will put all African governments on the same page as far as gender

equality is concerned. Collective response to bridging the gender divide in the agriculture sector

will facilitate engendering the CAADP framework.

The Framework for African Food Security (FAFS) pillar document should be reviewed to

include gender concerns in a more systematic way. Recognizing gender inequality as a

challenge to agricultural productivity and increased food production will automatically broaden

the strategic response to include gender responsive initiatives to address the issue of food

insecurity in Africa. In the same light, ensure that all other thematic pillar framework documents

that are not gender sensitive are revised to integrate gender concerns.

It is necessary to ensure that the teams that represent the various actors and institutions

involved in the CAADP country implementation process are gender balanced.

69

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and edited volumes

BAYLIS John, SMITH Steve, OWENS Patricia, 2008, The globalization of world politics, Oxford

University Press, New York, 622 p.

BENIN Sam, JOHNSON Michael, BABATUNDE Omilola, 2010, ReSAKSS Working Paper No.6:

Monitoring and Evaluating (M&E) System for the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture

Development Programme (CAADP), Washington DC, 52 p.

BENIN Samuel, KENNEDY Adam, LAMBERT Melissa, MCBRIDE Linden, 2011, Monitoring

African agricultural development processes and performance: A comparative analysis, IFPRI,

Washington, 121 p.

HAQ Khadija, ‘Human Security for Women’, in TEHRANIAN Majid (ed.), 1999, Worlds Apart:

Human Security and Global Governance, I.B. Tarauris & Co, London, 225 p.

MORRIS Michael, KELLY A. Valerie, KOPICKI J. Ron, BYERLEE Derek, 2007, Fertilizer Use in

African Agriculture Lessons Learned and Good Practice Guidelines, World Bank, Washington,

144 p.

ROSEGRANT Mark W, RINGLER Claudia, DE JONG Ijsbrand, 2009, Irrigation: Tapping

Potential, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank,

Washington, 355 p.

ZIMMERMAN Roukayatou, BRUNTRUP Micheal, KOLAVALLI Shashidhara, FLAHERTY

Kathleen, 2009, Agricultural policies in Sub-Saharan Africa: German Development Institute,

Bonne, 199p.

Journals and periodicals

SASSON Albert, Food Security for Africa: An Urgent Global Challenge, in Online Journal

Agriculture and Food Security, April 2012, 1:2,

http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/2 retrieved November 26 2012

Miscellaneous Documents

AU, Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security, Assembly/AU/Decl.7 (II), 2003, Addis

Ababa,

AU/NEPAD, Post compact review: guidelines, 2010, 27 p.

70

ECA, Africa review report on agriculture and rural development, August 2007, Addis Ababa, 49

p.

ECA, Challenges to agricultural development in Africa, 2009, Economic Report on Africa, 141 p.

ECA, compendium of emerging good practices in gender mainstreaming Vol II, 2009, Addis

Ababa, 166 p.

Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency, Compilation of statistics in Ethiopia, 2007, Addis Ababa, 10

p.

Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Gender audit report, 2010, Addis

Ababa, 50 p.

Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Agricultural Sector Policy and

Investment Framework 2010-2020, September 2010, 38 p.

Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, AGP Programme Implementation

manual, March 2010, Addis Ababa, 126 p.

EU, Aid delivery methods: EU project cycle management guideline, Vol 1, March 2004,

Brussels, 147 p.

EU Commission, one hundred words for equality: a glossary of terms on equality between

women and men, 1998, Luxembourg, 57 p.

FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 2010, Rome, 57 p.

FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture, 2011, 2010-2011 Report, Rome, 147p.

FIAN international, international responses to the food crisis, 2009, Heidelberg, 39 p.

G8, “L’Aquila Joint Statement on Global Food Security”, 2009, L’Aquila, 6 p.

Government of Rwanda, Agriculture Sector Investment Plan 2009-2012, 2009, 37 p.

IFPRI, Market Opportunities for African Agriculture: An Examination of Demand-Side

Constraints on Agricultural Growth, DSGD DISCUSSION PAPER NO.1, 2003, Washington,

107p.

IFPRI, Global Hunger Index, October 2011, Washington, 59 p.

ILO, A Manual for Gender Audit Facilitators, 2007, Geneva, 150 p.

71

Institute of Development Studies, National Human Development Reports and the Human

security framework, April 2006, Sussex, 59 p.

NEPAD, NEPAD framework document, October 2001, Abuja, 59 p.

NEPAD, CAADP framework document, July 2003, Midrand, 102 p.

NEPAD, CAADP Pillar III: framework for African food security, 2009, Midrand, 54 p.

NEPAD, Renewing the commitment to African agriculture: CAADP Review report, March 2010,

Midrand, 45 p.

NEPAD Agency, CAADP in practice: highlighting the success, November 2010, 39 p.

UN, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, December

1979, New York

UN Women, Briefing notes: UN Women Liaison Office to AU and UNECA, June 2011, Addis

Ababa

UN, gender mainstreaming: an overview, 2002, New York, 29 p.

UNDP, New Dimension of Security, 1994, Human Development Report, 1994, New York, 226 p.

UNDP, Towards a food secure future, 2012, African human development report, 2012, New

York, 176 p.

UNDP, The Revolution for gender equality, 1995, Human Development Report, New York,

230p.

World Bank, FAO, IFAD, Gender in Agriculture, 2009, World Bank, Washington, 764 p.

Interviews

Martin Bwalya, head of CAADP at the NEPAD agency, Johannesburg, 22 Jun 2012

Internet Sites

http://www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/, About UN Women, (retrieved October 1,

2012)

http://www.unwomen.org/about-us/about-un-women/

72

http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm, East African food security improves: early warning

report, (retrieved October 8, 2012)

http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201209/94656.php, DOMFE Kofi Adu, African green

revolution catalyst to global food security, (retrieved October 2, 2012)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4805E/v4805e03.htm, FAO, Women's role and access to

agricultural extension services in Sub-Saharan Africa, (retrieved November 4, 2012)

http://www.nber.org/digest/jan04/w9865.html LES Picker, The Economic Decline in Africa,

(retrieved May 20, 2012)

http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/nepad/,New Partnership for

Africa’s Development, (Retrieved October 15, 2012)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y6831e/y6831e-02.htm, FAO, Comprehensive African Agriculture

Development Programme, (retrieved October 15, 2012)

http://www.biw.kuleuven.be/aee/clo/idessa_files/Drechsel2001.pdf, DRECHSEL Pay, GYIELE

Lucy, KUNZE Dagmar, COFIE Olufunke, Population density, soil nutrient depletion, and

economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, (retrieved October 18, 2012)

http://www.slideserve.com/maeko/implementation-of-the-comprehensive-africa-agriculture-

development-programme-caadpUNECA, Implementation of the comprehensive African

Agriculture Development Programme, (retrieved October 20, 2012)

http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf,

BABATUNDE Omilola, 2010, monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation,

(retrieved October 22, 2012)

http://partnership-africa.org/sites/default/files/3-F%20Omilola%20Presentation.pdf,

BABATUNDE Omilola, monitoring and Evaluation system for CAADP implementation, (retrieved

October 22, 2012)

http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al390e/al390e00.pdf, FAO, Global hunger declining, but still

unacceptably high, (retrieved October 28 2012)

http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm, East African food security improves: early warning

report,( retrieved October 8, 2012)

http://www.un-foodsecurity.org/background , FAO, the global food security crisis, (retrieved

October 29, 2012)

http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/bankinitiatives.htm,World Bank, Food Crisis, (retrieved

October 29, 2012)


http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/news/201209/94656.php

http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4805E/v4805e03.htm

http://www.nber.org/digest/jan04/w9865.html

http://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/nepad/,New

http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y6831e/y6831e-02.htm

http://www.biw.kuleuven.be/aee/clo/idessa_files/Drechsel2001.pdf





http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/al390e/al390e00.pdf


http://www.un-foodsecurity.org/background

http://www.worldbank.org/foodcrisis/bankinitiatives.htm

73

http://allafrica.com/stories/201210030068.html, ALEX. A, East Africa: Farming key to world

stability (retrieved October 29, 2012)

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm, ILO, Definition of

Gender Mainstreaming, (retrieved November 9, 2012)

http://expert.care.at/downloads/careexpert/COe_GenderAnalysisGuidelines.pdf, CARE

Österreich, Gender Analysis Guiding Notes, (retrieved November 9, 2012)

http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/publications/publications/manuals-tools/t101_en.htm,

Project Cycle Management (retrieved November 15, 2012)

http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/536/F932374742/web%20gender%20manual.pdf,

ILO, A manual for gender audit facilitators, 2007, Geneva , (retrieved November 16, 2012)

http://www.rw.undp.org/content/rwanda/en/home/countryinfo/, UNDP, About Rwanda, (retrieved

November 12, 2012)


AfDB, Gender Assessment: progress towards improving women’s economic status, (retrieved

November 12, 2012)

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRWANDA/Resources/Rwanda_Economic_Rwanda_Upda

te_Spring_Edition_April_2011.pdf, World Bank, Rwanda economic updates, (retrieved

November 13, 2012)

http://www.unwomen.org.au/LiteratureRetrieve.aspx?ID=81467, UN Women, Securing the

rights and livelihoods of rural women in Africa in the context of food crises and climate change.

(Retrieved November 20, 2012)

http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/InternationalLaw.aspx, International Bill of

Human Rights, (retrieved November 28, 2012)

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm, Committee on the Elimination of

Discrimination against Women, (retrieved November 30, 2012)

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf, Beijing Platform for Action

(retrieved November 25, 2012)

http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/aboutau/constitutive_act_en.htm, AU Constitutive Act

(retrieved December 1, 2012)

http://allafrica.com/stories/201210030068.html

http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/gender/newsite2002/about/defin.htm

http://expert.care.at/downloads/careexpert/COe_GenderAnalysisGuidelines.pdf

http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/multimedia/publications/publications/manuals-tools/t101_en.htm

http://www.ilo.org/dyn/gender/docs/RES/536/F932374742/web%20gender%20manual.pdf






http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/InternationalLaw.aspx

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/pdf/BDPfA%20E.pdf

http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/aboutau/constitutive_act_en.htm

74

http://www.africaunion.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/Protocol%20on%20the%20Rights

%20of%20Women.pdf, Protocol to the African charter on human and peoples' rights on the

rights of women in Africa,(retrieved December 1, 2012)

http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/11/06/how-africa-could-feed-the-world/, Olusegun

Obasanjo, how can Africa feed the world, (retrieved November 6, 2012)

http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Report_4412.pdf, NATO Civil-Military

Fusion Center, food security in the Horn of Africa, (retrieved November 17, 2012)

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_in_20

50.pdf, How to feed the world in 2050, (retrieved November 17, 2012)

http://www.bioversityinternational.org/announcements/director_general_speaking_at_feeding_th

e_world_africa.html, Director General speaking at feeding the world Africa, (retrieved November

1, 2012)

http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Rwanda.pdf, Rwanda CADDP Compact, (retrieved December 1, 2012)

http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Ethiopia%20CAADP%20Compact.pdf, Ethiopia CAADP Compact, (retrieved December 1, 2012)



http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/11/06/how-africa-could-feed-the-world/

http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full_Report_4412.pdf





http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Rwanda.pdf

http://www.nepad-caadp.net/pdf/Ethiopia%20CAADP%20Compact.pdf

75

Text in French /Texte en français

Introduction

Le concept de sécurité a connu une nouvelle définition dans les années 1990 à la fin de la

guerre froide. Ce concept a évolué de la protection de l'État et de son intégrité territoriale des

menaces militaires externes à la préservation et à la protection de la vie humaine et la dignité

de l’individu. Par la remise en question de la notion de la sécurité centrée sur l'Etat, les

partisans de la notion de sécurité humaine ont fait de l'individu l'objet et le référent principal de

la question de sécurité. Ainsi, le champ d’application de cette notion a été redéfini et élargi pour

inclure les menaces dans les sept domaines suivants. La sécurité économique qui exige un

revenu de base assuré généralement par le travail productif et rémunérateur, ou en dernier

ressort par certains un seuil de sécurité financé par les fonds publics. La sécurité alimentaire,

qui veille à ce que toutes les personnes, à tout moment, aient un accès physique et

économique à la nourriture de base. La sécurité sanitaire qui a pour but de garantir une

protection minimale contre les maladies et les modes de vie malsains. La sécurité

environnementale qui vise à protéger les populations des ravages de la nature à court et à long

terme et à éradiquer des menaces d’origine humaine contre la nature et de la détérioration de

l'environnement naturel. La sécurité personnelle qui veut protéger les gens contre la violence

physique pouvant provenir de l'État ou des États externes, des individus violents et des facteurs

non-étatiques. La sécurité communautaire qui consiste en la protection des personnes contre la

perte de relations et de valeurs traditionnelles et contre les violences sectaires et ethniques.

Enfin, la sécurité politique assure que les gens vivent dans une société qui honore leurs droits

humains fondamentaux et protège la liberté des individus et des groupes et limite les tentatives

de dominance gouvernementale des idées et d’informations. Le rapport du développement

humain publié par le PNUD en 2005 maintient le fait que «les droits et la liberté de l’individu ont

une grande importance, mais les gens sont limités dans ce qu'ils peuvent faire avec cette liberté

si elles sont pauvres, malades, illettrés, discriminés, menacés par des conflits violents ou

refuser une voix politique». Par conséquent, la réalisation de la sécurité humaine ne doit pas se

limiter à la protection des personnes, mais doit autonomiser l’individu pour qu’il puisse se

débrouiller lui-même. Selon Khadija Haq (1999), l’on ne peut avoir de discussion concrète au

sujet de la sécurité humaine sans parler d'abord de l'égalité des sexes parce qu’aucune société

76

ne peut prospérer demi-libérée et demi-enchaîné. Ainsi, la sécurité des femmes est une

condition préalable à la sécurité humaine.

L’ONU Femmes, l’entité des Nations Unies pour l'égalité des sexes et l'autonomisation des

femmes a été créée en Juillet 2010 par la Résolution 64/289 de l'Assemblée Générale des

Nations Unies dans le cadre de la réforme de l'ONU qui vise à regrouper les ressources et les

mandats pour en accentuer l’impact. Cette entité est le résultat de la fusion de quatre

composantes auparavant distinctes du système des Nations Unies dédiées exclusivement à

l'égalité entre les sexes et notamment à l'autonomisation des femmes à savoir: la Division pour

l'avancement des femmes (DAW), l’Institut international de recherche et de formation pour la

promotion de la femme (INSTRAW ), le Bureau de la Conseillère spéciale pour la parité des

sexes et la promotion de la femme (OSAGI) et le Fonds de développement des Nations Unies

pour la femme (UNIFEM) dont l’important travail sert de base à la nouvelle entité.

L’ONU Femmes est chargée d’appuyer des organes intergouvernementaux, tels que la

Commission de la condition de la femme, de l'Union africaine (UA), les Communautés

Economiques Régionales (CER) et d'autres institutions dans l’élaboration des politiques, des

règles et des normes mondiales en matière d'égalité des sexes. Son rôle est aussi d’aider les

États Membres à appliquer ces normes toute en étant prête à fournir un appui technique et

financier aux pays qui en font la demande. Elle entend nouer des partenariats efficaces avec la

société civile et demander des comptes au système des Nations Unies sur ses propres

engagements en matière de l'égalité des sexes avec un suivi régulier des progrès enregistrés

dans l’ensemble du système.

Le bureau de liaison de l’ONU Femmes auprès de l'Union Africaine (UA) et la Commission

Economique pour l'Afrique (CEA) des Nations Unies vise à renforcer les capacités de

programmation en matière de Droit de l'Homme, de l’égalité des sexes et de son suivi au sein

de l'UA. Ses domaines prioritaires consistent en la croissance du leadership des femmes et leur

participation dans les processus décisionnel, la lutte contre la violence faite aux femmes et aux

filles, la participation des femmes dans tous les aspects du maintien de la paix et de la sécurité,

l’amélioration de l’autonomisation des femmes sur le plan économique. Il veut surtout s’assurer

que l'égalité des sexes demeure l’objectif central de toute planification pour le développement

et toute budgétisation nationale.

Avec son programme triennal stratégique qui vise à promouvoir le leadership de l'UA ainsi que

sa responsabilité pour les droits des femmes en Afrique, le Bureau de liaison appuit la capacité

77

d'intégration de la question de l'égalité des sexes dans le travail des quatre Départements de la

Commission de l'UA à savoir : le Département des affaires sociales, le Département des

Affaires Politiques, le Conseil de paix et de sécurité et le Département de l'Economie Rurale et

de l'Agriculture. L’ONU Femmes est dans une position unique parce qu’il mobilise les autres

organisations des Nations Unies pour apporter une réponse cohérente à la question de droits

des femmes et de l'égalité des sexes qui constitue également l'un des thèmes transversaux

dont l’intégration dans le Mécanisme de Coordination Régionale (MCR) est exigée par l’ONU.

Le MCR, le mécanisme des Nations Unies pour l’amélioration et la cohérence de la coopération

de l’ensemble des Nations Unies aux niveaux régional et sous-régional exige que toutes les

Agences, les Programmes et les Fonds des Nations Unies opèrent au niveau régional dans le

principe de «l'unité d’action» pour la promotion du développement en Afrique par le biais de

l'appui du Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l'Afrique (NEPAD) de l'Union

Africaine. La MRC sert également de dispositif pour la mise en œuvre du Programme de

Renforcement des Capacités Décennal (TYCBP) pour l'UA et exerce ses activités sous neuf

grands Cluster thématiques 165 avec plusieurs sous-clusters correspondants aux domaines

prioritaires de l'UA.

Conformément à son mandat et dans l'esprit de la MRC, l’ONU Femmes, le co-responsable du

« sous-cluster genre et le développement » né du « cluster développement social et humain » a

développé un partenariat avec le Programme des Nations Unies pour le développement

(PNUD), l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'Alimentation et de l'Agriculture (FAO), le

Programme Alimentaire Mondial (WFP), le Département Economie Rurale et de l'Agriculture de

la Commission de l’UA ( DREA) et la Direction, Femmes, Genre et Développement de l’UA

(WGDD) pour rendre le Programme Détaillé pour le Développement de l’Agriculture Africaine

(PDDAA) du NEPAD plus sensible au genre.

C’est dans le cadre de ce partenariat que j’ai effectué un stage de cinq mois au sein du bureau

de liaison de l’ONU Femme auprès de l’UA et la CEA pour contribuer au travail de l’ONU

Femmes sur le plaidoyer politique pour les droits des femmes et la coordination des activités du

système des Nations Unies en matière d'égalité des sexes et l'autonomisation des femmes. Le

Bureau de liaison coopère avec l'UA et ses organes, y compris les CER à savoir: la

Communauté de Développement d'Afrique Australe (SADC), l'Autorité Intergouvernementale

165

L’industrie ; le commerce et l’accès au marché ; le développent de l’infrastructure ; la gouvernance ; l’environnement ; population et urbanisation ; le développement social et humain ; l’agriculture, sécurité alimentaire et le développement rural ; la science et la technologie; la communication et la paix et la sécurité

78

pour le Développement (IGAD), le Marché Commun de l’Afrique Orientale et Australe

(COMESA), la Communauté Economique des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (CEDEAO) et la

Communauté d’Afrique de l’Est (EAC) afin d'intégrer l'égalité des sexes et les questions des

droits des femmes dans leurs politiques et dans leurs programmes. Pour cela, l’ONU Femmes

suit les décisions et des débats pertinents de l'UA tout en partageant l'information stratégique

avec la Section africaine de l’ONU Femmes au siège et avec les bureaux sous-régionaux de

l’ONU Femmes en Afrique.

Plus précisément, ma mission de stage était de soutenir l'ONU Femmes dans la collecte des

données ainsi que la rédaction des notes d'orientation pour le Conseil de Paix et de Sécurité et

d'autres partenaires stratégiques des organes et services de l'UA. Après une formation en audit

genre, la portée de ma responsabilité s’est élargie pour inclure non seulement une analyse de

genre et l'examen des plans de travail des clusters et sous-clusters mais aussi l'analyse

institutionnelle d’une perspective sexospécifique. Cela s'est traduit par la réalisation d’un

premier audit genre de la MRC sous la direction de l’ONU Femmes. L’audit a commencé par le

cluster du Développement social et humain et le cluster de la gouvernance. Lors de l’étude de

fond du cluster de l'Agriculture, la Sécurité Alimentaire et du Développement rural, le prochain

cluster visé pour la vérification genre, nous avons constaté les efforts de la FAO et du

Programme d’Alimentation Mondiales (WFP) dans leur appui à l’UA pour l’amélioration de la

productivité agricole et la réalisation de la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique dans le cadre du

PDDAA.

Malgré tous leurs efforts, la sécurité alimentaire reste toujours loin d’être une réalité en Afrique.

On parle de la réalisation de sécurité alimentaire, soit au niveau individuel, familial, national,

régional ou continental, lorsque des gens ont en tout temps, un accès physique, social et

économique à une nourriture suffisante, saine et nourrissante leur permettant de satisfaire leurs

besoins énergétiques et préférences alimentaires pour une vie saine et active166. Les dernières

données disponibles de la FAO indiquent que le nombre total de personnes sous-alimentées

dans le monde est estimé avoir atteint 1,023 milliards en 2009 et devrait baisser de 9,6% à 925

millions en 2010. Les pays en développement représentent 98% des personnes sous-

alimentées dans le monde et ont une prévalence de la malnutrition de 16%. La proportion de

personnes sous-alimentées demeure la plus élevée en Afrique sub-saharienne à 239 millions,

166

Cité de FAO, PAM, FIDA, PNUD, Banque mondial, 2009, la dimension genre dans l’agriculture, Washington, p.11 (Traduction par l’auteur de ce mémoire)

79

après l'Asie. Ceci se traduit en environ 30% de la population en 2010. La mise à jour la plus

récente publiée le 5 Octobre 2012 par le réseau de systèmes d'Alerte Précoce de la famine

(FEWS NET) indique que 16 millions de personnes sont encore dans l'insécurité alimentaire au

Soudan, au Sud-Soudan, en Somalie, en Ethiopie, au Kenya, au Djibouti et au Rwanda.

Le cadre le plus utilisé maintient que la sécurité alimentaire sera atteinte quand il y aura

suffisamment de nourriture disponible, quand les gens y auront accès, et quand il sera

bien utilisé. Cela implique que, l'absence de l'un de ces piliers: (disponibilité, accès et

utilisation) rend un ménage ou un pays peu sure de pouvoir se nourrir. Une situation qui

engendre la faim et la malnutrition.

Considérant la sécurité alimentaire du point de vue de la disponibilité de la production agricole,

lors de la réunion de l'Alliance pour la révolution en Afrique (AGRA) qui s’est tenue à Arusha en

Tanzanie du 26 au 28 septembre, le Présidents , le Dr Kofi Annan, ancien Secrétaire Général

des Nations Unies, a déclaré: «Nous ne pouvons pas augmenter la production alimentaire à la

vitesse et l'ampleur auxquels nous aspirons sans mobiliser des petits exploitants souvent

ignorés ; subvenir à leurs besoins afin de réaliser pleinement leur potentiel doit rester au cœur

de toutes nos discussions ». Des preuves concrètes indiquent que les femmes constituent la

majorité de ces petits exploitants. La FAO rapporte que les femmes produisent jusqu'à 80% des

denrées alimentaires de base, fournissent environ 70% de toute la main-d'œuvre agricole et

produisent environ 90% de la nourriture en Afrique subsaharienne mais en dépit de leur

participation cruciale, ces femmes n'ont pas un accès égal aux ressources productives, y

compris aux terres, aux intrants agricoles, aux services de vulgarisation et aux crédits. Ainsi

elles ont toujours le défi de produire beaucoup mais avec très peu de ressources.

Le rapport intitulé « l’état de l'alimentation et de l'agriculture » (SOFA) publié par la FAO en

2011 maintient que, combler l'écart entre les sexes dans le domaine d'agriculture serait de

générer des gains significatifs pour le secteur et pour la société. De ce qui précède, il ressort

que si les femmes avaient le même accès aux ressources productives que les hommes, elles

pourraient augmenter les rendements sur leurs exploitations de 20-30%, ce qui pourrait

augmenter la production agricole totale dans les pays en développement de 2,5% à 4%, ce qui

pourrait à son tour réduire le nombre de personnes souffrant de la faim dans le monde par 12 à

17%.

Dès lors, l'égalité des sexes dans le secteur agricole doit - elle toujours être considérée comme

une simple question de droit de l'homme? N’est-elle pas devenue un pré-requis pour la survie

80

de la race humaine tout entière ? La réalisation de la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle en

Afrique n’exige-t-elle pas une intégration plus particulière des questions d’égalité des sexes

dans les politiques et programmes agricoles que jamais ? Même si les dirigeants africains ont

pris plusieurs engagements pour protéger et promouvoir le droit humain fondamental y compris

les droits humains des femmes, mais dans quelle mesure ces engagements sont-ils traduits par

des actions concrètes dans la programmation et l’élaboration de la politique agricole et du

secteur?

Les réflexions dans ce mémoire seront guidées par des instruments juridiques internationaux et

régionaux relatives aux Droits de l’Homme et l’égalité des sexes. Cette étude sera

géographiquement restreinte à la Corne et l’Afrique de l’Est étant donné que c’est la région la

plus souvent touchée par la faim. Une étude sur le terrain sera menée sur la situation des

femmes en agriculture dans trois localités de la municipalité Sabata Awash de la région

Oromiya, la région avec la plus grande activité agricole en Ethiopie.

Pour vérifier comment les dirigeants africains prennent en compte les questions d’égalité

homme femmes dans l’élaboration des politiques agricoles ainsi que la programmation, nous

allons dans un premier temps présenter le Programme Détaillés du Développement de

l’Agriculture Africain (PDDAA) en vue d’établir un cadre Analytique. Ensuite, nous évaluerons le

PDDAA ainsi que des politiques et programmes agricoles nationaux de l’Ethiopie et du Rwanda

dans une perspective du genre. Nous comparerons les résultats de l’analyse avec des normes

internationaux et régionaux portant sur l’égalité des sexes. Enfin, nous proposerons quelques

recommandations pour rendre le PDDAA sensible à la question genre.

81

Plan Détaillé

Le rôle des femmes dans la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique de l’Est : évaluation du

PDDAA (Programme Détaillé pour le Développement de l’Agriculture Africaine)

CHAPITRE PREMIER

1 Introduction

1.1 Buts de l'étude

1.2 Objectifs de l'étude

1.3 Méthodologie

1.4 Annonce du plan

CHAPITRE DEUX

2. Agriculture : Moteur du développement de l’Afrique

2.1 Contexte

2.2 NEPAD et développement agricole de l'Afrique

2.2.1 Principes et structure de gouvernance du NEPAD

2.2.2 Buts et objectifs du NEPAD

2.3 Etat de l'agriculture en Afrique: Potentiels, défis et stratégies politiques

2.3.1 Potentiel du secteur agricole en Afrique

2.3.2 Défis du secteur agricole et stratégies politique handicapante

2.4 Programme Détaillé pour le Développement de l'Agriculture Africaine (PDDAA)

2.4.1 Déclaration de Maputo: objectifs et principes du PDDAA

2.4.2 Structure et piliers du PDDAA

2.4.3 Acteurs institutionnels et leurs rôles dans la mise en œuvre du PDDAA

2.4.4 Processus de mise en œuvre du PDDAA et les statuts des Etats parties

2.4.5 Mise en œuvre du PDDAA au niveau national

2.4.6 Cadre de Suivi et d’évaluation du PDDAA

2.5 Réussites et lacunes du PDDAA

2.5.1 Réussites

82

2.5.2 Lacunes

2.6 Sécurité alimentaire: une illusion en Afrique

2.7 La lutte contre l'insécurité alimentaire en Afrique: le cadre pour la sécurité alimentaire en

Afrique (FAFS)

CHAPITRE TROIS

3. PDDAA dans une perspective sexospécifique: Les cas de l'Ethiopie et du Rwanda

3.1 Principaux enjeux conceptuels

3.1.1 Stratégie de l’intégration de la dimension genre

3.1.2 Analyse de genre

3.2 Analyse de genre dans la gestion du cycle de projet/programme (GCP)

3.3 Cadre analytique

3.4 Définition des termes

3.5 Profil de l’agriculture et rapports sociaux des sexes au Rwanda et en Ethiopie

3.5.1 Aperçu général et rôle de l'agriculture au Rwanda

3.5.2 Rapports sociaux des sexes: conditions des femmes

3.5.3 Aperçu général et rôle de l'agriculture en Ethiopie

3.5.4 Relation entre les sexes: conditions des femmes

3.5.5 Genre et Agriculture

3.6 Analyse des données et des résultats clés

3.6.1 Politiques et de programmes agricoles analysés

3.6.1.1 Pactes de PDDAA du Rwanda et d’Ethiopie

3.6.1.2 Cadres de Politique et d’Investissement

3.6.1.3 Programme de l’intensification du système de production durable du Rwanda

3.6.1.4 Programme pour la croissance de l’agriculture en Ethiopie

3.6.1.5 Cadre pour la sécurité alimentaire en Afrique

CHAPITRE QUATRE

4.0 Examen des résultats : Analyse de l'intégration des femmes

4.1 Résultats par rapport aux instruments internationaux et régionaux des Droits de l’Homme et

l’égalité des sexes

83

4.2 L’Afrique pourrait-t-elle se nourrir ?

4.3 Conclusion

4.4 Limites de l'étude et perspectives

4.5 Recommandations

84

Conclusion

Ce mémoire m’a permis d’examiner la question de l'insécurité alimentaire généralisée en

Afrique, notamment en Afrique de l'Est et surtout dans la Corne de l’Afrique pour voir comment

l'inégalité des sexes contribue à l'incapacité de l'Afrique à lutter contre cette menace. La

prévalence de la faim en Afrique sub-saharienne a été identifiée comme l'un des cas les plus

élevés du monde. La République Démocratique du Congo et l'Ethiopie figure parmi les sept

pays qui constituent les deux tiers des personnes sous-alimentées du monde. Le premier

rapport du développement humain en Afrique publié par le PNUD en 2012 maintient que la

croissance économique dans certains pays d'Afrique sub-saharienne n'a pas eu un impact

considérable sur la faim et la malnutrition. En plus, selon des mises à jour de FEWS NET167,

quelques 16 millions de personnes souffrent toujours de la faim dans l’Est et dans la Corne de

l’Afrique. Environ 80% des personnes souffrent de la faim et 70% parmi elles sont de petites

exploitantes. La crise alimentaire de 2011 dans la Corne de l'Afrique a laissé environ 20% de la

population éthiopienne, somalienne et kenyane sans nourriture et 30% des enfants ont été

plongés dans une situation de malnutrition aiguë.

Le PDDAA, le cadre consensuel de l'Afrique pour la réduction de la pauvreté, la croissance

agricole et la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle en Afrique, a reçu la reconnaissance

internationale en tant qu'initiative africaine très pertinente ayant pour objectif d'accélérer la

croissance du secteur agricole afin de favoriser le développement de l'Afrique. En termes de

réussites, le PDDAA estime avoir eu un impact positif sur l'agriculture dans cinq domaines: elle

sert de valeur ajoutée à l’élaboration de la politique agricole nationale avec des stratégies

politiques bien ciblées telles que la promotion de l’élaboration des politiques agricoles par un

processus beaucoup plus participatif, l’exploitation des efforts des experts agricoles de l'Afrique,

la tentative de donner un nouvel élan à « l'efficacité de l'aide » dans le secteur agricole grâce à

une meilleure coordination de l'appui des bailleurs de fonds. Dans ce sens, le Rwanda, en tant

que premier Etat parti du PDDAA, a enregistré des preuves concrètes de la croissance agricole,

passant de moins de 1% en 2007 à plus de 10% en 2008. Cependant, l'objectif global du

PDDAA à savoir, la réduction de la pauvreté et de la faim n'a pas connu de progrès satisfaisant.

167

Réseaux des systèmes d’alertes précoces de la famine (traduction de l’auteur de ce mémoire) Cf. : http://www.coastweek.com/3540_36.htm (consulté le 8 octobre 2012)


85

La faim et la malnutrition très répandue ainsi que le nombre croissant de personnes touchées

démontre la grandeur de la pauvreté dans la région. Ceci nous conduit à remettre en question

la capacité de l'agriculture à être actuellement un moteur de la croissance économique en

Afrique. Malgré son potentiel, l'agriculture africaine reste un moyen de subsistance en milieu

rural mais elle n'a pas véritablement aidé à améliorer la vie des habitants de ces zones. A ce

propos, la Banque mondiale a montré qu'environ 47% de la population africaine vit en dessous

du seuil de la pauvreté dont 70% vivent en milieu rural. Cette faible performance de l'agriculture

en Afrique a été attribuée à un certain nombre de facteurs, notamment: la dégradation de la

terre et son appauvrissement en éléments nutritifs, les conditions d'irrigation inadaptées,

l'application limitée de la technologie et des intrants qui améliorent la productivité ainsi que la

sous-financement et la mise en place des politiques macroéconomiques défavorables. Mais

plus particulièrement, le rapport de 2010 sur l'état de l’alimentation et l'agriculture publié par le

FAO maintient que l’inégalité des sexes contribue aussi à la sous-performance de l'agriculture

africaine.

Dans l’optique d’un récent rapport de la FAO, notre étude a montré que les femmes, en dépit de

leurs rôles multiples dans le secteur agricole ont plus des contraintes que les hommes dans

l'accès aux terres, aux ressources productives, aux intrants agricoles, aux services de

vulgarisation ainsi qu’aux crédits. En Ethiopie, par exemple, la Constitution fédérale et le

dispositif de la loi sur l’administration foncière prévoyant l'accès des femmes à la terre n’est pas

encore mis en application. Ce qui rend les hommes «de facto» des propriétaires et des héritiers

fonciers. Les agricultrices rwandaises et éthiopiennes sont également incapables d'accéder au

crédit en raison de manque de titres fonciers et d’autres garantis. Elles ne sont pas visées par

les services de vulgarisation agricole et n'ont pratiquement pas de voix dans les processus

décisionnels ainsi que la gestion des coopératives agricoles.

Comme réponse à la question posée au début de ce travail, à savoir : "dans quelle mesure les

engagements de chefs d'Etats africains dans la promotion des droits des femmes et de l'égalité

des sexes se traduisent-ils traduits en actions concrètes dans la programmation et la

formulation de la politique sectorielle agricole», notre étude a révélé qu’outre les Conventions et

les Déclarations contenues dans la Charte Internationale des Droits de l’Homme, l'UA et ses

Etats membres ont ratifié un certain nombre d'instruments internationaux sur la promotion des

droits humains des femmes et de l'égalité des sexes. Parmi ces instruments, nous avons

d’abord la Convention sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l'égard des

femmes (CEDEF) dont l’Article 14 exige que les Etats parties tiennent compte des problèmes

86

particuliers qui se posent aux femmes rurales et du rôle important que ces femmes jouent dans

la survie économique de leurs familles afin de prendre toutes les mesures appropriées pour

éliminer la discrimination à l'égard des femmes dans les zones rurales en vue d'assurer, sur la

base de l'égalité de l'homme et de la femme, leur participation au développement rural et à ses

avantages. De plus, outre, les Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement dont l'objectif 3 fait

appele à la promotion et à l'élimination des disparités entre les sexes d'ici 2015, les dirigeants

africains se sont engagés à l’égalité des sexes par la signature du programme d’action du

Beijing dont le paragraphe 229 maintient que pour assurer la jouissance des droits de l’homme,

les gouvernements et les autres intéressés devraient promouvoir des mesures concrètes et

visibles afin d’intégrer la problématique hommes-femmes dans tous leurs programmes et

politiques, de sorte que toute décision soit précédée d’une analyse de ses effets

sexospécifiques.

Aussi, L'UA et ses Etats membres ont entrepris conformément à l'Article 4 (L) de son Acte

constitutif, des décisions remarquables pour renforcer leur engament aux instruments

internationaux d’égalité des sexes, y compris l'adoption du Protocole à la Charte Africaine des

droits de l'homme et droit des peuples et sur les droits des femmes en Afrique en 2003. A cet

instrument exhaustif de Droits de l’Homme pour répondre aux besoins spécifiques et de la

situation des femmes en Afrique s’ajoute la Déclaration Solennelle sur l'Egalité des Sexes en

Afrique (SDGEA), un instrument purement africain pour la promotion de l'égalité des sexes.

Enfin, l'Union Africaine a harmonisé tous les efforts nationaux visant l'égalité des sexes dans la

région dans une seule politique du genre unique pour le continent.

Cependant, en dépit de tous ces engagements, l'intégration du genre dans les documents-

cadres du PDDAA du NEPAD ainsi que dans les documents des politiques et programmes

agricoles nationaux de pays qu’on a étudié laisse encore beaucoup à désirer.

L'un des constats le plus significatif de cette l'étude est l’insensibilité du « Cadre pour la sécurité

alimentaire en Afrique » (FAFS), le document du 3e pilier thématique du PDDAA par rapport au

genre. Cette neutralité risque de conduire les Etats Membres à l'élaboration de politiques

nationaux non-sexistes ayant pourtant le but d’accroitre la productivité agricole et la réalisation

de la sécurité alimentaire dans les Etats parties du PDDAA.

En outre, le résultat de l’analyse de l'intégration de la problématique homme-femme dans la

politique et du programme agricole nationaux a montré qu’il n’y avait pas une intégration

87

systématique de la question genre dans le processus de l’élaboration des politiques décrites

dans les Pactes de PDDAA des pays étudiés. Dans l'idéal, la planification du développement

nécessite la participation des hommes et des femmes puisqu’ils vivent la pauvreté et le

développement de manière différente et ont aussi des besoins différents pour le

développement. Néanmoins, au-delà de la participation des hommes et des femmes, il est

également nécessaire de s’assurer que les deux sexes sont bien représentés dans les groupes

de planificateurs sur les questions qui ont de l'impact sur les pratiques discriminatoires.

Nonobstant, les procédés décrits dans les Pactes nationales ne mentionnent pas explicitement

l'équilibre des sexes ni des planificateurs, ni des intervenants consultés lors de l'élaboration des

politiques. En outre, des programmes et des projets destinés à l'investissement dans la

politique nationale respective et des cadres d'investissement (FIP) n'ont pas systématiquement

intégré les questions de genre non plus.

Dans l'ensemble, l'étude conclut que les dirigeants africains ont la responsabilité de garantir aux

peuples africains une sécurité intégrale y compris la sécurité alimentaire qui est fondamentale

pour la réalisation de la sécurité qui consiste en l’éradication de toutes les autres menaces de la

sécurité humaine. Cependant, leur effort actuel par le biais du PDDAA risque de ne pas aboutir

à la réalisation de la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle à laquelle ils aspirent si les femmes

continuent à subir des discriminations dans l’accès aux ressources productives nécessaires

pour libérer leur productivité dans le secteur agricole. Il faudra pour cela traduire les

engagements à l’égalité des sexes par des actions concrètes pour combler le fossé entre les

genres de manière accélérée pour la croissance agricole.

Limites de l'étude

Cette étude fournit quelques preuves sur le PDDAA en ce qui concerne l'intégration du genre

dans les politiques agricoles et les documents du programme. Toutefois, un certain nombre de

limites doivent être prises en considération. Tout d'abord, en raison de contraintes de temps,

nous n’avons pas pu entreprendre une étude préliminaire pour déterminer si le PDDAA a

vraiment de l’influence sur le processus d’élaboration de politique agricole nationale avant de

procéder aux enquêtes sur la façon dont l’insensibilité au genre du cadre régional pourrait

conduire à l'élaboration de politiques nationales non-sexistes. Deuxièmement, nous avons

voulu faire une évaluation détaillée de la situation des femmes rurales en Éthiopie, mais nous

n'avons pas pu obtenir les points de vue objectifs des femmes rurales interviewées en raison

88

des contraintes liés la langue. Le traducteur externe dont on a eu recours a dû compter sur les

leaders de la communauté (uniquement hommes) dont la présence a dissuadé les femmes de

parler objectivement qui ont fini par retenir certains éléments d'information pertinents. En plus,

compte tenu de la diversité des niveaux du développement agricole des Etats parties du

PDDAA, cette étude doit être reprise dans d'autres pays pour avoir des réponses plus élargies.

Ainsi, nous estimons que d’autres études complémentaires doivent être menées dans d'autres

pays, mais celles-ci doivent être précédées d'une étude préliminaire sur la façon dont le PDDAA

influence les processus d’élaboration des politiques nationales agricoles.

En dépit de ses limites, les résultats de l’étude suggèrent plusieurs pistes d'actions pour l'Union

Africaine, le secrétariat du NEPAD et toutes les autres institutions impliquées dans le processus

de mise en œuvre du PDDAA afin de rendre le PDDAA plus sensible au genre.

4.3 Recommandations

Augmentez la voix et la participation active des femmes rurales dans le processus qui

mène à la signature de la Pacte Nationale du PDDAA. Le PDDAA est censé assurer une

planification fondée sur des preuves, mais ce fait sera douteux si les «données» qui

informent les décisions d'investissement et de planification ne reflètent pas la situation

des femmes qui jouent des rôles cruciaux dans le secteur agricole. Il faudra la

participation des femmes rurales qui nourrissent l’Afrique afin que les décisions reflètent

leurs besoins, leurs conditions et leurs aspirations pour réaliser les objectifs de la

sécurité alimentaire auxquels aspire le PDDAA.

Le principal document cadre qui définit le processus et la portée du PDDAA pour le

développement en Afrique devrait être révisée pour y intégrer la question d’égalité des

sexes et l'autonomisation des femmes comme l'un des principes directeurs dont le

respect par les gouvernements serait suivi de la même façon que les principes de la

croissance de 6% et l'allocation budgétaire de 10%.

Promouvoir un environnement favorable pour des politiques sensibles au genre. Le

PDDAA devrait aider à gagner la volonté politique pour la mise en application des

politiques et des changements institutionnels requis pour la ratification du Protocole de

la Charte africaine des droits de l'homme et des peuples relatif aux droits des femmes

en Afrique. Cela facilitera le processus nécessaire pour rendre le PDDAA sensible au

genre et la responsabilité collectif pour son exécution.

89

Le document du 3e Pilier thématique « le cadre pour la sécurité alimentaire en

Afrique » (FAFS) devrait être revu pour y intégrer les questions de genre d'une manière

plus systématique. Reconnaître l'inégalité des sexes comme un défi à la productivité

agricole et l’accroissement de la production alimentaire, permettra l’élargissement de la

réponse stratégique pour inclure des initiatives sexospécifiques afin de résoudre le

problème de l'insécurité alimentaire en Afrique. Dans la même optique, l’on devrait

s’assurer que tous les documents cadres sur les autres piliers thématiques qui ne sont

pas sensibles au genre soient révisés pour y intégrer la dimension du genre

Il sera important de veiller à ce qu’il ait toujours la parité genre de l’équipe qui

représente les différents acteurs et institutions impliqués dans la mise en œuvre du

PDDAA au niveau national.

90

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Terms of Reference: UN Women Liaison Office to the AU and UNECA

Appendix 2 Declaration on Enhancing UN-AU Cooperation: Framework for the Ten

Year Capacity Building Programme for the AU

Appendix 3 CAADP Compact countries and their stages of implementation

Appendix 4 Summary of Interview with Mr. Martin Bwalya, head of CAADP/NEPAD

Planning and Coordinating Agency (NPCA), Johannesburg, Jun 22, 2012

Appendix 5 Summary of focus group discussion with women farmers association in

the jawwee multipurpose cooperative, Nano Jawe kebele, August 12,

2012

Appendix 6 Summary of Interview with the President of the Bonayyaa multipurpose

cooperative, Kejima, August 12, 2012

Appendix 7 Ethiopian Policy and Investment Framework, logical framework

Appendix 8 Rwandan PSTA II Logical framework

Appendix 9 AGP sub component one of the Agricultural Production and

Commercialisation

Appendix 10 Sample agricultural cooperative database, in Sabata Awash district,

Oromiya region, Ethiopia

Appendix 11 FAFS proposed strategic response to Africa’s food insecurity challenges

Appendix 12 Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa

91

Appendix 1

ANNEX II: Terms of Reference – AU Liaison Office, Addis Ababa

Background

Tasks and responsibilities of the AU Liaison Office

The AU Liaison Office represents UNIFEM at the AU and its various organs, and at the

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), but also regional (Africa

wide) women’s rights networks, as well as the diplomatic community and in particular,

delegations to the African Union. Through its work the Liaison Office will contribute to

UNIFEM Strategic Plan 2008-2011 development results framework, in particular

outcomes 1, 2, 5 and as well as outcomes 1 and 2, of the Management Results

Framework. The core business of the Liaison Office is as follows:

Technical Assistance to AU:

Provide effective technical support to the African Union and regional women’s rights

networks and organisations in order to promote and support African Union leadership

towards state accountability for women’s human rights in Africa

Policy Advocacy

Influence policy development in the AU with respect to gender equality and women’s

human rights in line with UNIFEM policy and direction under its Strategic Plan 2008-

2011 (SP), in consultation with Africa Section, SROs and appropriate thematic advisors.

As is envisaged in the SP and Africa Section regional strategy, the Liaison Office policy

work will be informed by international and regional human rights standards including in

CEDAW, the Protocol on the rights of women in Africa, and UN Security Council

Resolutions 1325 and 1820;

Track relevant AU policy decisions, debates, and resources and sharing strategic

information with Africa Section and SROs, and regional women’s rights networks

92

Develop tools and other resources to strengthen “know how to” among AU organs and

member states to implement commitments to women’s rights

Organise, support policy briefings, learnings, and think tanks for AU, UNIFEM SROs

and women’s rights network with the aim of strengthening overall policy advice and

advocacy to the AU.

UNIFEM’s visibility

Raise UNIFEM’s visibility at AU level, working closely with other parts of the UN system,

as well as regional women’s rights networks.

Publish electronic newsletters and other materials on gender equality at the AU,

positioning UNIFEM as a knowledge and information source for AU, SROs and other

stakeholders

UN Coordination

Provide leadership towards coordinated UN System support to the African Union for

gender equality and women’s rights, within the framework of the Regional Coordination

Mechanism (RCM) for UN Agencies and Organisations operating in Africa and the UN-

AU Cooperation: Framework for the Ten-Year Capacity-Building Programme for the

African Union.

Actively participate in the thematic cluster system of the RCM working with UNECA and

other UN entities with liaison functions/representation with AU.

Promote the integration of gender equality and women’s rights in the different thematic

clusters of the RCM

Represent UNIFEM in UN forums and events and policy dialogues

Structure and Staffing requirements of the AU Liaison Office

The AU Liaison Office reports to the Chief, Africa Section in New York, and is supported

by a Programme Specialist serving as focal point, who is tasked with backstopping the

Liaison Office from New York and facilitating information exchange and communications

with other UNIFEM sections with respect to substantive as well as financial and

operational matters.

Representative to AU and UNECA

The Representative to AU/UNECA provides leadership for the AU Liaison Office and is

accountable for substantive and financial oversight of all Office activities in areas

described above. Principal duties involve advocacy, technical assistance, and strategic

93

communication, nurturing of existing and new relationships with the AU, women’s rights

networks, the UN System in Addis Ababa, and other stakeholders.

Programme Officer

The Programme Officer will track AU policies on gender equality and women’s rights,

monitor performance and reporting from implementing partners, and be the focal person

for the Social and Human Development Cluster at UNIFEM The Officer will engage with

relevant stakeholder fora including relevant civil society meetings, thereby supporting

UNIFEM visibility, as well as UN coordination.

Strategic Communications and Advocacy Officer – (JPO)

The Strategic Communication and Advocacy Officer will provide advocacy and

communication technical and resource mobilisation support to UNIFEM Representative

to AU and UNECA.

Finance/Administration Officer

The Finance/Admin Officer is be tasked with supporting all financial and administrative

aspects of the Liaison Office

Programme/Administrative Assistant

The Programme/Administrative Assistant position is located in office of the

Representative to AU/UNECA who is the head of the AU Liaison Office. The Assistant

provides research, administrative and secretarial support, maintaining full confidentiality

in all aspects of assignment, maintenance of protocol procedures, information flow and

follow up on deadlines and commitments made. The overall purpose of this post is to

ensure that the Representative to AU and UNECA, UNIFEM officials on mission, and

consultants, receive the immediate programmatic, and administrative support they need

to perform their functions and to enable the smooth functioning of the Office and

effective nurturing of partnerships. The incumbent works closely with the Finance and

Administrative Assistant.

94

Appendix 2

95

Appendix 3

98

Appendix 4

Johannesburg, 22 Jun 2012. Martin Bwalya highlights CAADP’s achievements as well as the crucial need to improve

institutional capacities if it was for CAADP’s results to be sustainable in the long run.

// Martin Bwalya of NEPAD agency

In an online interview with the Platform, the head of CAADP at the NEPAD agency, sketches out how the relationship

between donors and African partners could evolve in future, stressing the importance of local ownership and the

critical influence of the global financial crisis on development finances. The Comprehensive Africa Agricultural

Development Programme was a key actor in addressing food insecurity and boosting agricultural productivity in

Africa, says Bwalya.

Interview transcript

// CAADP implementation progress

Platform Secretariat: Thanks Martin, for giving us this interview opportunity and that you agreed for giving us your

own perspectives on the CAADP agenda and the implementation status. Many countries conducted roundtables so

far and did their sector planning and programming by now. Can you tell us where CAADP is right now in terms of

operationalisation on the ground?

Martin Bwalya: Thank you so much for this opportunity. Coming to your question, we have seen very rapidly

increasing momentum in terms of action at country level to engage in CAADP implementation. As we speak now, out

of the 54 countries we have over 40 countries formally engaging into CAADP implementation. Out of these over 40

countries, 30 have signed their national compact which is an important milestone in the process of CAADP

implementation. And out of those 30 countries, 23 have gone as far as finalising their investment plans as well as

going through what we call the independence technically review of their respective investment plan and investigating

and forecasting on the implementation of programmes along the priorities identified in these plans. Out of those 23,

we have about 9 to 15 countries that have had very significant financing into the specific programmes of their

investment plans. I should also mention that currently there is growing focus on supporting, strengthening and

aligning capacities at country level in terms of CAADP implementation. [...]

Probably you would like to have a little bit of concrete explanation on what is in essence going on behind these

investment plans, behind the compact. First of all, we see countries coming up in a very practically way to embrace

planning and [...] ultimately committing to evidence based analysis. Thus, planning systems and the capacities to plan

as well as the efforts for ensuring appropriate planning mechanisms are being strengthened and aligned.

Furthermore, we see a different conversation between the stakeholders, both in terms what the public sectors are

doing and also on how this is affecting the other state and non-state institutions around the common vision on

agricultural development. [...]

"[...] Governments are becoming much more realistic, much more definite in terms of what financing

agriculture means."

Another area to mention is commitment to inclusiveness, to collective responsibility and to look for synergies,

complementarities as well as adopting much more comprehensive strategies and programme support. We also see a

growing commitment or re-commitment to accountability in terms of asking ourselves about the results and critically

monitoring performances. So, robust discussions are appearing and these are very much linked into solid analysis

and solid evidence on what is happening. In addition, governments are becoming much more realistic, much more

definite in terms of what financing agriculture means. This also includes thoughts on how to use public sector

financing for raising additional private sector financing and supporting not just welfare directly but a broad based

social-economic growth agenda [...].

// CAADP to improve policy design

99

Secretariat: CAADP has been around for quite some time, now. Looking back at the progress that has been made so

far there is also obviously some criticism that could be taken, constructively. What could have been done better,

Martin?

MB: There are some elements that could have been done differently, could have been done better. For instance,

there could have been more forecast into policy directly, into policy elements in terms of strengthening policy

designed systems, in terms of assessing the quality of policies themselves and also in terms of ensuring broad based

analysis concerning the appropriateness of policies in place [...]. In addition, there could have been more deliberate

efforts in building the whole institutional architecture for supporting implementation based on multi-stakeholder

arrangements. [...] Apparently, in most countries it does emerge that with the investment plans in place, there is a

better position [...] to get an improved conversation for institutional arrangements and aspects. This is especially

important when beginning a conversation on policy issues which immediately becomes political and therefore difficult

to move ahead.

We also appreciate that there are discussions around how much we have emphasized domestic resources and

financing and how well we can actually support countries to look inward in terms of into the continent and into

countries about investment financing, about capacity for private sector financing. [...]

// Relationship CAADP-donors

Secretariat: We are talking about things that could have been done better. An important point about CAADP is that

there is a huge amount of investment that comes through the donors. So what would you say in terms of the

relationship with the donors? What could have been done better, from the donors' side and maybe also from the

NPCA's side towards the donors?

MB: Yes, one of the unique character items of CAADP is the issue around this relationship and financing.

"[...] Development financing [...] as we have known it in terms of development aid is not going to be the same

[...]."

One of the things that is really clear is that development financing – also on the background of the global financial

crisis and the current debt crisis in Europe – as we have known it in terms of development aid is not going to be the

same in terms of the amounts flowing but also concerning the instruments, the decisions, and the amendments.

Another thing we have discussed enormously is the issue of development effectiveness. In fact if you look into the

NEPAD principles and into the CAADP principles, you find statements calling for effectiveness in development

partnerships by acknowledging not only local African responsibilities and ownership but also by stressing that we

need much more mutual partnerships which are not just about support to the developing country or continent but look

at what is mutually gained out of that flow of resources either way. Therefore, what has been managed in NEPAD

and CAADP and the whole continent in terms of advancing CAADP implementation, is that countries are becoming

much clearer, much more definite and much stronger about sitting at the table and ask for a local, a national agenda

on agriculture. They also link this into evidence based analysis and enhance capacities for analysis to find that they

are able to engage in much more robust negotiations in terms of private sector financing, in terms of agenda setting

and in terms of what is the best way forward.

Especially in bilateral relationships there is still a lot that needs to be done on speaking the same language. I think we

have slogans that are very good and mean very well in terms of local ownership and development effectiveness but

the crucial question is how to translate these into reality. I also want to acknowledge here that we are talking about

partnerships and relationships that have build over several decades, so they are not going to go away in a flash.

Small but significant steps are being taken towards the issues mentioned but these are fragile and they can

disappear due to inappropriate interventions and policy decisions and that is why we want to look through CAADP in

detail for identifying these small significant steps and actually ensure that they are supported and strengthened, so

that we can bring such practices to a critical mass for spreading their value [...].

100

// Institutional reforms around CAADP

Secretariat: Just one more thing, what comes to my mind here is the question whether CAADP can actually succeed

without any substantial institutional change? What do you think, both on the African institution side and the donor

institution side? Or do you think that this is actually an ideological question?

MB: No, I think this is what we are dealing with in sustaining the CAADP momentum. What you are saying there is

inherent in the principles and targets of CAADP looking for transformation.

"[...] The issue of institutional transformation, institutional reform is the co-foundation for taking CAADP and

development forward."

We are getting financing enough to deliver results but we also need to sustain what we are achieving. For this, the

issue of institutional transformation, institutional reform is the co-foundation for taking CAADP and development

forward. In fact a lot of what I mentioned in the beginning in terms of what is being achieved on the background of the

investment plans is linked to this transformation agenda and that is why we are saying we have to look at the policies

now, we have to look at the institutions because without that you can achieve six per cent growth but you are not able

to sustain it. Therefore, even if the whole equation changes it is not just about achieving six per cent, it is about

building the capacity to sustain six per cent.

101

Appendix 5

Focus Group Discussion with Women farmers association of the Jawwee multipurpose

cooperative

The Jawwee multipurpose cooperative was created and registered in 1991 in the Nano Jewe

kebele in the Sabata Awash district in the Oromiya region of Ethiopia. The aim of this

cooperative is to bring farmers in the community together to enable them speak with one voice,

sell farm produce and get access t farm input. Although open to all farmers, it is a male

dominated cooperative with a negligible number of women farmers. It has a total of 1161 active

members with only 155 women. The few women within this cooperative have the desire to send

their children to school and t see development in their community but are not getting the same

benefit from the cooperative as the men, in view of this; they are trying to organize themselves

into a self-help group.

According to the women’s organizer, nothing separate them from the men as far as the work is

concerned, they participate equally with men and do the same thing as the men in the field but

do not get any access to loans to support their agricultural activities since they joined the

cooperative. They were once told they had received some amount from the Norwegian Agency

for Development Cooperation (NORAD) but the money was used by “other” and never got to

them. Because they are not able to access loans, they save 2 birr every month and in addition

to the little money they get from the sales of certain products are able to support and motivate

each other.

Another challenge raised by the women is the lack f training on how to raise productivity. They

do not hear of such trainings, they are usually not able to participate due to some reasons which

include their busy schedules at home, except for the group leader who sometimes participate

with the men and come back to teach them what she has learnt.

Although they are told they could get access to certain benefits from the regional and district

offices such support never reach them. They are always told the cooperative have already

received what is due them.

The cooperative is managed by only men, therefore decisions are made by the men and the

women have no choice than to accept them. The men are the only people who represent the

cooperative during meetings at the woreda (municipal administrative) office so the women don’t

know what is actually going on in terms of policies, benefits, trainings etc.

An interview with one of the cooperative leader’s revealed the fact that women are invited for

meetings but they are not able to participate because busy schedule with their household

chores but also their inability to influence the decision given their lack of education.

As women’s farmer’s association, the women are not able to access services from the district

offices because the authorities say they are not well organised. This notwithstanding, they are

also not providing us with the Development Agent who will help us to get organised in the way

that is expected of us.

102

Appendix 6

Interview with the President of the Bonayyaa multipurpose cooperative

The Bnayyaa multipurpose cooperative was created and registered in 1991 in the Kejima

kebele in the Sabata Awash district in the Oromiya region of Ethiopia. The aim of this

cooperative is to bring farmers in the community together to enable them speak with one voice,

sell farm produce and get access to farm input. This is another male dominated cooperative

with a negligible number of women farmers although membership is sad to be open to all

farmers; it is a male dominated cooperative. It has a total of 1210 active members with only 105

women. The cooperative has a nine member executive board with only one woman, this they

describe as necessary for democratic decision making prcess.

In an interview with the president of this cooperative on why more women are not brought on

board, the president stated that “one of the main reasons women don’t participate actively in the

cooperative management and activities is our backwardness. The second is the place we give

our women in our society; we still have a problem seeing the woman as capable of making

relevant decision and thirdly is the fact that we are not all educated. Plus the training given to

women is very low even when there is a gathering not that many women show up because of

ther busy schedules and other engagements at home. Even the place women get on the policy

though it is on paper the implementation is very low. For eg if we take the member of women in

this cooperative its very low.

In terms of technical support, members of the cooperative all get training provided by the

developments agents (who are all men though) based on individual and collective agricultural

development plan; he stated that “We make our plan for the year. There is a development agent

that helps us. The training is conducted by group. There is also individual planning but that

depends on my personal farm and my own budget. For eg if i want to raise livestock it depends

on the money i have but the development agent just gives me the training. but if i say i want to

farm 2 hectars since i am the one that knows my farm i am the one that prepares my plan with

my family. if we don’t understand how to implement the plan they help us individually. The other

way is that, there is something called main development plan. It has 20-30 members for

example in this kebele they have 14 teams and 3 big teams that is distinguished by zone. It

encompasses from 150-200 farmers. These teams have leaders, the team that has 20-30

members has 5 leaders and those that have from 150-300 members have 7 leaders from these

in the zone there is one developmental agent. And in those 5 leaders a person who can read

and write helps them by getting in contact with the development agent who sometimes go from

house to house.

Additionally: it is said earlier that there is a group leader and in the kebele there are 3 zones

with a leader, secretary and a DA. They draft the plans and after the plans there are team

developments which constitute 5 members who develop a plan to plant the different seeds on a

particular farm. So in effect, everybody has an individual household plan which goes to kebele

and from the kebele to the woreda.

103

Appendix 7

ETHIOPIA PIF LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

105

Appendix 8

110

Appendix 9

Sub-Component one of the Agricultural Production and Commercialization (Component

one of the Ethioipa’s Agricultural Growth Programme)

Sub component 1.1: Institutional Strengthening and Development

Sub-component Overview

The objective of this sub component is to strengthen key public advisory services to be more

demand driven for enhanced productivity and value addition. The aim is to create favorable

opportunities to access technical support and inputs for smallholders to transform agriculture

from a subsistence mode of production to a more market-oriented production system.

Establishing and strengthening ARDPLACs

An effective agricultural development and delivery system requires a good linkage among all

actors of rural development. Linkage among research, extension and development partners is

among the many factors that enhance agricultural development. AGP recognizes the

Agricultural and Rural Development Partners Linkage Council (ARDPLCs) as a multi

stakeholder mechanism that enhances technology progress. Thus the program has a plan to

support establishment and strengthening of ARDPLACs at all levels with due focus at woreda

level to promote participatory need-based service delivery. It is likely that effective linkage

strategies among development partners will enable to promptly respond to client priority needs

and cope with routine challenges.

MoARD has already been undertaking the establishment and strengthening of ARDPLCs with

the support provided from projects like RCBP. At woreda level members include: woreda

administrator, woreda agriculture and rural development, research center (if any), cooperative

union, farmers representative, youth association representative, women association

representative, model farmer, education, health water resource, development bank, micro-

finance institutions, NGOs providing agricultural extension, private sectors, public and private

input providers. The woreda council will meet on quarterly basis while the woreda ARDPLA

members meet on monthly basis or as deemed necessary. Duties and responsibilities of woreda

ARDPLAC among others include.

Seek immediate solutions to critical problems that are constraining agricultural development

Assessing and identifying problems/bottlenecks of wereda agricultural development activities in

different development areas, resolving problems and forwarding outstanding problems to the

zone council;

By creating a working relation with research centers in the wereda and nearby areas, proposing

problem areas for research;

Devising and implementing strategies for the timely provision of agricultural development

supporting technologies and inputs in the required volume and quantity; and

111

Planning and implementing the establishment of farmer-research-extension teams by organizing

farmers around the training centers.

The program will finance the following activities:

Establishing ARDPLCs in AGP woredas where the council is not there,

Strengthening of the councils with working facilities

Facilitating regular meetings, workshops and information and communications.

The detail of ARDPLAC duties and responsibility is described in Annex I Guideline for Woreda

Agricultural and rural Development partner Linkage Advisory Council (ARDPLACs)

Strengthening of key public advisory organizations

Strengthening agricultural extension service

Agricultural extension will primarily focus on promotion of best practices in a demand driven

approach in all areas of agricultural development through bringing attitudinal changes,

alleviating technical and skill gaps through capacity improvement at all levels and making

available agricultural technologies and inputs.

The program will focus on strengthening of the existing extension delivery system following the

National Participatory Agricultural Extension Guideline 168 (Annex II). To enhance a more

efficient and effective extension service, AGP finance the following intervention areas:

Upgrading the skill of the extension workers to alert about the dynamics of the farming systems

in their target areas and provide technical services to the community to transform existing

traditional farming systems into modern and high value crop and livestock production systems.

Development Agents (DAs), supervisors and Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) will acquire

adequate skill and knowledge about the high value agricultural commodities and value addition

so as to provide the desired technical support to the farming community. This is to build

technical capacity of stakeholders for planning, implementation and monitoring of agricultural

growth program with community participation based on demand driven and value chain

approach. All sorts of trainings and experience sharing visits will be organized based on the

evaluation and appropriate planning on knowledge and skill gaps that critically hamper AGP

implementation.

Training farmers groups, associations and cooperatives (or Common Interest Groups) focusing

on resource assessment, enterprise planning and development, and asset operation and

maintenance. This would include sub-project preparation, appraisal, implementation,

supervision and monitoring and evaluation.

Furnishing woreda offices with computers and training facilities

168

MOARD, Participatory Agricultural Extension System, February 2008

112

Equip FTCs with basic infrastructure of demonstration materials such as improved farming

equipment and water management technologies, improved varieties and breeds, post harvest

technologies and value addition etc. (The operation manual for FTC is indicated in Annex III).

Provide FTC with an initial start up funding to successfully launch the demonstration processes.

This will include funds to cover seed, fertilizer, improved breeds, labor and other operating

costs.

Encourage the FTC management committees for the over all management of resources for the

demonstrations through trainings and exposure visits. For the management of FTCs and detail

activities to be carried out reference could be made to Annex III FTC guideline169.

Extension has to focus on improving production and productivity of priority commodities along

value chain. To do this planning should be made at extension/farmers group level and

consolidated at sub kebele and kebele levels and forwarded to Woreda Development

Management Committee. This will allow extension to be developed for each components of

program implementation area. It focuses on scaling up best practices, new technology transfer

and adaptation specific to agro-ecological conditions and market opportunities. Table 2 shows

the planning for the extension service delivery. Crop extension should focus on testing of new

crop varieties, demonstrating that perform well and helping channel demands for the production

of the most popular and widely-adapted to the formal seed system170 (see also Annex II).

Strengthening of soil testing laboratories

In Ethiopia soils are poor in fertility with wide spread deficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus and

other nutrients. In many of the farm lands top soils have been eroded and soil fertility

management in general is very poor. The fertilizer consumption in Ethiopian is also very limited

and farmers are not using required quantities of chemical fertilizer and therefore crop production

and productivity remain stagnant and low. Most of the soil testing centers are lacking desired

level of skill with respect to soil analysis techniques, interpretation of soil test results, fertilizer

calibration, and data processing for delineation of deficient areas.

The program will support study and implementation of recommendations on specific soil

reclamation and fertility improvement measures which include: strengthening of national and

regional soil testing laboratories, amelioration of acidic soils through strengthening lime

production centers and bio-fertilizer production.

Strengthening Animal and Plant Health services

Agricultural development is highly constrained, amongst other important factors, by a wide

spectrum of diseases and pests. The widespread influence of diseases and pests and animal

parasites affects production through increased losses and affects productivity through slow

growth and limited production. In the absence of effective animal and plant health services it the

quality and quantity of agricultural products will be seriously affected.

169

MOARD, FTC guideline, October 2009 170

Assessment of the formal seed system in Ethiopia, Report, October 2nd

, 2009

113

Increasing crop and livestock production and productivity and thereby the incomes and living

standards of smallholder farmers through the progressive control of economically important

animal and plant diseases and pests ensuring progressive improvement in quality and quantity

of crop and livestock products and increasing foreign exchange earnings of the country from

export of plant and animal products by meeting international standard and requirements are the

main focus of the Government, MoARD. Thus, the program will support the following activities

and other farmers proposed sub projects:

Strengthening animal and plant health clinics in facilities, field equipments, human resource

development (short to medium term training of staffs, tours and visits, etc);

Strengthen the existing animal health posts per 3 kebele

Training of Community Animal Health Workers and farmers;

Strengthening the disease surveillance and diagnostic capability of regional laboratories in

facilities, lab equipments, training etc;

Strengthening of farmer’s organizations

Strengthening of formal farmers organizations

Formal groups are registered groups and are legal entities which are created to carry out

specific tasks to help the organization achieve its objective which include: cooperatives, unions,

federations associations etc. With regard to strengthening cooperatives, the program will

engage in the following activities:

Support organizing farmers into farmers group and service cooperatives

Support organizing cooperatives/unions in crops, coffee, milk and milk products, mining, and

fruits and vegetables;

Support organizing savings and credit cooperatives

Encouraging cooperatives to increase production and productivity as well as help the

development of agro processing services;

Supporting execution and implementation capacity development, and Skill training will be given

to members of cooperative organization, leadership and employed staffs.

Establishing and strengthening of informal farmers organizations

AGP attempts to form and strengthen informal Farmers Groups along some common interest as

the key instrument for social mobilization and community-level institution building. The major

aim of organizing informal farmers group is for promotion of group enterprises as a means of

income generation for group members. Informal groups are unregistered but have their own by

laws. These groups should be self-reliant, sustainable and linked to each other and to service

114

providers. Their empowerment is therefore critical to the success of development efforts.

Development Agents should therefore consider the initial development of the group as an

equally vital extension activity. Under this the program will provide support to women group,

youth group and common interest group.

Support to women group: AGP will organize interested women farmers into specific types of

commodity based producer groups to enable them to engage in different enterprises. Small

scale and women farmers who have already begun producing different fruits, vegetables,

spices, eggs, broilers, milk, and other high value products can begin working together in setting

up efficient marketing chains that can supply these different products to the markets. DAs,

supervisors and SMSs at the woreda level need to understand both how to organize farmers

into groups and how to develop appropriate supply chains for these groups.

Support to youth group: The program will also organize the youth into different business

groups based on their interest and existing potential and provide training, technical and material

support. During local level planning exercise in each of the kebeles, a separate planning

exercise will be carried out for youth to identify potential sub projects that could benefit them.

Common interest farmers group: Common interest farmers group are groups that are formed

to undertake group enterprises that could help them generate an income. During community

level participatory planning farmers will be sensitized on the objective and activities of AGP.

Concurrently, farmers both men and women will be encouraged to establish groups for

production, processing, value addition and marketing. The program will support the groups with

common interest through training on group formation, group management, financial

management, micro planning, group enterprise management and provision of market

information.

Table 1: Main Activities and Outputs Institutional strengthening and development

Sub-component 1.1: Institutional strengthening and development

Responsible Organization/Department:

Lead Organization: MOARD/Agricultural Extension Directorate

Supporting Organizations: Regional BoARD, Cooperative Agency

Budget Allocated: US$ 33,168.01 million

Sub-component Objectives: The objective of this sub component is to strengthen the

capacity of public advisory services and grassroots organizations to enhance agricultural

production and commercialization.

Main Activities:

carry out workshops and meetings for the establishment and strengthening of

115

ARDPLACS

undertake demonstration of proven technologies at FTCs

furnishing FTCs with training facilities and equipment

Furnishing woreda offices with computers and training facilities

Establishment of women, youth and common interest groups

Strengthening primary, multipurpose, RUSACCOs and cooperative unions and

recommending improvement measures,

Strengthening of existing kebele and sub kebele level AGP planning and implementing

units,

Strengthening of national and regional soil testing laboratories

Strengthening animal and plant health clinics

Strengthening of lime production and establishment of bio-fertilizer production

Strengthening and establishing of formal and informal farmers organization.

Outputs

83 workshops and 1660 meetings carried out and ARDPLACs become operational

2324 FTCs furnished with training facilities and equipments and undertake

demonstration of proven agricultural productivity improvement technologies

83 woreda offices provided with computers and other office facilities

2324 youth, women and common interest group established

2324 kebele development committee and 4800 sub keble development committee

strengthened

83 animal health clinics, eleven plant health clinics and 320 animal health posts

strengthened

Eleven soil laboratories strengthened and furnished with lab equipment and chemicals

Six lime production centers strengthened and four bio-fertilizer production centers

established.

Number of formal and informal farmer’s organization established and strengthened.

116

Outcome Indicators:

Number of ARDPLACs established, strengthened and become operational

Number of FTCs furnished with training facilities and carried out demonstration on new

technologies

Number of computers and other office facilities purchased and supplied to woreda

offices

Number of kebele and sub kebele development committee strengthened

Number of soil samples tested, amount of lime and bio-fertilizer produced

Number plant and animal health clinics strengthened.

Monitoring, Reporting and Evaluation Arrangements.

Monthly, quarterly and yearly progress reports.

Field verification by project personnel

117

Appendix 10

118

Appendix 11

STRATEGIC RESPONSE to AFRICAN FOOD SECURITY CHALLENGES

120

Appendix 12

AFRICAN UNION

UNION AFRICAINE

UNIÃO AFRICANA

Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA P. O. Box 3243 Telephone 517 700 Cables: OAU, ADDIS ABABA

SOLEMN DECLARATION ON GENDER EQUALITY IN AFRICA

We, the Heads of State and Government of Member States of the African Union, meeting in the Third

Ordinary Session of our Assembly in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from 6-8 July 2004:

Reaffirming our commitment to the principle of gender equality as enshrined in Article 4 (l) of the

Constitutive Act of the African Union, as well as other existing commitments, principles, goals and

actions set out in the various regional, continental and international instruments on human and women’s

rights, including the Dakar Platform for Action (1994), the Beijing Platform for Action (1995), the

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW - 1979), the

African Plan of Action to Accelerate the Implementation of the Dakar and Beijing Platforms for Action

for the Advancement of Women (1999); the Outcome Document of the Twenty-third Special Session of

the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for

Action (2000); UN Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security; and the Protocol to the

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003);

Standing by our Decision on gender parity taken at the Inaugural Session of the AU Assembly of Heads

of State and Government in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa implemented during the Second Ordinary

Session of the Assembly in Maputo, Mozambique, 2003 through the election of five female and five male

Commissioners;

Noting with satisfaction that our Decision on gender parity is a historic achievement that does not yet

exist in any other continent or regional organizations;

Re-affirming our commitment to continue, expand and accelerate efforts to promote gender equality at

all levels;

Determined to build on the progress that we have achieved in addressing issues of major concern to the

women of Africa;

Taking cognizance of the landmark decision to adopt the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and

Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa during the Second Ordinary Session of the Assembly

in Maputo, Mozambique, 2003;

121

Noting the decision of the Chairperson of the African Union Commission to transform the African

Women’s Committee on Peace and Development (AWCPD) into the African Union Women’s Committee

(AUWC), which will be located in the Gender Directorate and serve as an Advisory Body to the

Chairperson on Gender and Development;

Recognizing that major challenges and obstacles to gender equality still remain and require concerted and

collective leadership and efforts from all of us including networks working on gender and development;

Deeply concerned about the status of women and the negative impacts on women of issues such the high

incidence of HIV/AIDS among girls and women, conflict, poverty, harmful traditional practices, high

population of refugee women and internally displaced women, violence against women, women’s

exclusion from politics and decision-making, and illiteracy, limited access of girls to education;

Aware of the policies and programmes we have put in place to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS pandemic as

well as the current challenges in this campaign;

Concerned that, while women and children bear the brunt of conflicts and internal displacement,

including rapes and killings, they are largely excluded from conflict prevention, peace-negotiation, and

peace-building processes in spite of African women’s experience in peace-building;

Aware of the fact that low levels of women’s representation in social, economic and political decision-

making structures and feminisation of poverty impact negatively on women’s ability to derive full benefit

from the economies of their countries and the democratization process;

Aware of the digital divide between the North and the South, men and women and the role of information

telecommunication technologies (ICTS) in the advancement of the gender issue as stated in the e-gender

Forum Declaration of Tunis, May 2004 in preparation for the World Summit on Information Society

(WSIS) 2005;

HEREBY AGREE TO:

Accelerate the implementation of gender specific economic, social, and legal measures aimed at

combating the HIV/AIDS pandemic and effectively implement both Abuja and Maputo Declarations on

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Other Related Infectious Disease. More specifically we will ensure

that treatment and social services are available to women at the local level making it more responsive to

the needs of families that are providing care; enact legislation to end discrimination against women living

with HIV/AIDS and for the protection and care for people living with HIV/AIDS, particularly women;

increase budgetary allocations in these sectors so as to alleviate women’s burden of care;

Ensure the full and effective participation and representation of women in peace process including the

prevention, resolution, management of conflicts and post-conflict reconstruction in Africa as stipulated in

UN Resolution 1325 (2000) and to also appoint women as Special Envoys and Special Representatives of

the African Union;

122

Launch, within the next one year, a campaign for systematic prohibition of the recruitment of child

soldiers and abuse of girl children as wives and sex slaves in violation of their Rights as enshrined in the

African Charter on Rights of the Child;

Initiate, launch and engage within two years sustained public campaigns against gender based violence

as well as the problem of trafficking in women and girls; Reinforce legal mechanisms that will protect

women at the national level and end impunity of crimes committed against women in a manner that will

change and positively alter the attitude and behaviour of the African society;

Expand and Promote the gender parity principle that we have adopted regarding the Commission of the

African Union to all the other organs of the African Union, including its NEPAD programme, to the

Regional Economic Communities, and to the national and local levels in collaboration with political

parties and the National parliaments in our countries;

Ensure the active promotion and protection of all human rights for women and girls including the right to

development by raising awareness or by legislation where necessary;

Actively promote the implementation of legislation to guarantee women’s land, property and inheritance

rights including their rights to housing;

Take specific measures to ensure the education of girls and literacy of women, especially in the rural

areas, to achieve the goal of “Education for All” (EFA);

Undertake to Sign and ratify the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the

Rights of Women in Africa by the end of 2004 and to support the launching of public campaigns aimed at

ensuring its entry into force by 2005 and usher in an era of domesticating and implementing the Protocol

as well as other national, regional and international instruments on gender equality by all States Parties;

Establish AIDS Watch Africa as a unit within the Office of the Chairperson of the Commission who

should render annual report on HIV/AIDS situation in the continent during annual Summits; and promote

the local production of anti-retroviral drugs in our countries;

Accept to establish an African Trust Fund for Women for the purpose of building the capacity of African

women and further request the African Union Commission to work out the modalities for the

operationalisation of the Fund with special focus on women in both urban and rural areas;

Commit ourselves to report annually on progress made in terms of gender mainstreaming and to support

and champion all issues raised in this Declaration, both at the national and regional levels, and regularly

provide each other with updates on progress made during our Ordinary Sessions;

We request the chairperson of the African Union Commission to submit, for our consideration, an annual

report, during our ordinary sessions, on measures taken to implement the principle of gender equality and

gender mainstreaming, and all issues raised in this Declaration both at the national and regional levels.

DEDICATION

Documents

Transcript of DEDICATION