Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams

CRITICAL COMPANION TO

Tennessee Williams

CRITICAL COMPANION TO

GRETA HEINTZELMAN

ALYCIA SMITH-HOWARD

Tennessee Williams

Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams

Copyright © 2005 by Greta Heintzelman and Alycia Smith-Howard

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataHeintzelman, Greta.

Critical companion to Tennessee Williams : the essential reference to his lifeand work / Greta Heintzelman, Alycia Smith-Howard.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8160-4888-6 (hardcover : alk. paper)

American—20th century—Biography—Encyclopedias. I. Smith-Howard,Alycia. II. Title.

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For our mothersand in memory of Jennifer

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments viii

Introduction ix

Part I: Biography 1

Part II: Works A–Z 17

Part III: Related Entries 337

Part IV: Appendices

Chronology of Life and Works 383

Festivals, Internet Resources, and ImportantLibraries for Research on Williams 387

Bibliography of Williams’s Works 389

Bibliography of Secondary Sources 401

Index 413

Special thanks are due first and foremost to ourtwo contributing researchers/writers, Sabine C.

Bauer and Sarah E. Cook, for their tireless effortsand ceaseless enthusiasm; Jeff Soloway, our editor,and Danielle Bonnici, his assistant, at Facts OnFile, for their patience and sharp eyes; and ourever-supportive literary agent, Elizabeth Frost-Knappman (New England Publishing Associates).

Our thanks are also due to the librarians and ref-erence staff of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection,New York Public Library; Bobst Library, New YorkUniversity; University of Memphis Library; MountHolyoke College Library; Sophia Smith Rare BookLibrary, Smith College; Cornell University Library;Rare Book and Manuscript Library at ButlerLibrary, Columbia University; Harry RansomCenter, University of Texas at Austin; Monroe

County Public Library, Key West, Florida; and theKey West Art and Historical Society.

We are indebted to the following individualswithout whose support this work would not havebeen possible: Lois Brown, Dorothy H. Schnare,Jeanine M. Akers, Tom Lisanti, Helen M. Whall,Asalé Angel-Ajani, David Schuller, Sean Scheller,Carol and Marilyn Huffman, Vivian S. Howard,Clydia Warrix Heintzelman, Claudia L. Pen-nington, Steve Pratt, Laurie Callahan, E. FrancesWhite, Ali Mirsepassi, Sheila Thimba, LaurinRaiken, Michael Dinwiddie, Nick Lycos, KatheAnn Joseph, Sally Suttherland, Donal O’Shea,David Wolkowsky, Dann Dulin, Nydia Ferguson,Beth Weinert, Genevieve Davila, Jean Disrud,Candace Whitaker, Don Booth, and DavidFelstein.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

ix

Twenty years after his death, Tennessee Williamswas heralded in USA Today as “the hottest

playwright in America” (October 22, 2003). ElyssaGardner’s commentary in this publication revealedpopular culture’s recognition of the critical reassess-ment of Williams that has been percolating withinthe theater and the academy for many years.Williams is finally being acknowledged as America’sgreatest and most prolific playwright. Although hisworks are, and have always been, an integral part ofthe American literary, theatrical, and popular land-scape, we are now witnessing a resurgence in the vis-ibility and appreciation of his literary achievement.

Williams’s literary career spanned a period ofmore than 40 years, and the sheer magnitude andvolume of his artistic ambition make his work aninexhaustible study. Despite numerous critical andcommercial failures in the latter part of his life,Williams never suppressed his drive to write and cre-ate. From childhood to the day he died, Williamswrote. He penned some 45 full-length plays and 60shorter dramas, as well as screenplays, short stories,letters, essays, and volumes of poetry. Previouslyunpublished materials held in special collections andarchives across the United States are being regularlyuncovered, produced, and published by eager literaryscholars and theatrical producers. Williams’s cre-ative genius continues to thrive, long after his death.

Noted for his poetic lyricism and often brutalfrankness, Williams is celebrated as a “poet of thehuman heart” and as the “Laureate of the Outcast.”Loneliness, social isolation, and the conflictbetween repression and release are primary themes

in Williams’s works, which are also characterized byeloquent dialogue and richly complex characters.Each of Williams’s works challenges readers’ per-ceptions of style, structure, society, and the mean-ing of literature, drama, theater, humanity, and,ultimately, life itself. The range of his dramatic andliterary style is incomparable. Williams consistentlytested the limits of realistic writing and theatricalproduction. His first major success, The GlassMenagerie, ushered in a new age of Americandrama and theater. Throughout his life, he contin-ued to experiment with new forms and innovativetechniques of expressionism to create a suitablyvibrant world for his volatile characters.

His heroes, heroines, and antiheroes, such asBlanche DuBois, Maggie the Cat, Big Daddy,Amanda and Tom Wingfield, Stanley Kowalski, andBaby Doll, have become mythic figures in theAmerican collective and cultural psyche. Beyondthese well-known figures, the Williams canon is anunparalleled universe of intrinsically human char-acters: brave and battered, flawed and fallible, yetever hopeful. From the vindictive landladies of suchworks as Angel in the Alcove and Vieux Carré, thecrippled child of The Chronicle of a Demise, and thetormented artists of At Liberty, Orpheus Descending,In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel, and The Notebook ofTrigorin to the feuding brothers of Kingdom of Earthand the quarreling friends of And Tell Sad Stories ofthe Death of Queens, Something Cloudy, SomethingClear, and Clothes for a Summer Hotel, Williamschronicles humanity in all its diverse and oftenpainful complexity.

The American South, particularly the land-scape of rural Mississippi, is featured prominentlyas a setting and background throughout theWilliams canon. The Southern landscapes thatappear in his works are invested with his deep-setaffection and disdain for the region. In his worksthis part of the world is simultaneously reveredand reviled as “the beauty spot of creation,” and asa “dragon country, the country of pain . . . anuninhabitable country which is inhabited.” Butalthough he was Southern in his upbringing andoutlook, Williams’s voice and vision exposeddeferred American myths and dreams beyond hisregional locale.

As Lyle Leverich notes in his exceptional biogra-phy Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams, althoughWilliams was so distinctly American in his art, “noother American dramatist is more universally recog-nized, admired or produced.” In Russia, Williams isthe second most often produced playwright afterAnton Chekhov. Williams’s major plays (The GlassMenagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a HotTin Roof, and The Night of the Iguana) are in contin-ual revival across the United States and abroad, onBroadway, in the West End of London, and in count-less regional theaters (not to mention college, uni-versity, and community theaters). Several theatercompanies across the United States have recentlydedicated themselves to producing the Williams dra-matic canon in its entirety over the next 10 years(Hartford Stage Company in Hartford, Connecticut;the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, Minnesota; andthe Shakespeare Theatre in Washington, D.C.), andno fewer than three major Broadway revivals ofWilliams’s plays have been scheduled through theyear 2010.

The revival of interest in Williams can be credit-ed to a shift in critical, social, and cultural attitudes.It is evident that throughout his career, Williamswas a theatrical maverick, a poetic revolutionarywho was clearly ahead of his time. There is now agreater appreciation for artistic experimentationand innovation. This new generation of TennesseeWilliams admirers are a testament to his acceptanceas a far more accomplished and pivotal writer thanprevious generations may have appreciated.

Although there are a variety of works dedicatedto the life and works of Tennessee Williams, littlehas been written about Williams’s literary output inits entirety. Much has been produced about partic-ular works, pivotal productions, films, and so forth,but there has long been a need for a book that cov-ers Williams’s life, characters, and works compre-hensively and cohesively. This book fulfills thatneed as an all-encompassing guide to Williams’sbody of work. In many cases this volume containsthe only significant critical commentary availableon numerous lesser-known Williams works, partic-ularly his fiction.

The primary goal of this volume is to assistreaders and students of Williams in their quest tounderstand, enjoy, and situate the works and lifeof this great American writer. It is also intended toprovide scholars and those already familiar withWilliams’s oeuvre a convenient one-volume refer-ence source. We are both literary scholars andactive theater professionals. This experience givesus a unique perspective on dramatic literature andthe nondramatic writings of a dramatist. Oursense of theory is tempered by our knowledge ofpractice and what Charles Marowitz calls “play-able values.”

Arranged alphabetically, the entries in this guideprovide critical information on a wide range of top-ics directly related to the study of Williams’s life andworks: publication and production histories, charac-ters, places, family, friends, artistic colleagues,themes, ideas, influences, and more. In addition, thisreference guide also couples extensive plot synopseswith engaging and accessible critical commentary.Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams is meant toserve as a research companion to enrich the reader’sexperience, and of course it is no substitute for theenjoyment of the dynamic works of America’s great-est dramatist themselves.

How to Use This BookPart I consists of a brief biography of Williams. PartII contains entries on Williams’s works, both majorand minor, in alphabetical order. The characters ineach work are listed as subentries within each workentry. Part III is made up of related entries on

x Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams

places, themes, topics, and people, includingactors, friends, relatives, literary influences, andmore. Part IV contains appendices, including achronology, a list of resources important to the

study of Williams’s life and works, a bibliography ofWilliams’s works, and a bibliography of secondarysources. Cross-references appear in SMALL CAPITALS.

Introduction xi

PART I

Biography

Williams, Tennessee(Thomas Lanier)(1911–1983)

A gifted and prolific writer, Williams produced acreative output that encompassed plays, novels,poetry, short stories, screenplays, and essays. Notedfor his poetic lyricism and vivid frankness, he wascelebrated as a “poet of the human heart” and the“Laureate of the Outcast” (Leverich, 5). Loneliness,social isolation, and the conflict between repressionand release are primary themes in Williams’sworks—which are also characterized by eloquentdialogue and incisive analyses of richly complexcharacters. The American South, particularly thelandscape or rural Mississippi, is featured promi-nently as a setting and background throughout hiswork. His major dramatic works include THE GLASS

MENAGERIE (1945), A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE

(1947), SUMMER AND SMOKE (1948), THE ROSE

TATTOO (1948), CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF (1955),SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH (1959), and THE NIGHT OF

THE IGUANA (1961).Born Thomas Lanier Williams III, in Columbus,

Mississippi, on March 26, 1911, he was the secondchild of EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS and COR-NELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS, and the first grandson ofROSINA OTTE DAKIN and the REVEREND WALTER

EDWIN DAKIN. His paternal ancestors included sev-eral distinguished leaders of the state of Tennessee,such as General John “Nolichucky Jack” Sevier(1745–1815), the state’s first governor, and JohnWilliams (1778–1827), the state’s first senator.Williams’s paternal grandfather, Thomas LanierWilliams II (1849–1908), was the Tennessee com-missioner of railroads and at one time made anunsuccessful run to be governor of the state. Hispaternal grandmother, Isabel Coffin (1853–84),traced her Sevier family lineage to the FrenchHuguenot descendants of Saint Francis Xavier.Williams was proud of his ancestry, which he classi-fied as “a little Welsh wilderness, a lot of PuritanEnglish and a big chunk of German sentiment.” Hisartistic sensibilities were also present in suchnotable ancestors as the poets Tristam Coffin and

SIDNEY LANIER (1842–81), known as “America’sSweet Singer of Songs.”

Williams’s father was a traveling representativefor the Cumberland Telephone Company when hemet Edwina Dakin. The rugged and blustering trav-eling salesman wooed the small-town belle, and afteran 18-month courtship they were married at SaintPaul’s Church on June 3, 1907. The bride’s fatherofficiated at the service. The couple spent their hon-eymoon in Gulfport, Mississippi, where theyremained for 18 months. This was the happiest timeof their life together. Their idyllic existence endedwith the news of Edwina’s first pregnancy and Cor-nelius’s change in employment. Tired of being tiedto a desk in Gulfport, Cornelius left CumberlandTelephone and accepted a traveling sales positionselling men’s apparel for Tate & Cowan. His returnto the road gave him the freedom he craved but leftEdwina lonely and alone. She returned to the refugeof her parents’ home in Columbus in 1909. She, andlater her children, would remain there for nearly a

Biography 3

Portrait of Tennessee Williams (Friedman-Abeles)

decade, with her husband visiting the family sporadi-cally on weekends.

On November 19, 1909, Edwina gave birth to theWilliamses’ first child, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS. Theirsecond child, Tom, followed on March 26, 1911.Rose and Tom’s grandfather, Walter Dakin, morethan adequately filled the void that resulted fromCornelius’s significant absences. The ReverendDakin was a powerful contrast to the children’sfather—he was a kindly, gentle, affectionate booklover who became the most important male figure intheir life. Rose and Tom flourished in the lovingparochial environmental of their grandfather’s rec-tory. In addition to their doting grandfather, grand-mother, and mother, Rose and Tom benefited fromthe care of a beautiful African-American nursenamed Ozzie, who enchanted the children with talesof magic and folklore.

In 1913, the family moved to Nashville, Ten-nessee, where the Reverend Dakin had accepted aministerial position at the Church of the Advent.The family returned to Mississippi two years later, in1915, when the Reverend Dakin accepted a post atSaint George’s Church, in Clarksdale. The Dakinswould remain in Clarksdale, Mississippi, until theReverend Dakin’s retirement in 1931. A far cryfrom the excitement of Nashville, the rural town ofClarksdale, Mississippi, with its cotton gins, silvermaples, and water oaks, would leave an indelibleimpression on the young Tom Williams. This localewould continually resurface in his writing through-out his life.

In the summer of 1916, at the age of five, Tomwas stricken with diphtheria and nearly died. Theepisode damaged his eyesight and left him paralyzedfor more than a year. This time of confinement sig-nificantly altered Tom: He changed from a ram-bunctious, bustling little boy to a more solitary,introverted child. He amused himself with imagina-tive and literary pursuits. He regained full use of hislegs in 1918, just as he, his mother, and his sisterwere set to join his father in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI.

Since 1916, Cornelius Williams had beenemployed by the INTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY

and was based in Saint Louis. In 1918, he wasoffered a managerial promotion within the firm atits Saint Louis headquarters. He sent for Edwina to

join him and to assist in finding a permanent familyresidence. Because of Tom’s recent and severe ill-ness, Edwina would not leave Mississippi withouthim. She and Tom made the journey to establishthemselves in Saint Louis, initially leaving Rosebehind with her grandparents. This episode wastraumatic for the family, and Tom endured thepainful experience of “being separated for the firsttime from those he loved best in the world” (Lev-erich, 45). Edwina shared her son’s anxieties. Notonly had she left the comfortable pastoral setting ofher parents’ home for one of the largest, mostindustrialized U.S. cities, but she was faced with thechallenge of living with Cornelius. Although sheand Cornelius had been married for quite sometime, they had essentially created separate livesthat only collided intermittently. They had onlylived alone together for 18 months. Edwina’s fearswere substantiated: From the start of their new lifein Saint Louis, she and Cornelius were “bitterly atodds and equally miserable” (ibid. 47).

The family first moved temporarily to a board-inghouse on Lindell Street, then settled in anapartment at 4633 Westminster Place. Williamsrecalled this location as a “perpetually dim littleapartment in a wilderness of identical brick andconcrete structures with no grass and no trees”(Cuoco, 195–96). It was a far cry from his child-hood in rural Mississippi. In this new locale Tomalso became aware of the fact that there were “twokinds of people, the rich and the poor, and that webelonged more to the latter” (ibid. 196). Thisbuilding has since been renamed the GlassMenagerie Apartments in Williams’s honor. Thefamily moved twice more, ending finally in acramped apartment at 6254 Enright Avenue. Thistenement building is in fact the model for theWingfield home in The Glass Menagerie.

The Williams home life was strained by their fre-quent relocations. This challenging scenario wasaugmented by Cornelius’s bombastic demeanor. Hedid not adjust well to the settled and responsiblelifestyle of a company middle manager. He yearnedfor the freedom of travel and the open road. Hecompensated by indulging in heavy drinking andweekend-long poker parties with his friends. Hisdrinking and gambling were an affront to Edwina’s

4 Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams

Southern sensibilities and were the source of fre-quent arguments between them. The atmospherewas volatile and frightening to Rose and Tom, whoalso suffered from their father’s temperament. Cor-nelius regarded Tom as a “sissy,” and he tauntedhim by calling him, “Miss Nancy.” All of this tookits toll on Edwina physically. During this time shesuffered a miscarriage, Spanish influenza, and a dif-ficult pregnancy with the Williamses’ third child,WALTER DAKIN WILLIAMS, who was born in 1919.

At age nine, the young Tom had still not adjustedto his new life in Saint Louis, he was not doing verywell in school, and his home life was dismal. It wasdecided that time with his grandparents might help.In 1920, he gleefully returned to Clarksdale, Missis-sippi. Here Tom explored his former home from anew perspective. He was able to discern that theSouth had a way of life that he would always remem-ber, as he would later recall, “a culture that hadgrace, elegance . . . an inbred culture . . . not a soci-ety based on money, as in the North” (Leverich, 54).As did his fellow Mississippian writer WilliamFaulkner, who immortalized the territory aroundSardis and Oxford, Mississippi, in his fiction as “Yok-napatawpha County,” Williams depicted Clarksdaleand its environs in his literary canon, often referringto the area as “Blue Mountain, Mississippi,” “Glori-ous Hill, Mississippi,” or “Two Rivers County.”

It was during this time that Williams encoun-tered many of the people, places, names, and eventsthat he would feature later in his dramas and fic-tions. One such figure was Mrs. Maggie Wingfield, amatron who owned several boardinghouses and anoted collection of glass ornaments and figurines,which she kept displayed in her front window;another was an elderly woman in Columbus, Missis-sippi, who was said to have in her possession a letterwritten by Lord Byron. This was a magical place andtime for young Tom, a time he never forgot. Theyear spent in Clarksdale captured his imaginationand sparked his creativity. This was his spiritualhome, as he explained, “home being where youhang your childhood . . . and Mississippi to me thebeauty spot of creation, a dark, wide, spacious landthat you can breathe in” (Kozlenko, 174).

After his glorious yearlong hiatus in Mississippi,Tom returned to his dreaded home in Saint Louis.

On Tom’s return, his sister, Rose, was offered a sim-ilar respite and was sent to spend a year with herDakin grandparents. Alone and dejected, Tomfound refuge and escape in reading and writing. Hismother bought him a secondhand typewriter, andhe began to compose poems and short stories. Hesubmitted poems to the Ben Blewett Junior HighSchool newspaper in 1925. However, his literarycareer officially began at age 16 with the publica-tion of his essay “Can a Wife Be a Good Sport?”which appeared in Smart Set magazine in May1927, followed by the publication of his short story“THE VENGEANCE OF NITOCRIS,” which was printedin Weird Tales magazine in August 1928.

The year 1928 also marked another pivotaloccurrence in Tom’s life. During this year, he joinedhis grandfather on his parish’s tour of Europe. Notonly was this another opportunity to escape theenvirons of Saint Louis and spend time with hisbeloved grandfather, it was his first important expe-rience of world travel. As an added bonus, beforethe tour group embarked from New York, Williamswas treated to his first Broadway performance. Hisfirst glimpse of the “Great White Way” was a pro-duction of Showboat.

In 1929, he graduated from Saint Louis’s Univer-sity City High School and enrolled at the UNIVER-SITY OF MISSOURI at Columbia with the intention ofstudying journalism. He was supported financially byhis grandmother, from her earnings as a privatemusic teacher. He wrote his first play, a one-act enti-tled BEAUTY IS THE WORD, and submitted it to theUniversity Dramatic Arts Club’s annual play compe-tition. His play received an honorable mention, andhe was the first freshman to receive such a distinc-tion. Inspired by the response to his first dramaticwork, Williams focused completely on his writing, tothe detriment of his overall academic standing.Within three years at the university he had receivedfour Fs. The last one was in the Reserve OfficersTraining Corps (ROTC). His father was outraged.Cornelius promptly pulled Tom out of the university,financed a short typing course for him, and obtaineda position for him as a clerk/typist at the warehouseof Continental Shoe Makers, a branch of the Inter-national Shoe Company, located at 15th and Del-mar Streets in Saint Louis.

Biography 5

Williams worked there from 1931 to 1934 andearned $65 per month. He detested the positionand referred to it as his “season in hell.” Thework was monotonous and tiring: dusting hun-dreds of pairs of shoes each morning, carryingheavy cases of them across town in the afternoon,and typing endless lists of figures. What he didenjoy about the position was the camaraderiewith his coworkers, the daily exchange of talkabout movies, stage shows, and radio programs.He structured his time so that whenever he wasnot at work, he wrote consistently. He oftenworked through the night to complete his self-imposed quota of one short story a week. Occa-sionally, he would write poetry on the lid of shoeboxes during the day at work. His time at theshoe warehouse was invaluable to him as a writer.He learned firsthand about the life of the white-collar worker trapped in a hopelessly routine job.The experience endowed him with a compassionfor the working class. Williams would eventuallydeduct the three years he spent at the Interna-

tional Shoe Company from his actual age, as hefelt he did not truly live during those years.

His sister Rose’s life was becoming increasinglydifficult at this time. By 1926, Rose had continuallysuffered from psychosomatic gastric trouble. Theirmother, Edwina, sought to remedy Rose’s ailmentsthrough a regular combination of church visits,social outings, and gentleman callers. Frustratedand mortified by Rose’s increasing hysteria,expressed in either outbursts or extreme withdrawal,her parents placed her in a private sanatorium in1929. During the early 1930s her mental statedeclined consistently, and the psychological coun-seling and therapy she received in 1936 seemed todo little to halt the process. The situation reacheda breaking point in the late 1930s, when sheaccused her father of being sexually abusive. TheWilliamses admitted their daughter to a state asy-lum in Farmington, where she was diagnosed withschizophrenia.

Tom escaped the trauma of his home life and thetedium of his job at International Shoe Company bymaking frequent visits to the theater and cinema.The principal legitimate theatre in Saint Louis atthis time was THE AMERICAN. The American fea-tured touring productions from Broadway and pro-vided local audiences with an opportunity to seeprominent actors, such as TALLULAH BANKHEAD

and LAURETTE TAYLOR, perform in exceptional pro-ductions. Williams regularly attended performancesat the American during this period, and his mostprofound experience there was seeing Alla Nazi-mova playing Mrs. Alving in HENRIK IBSEN’s Ghostsin 1934. Attending this production was a pivotalmoment in Tom’s life. He was completely enrap-tured by Ibsen’s play and Nazimova’s performance.Williams would later recall that this was the defin-ing moment when he knew that he must write forthe stage. (In a remarkable coincidence, EUGENE

O’NEILL had a similar experience in his youth. Inthe spring of 1907, O’Neill saw and was struck byhis first production of an Ibsen play. The productionwas Hedda Gabler, featuring Alla Nazimova in thetitle role.)

The monotony of Tom’s day-to-day existenceand lack of sleep from staying up to write all nightfinally took their toll in March 1935. He collapsed


Portrait of Tennessee Williams (Photograph courtesy ofthe Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

of exhaustion and was sent to recuperate with hisgrandparents. In the interim, the Dakins had relo-cated to Memphis, Tennessee. Tom stayed therewith his grandparents for several months, longenough to recover his strength, discover the worksof ANTON CHEKHOV, and coauthor a one-act play,CAIRO! SHANGHAI! BOMBAY!, with Dorothy BerniceShapiro, the daughter of his grandparents’ neigh-bor. This light comedy was produced by the GardenPlayers at Mrs. Roseboro’s Rose Arbor Theater, inMemphis, Tennessee, on July 12, 1935. The playand the production were modestly successful. Moreimportantly, however, through this experienceWilliams became instantly enamored of the laugh-ter and applause he could evoke in an audience.

He returned to Saint Louis during this same yearand won first prize in the Saint Louis Writers Guildcontest for his short story “Stella for Star.” In the fallof 1935 he enrolled in WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY inSaint Louis. There he became acquainted withanother young poet, CLARK MILLS MCBURNEY.McBurney, who would later publish under the nameClark Mills, shared Williams’s passion and ambitionfor writing. The two converted a section of Mills’sbasement apartment in Saint Louis into a writingstudio, which they called the “literary factory.”Williams was quite productive in his writing at thistime and was creating a career as a local dramatist.

Two of his short plays, THE MAGIC TOWER andHeadlines, were produced in Saint Louis by localamateur theater groups in 1936. The Magic Towerwon first place in a contest sponsored by the WebsterGroves Theatre Guild, and Headlines was producedby THE MUMMERS, a local amateur dramatics societydirected by Williard Holland. Williams recalled theMummers as being a dynamic, if disorderly, theatergroup who guided his “professional youth” (Cuoco,199). Encouraged by his work with the Mummers,Williams left Washington University to study play-writing with Professor EDWARD CHARLES MABIE atthe UNIVERSITY OF IOWA. Williams remained in con-tact with the Mummers, who produced his first full-length plays, CANDLES TO THE SUN and THE

FUGITIVE KIND, in Saint Louis in 1937.When Williams returned to Saint Louis from

Iowa City in 1937 to attend the Mummers’ produc-tion of The Fugitive Kind, he discovered that his

sister’s condition had reached a devastating conclu-sion. Diagnosed with schizophrenia and institution-alized at a state asylum in Farmington, Missouri,Rose had been subjected to electric shock therapyand other treatments since the summer of 1937.Doctors suggested a radical treatment to end Rose’strauma, and in November 1937, with her parents’consent, she had a prefrontal lobotomy. This inva-sive surgery left her practically autistic and in needof permanent institutionalization. The controversialprocedure was performed without Tom’s knowledge.He was only made aware of it when he returnedhome for the Mummers’ production and the Christ-mas holidays. He found his beloved sister perma-nently changed, resigned to a life that proved to belittle more than a “living death” (Londre, 7) as thesurgery had left her bereft of her personality andsense of identity. Tom would never forgive hismother for giving her consent for the operation andwould blame himself, for just as long, for not beinghome to prevent it. The entire family was completelyaltered by this episode. As Donald Spoto notes, “Lit-tle of Thomas Lanier Williams’s life after 1937 iscomprehensible without appreciating the awfulnessof [this] . . . irreversible tragedy” (Spoto 67, 68).Throughout his life and career, Tom would pay trib-ute to his dearly loved sister and retell her story.

Tom returned to the University of Iowa, wherehe continued his studies in playwriting under Pro-fessor Mabie. Their relationship was rocky, as Mabiehad taken a dislike to Williams and frequentlyteased and humiliated him. As had Tom’s father,Mabie often referred to him as a “sissy.” Williamscompleted two plays under Mabie’s tutelage, SPRING

STORM and NOT ABOUT NIGHTINGALES. Mabie gaveWilliams harsh criticism for both works. DespiteMabie’s ill treatment of Williams and his distaste forthe young dramatist’s early dramaturgy, Williamsrespected Mabie. He admired his intellect as well ashis contributions to the Federal Theatre Project(Mabie was the regional director as well as a found-ing designer of the Works Progress Administrationprogram). Tom completed his B.A. and graduatedfrom the University of Iowa in 1938. As had hismentor, Tom sought a place on the Works ProgressAdministration (WPA) Writers Project, first inChicago, Illinois, and then in NEW ORLEANS,

Biography 7

LOUISIANA. He was not offered a position with theWPA in either city; however, pursuit of a positionwith the WPA had taken Williams to his most piv-otal artistic home.

Williams moved to a boardinghouse owned byMrs. Louise Wire on 722 Toulouse Street, NewOrleans, in 1938. There the vibrant environment ofthe French Quarter became a major influence in hispersonal and artistic development. This bohemianlocale provided a community of fellow artisans andliberated Williams socially, artistically, and sexually.He would later describe New Orleans as “the para-dise of his youth” (Holditch, 194). Far from thepuritanical environment of his Saint Louis home,Williams was free to explore his craft and his sexual-ity within the confines of the French Quarter.Williams would later chronicle his experiences as ayoung artist living in the French Quarter in suchworks as “THE ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” THE LADY

OF LARKSPUR LOTION, and VIEUX CARRÉ. NewOrleans would also serve as the setting for numer-ous works, such as AUTO-DA-FÉ and A StreetcarNamed Desire.

During this time Williams successfully launchedhis dramatic career by submitting a collection ofthree one-act plays (MOONY’S KID DON’T CRY, THE

DARK ROOM, and THE CASE OF THE CRUSHED

PETUNIAS) under the title AMERICAN BLUES to anew play contest sponsored by THE GROUP THE-ATRE in New York City. Williams won a $100 prizefor his collection and drew the attention of the tal-ent representative AUDREY WOOD, who became hisagent. By the time the prize was awarded in 1939,Tom had left New Orleans, was traveling exten-sively, and was writing under his new pen name,“Tennessee.” During this year he published his firstwork, under his nom de plume, the short story“THE FIELD OF BLUE CHILDREN.” The same year“The Field of Blue Children” was published in Storymagazine, Not About Nightingales was produced inSaint Louis and Williams was awarded a $1,000grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. This wasalso the year that Williams made his first profes-sional visit to New York City. While there he saw aBroadway production of LILLIAN HELLMAN’s TheLittle Foxes. The production featured TallulahBankhead in a play centered on a traditional

Southern family at odds with modern changes ofthe “New South.”

His New York adventures and newly acquiredfunds sparked a desire to travel extensively. Histravels took him across the United States to Cali-fornia, where he spent time working on a poultryfarm, and to Taos, New Mexico, where he visitedFrieda Lawrence, widow of the English novelist D.H. Lawrence, one of Williams’s literary icons.Williams returned to New York in 1940. In Februaryof that year, his one-act play THE LONG GOODBYE

was produced at the New School for SocialResearch. This was the first New York production ofone of his works, and it sparked the Theatre Guild’sinterest in his new full-length play BATTLE OF

ANGELS. Williams spent the summer of 1940 revis-ing the play in Provincetown, Massachusetts. Therehe met a young Canadian dancer named Kip Kier-nan, who became his lover. He would later drama-tize the events of this summer in the late playSOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR.

Williams’s blissful summer was followed by awinter of discomfiture. Battle of Angels premiered atthe Wilbur Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts, onDecember 30, 1940, under the direction of MAR-GARET WEBSTER, starring Miriam Hopkins andWesley Addy. The opening night performance wasa complete disaster. More troubling than the criti-cal reaction to the play was the moral outrage thatquickly followed. The Boston City Councildenounced the play and called its presentation inthe city of Boston a criminal act. Webster and herproducers persuaded Williams to make changes tothe script. After his changes the production wasallowed to continue, but it closed only 17 daysafter its opening. After the disastrous Boston “try-out,” the Theatre Guild decided not to risk a runof the show in New York. At the tender age of 24,the young playwright’s career had been launchedwith a highly explosive start. Williams was shockedby the public’s response to the play and devastatedthat his career had taken such a blow. To com-pound his angst during this time, Williams also hadto have the first of several eye surgeries forcataracts in his left eye. Williams recuperated andrecovered from his first professional failure in KEY

WEST, FLORIDA.


He returned to New York in 1941; at that timeMoony’s Kid Don’t Cry was selected for publicationin The Best One-Act Plays of 1940. In 1942, theNew School of Social Research offered him his sec-ond New York production, this time of the one-actplay THIS PROPERTY IS CONDEMNED.

As do many young artists when just starting out,Williams struggled to make ends meet. He driftedwhere he could find work—work that would allowhim the freedom to write evenings and weekends—in such locales as New York; New Orleans; Macon,Georgia; and Jacksonville, Florida. He sustainedhimself for a few years working at odd jobs whiletrying to secure a place for himself as a writer. Dur-ing this time he waited tables and worked as an ele-vator operator, movie usher, and briefly as amessage decoder for the U.S. Department of Engi-neers. His luck began to change in 1943, whenAudrey Wood secured a contract for him as ascriptwriter in Hollywood, California, for METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER (MGM). The young Williamsfelt like a king earning a princely wage of $250 aweek as a full-time working writer.

Williams’s six-month contract with MGM wassimultaneously a dream come true and a night-mare. He was frustrated by studio politics—MGMsolidly rejected a screenplay he had worked onpainstakingly and to which he was desperatelycommitted. The screenplay, The Gentleman Caller,was largely autobiographical and was the basis forThe Glass Menagerie. Williams was also demoralizedby what he saw as the inane projects he was forcedto develop, such as a vehicle for the irritable childstar Margaret O’Brien, whom Williams found to bea rather loathsome version of Shirley Temple, andlightweight fare for the glamorous Lana Turner.Williams described the Turner project as fashioninga “celluloid brassiere” for a “grammar school dropout.” Williams’s attitude toward his work put himin hot water. He was removed from the film, sus-pended, and then fired. Fortunately, his name wasgaining currency in the theater. In October 1943,his collaboration with DONALD WINDHAM, on afull-length play inspired by the D. H. Lawrenceshort story “You Touched Me,” had been success-fully produced by the Cleveland Playhouse byMARGO JONES and then revived at the Pasadena

Playbox, in Pasadena, California. Notification thathe had also received a $1,000 award from theNational Academy of Arts and Letters was furtherindication that his star was on the rise. Williamsused the prize money to revise his screenplay, TheGentleman Caller, for the stage.

The year 1944 was a major turning point forWilliams. He completed the revisions of The Gentle-man Caller, now renamed The Glass Menagerie, dur-ing the summer of 1944. His agent, Audrey Wood,loved the work and submitted it to the actor-pro-ducer EDDIE DOWLING, who decided to codirect theplay with Margo Jones. JO MIELZINER was the pro-duction designer, and PAUL BOWLES composed theincidental music. Dowling secured the role ofWilliams’s self-portrait, the young artist-narratorTom Wingfield, for himself. Julie Haydon was castas Laura Wingfield, the delicate portrait ofWilliams’s sister Rose. The part of Amanda Wing-field, the dramatization of Williams’s mother,Edwina, went to the veteran theater star Laurette

Biography 9

Williams and his canine companions at his home inKey West, Florida (Don Pinder)

Taylor. The 60-year-old Taylor, who had recentlyretired from the stage since the death of her hus-band, was considered a risky choice by many. How-ever, after a rehearsal period dogged by problems,not the least of which was Taylor’s bouts with alco-hol, The Glass Menagerie opened for a trial run atthe Civic Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, on Decem-ber 26, 1944. Neither the date (the day afterChristmas) nor the raging blizzard that hit Chicagothat night was conducive to attracting audiences.By the afternoon of December 27, the box officehad taken in only $400, and the producers hadbegun to prepare a closing notice. CLAUDIA CAS-SIDY, the drama and music critic of the Chicago Tri-bune and one of the most influential critical voicesoutside New York, rescued The Glass Menagerie.Cassidy actively promoted the work, characterizingit as “a dream in the dusk and a tough little play[that] reaches out tentacles, first tentative, thengripping, and you are caught in its spell” (Cassidy,1944). Because of her enthusiasm, by mid-January1945 The Glass Menagerie was playing to sold-outhouses.

On March 31, 1945, The Glass Menagerieopened at the Playhouse Theatre in New York City.The production concluded to an extraordinary 25curtain calls and shouts for the author to appearon-stage. By the following Monday theatergoerslined the streets to purchase tickets. New Yorkreviewers were slightly more restrained than thosein Chicago, but they were unanimous in praisingLaurette Taylor’s performance and the overallimpact of the play. Less than two weeks after open-ing on Broadway, The Glass Menagerie garnered theNew York Drama Critics Circle Award and wasvoted the Best Play of 1945. Williams also won theSidney Howard Memorial Prize for the play. Withthis award-winning play Williams had created anew aesthetic for American theater, which hecalled PLASTIC THEATRE, a highly expressionist stagelanguage and style that would replace the standardconventions of realism.

The Glass Menagerie—which ran for a record561 performances in New York—transformed thelandscape of U.S. theater and Williams’s life. Theplay gave him the critical respect, popular acclaim,and financial success that he had long sought. On

March 2, 1945, Williams wrote to inform hismother that he was receiving $1,000 a week inincome from the play. He also informed her that hisgood fortune was also hers: Williams had assignedhalf of the royalties from The Glass Menagerie toher. The play that she had inspired sustained herfor the rest of her life and enabled her to realize herdream: independence from her husband, Cornelius.

After the spring of his first great success in NewYork, Williams retreated to Mexico for the summer.He spent his days at the Lake Chapala resort writingpoetry and working on a new play, another treat-ment of a Southern heroine suffering from the lossof and nostalgia for the Old South. Before settlingon the title A Streetcar Named Desire for his newwork, Williams had considered other options, suchas “Blanche’s Chair in the Moon,” “The Moth,”“The Primary Colors,” and “The Poker Night.” Hereturned to New York in September 1945 for theBroadway premiere of YOU TOUCHED ME! Since thesuccess of The Glass Menagerie, expectation washigh for Williams’s new play, a farcical comedyabout sexual liberation featuring the handsome ris-ing actor Montgomery Clift. You Touched Me! wasimmediately and unfavorably compared to Menag-erie, which was also still playing on Broadway, aboutthree blocks away. Williams responded to the luke-warm reviews by traveling and throwing himselfinto a new writing project, another treatment ofsexual repression and liberation, tentatively titled“Chart of Anatomy,” which was later revised asSummer and Smoke.

The new year, 1946, found Williams living inNew Orleans once again. There he celebrated thepublication of his one-act play 27 WAGONS FULL OF

COTTON. This period in New Orleans was highlyproductive, and Williams completed the short playTEN BLOCKS ON THE CAMINO REAL, and the shortstory “DESIRE AND THE BLACK MASSEUR” at thistime. By summer, he was on Nantucket, sharing acottage with CARSON MCCULLERS. Williams becameenamored of this fellow Southerner’s writing afterreading her novel The Member of the Wedding. Thetwo spent the summer of 1946 writing together,each at an end of a long dining table. McCullersworked on an adaptation of her novel for the stage,while Williams revised Summer and Smoke. In the


fall of that year, Williams returned to New Orleans,where he was joined by his 90-year-old grandfather,the Reverend Dakin. The elderly Dakin had lost hiswife (in 1944) and by now much of his eyesight. Hisgrandson was happy to provide him with a refugeaway from the bitter Williams household, where theReverend Dakin had been living since 1941.

The Reverend Dakin was accepting of his grand-son’s sexual orientation and immensely proud of hissuccess. During the year the Reverend Dakin spentliving with his grandson, Williams shared suchexotic locales as Key West, Florida, with his grandfa-ther. As his grandfather had taken him on his firsttrip to Europe in 1938, Williams treated his grandfa-ther royally during his stay with him. The ReverendDakin thoroughly enjoyed the rich, elite artisticworld they inhabited in New Orleans and elsewhere.For Williams, having his beloved grandfather by hisside was a source of “spiritual solace” (Spoto, 143).The year 1947 was also emotionally fulfilling forWilliams for another reason: It was during the sum-mer of this year that Williams met FRANK MERLO, ahandsome New Jersey–born navy veteran of Siciliandescent. He was to become the single most impor-tant love of his life. Williams and Merlo remainedcommitted life partners until Frank’s death in 1963.

This year also saw the premiere of Summer andSmoke, in Dallas, Texas, and of A Streetcar NamedDesire, on Broadway. A Streetcar Named Desire wasanother major success for Williams. The produc-tion, directed by ELIA KAZAN and featuring JESSICA

TANDY and MARLON BRANDO, ran for a record 855performances in New York (294 more thanMenagerie) and yielded a second New York DramaCritics Award and his first Pulitzer Prize. Williamsagain celebrated his success by traveling exten-sively. On this tour of Europe, Williams was accom-panied by Frank Merlo. Experiencing Italy in thecompany of an Italian was a remarkable adventurefor Williams, one for which he was forever grateful.Frank enabled him to appreciate Italian cultureintimately, and this opportunity had a profoundimpact on Williams’s writing. The experiencespawned his Italian-centered works, such as THE

ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE. (1950) and TheRose Tattoo (1951). On returning to the UnitedStates, Williams and Merlo settled in Key West.

The Reverend Dakin joined the couple at theirnew home there at 1431 Duncan Street.

In 1950, Williams’s estranged father, Cornelius,resurfaced in his life. In February of that year, Flairmagazine published one of Williams’s most autobio-graphical short stories, “THE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN

A VIOLIN AND A COFFIN.” Cornelius had apparentlycome across the story and was so outraged by itscontents that he wrote to his son’s agent, AudreyWood, and threatened legal action. In the letter heaccused his older son of being “a liar and an ingrate”(Spoto, 180). Cornelius ordered Wood to warn Tomthat if he ever made reference to him again in any ofhis writing, his father would “make him regret it aslong as he lives” (ibid.). Williams was bemused bywhat appeared to be his father’s somewhat delayedreaction to his son’s dramatization of the Williamshome life. It seemed ironic to Williams that thisshort story—in which his father is mildly chastisedas a “devilish” man who was hard to live with—hadsparked his father’s unmitigated rage. Cornelius hadbeen completely indifferent to The Glass Menagerie,which was clearly and openly autobiographical, withits cavalier and notoriously absent father figure. Nei-ther Williams nor Audrey Wood responded to Cor-nelius’s letter.

The Rose Tattoo opened on Broadway in 1951and won the Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award forBest Play. This same year a film version of A Street-car Named Desire, starring VIVIEN LEIGH, wasreleased. This landmark film won the New YorkFilm Critics Circle Award and numerous AcademyAwards in 1952. Williams was also awarded a life-time membership in the National Institute of Artsand Letters. Summer and Smoke was also success-fully revived in New York at this time. Jose Quin-tero directed the benchmark production of the playat the Circle in the Square Theatre. The produc-tion featured the then-unknown GERALDINE PAGE

as Alma Winemiller.The success of Summer and Smoke ensured a stable

financial future for Williams’s sister, Rose. Williamsarranged for half of the royalties for Summer andSmoke to be assigned to her. Tom was delighted finallyto be in a position to care of his beloved sister. He wasnow able to take a more authoritative role in thedecision making surrounding her and her care.

Biography 11

Williams was unhappy with reports that hereceived that Rose was still being subjected toinsulin and electroshock therapy at Farmington.He ordered that she be released from Farmingtonand placed her in a private and more expensivesanatorium, first one in Connecticut, finally inOssining, New York.

The next year, 1953, saw the publication ofWilliams’s first volume of poetry, IN THE WINTER OF

CITIES, and the premiere of Camino Real. Thisexperimental and largely expressionistic (seeEXPRESSIONISM) play was a striking contrast toWilliams’s previous works and major successes. Assuch, it was not well received by the press or thepublic. However, many of Williams’s fellow artists,such as Edith Sitwell, appreciated and admired hispoetic risk taking. Williams regained his criticalmomentum with the release of the film of The RoseTattoo—which featured the incomparable Italianscreen diva ANNA MAGNANI and Burt Lancaster—and the Broadway premiere at Cat on a Hot TinRoof in 1955. Cat on a Hot Tin Roof reaped forWilliams his third New York Drama Critics CircleAward and his second Pulitzer Prize.

Williams’s immense public favor was challengedwith the release of the film BABY DOLL in 1956.

Baby Doll was a cinematic composition of two one-act plays, 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and THE LONG

STAY CUT SHORT, OR THE UNSATISFACTORY SUPPER.The film, directed by Elia Kazan, was dubbed “thedirtiest American-made motion picture that hasever been legally exhibited” (Sova, 28) and offi-cially denounced by the Roman Catholic Church.Francis Cardinal Spellman, then archbishop of thearchdiocese of New York, and the Catholic Legionof Decency (LOD) attacked the film relentlessly.Cardinal Spellman—who had in fact not actuallyseem the film himself—warned Catholics not toview the film on pain of sin and admonished thatthe film was a potential threat to their very salva-tion. The clamor of controversy and censorshiponly served to promote interest in the film andincrease box office revenues.

Controversy and conflict were also prominentthematic features at the heart of many of the worksWilliams produced at this time. The three principalworks of this period, ORPHEUS DESCENDING (1957),SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER (1957), and Sweet Bird ofYouth (1959), mirror Williams’s own conflict withthe critical and moral establishment. Each of theseworks is centered on a rebellious outcast artist inconflict with, and often at the mercy of, a ruthless,overbearing, and oppressive society. Ultimately, allthree artisans suffer violently at the hands of theircensors. Professional strife and public humiliationare also at the center of Night of the Iguana (1961),Williams’s last major Broadway success. Night of theIguana earned Williams his fourth New York DramaCritics Circle Award and prompted a Time maga-zine cover story (March 9, 1962) heralding Williamsas “the world’s greatest living playwright.” Iguanaalso won the London Critics Award for Best ForeignPlay in 1965.

Despite the success of Iguana, the late 1950s and1960s were overall a time of crisis, affliction, andchange for Williams. The death of his belovedgrandfather in 1957 marked the start of a lengthyperiod of depression, grief, and loss in Williams’s life.The Reverend Dakin’s death was soon followed bythat of Frank Merlo in 1963. For Williams the loss ofthese two most pivotal people in his life was cata-clysmic, and the depth of his grief was immeasurable.He turned to drugs and alcohol for solace and conso-


Portrait of Williams (Friedman-Abeles)

lation. In the hands of a thoroughly irresponsiblephysician, Williams become addicted to a variety ofprescription medications. Despite this personal andphysical turmoil, Williams continued to write daily.However, the lackluster reception of such works asTHE MILK TRAIN DOESN’T STOP HERE ANYMORE

(1963), THE MUTILATED (1966), THE KINGDOM OF

EARTH, OR THE SEVEN DESCENTS OF MYRTLE (1968),and IN THE BAR OF A TOKYO HOTEL (1969) com-pounded Williams’s sense of despondency and isola-tion. Richard Gilman skewered Williams inCommonweal (February 8, 1963) by declaring, “Mis-tuh Williams, He Dead” after the debut of The MilkTrain Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore in 1963. To combathis depression and chemical dependencies, Williamsturned first to psychoanalysis and then to religion.

In 1969, he was baptized into the RomanCatholic Church. His brother, Dakin, who hadconverted to Catholicism during his tenure in thenavy, encouraged Williams’s conversion and servedas his witness at his confirmation service. Williamschose Francis Xavier, a saintly ancestor, as hispatron. In addition to this spiritual intervention,Dakin took drastic measures to save his brother’slife. When Dakin pleaded with his brother to seekproper medical attention in Saint Louis, Williamsinitially agreed and then changed his mind onceback in Saint Louis. His brother took charge andforced him to go to Barnes Hospital. Because of theseverity of his chemical dependencies, Williamswas placed in the Renard Psychiatric Division. Thephysicians at Barnes Hospital sought aggressively tocombat Williams’s addictions. Their method oftotal and immediate withdrawal had an adverseand violent effect on Williams. In the course of hisfirst few days at Barnes he suffered three grand malseizures and two heart attacks. That Williams sur-vived and made a complete recovery was remark-able. Dakin had saved his life; Williams, however,viewed the situation differently. During his threemonths at Barnes, Williams had been forced to livehis worst nightmare, that of being confined andhospitalized. His greatest fear was madness, his sis-ter’s fate. As far as he was concerned his brotherhad forged fear into reality. For this, he resentedand never forgave Dakin. Williams went so far as toexcise his brother from his will.

This new lease on life prompted a period ofincredible creativity for Williams. His confidencewas bolstered by the award of an honorary doctorof humanities degree by the University of Missouriand a Gold Medal for Drama by the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Letters. Williams galvanizedhis creative energies and expressed the trauma ofthe past decade in the writing and rewriting of THE

TWO CHARACTER PLAY and OUT CRY. For roughlyfour years (between 1971 and 1975) Williams dedi-cated himself to this tale of a brother and sistertrapped in a virtual wasteland. The work was notwidely produced, nor very well received. Only nowis it, as are many of Williams’s later works, beingcritically reassessed and appreciated.

Williams’s critical reputation continued to wanesignificantly in the 1970s. Critics were brutal andresponded savagely to his efforts during this period.The critical rejection took a heavy toll. Ironically,the works of this period are some of Williams’sboldest and most extraordinary dramatic render-ings, which are now being appreciated for theirvision and innovation. Works such as THE GNÄDI-GES FRÄULEIN (1966), I CAN’T IMAGINE TOMORROW

(1966), Out Cry (1973). THE RED DEVIL BATTERY

SIGN (1975), TIGER TAIL (1978), STEPS MUST BE

GENTLE (1980), CLOTHES FOR A SUMMER HOTEL

(1980), Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1980),NOW THE CATS WITH THE JEWELLED CLAWS (1981),and THE REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE OF MME.LE MONDE (1984) were drafted in an entirely dif-ferent vein from Williams’s earlier dramas and illus-trate his evolution and maturity as an artist. Criticswho expected, and wanted, Williams’s “voice” toremain constant, reproducing his previous suc-cesses The Glass Menagerie, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof,or A Streetcar Named Desire, were sorely disappointedand expressed their disapproval vehemently andconsistently.

Undaunted by critical opinion, Williams keptwriting and even expanded his literary repertoire.He published a collection of short stories, EIGHT

MORTAL LADIES POSSESSED (1974); a novel, MOISE

AND THE WORLD OF REASON (1975); an autobiogra-phy, MEMOIRS (1975); a collection of poetry,ANDROGYNE, MON AMOUR (1977); and a collectionof essays, WHERE I LIVE (1978). He was also

Biography 13

encouraged by his continued popularity with audi-ences and the academic establishment, which man-ifested in the National Theatre Conference Award(1972), an honorary doctor of humanities degreeconferred by the University of Hartford (1972), theEntertainment Hall of Fame Award (1974), theNational Arts Club Medal of Honor for Literature(1974), and his selection as president of the Jury forthe Cannes Film Festival (1976). In 1977, theFlorida Keys Community College in Key West,Florida, dedicated the Tennessee Williams FineArts Center. The center opened with the premiereproduction of WILL MR. MERRIWEATHER RETURN TO

MEMPHIS? (1980).On February 25, 1983, Williams was found dead

in his suite at the Hotel Elysée in New York City. Hehad choked to death, on a plastic medicine cap.Drama surrounded in him death as it had in life.Williams had stated repeatedly, and even in writing,that he wished to be buried at sea, off the coast ofFlorida, that his bones might rest in the deep, along-side those of his favorite poet, Hart Crane. Hisbrother, Dakin, again intervened and ordered thathis brother be buried in the family plot in SaintLouis. Williams’s friends and admirers found Dakin’sdecision cruel and callous. Not only were Williams’sfinal wishes being ignored, but he would also beplaced at final rest in the city he loathed more thanany other. Although Dakin respected his brother’swishes to be buried at sea, he adamantly believedthat because of his brother’s great literary status hisremains should be in an accessible place. On March5, 1983, Williams was buried beside his mother,Edwina Dakin Williams, at Calvary Cemetery, inSaint Louis, Missouri.

Williams’s great legacy is that his art has stoodthe test of time. As Lyle Leverich noted, althoughWilliams was so distinctly American in his art, noother American playwright has been more univer-sally recognized, admired, or produced. The early21st century has witnessed a renewed interest inWilliams and his literary canon. Theater companiesthroughout the United States and abroad turn toTennessee Williams for dramatic works that exuderich, seductive, and poetic language and possessremarkably human and complex characters. Some20 years after his death, Williams had garnered the

coveted position as “the hottest playwright inAmerica” (Gardner, USA Today). On Broadwayand in regional theaters across the country (not tomention community college and university the-aters), there has been a continual stream of revivalsof his most well-known works. Cat on a Hot TinRoof was most recently produced on Broadway in2003, featuring Ashley Judd as “Maggie the Cat.”Productions of A Streetcar Named Desire and TheGlass Menagerie were slated for Broadway in 2004and 2005, respectively.

In addition to productions of the great Williamsclassics, there is significant interest in his lesser-known dramatic works and a drive to unearth theseworks for the stage. In 2003, Michael Kahn success-fully premiered AND TELL SAD STORIES OF THE

DEATH OF QUEENS at the Shakespeare Theatre inWashington, D.C. Some theater companies, such asthe Hartford Stage Company (Hartford, Connecti-cut) and the John F. Kennedy Center for the Per-forming Arts (Washington, D.C.), have made along-term commitment to produce Williams regu-larly and—in the case of Hartford Stage—ultimatelyto present his dramatic works in their entirety.

The scholarly community’s commitment to thepreservation of Williams’s legacy is evident in thecreation of two annual festivals honoring the play-wright: the Tennessee Williams Literary Festival inNew Orleans (established in 1986) and the “Ten-nessee in Key West Festival” (established in 2004).In addition, two academic journals are dedicated tothe continued critical evaluation of Williams’sworks: the Tennessee Williams Newsletter and theTennessee Williams Annual Review.

The revival of interest in Williams can be cred-ited to a shift in critical, social, and cultural atti-tudes. It is evident that throughout his careerWilliams was a theatrical maverick, a poetic revo-lutionary who was clearly ahead of his time. Thereis now a greater appreciation for artistic experimen-tation and innovation. The overwhelming state-ment from this new generation of admirers is thatTennessee Williams was a far more accomplishedand much more pivotal writer than previous gener-ations appreciated. Contemporary artists, scholars,and audiences continue to affirm his status asAmerica’s greatest dramatist.


FURTHER READINGCuoco, Lorin, and William Gass, eds. “Tennessee

Williams,” in Literary St. Louis: A Guide. St. Louis:Missouri Historical Society Press, 2000, pp. 194–202.

Gardner, Elysa. “Tennessee Williams Is Hotter ThanEver,” USA Today, October 21, 2003, p. A1.

Holditch, W. Kenneth. “Tennessee Williams in NewOrleans,” in Magical Muse: Millennial Essays on Ten-nessee Williams, edited by Ralph Voss. Tuscaloosa:University of Alabama Press, 2002, pp. 193–206.

Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.

Londré, Felicia. Tennessee Williams. Fredericton,Canada: York Press, 1989.

Sova, Dawn B. Forbidden Films: Censorship Histories of125 Motion Pictures. New York: Facts On File,2001.

Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life ofTennessee Williams. New York: Ballantine Books,1985.

Williams, Tennessee. “Landscape with Figures: TwoMississippi Plays,” in American Scenes, edited byWilliam Kozlenko. New York: John Day, 1941.

Biography 15

PART II

WorksA–Z

“Accent of a Coming Foot”Short story written in 1935.

SYNOPSISCatharine, a young career woman, returns to herhometown after moving to the city. She visits herold acquaintances, the Hamiltons. It was plannedthat Bud Hamilton would meet Catharine at thetrain station; however, he has fallen behindschedule because, as the mother and sister pre-sume, he now spends too much time alone writ-ing. The Hamiltons are unhappy about Bud’spreoccupation with his writing. A strange tensionarises in Catharine as she anticipates meetingBud again. Her relationship with him is unex-plained, but sexual imagery is synonymous withmemories of Bud. When Bud finally does arrive,she sees his shadow through the window and “shefelt herself impaled like a butterfly upon the semi-darkness of the staircase.” When he enters thehouse, Catharine freezes and stares down at him.He sees her, retraces his steps back out of thehouse, and closes the door behind him. Catharinebegins to cry.

COMMENTARYThis short story’s appeal resides in its subtleties. Itis written in a similar fashion to a scene that mightappear in an Alfred Hitchcock film. The shadowson the wall when Bud arrives have a menacing andpanicking effect on Catharine. Their history isquite vague, and before Bud arrives, it seems clearthat she is in love with him. She reminisces abouttheir college days and nervously adjusts her appear-ance. While Catharine anticipates Bud’s arrival,she is overcome with emotion and left speechless,unable to confront or greet him. Bud exits her lifeonce again, and Catharine is fraught with sadnessand anxiety. Williams leaves their relationshipunexplained.

In many ways this work resembles and foreshad-ows “THE IMPORTANT THING,” another tale ofstrained romantic tension between a budding writerand an ambitious yet sensitive female counterpart.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Accent of a Coming Foot” was published inCollected Stories (New York: New Directions,1985).

CHARACTERSCatharine A young career woman who visits herfriends in the country. Catharine is disappointedwhen Bud Hamilton does not collect her at the busstation. When she does make her way to the Hamil-tons’, she learns that Bud locks himself away andwrites. She nervously awaits his arrival and remi-nisces about their intimate moments of the past.When Bud finally appears, he causes Catharine tocollapse and cry.

Hamilton, Bud Bud is an intensely dedicatedyoung writer who, as was Williams, was criticizedfor spending all of his youth alone and writing.When Bud does not collect his friend, Catharine,as he had promised, his family becomes irate andembarrassed by his lack of concern for their guest.Bud arrives at his home long after Catharine hasfound her way there. He opens the door and seesher at the top of the stairwell. When he makes eyecontact with her, he quickly departs.

All Gaul Is DividedScreenplay/teleplay written around 1950.

SYNOPSISIn Saint Louis, Missouri, in the late 1920s, the pre-dominant action of the play takes place at BlewettHigh School and in the shabby apartment of JennyStarling and Beulah Bodenhafer.

Jenny Starling is teaching her class to conjugatethe Latin word for “love.” The sound of a marchingband that is practicing can be heard. The musicupsets Jenny, as it reminds her of the man teachingthe band, Harry Steed. One of her students, EddiePeacock, taunts Jenny by mimicking her high-pitched voice. Jenny becomes irate, bursts intotears, and orders Eddie out of the classroom. Eddie

All Gaul Is Divided 19

confides in Mr. Paige, the school superintendent,that Jenny is “on another rampage” and that everytime she hears Harry Steed’s Victrola she “goes topieces.”

After class, Jenny calls her housemate Beulah ather job at the Universal Shoe Company. Beulahurges Jenny to stay at school and to visit the schoolnurse. Beulah calls Mr. Paige and warns him thatHarry Steed is upsetting Jenny. Jenny encountersHarry in the school cafeteria. Harry sits next toJenny and asks her, “How many parts is Gauldivided into?” Jenny nervously responds, “Threeparts.” Lucinda Keener joins Harry and Jenny attheir table. Lucinda invites Harry to a bridge partyon Saturday night. Harry responds that he hasinvited Jenny to see Blossom Time at the MunicipalOpera. Jenny happily accepts his invitation.Lucinda openly criticizes Jenny’s “little girl curls”and suggests she have her hair bobbed. Harrystates that Jenny “looks like an angel with curls.”Jenny, torn between embarrassment and euphoria,leaves the table to call Beulah.

Lucinda chastises Harry in Jenny’s absence.When Jenny returns, Lucinda leaves to have a ciga-rette. Noticing Jenny and Harry alone, a group offemale students whisper and giggle. Jenny overre-acts and ferociously chastises the girls. Mr. Paigeconfronts Harry and suggests that he dress moreappropriately before entering the cafeteria, insteadof making a “public display” of his physique follow-ing his gym class. Harry challenges Mr. Paige’s com-ments and threatens to quit. Mr. Paige urges him tobe careful in his dealings with Jenny Starling.

Lucinda discovers Jenny crying at the chalk-board in her classroom. Jenny asks Lucinda to walkher home. Once outside, the two women discussHarry Steed. Lucinda tells Jenny sordid details ofHarry’s previous romantic liaisons. Jenny naivelydisregards Lucinda’s warnings. Lucinda changes thesubject and pressures Jenny to leave her “fat, mid-dle-aged typist” housemate and join her in a luxuryapartment in an exclusive area of Saint Louis.

Jenny shares with Beulah the details of herlunchtime encounter with Harry Steed. Beulahtries to turn the conversation to her brother Buddy.Jenny confesses that she is not interested in Beu-lah’s widowed brother or his daughter, Little Pretty.

Jenny prepares for her date with Harry. Shewaits for him wearing a snowy white taffeta ballgown. A rainstorm begins as Harry arrives. Jennyleaves with Harry, and Beulah phones Buddy.

Jenny and Harry are driving in his car, a “bloodred” Bear Cat. They stop on Art Hill, and Harryasks Jenny for a kiss and she eagerly accepts. Jennysuggests they forgo the opera altogether and stayparked on Art Hill. Jenny sings a song from theopera for Harry. Harry decides they should go tothe performance.

Harry and Jenny attend the outdoor perfor-mance and are caught in a violent rainstorm. Jennyis crushed as everyone runs for shelter. Harry car-ries Jenny home and delivers her to Beulah. Beulahushers Jenny into her room. Harry sneaks out of theapartment while Beulah goes to answer the tele-phone. Jenny becomes hysterical when she realizesHarry has left without a word.

Buddy pays a visit to the apartment, where hecrudely proposes to Jenny by suggesting that she’s“not getting any younger.” He tries to kiss Jenny,who becomes hysterical and leaves the room. Beu-lah chastises Buddy for “moving too fast.” Buddyadmits that he thinks Jenny is just a “prissy cold-heart schoolteacher.” Beulah tries to arrange aromantic picnic for the three of them the followingSunday at Creve Coeur. Buddy concedes andagrees to pursue Jenny.

Lucinda corners Jenny about her date withHarry and implies that Harry has been making funof her behind her back. Lucinda once again pres-sures Jenny to move in with her at WestmorelandPlace. She uses Harry as a reason for Jenny to moveto Westmoreland Place—it will be a more fashion-able place to entertain him.

The following Saturday, Lucinda visits Jenny tocollect her deposit for the new apartment. Jennyand Beulah’s living conditions mortify Lucinda.During her visit she is rude to Beulah and houndsJenny for the apartment deposit and taxi fare. Beu-lah criticizes Lucinda and informs Jenny that shehas arranged a picnic at Creve Coeur the next dayfor Jenny, Buddy, and her. Jenny attacks Beulah formatchmaking and accuses her of “not have a life of[her] own.” Beulah apologizes and reminds Jennyhow they met. (Jenny was a patient in the same

20 All Gaul Is Divided

sanitarium as Buddy and Beulah’s mother.) Jennytakes a wastepaper basket and collects all of Beu-lah’s tacky treasures and throws them away.

The next day, as Beulah prepares for the picnic,her upstairs neighbor quickly descends the fireescape to give her the society page from the Sundaynewspaper. She shows Beulah a photograph of HarrySteed and his fiancée and their engagementannouncement. The Upstairs Neighbor warns Beu-lah that the other teachers will be calling soon to tellJenny. Beulah decides to disconnect the telephoneand to hide the newspaper. Lucinda arrives to seeJenny. Beulah serves her coffee while she waits forJenny. (Jenny is performing calisthenics in her bed-room.) Beulah makes a frantic call to Buddy,demanding that he join them for the picnic at CreveCoeur. Beulah urges him not to bring along hisdaughter, Little Pretty, as the little girl “makes Jennynervous.”

Lucinda asks Beulah about Jenny’s mentalhealth: whether she had previously had a nervousbreakdown or something “mental.” Beulah dodgesthe question and explains that Jenny is simply a per-son who “can’t cope” with life. Beulah tells Lucindaabout her plan to encourage Buddy and Jenny tomarry. Lucinda asks for details about Buddy andridicules the fact that he works at the Budweiserbrewery. Lucinda slips into Jenny’s bedroom, whileBeulah takes her bulldog, Rosie, outside. Just asLucinda starts to tell Jenny of Harry’s engagement,Beulah rushes in, turns up the radio, and whisksLucinda out of Jenny’s room. She threatens Lucindawith a cactus plant, and Lucinda storms out of theapartment.

Jenny leaves her room and informs Beulah thatshe will not be attending the picnic at Creve Coeurand that she is moving in with Lucinda. Jennyexplains that she will need a more refined place inwhich to entertain Harry Steed. Beulah countersby pleading with Jenny to give Buddy a chance. Sheinforms Jenny that Buddy is “ready and willing” toaccept her “on faith.” Jenny becomes outraged bythe implications of Buddy’s acceptance of her “onfaith.” Beulah tries to explain delicately that this isin reference to Jenny’s previous nervous break-down. Jenny launches an attack on what she calls

Beulah’s “tyranny of kindness,” which has robbedher of her independence.

Jenny goes through the Sunday paper andquestions Beulah about the society section. Beu-lah confesses that she has wrapped the deviledeggs in that page. Jenny orders her to unwrapthem and give her the page. Beulah leaves Jennywith the newspaper and goes to meet Buddy atCreve Coeur streetcar station. Jenny is dumb-founded and sits in silence for a few moments. Shethen places a call to Creve Coeur streetcar sta-tion. She asks the station manager to relay a mes-sage to Beulah Bodenhafer, whom he willrecognize by her hat (a straw hat with silk roses)and the large poppy she wears over one ear toconceal her hearing aid. The Station Manager isadvised to tell Beulah that Jenny is on her way tojoin the Bodenhafers at Creve Coeur station.

COMMENTARYAll Gaul Is Divided is the foundation text for theplay A LOVELY SUNDAY FOR CREVE COEUR.Williams penned All Gaul Is Divided during the1950s, mislaid it, and subsequently recovered it ina file of old manuscripts in New Orleans around1976. Williams believed the screenplay to be thesuperior text of the two because in the screenplayhe “rectifies the major defect dilemma of therecent play: the giving away of the ‘plot’ in the firstscene . . . the denouement is saved till the last fewminutes of the final scene” (Williams, “Author’sNote,” 3). Although All Gaul may be structurallysuperior to Creve Coeur, the latter is a much moresatisfying work in terms of form, content, anddepth of characterization. In Creve Coeur Williamsis also more concise with the material and employsfarcical humor to drive the plot and relieve dra-matic tension.

PRODUCTION HISTORYAll Gaul Is Divided has not been filmed or producedprofessionally.

PUBLICATION HISTORYAll Gaul Is Divided was first published in StoppedRocking and Other Screenplays (1984).

All Gaul Is Divided 21

CHARACTERSBodenhafer, Beulah Beulah is a middle-aged Ger-man woman who works at the Universal Shoe Com-pany in Saint Louis. She shares an apartment with ayoung schoolteacher, Jenny Starling. Beulah metJenny while visiting her mother in a mental institu-tion. Jenny had suffered a nervous breakdown. Beu-lah pitied her and took her in upon her release.Although Jenny is infatuated with Harry Steed, Beu-lah strives to convince Jenny to marry her brother,Buddy Bodenhafer.

Bodenhafer, Buddy He is the large beer-drinkingbrother of Beulah Bodenhafer. Buddy works at theBudweiser brewery in Saint Louis and is a singlefather. At his sister’s insistence he is pursuing arelationship with Jenny Starling, an emotionallyunstable schoolteacher. Although Jenny is attrac-tive, Buddy often finds her to be snobbish and“prissy.” Jenny becomes interested in Buddy onlywhen Harry Steed becomes engaged to someoneelse. She decides that Buddy, and his nerve-wrackingdaughter, Little Pretty, are better than no familyat all.

Keener, Lucinda Lucinda is a sophisticated artteacher at Blewett High School in Saint Louis. Shepretends to befriend Jenny Starling, a fellowteacher at the school. Jenny is insecure, mentallyunstable, and easily manipulated by Lucinda andothers. Lucinda swindles Jenny and procuresmoney from her for the down payment on a luxuryapartment in a posh section of the city.

Paige, Mr. Mr. Paige is the principal of BlewettHigh School. He is concerned for the well-being ofJenny Starling, a mentally unstable woman whoteaches Latin at the high school. Jenny has fre-quent outbursts in her classes; the source of her dis-traction is the attractive gym teacher Harry Steed.Mr. Paige confronts Harry about his behavior andhis somewhat revealing attire.

Peacock, Eddie He is one of the students inJenny Starling’s Latin class. Eddie mocks Jenny byimitating her voice during class recitation. Jenny

loses her temper, bursts into tears, and orders Eddieto leave the classroom. Eddie reports the incidentto the school principal, Mr. Paige.

Starling, Jenny Jenny is a mentally unstableLatin teacher at a Saint Louis high school. She isolder than age 30 and shares a tasteless apartmentwith Beulah Bodenhafer, a middle-aged officeworker. Jenny dresses herself “like a grown womanplaying a little girl” and is infatuated with the localplayboy and high school gym teacher Harry Steed.She is easily toyed with by Harry, manipulated forher money by Lucinda Keener, and coaxed into arelationship with Beulah’s beer-swilling brotherBuddy.

Steed, Harry Harry is a handsome, well-builtgym teacher at Blewett High School. He is a localplayboy in the Saint Louis country club scene. Hedallies with the affections of Jenny Starling, a men-tally unstable Latin teacher.

Upstairs Neighbor She is a stout matron wholives in the apartment above Beulah Bodenhaferand Jenny Starling. The Upstairs Neighbor rushesdown the fire escape to show Beulah the societypage in the Sunday paper, which contains a photo-graph of Harry Steed and his fiancée.

FURTHER READINGWilliams, Tennessee. “Author’s Note,” in Stopped

Rocking and Other Screenplays. New York: NewDirections, 1984, p. 3.

American BluesA collection of six of Williams’s one-acts plays pub-lished by Dramatists Plays Service in 1948. Theplays included in this volume are MOONY’S KID

DON’T CRY, THE DARK ROOM, THE CASE OF THE

CRUSHED PETUNIAS, THE UNSATISFACTORY SUPPER,and TEN BLOCKS ON THE CAMINO REAL. Theseplays individually and collectively illustrate theplight of the American working class and theirquest for freedom and a better way of life.

22 American Blues

Androgyne, Mon AmourPoetry collection published in 1977. Profoundly per-sonal, Williams’s poetry is the truest reflection of thedramatist’s psychological and emotional self.Although it is often thought that Williams candidlyrevealed his private life in his autobiography, Memoirs(1975), that work in no way corresponds with hisconflicted views regarding his sexuality, which arefundamental aspects of this collection of poems. Justas he notoriously wrote his own life and experiencesinto his plays and fiction, he did so in his poetry.Moreover, the poems of Androgyne, Mon Amour are atestament to Williams’s worries and fears as well ashis inner visions of life and aging. As does the work ofmodernist poet Frank O’Hara (1926–66), Williams’spoetry takes many midthought tangents, and heloosely interjects images, which often yield the mostpoignant moments of truth.

Much to his chagrin, Williams was never fullyrecognized as a poet (because he had already beendefined as a playwright to the public). He wrotepoetry his entire life, and he was often praised earlyin his career for incorporating a poetic aestheticinto his plays (such as THE GLASS MENAGERIE, ASTREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, and CAT ON A HOT TIN

ROOF). He would also be criticized and defamed forthis convention in the 1960s and 1970s (in suchworks as CAMINO REAL, TWO CHARACTER PLAY, andSTEPS MUST BE GENTLE). Williams defended hisartistic innovations by proclaiming, “I am a poet.And then I put poetry in the drama. I put it in theshort stories, and I put it in the plays. Poetry’spoetry. It doesn’t have to be called a poem, youknow” (Radar, 98).

Williams constantly pushed the boundariesbetween the genres of playwriting and poetry, andlike “a box of questions shaken up and scattered onthe floor,” Androgyne, Mon Amour invites thereader to investigate the personal lamentation of adisdained poet.

See also IN THE WINTER OF CITIES.

FURTHER READINGRadar, Dotson. “Interview with Tennessee Williams,”

in Playwrights at Work: The Paris Review Interviews,

edited by John Lahr. New York: Modern Library,2000.

Roessel, David, and Nicholas Moschovakis, eds. TheCollected Poems of Tennessee Williams. New York:New Directions, 2002.

Taylor, William E. “Tennessee Williams: The Play-wright as Poet,” in Tennessee Williams: A Tribute,edited by Jac Tharpe. Jackson: University Press ofMississippi, 1977, pp. 609–629.

And Tell Sad Stories of theDeath of Queens

A one-act play published in 2002. The date ofcomposition is uncertain.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the French Quarter of NewOrleans, Louisiana. It is the weekend before MardiGras. The period is “possibly between 1939–41 oralternatively 1945–47.” The action of the playtakes place in the interior of a beautifully decoratedapartment owned by Candy Delaney, a male trans-vestite. Candy’s apartment is decorated in a Japan-ese style with bamboo furniture, grass mats, anddelicate blue and white porcelain bowls. The adja-cent patio garden is also fitted with a Japanesemotif: a fish pool, weeping willows, and an archedbridge with paper lanterns.

Scene 1Candy escorts Karl, a large merchant seaman, intoher apartment. She insists that Karl have a look atthe Japanese garden. Karl is unimpressed by its Ori-ental finery. Candy shares details about the rentalproperty she owns in and around the Quarter andabout her 17-year relationship, which has justended. She tells Karl about her upstairs tenants, “apair of sweet boys from Alabama.” Karl confrontsCandy about her sexuality. Candy reminds Karlthat they met in a gay bar. Karl asks for a drink andwarns Candy that he is not physically attracted toher. Candy clarifies that she would be happy just tohave a “true friendship” with Karl. Candy goes intothe bedroom to change “clothes and sex.” Candy

And Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens 23

returns to the living room in drag. Karl is aston-ished by Candy’s beauty. Candy recites a poemwritten for her by one of her upstairs tenants.

Karl becomes agitated and inquires whetherCandy knows any “real” women; he adamantlydenies any interest in Candy. Candy suggests theydance. Karl refuses, insisting that he cannot allowhimself to forget that Candy is not actually female.They dance, and Karl tries to leave. Candy makeshim an offer: In exchange for his companionshipshe will provide him with a place to stay in NewOrleans, “unlimited credit at every bar in theQuarter,” money, and freedom to come and go ashe pleases.

Karl insists that he wants a woman. Candyincludes that in her bargain. She informs Karl thatall she wants is to lie next to him and “blissfully fallasleep with [his] hand in [hers].” Karl is willing togive Candy what she wants for $20. She places $50in his wallet and calls her friend Helene, a stripperat a local club. Candy makes arrangements forHelene to stop by for Karl. Karl reminds Candythat she is not getting anything out of this deal. Sheexplains that “getting nothing” is something she isused to.

Karl goes out to the garden, while Candy mixeshim another drink. One of the upstairs tenants, ayoung drag queen in her 20s, Alvin Krenning,arrives at Candy’s door. Alvin has arrived to warnCandy about her new acquaintance: Karl has a rep-utation for being “dirt” and for physically abusingqueens in the Quarter. Candy dismisses the warn-ing and throws Alvin out of the apartment.

Scene 2The location is the same; the time is a half hourlater. Candy and Karl are outside in the garden.Karl slips into the fish pool as he tries to recrossthe Japanese bridge. Karl enters the apartmentwet and cursing. Candy follows him back into theapartment, while trying to silence her gigglingupstairs tenants. Candy offers Karl a Chineserobe to change into. Karl disrobes and threatensCandy with physical harm if she approaches him.Candy ignores his threats, calling him a“roughtalking two hundred pounds of lonely, lostlittle boy.” Karl places a call and leaves a message

for Alice “Blue” Jackson, a loose woman he metearlier. Candy implies that she knows Alice. Karlwarns Candy not to malign Alice and againthreatens to harm her. Candy reiterates that Karlwill eventually grow fond of her. Karl goes intothe bedroom to get some sleep before Helene, thestripper, arrives.

Scene 3The location is the same; the time is an early Sun-day morning, one week later. Candy, dressed indrag, sits at the breakfast table having coffee. Karlis sleeping and snoring in the adjacent bedroom.The other upstairs tenant, a drag queen, JerryJohnson, enters the apartment without knocking.Jerry wishes Candy a happy birthday and goes tothe bedroom to take a peek at Karl. Jerry andCandy argue over Candy’s state of affairs. Candyexplains that she is striving for a life of “dignity”and permanence. Jerry leaves and slams the door.Karl rises and enters the kitchen looking for adrink. Candy tries to coax him not to drink.

Alvin stands in the doorway and overhears theirargument. Karl confesses that he only returned toCandy because he is out of money. Alvin informsCandy that she has hurt Jerry’s feelings. While Karlis in the bathroom, Alvin explains to Candy thatKarl has been “shacked up” with Alice Jackson andhas only returned to Candy because Alice threwhim out. Candy is outraged and evicts Alvin andJerry from their apartment.

Candy questions Karl about Alice and hisrecent whereabouts. She tells Karl about herplans for their future together. Karl demandsmoney from Candy, and when she refuses, heattacks her. Frightened and stunned by Karl’s vio-lent outburst, Candy tells him her money is hid-den in a silver teapot. Karl takes all of Candy’smoney from the teapot and leaves. Candybecomes hysterical, screams, and passes out.Alvin and Jerry rush in to rescue Candy. Findingher unconscious, they fear she is dead. Togetherthey lift her from the floor and carry her to thebed. When she regains consciousness they offerher a glass of brandy. Jerry and Alvin sit besideCandy and try to comfort her, as rainfall can beheard in the distance.

24 And Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens

COMMENTARYAnd Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens, as domany of Williams’s New Orleans–based dramas(such as AUTO-DA-FÉ, A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE, and VIEUX CARRÉ), depicts the broken butcolorful lives on the fringes of society. The play’stitle is a reference to William Shakespeare’s deli-cate and vulnerable outcast king, Richard II (“Pray,let us sit upon the ground and tell sad stories of thedeath of kings.” [Richard II 3.2]). Sad Stories is,however, a significant and unique drama within thecanon and a profound departure from Williams’sother dramatic works.

Sad Stories features Williams’s most overt depic-tion of gay characters and his most dynamic treat-ment of homosexuality. In sharp contrast to muchof contemporary criticism, which has blastedWilliams for what has often been seen as his“coded” or “closeted” treatment of homosexuality,Sad Stories is not a “sentimental apology” (Kahn,392) but rather a gritty, realistic tale of a vulnerabledrag queen who opens her heart and her home to aruthless drifter.

The three gay characters—Candy, Jerry, andAlvin—form a close-knit community, a “sister-hood” that revolves around Candy’s enchantedJapanese garden. This tranquil, delicate, and pas-tel Eden is a place of beauty and grace, where themonogamous Candy has mourned the loss of herlong-term lover after a 17-year “marriage.” Karl,an emissary from the outside world, a coldheartedsailor, slithers into Candy’s world and throws allinto disarray. Williams presents the three trans-vestites in such a frank, vulnerable, and endear-ing manner that the predictability of the plot canbe overlooked for the sheer value of the tale. Thisremarkable and radically contemporary workconfirms Williams’s position as a visionary andpolitical writer who was profoundly ahead of histime.

PRODUCTION HISTORYAnd Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens was firstproduced at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Per-forming Arts in Washington, D.C., in April 2004.Michael Kahn directed the premiere production.

PUBLICATION HISTORYAnd Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens was firstpublished in 2002, along with NOT ABOUT NIGHTIN-GALES in Political Stages: Plays That Shaped a Century.

CHARACTERSDelany, Candy She is an elegant New Orleans“queen.” Heartbroken and forlorn after ending a 17-year relationship with an Atlanta businessman,Candy pursues a relationship with Karl, a youngmerchant seaman. Candy dreams of love, security,and a prosperous and happy future with Karl. Karl,who is utterly homophobic, preys upon Candy’s vul-nerability, tenderness, and loving nature. He beatsCandy and takes her money. In the end, she is left togrieve with the support of her closest friends, herfellow queens Alvin Krenning and Jerry Johnson.

Johnson, Jerry Jerry is a young drag queen fromAlabama living in New Orleans. She shares anapartment in the French Quarter with Alvin Kren-ning, another young drag queen from Alabama.Their friend and fellow queen Candy Delaney isalso their landlady. Alvin and Jerry try to preventCandy from pursuing a relationship with Karl, anopportunistic and homophobic drifter.

Karl He is a young opportunist merchant seamanwho drifts into New Orleans looking for someoneto support him. He finds Candy Delaney, an ele-gant drag queen, in a gay bar and accompanies herto her apartment. Karl is cruel and homophobic.He bullies Candy, beats her, and takes her money.As does his fellow Merchant Seaman in SOME-THING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR, Karl has anunromantic view of love and intimate relation-ships. For them sex is merely a commodity to bebought, sold, and traded.

Krenning, Alvin Alvin is a young drag queen fromAlabama. She shares an apartment with Jerry John-son, another young drag queen from Alabama. Theirfriend and fellow queen, Candy Delaney, is theirlandlady. Jerry and Alvin try to prevent Candy frompursuing a relationship with Karl, an opportunisticand homophobic drifter. Alvin warns Candy that

And Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens 25

Karl has a reputation for mistreating and physicallyabusing queens.

FURTHER READINGKahn, Michael. “Introduction,” in Political Stages: Plays

That Shaped a Century, edited by Emily Mann andDavid Roessel. New York: Applause Books, 2002.

“The Angel in the Alcove”A short story written in 1943.

SYNOPSISThe Narrator, a young writer who lives in the FrenchQuarter of New Orleans. He rents an attic room in aboardinghouse owned by a ruthless and bitter oldwoman. The Narrator despises his shabby living con-ditions. There is an alcove in his room with a benchseat. The moonlight floods his room every night, andhe is thankful for its beauty. Every evening as he isnearing sleep, an apparition, a Madonna figure,appears on the bench. The figure reminds him of hisgrandmother and he is comforted by her presence.One evening, the Narrator receives a visitor: a fellowtenant, a Young Artist who is dying of tuberculosis.The two young men have a romantic encounterunder the gaze of the apparition sitting in the alcove.The young writer is surprised that she does not havea look of disapproval on her face, and she remainshis guardian after this incident.

The Young Artist has an argument with theLandlady, who coldly reminds him he is dying andevicts him from her boardinghouse. The youngman runs out of the building, hysterically yellingand coughing in the streets. The Narrator watchesthe painter from his alcove window. The Land-lady’s maid salvages the painter’s belongings andplaces them under a tree near the house. Eventu-ally the painter returns to collect his things. TheNarrator once again watches him from his alcovewindow. For several nights after this explosiveepisode, the apparition does not reappear in thealcove of the Narrator’s room. The Narratordecides this is a sign that he should leave theboardinghouse; he sneaks out and never returns.

COMMENTARYLargely autobiographical, “The Angel in the Alcove”is reminiscent of Williams’s experience as a youngartist living in the French Quarter of NEW ORLEANS,LOUISIANA, during the late 1930s. Williams movedto New Orleans in 1938, and the vibrant environ-ment of the French Quarter became a major influ-ence in his development as a writer. This bohemianlocale introduced him to a community of fellow arti-sans and liberated Williams socially, artistically, andsexually. He would later describe New Orleans as“the paradise of his youth” (Holditch, 194). It was aparadise presided over by suspicious, unstable, andoften violent landladies. One such landlady, Mrs.Louise Wire, who owned and ran the boardinghouseWilliams lived in at 722 Toulouse Street, became theinspiration for the landlady character in “The Angelin the Alcove,” THE LADY OF LARKSPUR LOTION, andVIEUX CARRÉ.

“The Angel in the Alcove” chronicles Williams’sexperience as a boardinghouse tenant coming toterms with his sexuality within the confines of theFrench Quarter. Far from the puritanical environ-ment of his SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, home, Williamswas free to explore his sexuality. Although he hadleft his prudish mother behind, Williams (and theNarrator of the story) found an equally domineer-ing surrogate in the “paranoidal[ly] suspicious”(Leverich, 428) landlady, who made him feel guiltywithout cause. This tyrannical figure, simultane-ously a stand-in for his mother and a personifica-tion of his own deep-set feelings of guilt andinternalized homophobia, is juxtaposed with thecompassionate and affirming apparition, the spiritof his grandmother.

In the story, the young writer is surprised thatthe Angel does not react negatively to his intimacywith another man. He is bewildered that shereturns and remains his guardian. The Angel offersthe young man acceptance, which comforts andrelieves him. Williams received this same uncondi-tional love and devotion from his maternal grand-mother, ROSINA OTTE DAKIN. She was a source ofbeauty and light in his life, just as the Angel andher moonlight made the filthy surroundings of theNarrator’s squalid room glow an iridescent blue.

26 “The Angel in the Alcove”

Williams’s grandmother is memorialized in this andnumerous other works, such as GRAND. Her tragicdeath from lung cancer is also recalled in this shortstory and in other works such as “ORIFLAMME” andKINGDOM OF EARTH.

“The Angel in the Alcove,” and its collection ofcolorful artists and sadistic landlady, served as thebasis for two later works: the one-act play The Ladyof Larkspur Lotion and the full-length play VieuxCarré. However, within the impoverished, lonelyenvironment of this story, Williams creates a worldthat possesses instances of immense beauty quiteunlike its successors.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Angel in the Alcove” was first published inthe short story collection One Arm in 1948. It wassubsequently published in the short story collec-tions Three Players of a Summer Game (1960), Col-lected Stories (1985), and The Night of the Iguanaand Other Stories (1995).

CHARACTERSLandlady The landlady is a miserable womanwho owns a boardinghouse in New Orleans. Sheenjoys bullying her tenants and maintains a verystrict curfew. The landlady is suspicious and accusa-tory, believing that many of the low-life characterswho live in her house are committing the crimesthat happen in New Orleans. The landlady espe-cially enjoys accusing the Narrator of crimes she hasread about in the newspaper. She evicts a youngartist from her home because he has tuberculosis.

Narrator The Narrator is a young writer wholives in a New Orleans boardinghouse run by atyrannical Landlady. He receives nightly visits fromthe apparition of his deceased grandmother, whocomforts him. The Narrator has a secret ren-dezvous with a Young Artist, a fellow boarder, whois dying of tuberculosis. When his lover is evictedand the apparition stops appearing, the Narratoralso leaves.

Young Artist The Young Artist is dying of tuber-culosis, but he refuses to believe he is sick. He hasintimate relations with the Narrator, and he leaves

the boardinghouse when the Landlady verballyattacks him.

FURTHER READINGHolditch, W. Kenneth. “Tennessee Williams in New

Orleans,” in Magical Muse: Millennial Essays on Ten-nessee Williams, edited by Ralph Voss. Tuscaloosa:University Press of Alabama, 2002, pp. 193–206.


At LibertyA one-act play written before 1940.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in Blue Mountain, Mississippi, in themodest living room of Gloria Bessie Greene and herMother. A “glamour photo” of Gloria is prominentlyfeatured in the room. The time is two-thirty in themorning, in early autumn. The rain can be heardand seen streaming down the living-room windowoutside. Gloria’s mother sits alone in the darkenedliving room. She has sat up all night waiting for Glo-ria to return from her date with Charlie. Upon herreturn, Gloria can be heard in the hallway biddingCharlie farewell. Charlie does not appear onstagebut can be heard leaving Gloria reluctantly. Hemakes further advances, which Gloria rejects. Glo-ria enters the house and is in a bedraggled state. Herwhite satin evening dress is wet, soiled, and torn.Gloria’s mother addresses her as “Bessie,” interro-gates her about her evening, and expresses her frus-tration about Gloria’s choice in men. (All of herdates are men she “picks up” in hotels.)

Gloria’s mother admonishes her for ruining herreputation and becoming the subject of town gossip.Mother reminds Gloria that she is recovering fromtuberculosis and pleads with her to heed the doc-tor’s advice to take bed rest. She encourages Gloriato give up her hope of fame and glamour and con-sider Vernon’s offer of marriage. Gloria shows hermother an advertisement she has placed in Billboardmagazine, proclaiming her skills (“singing, dancingspecialties”) and her immediate availability to take

At Liberty 27

any role offered. Gloria’s mother accuses her of falsi-fying her age and abilities in the advertisement.Gloria chastises her mother for trying to destroy herconfidence and crush her dreams. Gloria begs hernot to “stifle” her passion. She declares that she hasa “cry from [her] soul” that needs to be expressed.Gloria opens the window and surveys the smalltown that lies before her. She recalls a former child-hood love named Red Allison who died.

Gloria’s mother again reminds her of her illness,but Gloria refuses to accept her limitations. Sheacknowledges her entrapment but does not allow itto discourage her. Gloria concedes that for the timebeing luck has not been on her side. She runs fromthe room, sobbing uncontrollably. During Gloria’sabsence her mother quietly admits her dissatisfac-tion with the state of her own life and returns tothe sofa.

COMMENTARYWritten around 1940, At Liberty is linked chrono-logically and dramaturgically to the works ofWilliams’s early AMERICAN BLUES period. Similar tothe one-act plays in the American Blues collection(MOONY’S KID DON’T CRY, THE DARK ROOM, THE

CASE OF THE CRUSHED PETUNIAS, THE UNSATISFAC-TORY SUPPER, and TEN BLOCKS ON THE CAMINO

REAL), At Liberty illustrates the working-class questfor a better and more expressive way of life. Here,as in Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry, the American dream isa dream that is repeatedly deferred.

This early work also contains many of thethemes, ideas, characterization, and environmentthat Williams would fully develop in his laterdrama and fiction, particularly the theme of “theartist in isolation.” Gloria, once the small-town girlwith stars in her eyes, has become the showgirl pasther prime. Poor health has propelled her back intothe “dark, wide, spacious land” (Kozlenko, 174) ofBlue Mountain, Mississippi. Blue Mountain’s vastopen spaces only serve to remind Gloria of the gap-ing void between her ambition and her reality.

Gloria Bessie Green is an engaging characterstudy reminiscent of many of Williams’s headstrongfemale characters, such as Heavenly Critchfield inSPRING STORM or Lady Torrance in ORPHEUS

DESCENDING. She shares their gritty determination

to survive against all odds, and in spite of societalexpectations. She is strikingly similar in manners,appearance, and dialogue to Cassandra Whitesidein BATTLE OF ANGELS. Both possess a “feverishlook” and appear in excessive makeup, dressed inwhite satin evening dresses that have been soiledby mud and rain. Both women are outcasts, whofeel they are caged animals in their respective soci-eties. Gloria is also similar to Alma Winemiller ofSUMMER AND SMOKE (and ECCENTRICITIES OF A

NIGHTINGALE), who is another passionate artisttrapped in a stifling, repressed small-town environ-ment. As do Alma and Blanche DuBois (A STREET-CAR NAMED DESIRE), Gloria engages in sex withstrangers as a means to combat her sense of loneli-ness, isolation, and restlessness.

Gloria’s tale and her fate are reminiscent ofthose of many of the artist-characters who populatethe Williams canon and find themselves trapped ina stagnant environment. Gloria has placed an ad inBillboard proclaiming herself “at liberty” to acceptany stage role on offer, but she soon realizes thatthere are literally and figuratively very few “roles”open to her either onstage or within the tiny com-munity of Blue Mountain. Her choices are either tosettle down and play wife to a man she does notcare for or to take on a leading role as the town’smost scandalous woman.

PRODUCTION HISTORYAt Liberty was first produced in New York in Sep-tember 1976.

PUBLICATION HISTORYAt Liberty was published in American Scenes: A Vol-ume of New Short Plays in 1941.

CHARACTERSGreene, Gloria Bessie She is a thin aging“ingenue,” a dancer/performer struggling for suc-cess. Her stage name is “Gloria La Greene.” Thepoor state of her health (she suffers from tuberculo-sis) forces her to return to her small rural childhoodhome of Blue Mountain, Mississippi. Gloria refusesto follow her doctor’s orders to stay in bed andinsists on enjoying herself. Always an outsider inher community, Gloria, by her return and her

28 At Liberty

provocative behavior, generates considerable gossipin town. Gloria’s long-suffering Mother waitspatiently for Gloria to return from her nightlyexcursions with men she meets in hotels. Similar toAlma Winemiller in SUMMER AND SMOKE (andECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTINGALE), Gloria is apassionate artist trapped in a stifling, repressedsmall-town environment. As do Alma Winemillerand Blanche Dubois (in A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE), Gloria engages in sex with strangers as ameans to combat her sense of loneliness, isolation,and restlessness.

Mother She is the long-suffering mother of Glo-ria Bessie Greene. Gloria’s mother worries con-stantly about her daughter’s ailing state of health,unhappiness, and reputation. She fears that herdaughter is headed for ruin, death, or both. Thismiddle-aged woman does not sleep at night, know-ing that her daughter is out on the town withstrangers she meets in hotels. She hopes to salvageGloria’s life and reputation by encouraging her tomarry Vernon, a stable local man. Unknown to herdaughter, Gloria’s Mother shares her daughter’ssense of mortality and isolation and her longing for“good luck.”

FURTHER READINGKozlenko, William, ed. American Scenes: A Volume of

New Short Plays. New York: John Day, 1941, pp.174–182.

Auto-Da-FéA one-act play written in 1938.

SYNOPSISThe play is set on the front porch of an old house inthe Vieux Carré section of New Orleans, Louisiana,in the late 1930s. Eloi, a young postal worker,returns home after a bad day at work. He is con-fronted by his mother, Madame Duvenet, whoinsinuates that he is hiding something from her.Eloi denies her allegations and fumes about theimmorality that surrounds him in the French Quar-

ter. He remarks that the town needs to be purifiedby fire. Eloi confesses that he found a lewd photo-graph that was being sent through the mail.Madame Duvenet suggests that she should burnthe picture for him. Eloi lights a match andbecomes mesmerized by the flame. He burns hisfinger, and his mother tells him to go inside andrinse his burn. Eloi enters the house and locks him-self inside. There is an explosion and flames beginto engulf the house. Madame Duvenet stumblesdown the porch stairs screaming for help.

COMMENTARYAuto-Da-Fé is a brief but intense glimpse into thestrained relationship between a sexually repressed,fanatical young man and his domineering mother.The play is a dark, tragic tale of hypocrisy, guilt, andself-loathing. Eloi’s conflict and ultimate tragedycenter on his suppressed sexuality and his inabilityto acknowledge and accept his emotional and phys-ical needs.

The term auto-da-fé, which literally means “actof faith,” dates to the time of the Spanish Inquisi-tion. It is the public denouncement and executionof a religious heretic or outcast by burning alive. InWilliams’s Auto-Da-Fé, Eloi becomes the execu-tioner and the accused as the secret of his sexualityis slowly exposed. Eloi rails against what he sees asthe degeneration of the French Quarter and claimsthat he wants to confront the immorality that sur-rounds him. His fanatical search for purity leads toself-condemnation. Eloi has transgressed becausehe has been enticed by the lewd photograph hefound in the mail. Although the contents of thephotograph are never fully discussed, Dean Shack-elford deduces that the photograph depicts ayounger and an older man together. The photographthereby serves as a symbol of Eloi’s unacknowledgedsexual identity and as a catalyst for his growing self-awareness (Shackelford, 50). The photograph, as atangible reminder of that which Eloi has tried tokeep hidden from his mother and himself, must bedestroyed. However, when Eloi strikes the match hehas an epiphany that he must destroy himself alongwith the photograph. His death by fire will be theextreme act of faith that will purge and purify him ofhis lust.

Auto-Da-Fé 29

Shackelford argues that through this playWilliams was openly negotiating his own identity asa gay subject. He also believes that Auto-Da-Féprovides an example of how, early in his dramaticcareer, Williams acknowledged and dramaticallyexplored the dilemma of self-acceptance for gaymen, and as such the play foreshadows his latertreatment of the gay subject in such works as SUD-DENLY LAST SUMMER. Contemporary criticism byscholars such as Shackelford has prompted a newinterest in this previously ignored play.

Auto-Da-Fé possesses several additional thematicconnections with other Williams works. The rejec-tion and denial of one’s self as a sexual being,whether homosexual or heterosexual, are recurringthemes in Williams’s works. The conflict of the fleshversus the spirit is a dilemma faced by many ofWilliams’s heroes and heroines (such as Alma Wine-miller), and Eloi’s torment foreshadows Williams’slater treatment of sexual repression in such works asSUMMER AND SMOKE. In addition, as an early work inthe Williams canon that exposes an unsatisfactorymother–son relationship, Auto-Da-Fé can be viewedas a precursor to THE GLASS MENAGERIE.

PRODUCTION HISTORYMichael Kahn directed the first New York produc-tion of Auto-Da-Fé at the Lucille Lortel Theatre in1986, with Richard Howard as Eloi and Lisa Banesas Madame Duvenet.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe play was published in the one-act play collec-tion 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON, AND OTHER

ONE-ACT PLAYS in 1966.

CHARACTERSDuvenet, Eloi Eloi is a 30-year-old postal worker,who lives with his mother. He is outwardly very con-servative and hypercritical of the world around himin the French Quarter of New Orleans. AlthoughEloi preaches about the immorality of his environ-ment, his mother is suspicious of him and fears thathe is hiding something from her. Eloi confesses tohaving found a lewd photograph while sorting themail. He becomes obsessed with the lust that he feelswhen he looks at the photograph. Eloi wants to be

rid of the photograph and his desire. His motheroffers to burn the picture for him, but he decides toburn it himself. In an effort to purify his existenceand surroundings, he finds the solution in fire, orpurification through auto-da-fé or an “act of faith,”by burning himself alive in the house.

Duvenet, Madame Madame Duvenet is themother of Eloi. She is an elderly conservative andold-fashioned woman. She is extremely overbearingand domineering. Her son, who is in his 30s, stilllives with her. She is very critical of Eloi and sus-pects that he is hiding something from her. WhenEloi confesses that he found a lewd photograph inthe mail, Madame Duvenet offers to burn it for him.

FURTHER READINGShackelford, Dean. “The Ghost of a Man: The Quest

for Self-Acceptance in Early Williams,” The Ten-nessee Williams Annual Review 4 (2001): 49–58.

Baby DollA screenplay written in 1955.

SYNOPSISThe screenplay is set in a small town in rural Mis-sissippi. The action takes place at the dilapidatedhomestead of Archie Lee Meighan and his wife,Baby Doll Meighan, and at various other locales inand around their home. The period of the screen-play is around 1955.

Baby Doll Meighan is asleep in a large crib inthe nursery. She wears baby-doll-style pajamas andsucks her thumb. Roused from sleep by a scrapingnoise, she rises to discover her husband peeking ather through a hole in the wall. Baby Doll repri-mands Archie for being a “peeping Tom.” BabyDoll and Archie Lee discuss the terms of their mar-ital “agreement,” an arrangement made by ArchieLee and Baby Doll’s father. For this agreementArchie Lee promised to “leave [Baby Doll] alone”(not attempt to consummate their marriage) untilshe reached the age of 20. Archie is exasperated as

30 Baby Doll

they are two days away from Baby Doll’s 20th birth-day, and he has dutifully waited more than a year.

The telephone rings, alarming Baby Doll’s eld-erly aunt, Aunt Rose Comfort McCorkle, who isliving with the couple. Aunt Rose Comfort finallyanswers the phone, and Archie Lee snatches itfrom her only to find the Ideal Pay As You Go Fur-niture Company on the other end threatening torepossess all of their recent acquisitions. ArchieLee warns Aunt Rose not to tell Baby Doll that thefurniture company called.

Archie orders Baby Doll to accompany him tohis doctor’s appointment in town. He waits impa-tiently in his 1937 Chevy. When Baby Dollappears, she is wearing a skintight skirt and blouse.Archie Lee criticizes her clothing and refuses to getout and open the car door for her. Baby Dollannounces that she will find her own way intotown, walks to the end of the Meighan drive, andsticks out her thumb. A carload of teenage boyspulls over and stops for her. Archie Lee rushesdown the drive and hurls gravel at the car.

On their way to the doctor’s office Archie Leeadmonishes Baby Doll for the “torture” she is put-ting him through and the “public humiliation” hehas endured because of it. Baby Doll warns ArchieLee that their agreement will be canceled if their“five complete sets of furniture” are repossessed.Archie Lee changes the subject to Aunt Rose Com-fort—he is weary of her “visiting.” At Doctor John’soffice Baby Doll flirts innocently with a YoungMan. Archie Lee becomes irate and the doctor pre-scribes sedatives for him.

An Ideal Pay As You Go Furniture Companytruck passes Archie Lee and Baby Doll on the roadas they return home. Sensing that they are haulingaway her furniture, Baby Doll attacks Archie Lee.When they return home the furniture companyremovers are still working. Baby Doll jumps out ofthe car and attacks the workers. Baby Doll threatensto leave Archie Lee, get a job, and take up residencein the Kotton King Hotel. Archie Lee wanders out ofthe house and has a drink from a hidden pint. Hejumps into his Chevy and drives away.

Archie Lee visits his local drinking hole, theBrite Spot, and finds it deserted. Everyone is attend-ing the celebrations being held at the Syndicate

Gin. Archie Lee ventures over to the Syndicate cel-ebration. Shortly after his arrival, an explosion isheard, and a fire erupts in the gin. Silva Vacarro, theSyndicate Plantation manager, rushes into the burn-ing cotton gin and retrieves an empty kerosene can.

Archie returns home to find Aunt Rose Comfortasleep in the porch swing and Baby Doll sittingwith her suitcases. Baby Doll chastises Archie Leefor leaving her behind and causing her to miss thefire. He becomes irate and physically abusive. Hecorrects Baby Doll and reinforces his alibi with herby squeezing her arm. Baby Doll accepts ArchieLee’s alibi. Archie Lee tries to make peace andseduce Baby Doll by kissing her wounded arm. Heteases her playfully and again quizzes her on hisalibi. When she fails to answer correctly, he seizesher wrists sharply and sends her to bed.

The next day, Vacarro and his assistant, Rock,arrive at the Meighan home with 27 wagons of cot-ton. Meighan eagerly accepts the opportunity to ginVacarro’s cotton. Archie Lee introduces Baby Dollto Silva and Rock and instructs her to entertainSilva while his cotton is being ginned. Baby Dollyawns and apologizes for her bad manners, statingthat she and Archie were up very late the previousnight. Rock and Silva note the discrepancy betweenBaby Doll’s statement and Archie Lee’s. Archie Leereturns and shakes Silva’s hand, confirming the“good neighbor policy.” Silva suspects that Archie

Baby Doll 31

Carroll Baker (Baby Doll Meighan) and Eli Wallach(Silva Vicarro) in Baby Doll (Warner Bros., 1956)

Lee destroyed his gin. After Archie Lee and Rockhave disappeared to start ginning cotton, Silva toyswith Baby Doll to find out the truth. Baby Dollinadvertently lets it slip that Archie Lee left thehouse and did not return until after the fire at theSyndicate Plantation had started. When he ques-tions her directly about Archie Lee’s whereabouts,Baby Doll tries to retract her comments.

Silva teases and taunts Baby Doll, and seducingher becomes a means of revenge for him. Silva’sadvances awaken Baby Doll sexually. She is arousedand confused and runs to Archie for protection. Heis infuriated by her disruption and slaps her. Frus-trated by a piece of broken machinery, he vents hisrage on her. Silva sends Archie Lee all over the stateto fetch a new part for the machinery. Silva and

Rock make arrangements to have the part deliveredfrom their cotton gin across the road. Silva takesthis opportunity to pursue Baby Doll further.

Silva hopes to obtain a confession from BabyDoll. He tries to charm her, then to scare her bytelling her that her house is haunted. Silva engagesBaby Doll in a game of hide-and-seek. He then ter-rorizes her into signing a statement verifying thatArchie Lee burned down the Syndicate Gin. BabyDoll is disappointed that Silva is satisfied and wantsnothing more than her signature. She invites himto stay and have a nap with her in the nursery. Silvalies in the crib and Baby Doll sings him to sleep.

Archie Lee returns to discover the gin workingagain. He goes to the house in search of Silva. BabyDoll descends the stairs dressed in a silk slip. Archie

32 Baby Doll

Warner Bros. promotional shot of Carroll Baker for the film Baby Doll (Warner Bros., 1956)

Lee shouts at her for her appearance and her use-lessness and refers to “useless women.” Baby Dollcounters by referring to “destructive men,” who“blow things up and burn things down.” Archie Leeis stunned and stung by her words. Baby Doll walksout onto the porch; Archie Lee follows her andswitches on the porch light. The workers from theSyndicate Gin catch a glimpse of Baby Doll and sev-eral of them call out and whistle. Archie Leedefends what is “his,” and Baby Doll warns himabout taking his possession of her for granted. Shereminds him of the earlier episode when she soughthis protection and he slapped her instead.

Archie Lee is shocked to discover Silva pumpingwater from the well at the side of the house. BabyDoll informs Archie Lee that Silva wants to establisha “good neighbor policy” whereby Archie Lee will gincotton for him indefinitely. The one condition is thatBaby Doll must entertain him every day. Aunt RoseComfort calls everyone to supper. The meal is under-cooked and unsatisfactory to Archie Lee. He accostsAunt Rose Comfort and threatens her with eviction.Silva promptly offers her a job cooking for him.

Archie Lee collects his shotgun and chases Silvaout of the house. Silva quickly climbs a nearbypecan tree. Baby Doll phones the police and runsout of the house to join Silva in the tree. Archie Leeruns around the yard crying out for his “Baby Doll!”The police arrive and escort Archie Lee away. AsAunt Rose Comfort sings a hymn, Silva descendsfrom the tree and raises his arms to catch Baby Doll.

COMMENTARYElia Kazan, the director who successfully realizedmany of Williams’s dramas for stage and screen,urged the playwright to fuse two of his early one-act plays, 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON and THE

LONG STAY CUT SHORT, OR THE UNSATISFACTORY

SUPPER into a screenplay. These two one-acts sharea rural Mississippi setting and are concerned withessentially the same characters and situations. Thescreenplay, which was tentatively titled The WhipHand and Mississippi Woman, was developedthroughout 1955 and released as Baby Doll in 1956.

Upon its release, Baby Doll was swiftly denouncedas “salacious,” “revolting,” “dirty,” “steamy,” “lewd,”“suggestive,” “morally repellent,” and “provocative.”

Time magazine declared it “the dirtiest American-made motion picture that has ever been legallyexhibited” (Sova, 28). Reactions to the film werevisceral and violent. Francis Cardinal Spellman, whowas at that time the leader of the Catholic archdio-cese of New York, officially denounced the film fromthe pulpit of New York City’s Saint Patrick’s Cathe-dral. Spellman warned, “in solicitude for the welfareof the country,” that Catholics should not view thefilm “under pain of sin” (Kolin, 2). As a result ofSpellman’s declaration, Catholics picketed cinemasthat dared to air the film, and some theatersreceived bomb threats.

Despite such substantial opposition, the film,which vividly and poignantly explores such themesas sexual repression, seduction, revenge, and humancorruption, resonated with a large number of movie-goers, and the film did well at the box office. In addi-tion, Baby Doll won several major internationalawards, such as the British Academy Awards’ “BestFilm” (1957) and “Most Promising Newcomer” (EliWallach, 1957) prizes and the Golden Globes’ “BestMotion Picture Director” (Elia Kazan, 1957).

Considered by many to be “the most provocativecollaborative venture” (Kolin, 2) between Williamsand Kazan, Baby Doll was a pivotal event in Wil-liams’s artistic career. As Barton Palmer notes, what-ever its artistic value—which is significant—therelease and reception of Baby Doll prompted a surgein the overall interest in Williams’s works, themes,and characters.

PRODUCTION HISTORYBaby Doll was produced by Warner Brothers as afeature film in 1956. Elia Kazan directed the film,which featured Karl Malden (Archie Lee), CarrollBaker (Baby Doll), Eli Wallach (Silva Vacarro),and Mildred Dunnock (Aunt Rose Comfort).

PUBLICATION HISTORYBaby Doll was first published in Baby Doll: The Scriptfor the Film by Tennessee Williams in 1956. It was sub-sequently published with TIGER TAIL in 1991.

CHARACTERSDoctor John He is the town physician. ArchieLee Meighan is one of his patients. The doctor

Baby Doll 33

notices that Archie Lee is nervous and high-strungand warns him that he is “not a old man, but not ayoung man, either.” The doctor prescribes seda-tives, which Archie Lee refuses to take.

McCorkle, Aunt Rose Comfort She is the eld-erly unmarried relative of Baby Doll Meighan. AuntRose Comfort lives with Baby Doll and her hus-band, Archie Lee Meighan and makes herself “use-ful” by cooking for the Meighans. Archie Lee hasgrown tired of Aunt Rose Comfort, her “simple-minded foolishness,” and her poor cooking skill.When Archie Lee threatens to throw her out, therival cotton gin operator, Silva Vacarro, offers her ajob cooking for him.

Meighan, Archie Lee Archie Lee is a cotton ginowner in rural Mississippi. He has been down onhis luck since the Syndicate Cotton Gin started todominate the cotton-ginning business in the area.He is married to a voluptuous 19-year-old virgin,Baby Doll Meighan. Archie Lee promised BabyDoll’s father that he would “leave [Baby Doll]alone” (not attempt to consummate their marriage)until she reached the age of 20. Archie is exasper-ated as Baby Doll’s 20th birthday is two days away,and he has dutifully waited more than a year.

To improve his financial situation, he sets fire tothe gin owned by his prime competitor and neigh-bor, the Syndicate Cotton Gin. After the fire at theSyndicate gin, Silva Vacarro, the Syndicate planta-tion manager, approaches Archie Lee with theprospect of ginning his 27 wagons of cotton. ArchieLee orders Baby Doll to entertain Silva while thecotton is being ginned.

Meighan, Baby Doll She is the voluptuous 19-year-old virgin wife of Archie Lee Meighan. Herhusband is down on his luck since the SyndicateCotton Gin began to dominate the cotton businessin the area. After the fire at the Syndicate Planta-tion, her husband is given the opportunity to gin 27wagons of cotton for Silva Vacarro, the SyndicatePlantation manager. Archie Lee orders Baby Dollto entertain Silva. During their visit Baby Dollaccidentally contradicts Jake’s alibi. She essentiallyconfirms for Silva that Archie Lee started the fireat his gin. Silva takes his revenge on Archie Lee by

persuading Baby Doll to sign a statement confirm-ing that Archie Lee started the fire. In the midst oftheir heated flirtations, Baby Doll is aroused sexu-ally for the first time and gains a sense of herself asan adult woman.

Vaccaro, Silva The dashing Italian manager ofthe Syndicate Cotton Gin in a small town in ruralMississippi. Silva’s operation at the Syndicate Ginhas put many local cotton gin owners out of work.His chief business rival is Archie Lee Meighan.After a fire destroys his cotton gin, Silva and hisassistant, Rock, consider Archie Lee Meighan theprimary suspect. When Silva takes his 27 wagons ofcotton to Archie Lee to be ginned, his suspicionsare confirmed. Archie Lee orders his full-figuredteenage virgin wife, Baby Doll Meighan, to enter-tain Silva, while the cotton is being ginned. Duringtheir conversation, Baby Doll innocently and unin-tentionally contradicts Archie Lee’s alibi. Silvathen forces her to sign an affidavit swearing thatArchie Lee committed arson.

Young Man He is a young patient, who is wait-ing to see Doctor John. The Young Man flirts withBaby Doll Meighan, Archie Lee Meighan’s full-figured teenage wife.

FURTHER READINGKolin, Philip. “Civil Rights and the Black Presence in

Baby Doll,” Literature-Film Quarterly (January 24,1996): 2–11.

Palmer, Barton. “Baby Doll: The Success of Scandal,”The Tennessee Williams Annual Review 4 (2001):29–38.

Sova, Dawn B. Forbidden Films: Censorship Histories of125 Motion Pictures. New York: Facts On File, 2001,pp. 26–29.

Battle of AngelsA play in three acts written in 1939.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the rural town of Two RiversCounty, Mississippi.

34 Battle of Angels

PrologueThe action takes place in the Torrance MercantileStore, a general goods store formerly owned andrun by Jabe and Myra Torrance. The prologue pres-ents the store as it appears at the present time, oneyear after the tragic events and actual action of theplay. The store is no longer functional. Eva andBlanch Temple have turned the store into amuseum exhibiting various souvenirs of the tragicevents that occurred in the store. The ConjureMan sleeps on a chair at the rear of the store. Evaand Blanch escort a pair of middle-aged tourists,Oliver and Woman, through the store with a com-mentary on the events that occurred there onGood Friday of the previous year.

Act 1The scene is in the same location as the prologue;however, the time frame is a year earlier, in earlyFebruary. Dolly Bland and Beulah, two local towns-women, set up a buffet table in the store and dis-cuss the poor state of Jabe Torrance’s health.Cassandra (Sandra) Whiteside visits the store inneed of cartridges for her pistol, and she helps her-self to them. Vee Talbot arrives accompanied byValentine Xavier, a handsome young stranger. Veehopes that Myra will give Val a job in the store. Valis left alone in the store with Sandra, who makessuggestive advances toward him. Myra enters thestore and admires the decorations and the food thewomen have prepared for Jabe’s return. Jabe sum-mons Myra upstairs by pounding on the floorabove. Sandra persuades Val to have a look at hercar, and they leave the store. Vee Talbot triesunsuccessfully to prevent Val from leaving withSandra; the other women mock Vee’s attempt tokeep Val away from Sandra. Vee attacks Dolly andBeulah for what she sees as their degraded practiceof drinking and playing cards on Sundays. Dollyresponds by calling Vee a “professional hypocrite,”and the two women exchange more heated wordsuntil Vee flees upstairs to Myra. Blanch and Evagreedily gather the food left out for Jabe’s party totake away with them.

Val returns to the store. Myra enters from theupstairs living quarters and does not notice Val sit-ting at the counter as she goes to the telephone

box. She calls Mr. Dubinsky for sleeping pills. Valstartles her, and she threatens to call the sheriff.Myra offers Val food but says that there is no workavailable in the store. Val amuses Myra by recount-ing his recent episode with Cassandra Whiteside,during which he slapped her for making a sexualadvance toward him. Myra laughs and offers Val adrink and a job.

Act 2, Scene 1The time is roughly one week after act 1, in thesame location, the Torrance Mercantile Store. Valworks on his book and writes his ideas on the lid ofa shoebox. Myra watches him curiously and teaseshim about his behavior and appearance. Threeteenage girls enter the store to flirt with Val. Theyclaim to be interested in purchasing a pair of shoes.Eva Temple goes to the store and plays a similargame. Eva becomes a giddy, giggling coquette as Valhandles her feet.

Cassandra Whiteside returns to the store insearch of a pair of dress shoes to wear to the DeltaPlanters’ Cotillion. Dolly and Beulah enter the storediscussing a card game that ended abruptly. Theyencourage Cassandra to share her recent exploits atthe Mardi Gras festivities in New Orleans. Cassan-dra’s enthusiasm prompts Myra to recount her ownmagical Mardi Gras experience many years ago.Sandra informs Val she did not come to the store fora pair of shoes: She returned to Two Rivers Countyto see him. Sandra reveals her various neuroses andtells Val that he should have killed her instead ofmerely slapping her. This, she informs him, wouldsave her the trouble of killing herself slowly. Sandrataunts him because he is afraid to kiss her. Val grabsSandra and attempts to kiss her. Sandra responds bykneeing him in the groin and biting his hand. Myrabecomes angry at Val’s potential interest in Sandraand begins to vent her frustrations by criticizingVal’s work in the store.

Val takes off his clerk’s jacket and offers his res-ignation. Myra apologizes and admits that she infact has been very pleased with Val’s work in thestore. Myra confesses that she is uncomfortablewith Val’s interactions with the female customers,particularly Sandra Whiteside and the high schoolgirls. Myra accuses Val of having a suggestive

Battle of Angels 35

manner while dealing with female customers. Valshares his life story with Myra.

Act 2, Scene 2This scene occurs several hours later in the after-noon of the same day as act 2, scene 1. Valadmires a large Coca-Cola poster, which features acurvaceous young woman in a yellow swimsuit.Myra’s former lover, David Anderson, enters thestore to purchase cartridges for his shotgun and tospeak with Myra. Myra and David speak privately.She chastises David and informs him that her lifeis not over.

Vee Talbot enters the store with a painted can-vas. Val notices that Vee needs new shoes. Hedecides to toy with Vee and starts to rub her footbetween his hands. Vee is flabbergasted and rushesquickly out of the store. Myra and Val engage in aplayful shoe fitting session. Loon, a homeless blackman, stops outside the store and begins to play hisguitar. Initially he plays a very solemn tune, butthen he changes to a lively waltz matching Myra’stransition and mood. Myra becomes enraptured bythe music. She begins to sashay about the room andreminisces about her youth. Myra shares her heart-break with Val. Val acknowledges Myra’s unspokendesire to be rid of Jabe for good.

Act 2, Scene 3The scene follows the previous scene immediatelywith no break in the music. There is a shift in light-ing to the outside of the store as Sheriff Talbotenters the scene. Sheriff Talbot accosts Loon andarrests him for vagrancy. Val intervenes and rescuesLoon by giving him money and offering him a job.Pee Wee Bland and the other members of the sher-iff’s posse, First Man and Second Man, verballyabuse Val for sympathizing with Loon. A Thirdman, referred to as Pinkie, joins the squabble andspits on Val’s shoes. Val responds by pushing him tothe ground. Val confesses to Myra that he is awanted man because a woman in Texas has accusedhim of rape. Myra asks Val to clarify what hap-pened and he shares his side of the events sur-rounding the charge. Val also confesses that hewants to touch Myra but is afraid of where it mightlead. Val invites Myra to go into the back roomwith him.

Act 3The time is two months later. It is a rainy spring dayin the same location, the Torrance Mercantile Store.It is Good Friday, two days before Easter Sunday.The only significant alteration to the setting is thatthe confectionery area in the rear of the store hasbeen completely redecorated to resemble a beautifulflower-filled orchard. Myra sings and chatters glee-fully as Val works on his book. He is stunned by hererratic behavior and inquires about its source. Myrais giddy and confides only that she has a secret.

Sonny, a small African-American boy, enters thestore to purchase snuff for his grandmother. Benniecomes in and asks whether he may give Myra acredit note for some tobacco. Myra turns on thelights in the confectionery and enjoys the brilliantspring paradise before her. She feels herself glowingand realizes that she is pregnant. The Conjure Manslips silently into the store. Myra offers him moneyto wash her car. Dolly rushes into the store for safetybecause of fear that the Conjure Man will put acurse on her unborn child. Beulah runs in with newsthat Cassandra Whiteside is causing another distur-bance in Two Rivers County. Beulah teases Val andMyra, suggesting that they have a secret. The threewomen discuss Jabe’s poor state of health. Myraexcuses herself to administer Jabe’s medicine.

Dolly and Beulah exchange knowing glances andgiggle with each other. The Temple sisters rush intothe store to share the news about Cassandra White-side’s arrival in town. Vee Talbot enters the storedressed in black for Good Friday. She announcesthat she has at last had a vision of Jesus Christ andhas painted his picture. Beulah and Dolly dismissVee’s “vision” as a result of excessive fasting. Veedeclares that the man in her vision relieved her ofher torments by touching her. She illustrates histouch by placing her hand on her bosom. Dollydebases Vee’s experience and implies that the man inher vision was making a sexual advance. Blanch andBeulah ask to see the painting. Vee starts to unwrapthe canvas as the women hear an outburst and thesound of breaking glass above them.

Vee is forced to compete with Myra and Jabe forthe townswomen’s attention. Jabe loudly accusesMyra of trying to kill him. The townswomen reactwith disbelief and shock. As Vee reaches the dra-

36 Battle of Angels

matic climax in her story, Myra bursts through theupstairs door screaming for Val to call Jabe’s doctor.Val greets Vee Talbot as he crosses her path to getto the telephone. There is a new commotion in thestore over Vee’s sudden hysteria. Vee orders thewomen to let her go, although no one is holdingher. Dolly tries to examine Vee’s painting; Vee grabsit from her before she can see it. Myra rushes out tofind Jabe’s doctor. Beulah grabs Vee’s canvas andshrieks with laughter as she reveals that Val is theman depicted in the painting. Dolly taunts Vee asshe runs out of the store in tears.

The Conjure Man reenters from the confec-tionery and asks Val whether he may spend the nightin the confectionery. In a flash of lightning, Cassan-dra enters the store. Her hair is wet, and her whitesatin evening gown is spattered with mud and grassstains. Cassandra warns Val that Myra will tie himdown. Val orders her to leave, but Cassandra movescloser to him with her wet evening dress clinging toher body. She flings her arms around Val and kisseshim. Myra attacks Cassandra and slaps her faceforcefully. Cassandra nearly faints from the blow. Valcarries Cassandra up the stairs to Myra’s bedroom.

Sheriff Talbot enters the store with Mrs. Regan,the woman from Waco, Texas, who is in pursuit ofVal. Mrs. Regan immediately demands to see themale shop clerk who works in the store. Mrs. Reganrecognizes Val from Vee Talbot’s painting. Myra for-mulates a plan of escape for Val, one that includesher. She shares her dreams of running away and see-ing the world with Val. Val immediately rejects thispossibility and informs Myra that he must go alone.Myra tells Val a parable about a barren fig tree herfamily owned. No one believed the little fig treecould produce fruit except Myra. When the treecame into bloom, Myra celebrated its triumph bydecorating it with Christmas ornaments and tinsel.Myra asks Val to place Christmas ornaments on her.Val is stunned by Myra’s revelation and accuses herof feigning the pregnancy. Myra threatens that she,along with Mrs. Regan, will never let Val escape.

As the two lovers squabble, Jabe enters theupstairs landing. Myra introduces Jabe to Val. Myraand Val argue quietly as Jabe plays the pinballmachine in the confectionery. Jabe threatens Myrawith the news that he is going to live. She becomes

hysterical and announces that she is pregnant. Valruns to the cash register, rings it open, and startstaking money out of it. Myra races to the phone boxand calls the sheriff. While she is still on the phone,Jabe shoots Myra in the abdomen. Val wrestles thegun out of Jabe’s hand. Jabe hobbles out of the storeto get help. Myra is drawn to the “soft, spring-likeradiance” of the confectionery and in her dyingbreath declares that the only things she ever wantedwere David Anderson and “the orchard across fromMoon Lake!” Myra collapses and the lights in theconfectionery flicker out.

Val dashes out of the store through the confec-tionery. Mrs. Regan and Sheriff Talbot enter thestore with a lynch mob bearing lit pine torches. TheConjure Man suddenly appears in the archway ofthe confectionery. He strikes a defiant pose by lift-ing Val’s jacket in the air above his head.

EpilogueThe scene is the same as that of the prologue. It is aSunday afternoon, one year after the events of the

Battle of Angels 37

Publicity portrait of Williams, 1959 (Photographcourtesy of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New YorkPublic Library)

play. Eva and Blanch Temple are completing theirtour of the museum with the tourists. Eva orders theConjure Man to go to the shelf and retrieve the Cas-sandra Whiteside objects for the tourists to see.Blanch and Eva describe Cassandra’s death to thetourists. Blanch and Eva exhibit Val’s snakeskinjacket: The Conjure Man assumes his pose of act 3,with the jacket clenched in his uplifted fist. TheTemple sisters report that Val was captured as he ranout of the store through the confectionery. He wasstripped naked and lynched in the cottonwood tree.

To illustrate how Val was killed, Blanch takes ablowtorch from the wall. The female tourist criesout as Blanch causes the blowtorch to emit a sharpblue flame. The female tourist nearly faints andmust be carried out of the store by the male tourist.The Temple sisters quickly chase the tourists toobtain their admission fee. The Conjure Manreturns Val’s jacket to its special place on the wall.Treating it with the respect of a sacred relic, hebows to it slightly as the melody of a Negro spiritualis heard.

COMMENTARYBattle of Angels was Williams’s first professionallyproduced dramatic work and his first full-lengthdramatic treatment of life in the Deep South. Setin the fictional town of Two Rivers County in ruralMississippi, the drama exposes the repression, cru-elty, hatred, hypocrisy, and brutality that liebeneath the surface of a small, upstanding South-ern community.

Battle of Angels is one of the most neglectedworks in the Williams canon. However, the emi-nent significance of this play to Williams’s develop-ment as a dramatist and to the Williams canonshould not be overlooked. Battle of Angels served asan “important repository of images, symbols,themes, place-names, character types, and evenbits of dialogue that Williams was to draw uponand develop more expertly throughout his dramaticcareer” (Thompson, 95–96). Themes and conflictssuch as sexual repression versus sexual freedom andconformity versus nonconformity, the idea of thepoet as outcast and fugitive, the insatiable quest fortruth and beauty, and the image of the artist asprophet-hero permeate Battle of Angels.

PRODUCTION HISTORYBattle of Angels premiered at the Wilbur Theatre inBoston, Massachusetts, on December 30, 1940,under the direction of MARGARET WEBSTER withMiriam Hopkins as Myra and Wesley Addy as Val.The opening night performance was a complete dis-aster. More troubling than the critical reaction to theplay was the moral outrage that quickly followed.The Boston City Council denounced the play andcalled its presentation in the city of Boston a crimi-nal act. The council ordered an official investigationand demanded that production be shut down. Thepolice commissioner and the city censor recom-mended that the play be allowed to continue withthe understanding that Williams would remove cer-tain lines from the text. None of the officialsinvolved in the investigation had actually attendedthe performance. The city council based its accusa-tions on six complaints received from members ofthe audience. Changes to the text were made andthe production was allowed to continue but closedonly 17 days after its opening. At the tender age of24, the young playwright had launched his careerexplosively. Williams was shocked and devastated bythe audience’s reaction to the play.

Although the production proved to be his firstgreat professional fiasco, Williams did not give upon Battle of Angels. He continued to develop thematerial, and the play was subsequently revised asORPHEUS DESCENDING and produced in New Yorkunder that title in 1957. The same material wasrevised as a screenplay retitled THE FUGITIVE KIND,which was produced in 1960. Starring MARLON

BRANDO and ANNA MAGNANI, it was the most suc-cessful incarnation of Battle of Angels.

PUBLICATION HISTORYBattle of Angels was first published by Pharos in 1945.

CHARACTERSAnderson, David David is a wealthy landownerin Two Rivers County, Mississippi. He is Myra Tor-rance’s former lover. He visits the Torrances’ storewith the pretext of needing to purchase cartridges forhis shotgun. He has actually gone there to see Myraand apologize for abandoning her many years ago.

38 Battle of Angels

Bennie He is an African-American workman,who is a regular customer at Jabe and Myra Tor-rance’s general store.

Beulah She is a member of a group of gossipingtownswomen who frequent Jabe and Myra Tor-rance’s store. This gaggle of women includes VeeTalbot, Eva Temple, Blanch Temple, and her bestfriend, Dolly Bland. Although they consider them-selves friends, they despise each other intensely.They unite forces against common enemies, such asCassandra Whiteside, but turn on each other at theslightest provocation.

Bland, Dolly Dolly is Pee Wee Bland’s wife. Sheis one of a group of gossiping townswomen who fre-quent Jabe and Myra Torrance’s store. Dolly alsoserves a symbolic function. As the mother of sixchildren, expecting her seventh, she is a constantreminder to Myra Torrance that she is childless.

Bland, Pee Wee The husband of Dolly Bland,he is the manager of the cotton gin across the roadfrom the Torrances’ Mercantile Store. Pee Wee isalso the deputy of Sheriff Talbot. As is the sheriff,Pee Wee is a mean-spirited racist.

Conjure Man He is one of several dispossessedAfrican-American characters in the play. As isValentine Xavier, he is a social outcast and lives anisolated existence. With the exception of Val andMyra Torrance, the townspeople of Two RiversCounty either are severely frightened by the Con-jure Man or treat him disrespectfully. Figuratively,the Conjure Man represents the wild, magical, andvibrant spirit of human nature—and humanity—which cannot be suppressed.

Dubinsky, Mr. He is the local pharmacist in TwoRivers County. Myra Torrance calls him in the mid-dle of the night and begs him to deliver sleepingpills to her. Even though it is very late, he obligesher request.

First Man He is a member of Sheriff Talbot’sposse in Two Rivers County. As are the sheriff andhis deputy, Pee Wee Bland, the First Man is a

mean-spirited racist. The First Man along with theSecond Man verbally abuse Valentine Xavier, whosympathizes with the plight of the poor African-American residents of the town.

Girl She is one of three schoolgirls who visit theTorrance Mercantile Store to flirt with the store’snew clerk, Valentine Xavier. She tells Val that herfriend, Jane, is interested in a pair of shoes. WhenJane demurs, the Third Girl offers to take her place,but the Girl beats her to the chair. Val holds herfoot in his hands and measures it. She wears a size51⁄2B.

Jane See Second Girl.

Joe He is an African-American workman at theTorrance Mercantile Store. Joe delivers a shipmentof hats and carries several display signs into thestore for Myra Torrance.

Loon He is a homeless African-American man inthe town of Two Rivers County. Loon stops outsidethe Torrance Mercantile Store at closing time andplays his guitar. Initially, he plays a very solemn tune,but then he changes to a lively waltz. His music mir-rors Myra Torrance’s transition and mood within thestore. Valentine Xavier intervenes on Loon’s behalfwhen he is accosted by Sheriff Talbot.

Oliver He is a middle-aged tourist in Two RiversCounty, who visits the Tragic Museum, formerlythe Torrance Mercantile Store.

Pinkie See Third Man.

Regan, Mrs. She is a matron from Waco, Texas,who goes to Two Rivers County, Mississippi, insearch of Valentine Xavier. Mrs Regan claims thatVal raped her while he was traveling throughTexas. Val’s version of the events is significantlydifferent. Mrs Regan pursues Val for vengeanceand is only fully satisfied after his death.

Second Girl Also referred to as Jane, she is oneof three teenage girls who are infatuated withValentine Xavier. She is the shyest of the three.

Battle of Angels 39

The First Girl tells Val that the Second Girl wantsto try on a new pair of shoes. Second Girl protestsvehemently and tries to coerce the Third Girl tohave her feet measured by Val.

Second Man He is a member of Sheriff Talbot’sposse in Two Rivers County. As are the sheriff andhis deputy, Pee Wee Bland, the Second Man is amean-spirited racist. The Second Man and theFirst Man verbally abuse Valentine Xavier for sym-pathizing with the plight of the poor African-American residents of the town.

Sheriff Talbot (Jim Talbot) Sheriff Talbot is amean-spirited and bigoted town official in TwoRivers County, Mississippi. He is married to VeeTalbot. The sheriff is a close associate of Jabe Tor-rance’s and keeps a watchful eye on Jabe’s wife,Myra Torrance, and their new shop clerk, Valen-tine Xavier.

Sonny He is a small African-American boy whovisits the Torrance Mercantile Store on Good Fri-day afternoon. He goes to the store to purchasesnuff for his bedridden grandmother. Myra Tor-rance gives Sonny a free bag of peanuts before heleaves the store.

Talbot, Vee Vee is the wife of Sheriff Talbot. Sheis a member of a group of gossiping townswomenwho frequent Jabe and Myra Torrance’s store.However, Vee is quite unlike the other women inher circle; she is a painter of some local renown.The other women, especially Dolly Bland, ridiculeVee behind her back. Vee struggles to lead a normalexistence in Two Rivers County, but she, as are theother outcasts in the play, is an outsider by nature.In her eccentricity, she produces a portrait of Christthat bears a striking resemblance to the Torrances’clerk, Valentine Xavier. When she shows the paint-ing to the other women, their howls of derisionsend her headlong into madness.

Temple, Blanch Blanch is the sister of Eva Tem-ple and the cousin of Jabe Torrance. She and hersister are middle-aged single women who aresnooping, churchgoing busybodies. Blanch is the

more animated of the two. She is somewhat jumpyand clumsy and susceptible to palpitations. AsJabe’s only surviving relatives, the Temple sisterswill inherit his store. When Jabe kills his wife,Myra, and the townspeople burn Val Xavier alive,Blanch and Eva take over the property and convertit into the Tragic Museum. They maintain anexhibit of the memorabilia of the tragedy, such asVal’s snakeskin jacket. Blanch frightens the touristsaway from the museum by setting off a blowtorchsimilar to the one that was used to kill Val.

Temple, Eva She is Blanch Temple’s sister andthe cousin of Jabe Torrance. She is one of a pair ofunmarried middle-aged women who are nosy,snooping, churchgoing busybodies. Eva is the moreforthright of the two. As is her fellow towns-woman, Vee Talbot, Eva is smugly pious, yetardently attracted and physically drawn to thestore’s new clerk, the handsome stranger in town,Valentine Xavier. Throughout her shoe fitting ses-sion with Val, Eva is a giggling coquette. After Jabekills his wife, Myra Torrance, and the townspeopleburn Val alive, Blanch and Eva inherit the prop-erty and convert it into the Tragic Museum. Theyeke out a meager existence as the museum’smacabre tour guides.

Third Girl She is one of three schoolgirls whovisit the Torrances’ store to flirt with ValentineXavier. She is the most aggressive of the three intheir pursuit of Val. While her companions, a Girland Second Girl giggle and are rather coy withVal, the Third Girl is direct and actually asks Valfor a date.

Third Man He is also referred to as Pinkie. He isthe last member of Sheriff Talbot’s posse. As are theSheriff and his deputy, Pee Wee Bland, the ThirdMan, is a mean-spirited racist. He is the most phys-ically aggressive of the sheriff’s gang. He accostsValentine Xavier, graphically describes to him themethod he uses to kill snakes, and threatens to dothe same to him.

Torrance, Jabe Jabe is the husband of Myra Tor-rance and the owner of the Torrance Mercantile

40 Battle of Angels

Store. He and Myra have been in an unhappy mar-riage for many years. Jabe is older than Myra and isdying of cancer. For more than two-thirds of theplay, Jabe does not appear on stage, as he lies dyingin his bedroom above the store. He repeatedlybangs on his floorboards to get Myra’s attentionwhen she is downstairs in the store. SymbolicallyJabe represents death and the cancerous, oppres-sive nature of life in the rural Southern town ofTwo Rivers County, Mississippi. As do many of hisfellow residents, Jabe reacts to any act of defianceor nonconformity with violence. When he discov-ers that Myra has been having an affair with theshop clerk, Valentine Xavier, and has become preg-nant with his child, Jabe responds by horrificallyshooting her in the stomach.

Torrance, Myra Myra is the wife of Jabe Tor-rance and the co-owner of the Torrance MercantileStore. The emotional disasters of Myra’s life arenumerous. She was loved and left by David Ander-son; however, in desperation and self-loathing shemarried the mean-spirited, repulsive, and termi-nally ill Jabe. Her marriage and her life have beenbarren and full of regret. Valentine Xavier savesMyra from despair by offering her love and sexualfulfillment.

West, Jonathan An alias used by ValentineXavier.

Whiteside, Cassandra (Sandra) Cassandra isan anomaly in the rigid, repressed Southern societyof Two Rivers County, Mississippi. She is ofwealthy, genteel stock; however, her behavior iscommon and crude. The prim and pious townsfolkof the small rural town have ostracized her andbranded her a scarlet woman. Cassandra finds sal-vation and release in sex and alcohol. Her fast-paced quest for freedom and perpetual motion isabruptly cut short, and, as Valentine Xavier does,Cassandra meets a violent end.

Woman She is a middle-aged tourist who visitsthe Tragic Museum, which was once Myra and JabeTorrance’s Mercantile Store but is now owned byEva and Blanch Temple. The Woman is accompa-nied by a middle-aged male tourist named Oliver.

Woman See Mrs. Regan.

Xavier, Valentine He is a handsome young writ-ers who drifts into Two Rivers County, Mississippi.Vee Talbot helps him find a job in the TorranceMercantile Store, which is owned by Jabe and MyraTorrance. The presence of this sexy young strangercreates an uproar in the small, repressed commu-nity. As Williams’s first tragic hero, in his first full-length treatment of life in the Deep South,Valentine Xavier offers a glimpse of various malecharacters who would later inhabit the Williamscanon. He is a dreamy poet, as is the quintessentialWilliams hero, Tom Wingfield, in THE GLASS

MENAGERIE. Myra comments that Val “talks tohimself, writing poems on shoe-boxes! What amess!” Tom Wingfield does so as well. Val also pos-sesses a strong sexual magnetism and animal pas-sion that would later be fully developed in thecharacter Stanley Kowalski in A STREETCAR

NAMED DESIRE. As is Stanley, Val is irresistible tothe women who fall in love with him, and similarlyhe has an element of violent aggression in his rela-tionships with women. Val’s passionate natureprompts equally passionate responses by the othercharacters in the play. Much to the chagrin of thetown bigots, he becomes the champion of disen-franchised African-American characters, such asLoon and the Conjure Man. The local womenwant to love him; the local men want to kill him.Ultimately, the men prevail and Val is burned todeath. Symbolically, Val represents the spirit ofnonconformity and freedom. His name relates tolove (Saint Valentine) and Christ (Savior).

FURTHER READINGThompson, Judith J. Myth and Symbol in the Plays of

Tennessee Williams. New York: Peter Lang, 1989.

Beauty Is the WordOne-act play Williams submitted for the annualplay contest at the UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI in1930. This play is considered Williams’s earliestdramatic work. The biographer Lyle Leverich states

Beauty Is the Word 41

the play is important “because the theme . . . wasTom’s first attack upon the inhibitions of Puri-tanism and its persecution of the artist . . .depict[ing] the heroism of a freethinker.” This formof heroism would continue to resurface inWilliams’s dramatic and fictive writings and wouldbecome the hallmark of his dramaturgy. Beauty Isthe Word remains unpublished.

FURTHER READINGLeverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.

New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.

“Big Black: A Mississippi Idyll”

Short story written between the years 1931 and 1932.

SYNOPSISBig Black is a member of a Mississippi road crewthat labors in the heat of summer under the brutal-ity of their Irish boss. Big Black does not openlyrebel against his torturous conditions, but periodi-cally he rips open his shirt and bellows out anintense “YOW-OW, YOW-OW-W-W.” In the cen-tral scene, Big Black happens upon a young whitegirl swimming in the river. He aggressively pursuesher, stopping short of rape when he realizes howbestial he has become. To escape the violent scenehe has created, Big Black dives into the river andswims away. He reappears in Georgia, working onanother road gang. Big Black once again lets out hissavage cry.

COMMENTARY“Big Black: A Mississippi Idyll” is Williams’s firststory set in his signature American South, and thestory cannot be fully appreciated without an under-standing of the historical context within which itwas created. This era was a particularly bleak periodin American history, especially in terms of race rela-tions in the country. A society devastated by theeconomic disaster of the stock market crash, whichled to the Great Depression, turned in on itself.Racial animosity reached a zenith during this period

and racially motivated hate crimes against African-American males escalated to an unprecedentedlevel as social commentators warned anxious read-ers of the latently dangerous monsters who roamedfreely within their midst. Reports of the timerecounted horrific tales of “drug-crazed,” violent,and depraved black supermen, who could not bestopped by conventional means and whose one goalwas to defile the sanctity of white womanhood.Such was their incredible strength, law officialsclaimed, that these men were impervious to ordi-nary bullets; special ones had to be invented to killthem. The hysteria created by these reports led to afrenzied spree of lynchings throughout the troubledSouth.

Williams, never one to shy away from controver-sial topics, directly addresses this social phenome-non in this piece of short fiction. As in his playsCANDLES TO THE SUN and NOT ABOUT NIGHTIN-GALES, Williams approaches the inherent social con-flict from the outsider’s or disenfranchised group’sperspective. Big Black is a literary incarnation of themuch maligned and deeply feared African-Americansuperman: As he bakes in the midday sun, hestands, like a black colossus, towering above hiswork-gang peers and his Irish boss; he releases theviolence that lies within him as he rips his shirt androars. Just as his clothing cannot contain his darkskin, his volatile sexuality must also find release.This leads him predictably to ardently pursue a deli-cate, young white girl. Big Black is a figure thatWilliams’s contemporary readers would have imme-diately recognized, expected, and feared. However,as Williams often does, he takes his reader on afamiliar journey and then abruptly alters the finaldestination. When Big Black captures the younggirl, he, in a moment highly reminiscent of Shake-speare’s Othello, notices his huge, dark hands abouther alabaster face and neck. In this moment,Williams twists conventional wisdom. Big Black isstruck by his own humanity and his own oppression.Instead of venting his rage at his own victimizationby victimizing the young girl, he releases her. Heflees the encounter and swims away.

More then merely recycling a convenient stereo-type, Williams exposes the conditions and circum-stances that lead Big Black down his intended path

42 “Big Black: A Mississippi Idyll”

of destruction: the brutality of his Irish boss, theoppressive work conditions, and the blistering heat.These circumstances reveal that Big Black is forevershackled in a world where he is a second-class citi-zen. Williams’s empathy for African Americans andtheir plight in the American South would become aprominent feature of such works as BATTLE OF

ANGELS and ORPHEUS DESCENDING.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Big Black: A Mississippi Idyll” was first publishedin Collected Stories by New Directions in 1985.

CHARACTERSBig Black Big Black works on a chain gangbuilding roads in the heat of summer. His miserystems from his torturous work conditions as well asthe oppression he feels as an African American liv-ing in the segregated South. When he happensupon a young white girl who is swimming, violentdesire overtakes him, and he attacks the girl. Whenhe sees his dark hand spanning the girl’s porcelainface, he regains rationality and flees before he rapesand kills her.

Blue Mountain BalladsA collaborative project with his longtime friendPAUL BOWLES. Williams provided poems thatlargely appear in the collection IN THE WINTER OF

CITIES (1954), and Bowles composed music to cre-ate these ballads in 1946.

Cairo! Shanghai! Bombay!Williams’s first performed dramatic work. Thisone-act comedy was first presented on July 12,1935, by the Garden Players at Mrs. Roseboro’sRose Arbor Theater, in Memphis, Tennessee.Detailing the adventures of two sailors, the playwas a modest success. With this work, however,Williams instantly became enamored of the laugh-ter and applause he could evoke in an audience. As

he wrote in his Memoirs, “Then and there the the-atre and I found each other for better and forworse.” The play remains unpublished.

FURTHER READINGWilliams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

Camino RealFull-length play written in 1946. Camino Real isbased on the one-act play TEN BLOCKS ON THE

CAMINO REAL. Williams added six more “blocks,”or scenes, to the older work and created the frameof Don Quixote’s dream.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a windy, deserted town in anunspecified Latin American country.

PrologueDon Quixote and his squire, Sancho Panza, stumbleonto the scene. Two guards stop them on their wayinto the Siete Mares Hotel by order of its proprietor,Gutman. Tiring of Quixote’s endless romantic pil-grimages, Sancho abandons him. In his desperationand loneliness, Quixote resorts to sleep, inviting hisdreams to sweep him away from his dire predica-ment and to help him find new meanings in life.

The next morning a pageantry of boisteroustownspeople commence their day. Prudence Duver-noy enters in search of her lost dog. She encountersJacques Casanova, who charms her. Prudence tellshim the story of Camille (from Dumas’ La Dame auxCamélias) and reprimands Casanova for his idealis-tic notions. She informs him that on the CaminoReal one must always think and act realistically.Gutman interrupts them to announce the first blockon the Camino Real as he announces every subse-quent block.

Block 1Casanova advises Prudence that Camille is only adream (or fiction). In an attempt to protect her illu-sion, Prudence changes the subject by remarkingthat Casanova is older than she thought. When she

Camino Real 43

sexually objectifies Casanova, he hurriedly walksaway from her. As does Quixote, Prudence residesin the world of fiction, in the blurry liminal space ofimagination. Ironically, Prudence escapes the real-ism of the Camino Real. Olympe, Casanova’s lover(another Dumas character), interrupts this conver-sation as Gutman announces the next block.

Block 2The Survivor enters and begs for water. Rosita, aprostitute, laughs at him and shoves him into thehotel. Upon seeing the stranger, Gutman whistles forthe Officer, who immediately shoots the dehydratedman. The Survivor writhes in pain as Casanovaenters, horrified by the violent scene. Gutmanexplains that the plaza happenings do not concernthe characters. He claims that the Survivor was shotin an attempt to protect the water supply. WhenCasanova attempts to help the Survivor, the Officerstops him. The blind singer, La Madrecita, enterswith the popular and beloved Dreamer. Gutman feelshis power waning in the presence of the Dreamer. Hepontificates on the dangers of dreamers, but theDreamer utters the forbidden word “Brother,” whichmiraculously restores La Madrecita’s eyesight. She,in turn, unsuccessfully attempts to heal the Survivor.

When the Survivor dies, the Gypsy and herdaughter, Esmeralda, and her son, Abdullah, enterto distract attention from the dead man. In adreamlike state, Kilroy, a former champion boxerand an all-American guy, enters. Wearing his luckyboxing gloves around his neck and a ruby-encrusted belt that says, “Champ,” he is considereda savior; he is also a clown.

Block 3Kilroy unsuccessfully searches for a Wells-Fargobank. He tells the Officer that he is a hero and hasan enlarged heart that even has forced him to leavehis wife because he fears that even an intense kissmay prove fatal. When Kilroy asks where he is, theOfficer purposely walks away. The Gypsy, Esmer-alda, and Nursie, enter. Rosita distracts Kilroywhile a pickpocket steals his wallet. The Street-cleaners collect the Survivor’s body, stuffing it intoa trash barrel, much to Kilroy’s shock and disgust.Kilroy enters the pawnshop to cash in his belt.

Block 4A Frenchman in a yellow suit, Baron de Charlus,enters talking with A. Ratt. Lobo follows him. Theowner of the Ritz Men Only Hotel entices him tostay at his hotel with promises of sexual escapades.Kilroy emerges from the Loan Shark’s pawnshop,disappointed that the pawnbroker was interestedonly in his precious boxing gloves. He refuses topawn them. Charlus flirts with Kilroy but losesinterest when he notices Kilroy’s too-gentle eyes.Charlus leaves and Casanova enters. A loud noiseinterrupts the scene, and the Streetcleaners returnwith Charlus’s lifeless body stuffed into a barrel.Kilroy vows to avoid death in the barrel.

Block 5Casanova explains to Kilroy that the Streetcleanersthrow the dead bodies into barrels if there is nomoney in the pockets. The moneyless bodies arethen taken to the laboratory, where each becomes“an undistinguished member of a collectivist state.”Casanova offers Kilroy a way out of the CaminoReal, but Kilroy fears the unknown, so he declinesthe offer.

Block 6Exhausted, Kilroy searches for shelter. A. Rattoffers him a room at the Ritz Men Only. The Offi-cer arrests Kilroy for vagrancy when he decides tosleep in the plaza. Gutman offers to hire him as apatsy or clown, but Kilroy tries to escape. Simulta-neously, Esmeralda tries to escape from her mother.They are both apprehended, and Kilroy is forced towear a red nose and wig.

Block 7Gutman describes this block as his favorite whilethe Dreamer sings in the background. Abdullahinforms Casanova that his long-awaited remittancecheck has arrived. Casanova notices Kilroy, who iscrouched and wearing a clown suit. Lady Mulliganasks Gutman to evict Casanova because of his radi-cal ideas. A Hunchback Mummer somersaultsacross the stage, heralding a new scene. Casanova’slover, Marguerite, enters to announce that herpurse has been stolen. Casanova sends Abdullah tofind the papers that were in her purse. Margueritebegs Casanova to leave the Camino Real with her.Casanova confesses that he fears the outside world.

44 Camino Real

Block 8Gutman addresses Lord Byron, who is planning toleave the Camino Real for Greece because he haslost his inspiration to write. Lord Byron’s thoughtswander to Shelley, and he describes Shelley’s crema-tion. The people overhearing this graphic and grue-some story become entranced by the details. Byronmisses the effect his poetry used to have on people.He admits that succumbing to earthly pleasures hasbeen his downfall, and he is fleeing temptation. Heexits through an archway that reveals the desertbeyond the plaza. Kilroy begins to follow him, buthis fear of the unknown makes him stop. His noseblinks as Gutman laughs at his cowardice.Block 9Casanova and Marguerite witness the arrival of theunexpected freedom ship called the Fugitivo. Every-one scrambles to get on the ship, but Gutman triesto talk people into staying with him. In the midst ofthe chaos, Lord Mulligan declares that he is sick.The Streetcleaners appear as if they are vultureswaiting to take the body. Lady Mulligan leaves herhusband, ordering that his body be placed on dryice when he dies. Marguerite fights with Casanovafor the papers she needs in order to board the ship.Casanova is too afraid to go and wants her to staywith him. She is left standing on the shore as theFugitivo sails out of sight.

Block 10Marguerite plans to leave Casanova. Abdullah entersselling hats for the lunar fiesta that annually rein-states Esmeralda’s virginity. Marguerite gives Abdul-lah her sapphire ring to pawn and secure anotherlover for her. Marguerite is swept away by the wind.

Block 11Casanova is forced to wear deer horns and isdeclared “King of the Cuckolds.” He defends himselfby proclaiming his sexual prowess, but he is ignoredbecause Esmeralda’s long-awaited lunar fiesta isbeginning. Kilroy enters and removes Jacques’santlers. In return, Casanova removes Kilroy’s wigand red nose. Kilroy finally musters the courage toleave. He sells his prized gloves to the Loan Shark.Gutman enters and announces the Gypsy’s ceremo-nial entrance. She proclaims that the Moon hasrestored Esmeralda’s virginity. Everyone is forced topay homage to Esmeralda as she dances on a rooftop

in the plaza. Kilroy has nearly escaped when Esmer-alda calls out, “Yankee,” drawing attention to him.He dances with her, trying to resist her. WhenEsmeralda calls him “Champ,” he becomes instantlysmitten by her and abandons his plans.

Block 12The Gypsy prepares Esmeralda to seduce Kilroy formoney. After some interrogation, the Gypsy readstarot cards that reveal Kilroy is dying. The Street-cleaners eagerly wait outside for him. They escorthim to Esmeralda, who is carried in on a couch,wearing a veil and a skirt. After some conversation,Kilroy asks to lift her veil, but she says that shewants to go to Acapulco. Kilroy criticizes her mate-rialistic nature and asks again to lift her veil.Esmeralda does not believe Kilroy will be gentleenough. He protests and she explains that each ofher lovers is the first because her virginity is alwaysrestored. Just as it appears that Kilroy is beginningto lift her veil, he stops and says that he is “tiredand full of regret.” He pities himself and all theother men who go to Esmeralda because of theirown desperation. Penniless and trapped in theCamino again, Kilroy leaves Esmeralda.

Block 13The Streetcleaners enter and place a barrel in themiddle of the stage. When Kilroy enters and seesthe barrel, he tries to escape into the Siete Mares,but Gutman does not answer the door. Just as Gut-man is about to evict him, Casanova enters. WhenCasanova opens his remittance check, he finds anote which states that payment has been discontin-ued. Gutman throws Casanova’s suitcases out ofthe hotel. Kilroy decides to sleep in the plaza.

Block 14Marguerite enters with her Young Man, who takesher purse and jewelry. Marguerite does not resist.Kilroy enters and warns her that the Streetcleanersare coming for him. They sit down and hold hands.He explains that he left his wife because he couldnot handle the thought of such a beautiful womanbeing married to a “broken down champ.” TheStreetcleaners make their way to Kilroy, who posi-tions himself as a boxer to fight them. Kilroy falls tohis knees. Before the Streetcleaners can get to him,La Madrecita goes to his aid.

Camino Real 45

Block 15La Madrecita sits with Kilroy’s body lying across herlap. A Medical Instructor stands beside an operat-ing table at center stage. La Madrecita emotionallyeulogizes Kilroy’s life while the Instructor addressesstudents and nurses who are witnessing the removalof Kilroy’s heart. Kilroy’s spirit rises from his body towitness the surgery. The Instructor shouts in sur-prise when he discovers the heart is made of gold.

Block 16Kilroy chases the Instructor, demanding that hisheart be returned. Gutman tries to stop Kilroy,claiming that the heart is the property of the state.Esmeralda and the Gypsy enter as they prepare togo to bed. Esmeralda wishes to dream about Kilroy,the hero. Kilroy tries to get her attention, but shecalls him a cat. He goes to the Loan Shark to pawnhis golden heart, and he returns with money.Esmeralda calls him a cat again, and Kilroy bemoansthe Gypsy and her daughter.

Quixote enters. Gutman announces the knight’sreturn and the end of his dream. Quixote goes overto the dry fountain in the middle of the plaza andwater begins to flow. Kilroy watches in amazementand asks Quixote whether he knows everything is“rugged.” He agrees with Kilroy but suggests thatKilroy should not pity himself. Quixote asks Kilroyto leave with him. The Street People and Mar-guerite enter. Casanova enters, he and Margueriteembrace, and Gutman tells the audience, “The cur-tain line has been spoken,” ordering that the curtainbe lowered as he bows as the ringmaster.

COMMENTARYCamino Real is centered on an epic journey of indefi-nite time and surreal happenings. In the foreword tothe script, Williams writes, “This play has seemed tome like the creation of another world, a separateexistence.” As emphasized by the quoting of a line byDante Alighieri in the play’s epigraph, “In the mid-dle of the journey of our life I came to myself in adark wood where the straight way was lost” (InfernoCanto 1), this play is Williams’s “modern inferno”(Falk, ch. 5). Kilroy is then Williams’s version of aDante figure, the archetypal American who encoun-ters a compliant social wasteland on the CaminoReal or “real way of life.” The Camino Real is a

parade of colors and characters: trapped romantics,drifters, and literature’s archetypal lovers. Casanova,Don Quixote, Lord Byron, among fictional literaryfigures, have landed themselves in this timeless,ethereal place. Unlike Socrates, Plato, and Homer,who are trapped in Dante’s inferno because they areafflicted with melancholy or hopelessness, Casanova,Don Quixote, and Lord Byron inhabit the Caminobecause they are hopeful dreamers.

Williams establishes a literary connection to theromantics by using Lord Byron as the chief heralderof hope. With graphic memories of the burningcorpse of his companion, Shelley, he states theplay’s primary maxim when he encourages the othercharacters, “Make voyages! Attempt them!—there’snothing else.” Despite Gutman’s despotic controlover the town and the Streetcleaners’ frenzied lustfor death, the journey still affords zeal for living.

A character in Marcel Proust’s lifework, A laRecherche du temps perdu (Remembrance of ThingsPast), Baron de Charlus is a masochistic gay manwho is also a marginalized character in CaminoReal. This character, who delights in the love ofmen and enjoys being flogged and physically over-powered by lower-class toughs, is reminiscent ofWilliams’s character Anthony Burns in “DESIRE

AND THE BLACK MASSEUR.” Charlus’s cameoappearance in Camino Real as does Burns’s in“Desire and the Black Masseur,” demonstrates theironic possibility that through his brutal sexualencounters with various men, he is able to copewith the harsh realities in life. With this notion,Williams incorporates sexuality as an escape routeof its own, beyond the wasteland of the CaminoReal and contextually above the oppressive andconservative mood of the McCarthy-era setting ofthe 1940s and 1950s, a time when “Communistsand queers” were under scrutiny (Schrecker, 148).

Williams was also drawn to Proust’s voluminousnovel for its passage of time, “a controlled torrent ofpersonal experience” (Where I Live, 125). Williams’sdeliberately experimental nature of time incorpo-rated in Camino Real lends the play a surreal, dreamysense of life. There is no concern with chronology,negating verisimilitude insofar as it creates unitywithin a script; however, emotional and universaltruths are gained. Williams focuses attention on Kil-roy’s “psychic history—[his] love, fear, loneliness,

46 Camino Real

disgust, humor, and most important of all, his forgiv-ing perception of the reasons for the tragicomedy ofhuman confusion” (Where I Live, 125). Kilroy is “theAmerican” who dies, his oversized golden heart isstolen, and so he returns to life to reclaim it.

The themes Williams incorporates in this sociopo-litical dream play are based on the friction betweenliberty and the state as well as between despondencyand optimism. Engulfed in a very mechanical senseof authoritarianism and conformity, Camino Real isWilliams’s criticism of capitalistic society in the coldwar era.

Williams enjoyed the freedom of writing anexpressionistic drama and by its endless creative

staging possibilities. He was always most interestedin creating new theatrical forms of dramaturgy;THE GLASS MENAGERIE, with its PLASTIC THEATRE

moments, is his most successful example of revolu-tionary staging.

PRODUCTION HISTORYCamino Real is dramaturgically similar to Williams’smore experimental writings late in his career. How-ever, it premiered after the success of The GlassMenagerie (1945), A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE

(1947), and THE ROSE TATTOO (1950) and beforeCAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF (1955) and was not wellreceived. Audiences were either offended by his

Camino Real 47

Production shot of Jo Van Fleet, Joseph Anthony, and other cast members, from the Broadway production of CaminoReal, 1953 (Alfredo Valente)

political views or bored by what they perceived as aformless play about nothing. Williams cut much ofthe play’s political commentary for the Broadwayproduction; however, he restored it for its first pub-lication in 1953.

Camino Real premiered at the Martin Beck The-atre in New York, March 19, 1953; it closed afteronly 60 performances on May 9, 1953. Directed byELIA KAZAN, the play starred Eli Wallach and JES-SICA TANDY.

PUBLICATION HISTORYCamino Real was published by Dramatists Play Ser-vice in 1953. Several subsequent publications includeminor revisions of the text.

CHARACTERSCasanova, Jacques Historical figure and a char-acter in Camino Real. Casanova, once the notoriouslover of countless women, now only has one friend,Marguerite Gautier. He is depicted as an old man, ashadow of his former self, living in the Siete MaresHotel. In this abstract and fantastical play, he rep-resents second chances in life.

Charlus, Baron de A stately Frenchman dressedin a pale yellow suit, Baron de Charlus is a literaryfigure and character in the play Camino Real. Basedon the character of the same name in MarcelProust’s lifework A la Recherche du temps perdu(Remembrance of Things Past or, more recently, InSearch of Lost Time), he is a masochistic gay manwho enters the Camino Real. He encounters a hand-some former boxer named Kilroy. Charlus isattracted to him until he realizes that Kilroy’s eyesare too gentle. Charlus dies on the Camino Real andthe Streetcleaners stuff his body into a barrel andtake it to the laboratory for experimentation.

Dreamer He is a hero of the citizens of theCamino Real whose visit and mere presence chal-lenge the authority of Gutman. When he uttersthe forbidden word “Brother,” La Madrecita de LasSoledades’s eyesight is miraculously restored.

Duvernoy, Prudence She befriends JacquesCasanova and tries to seduce him. Prudence relates

the story of Camille in Alexandre Dumas’ La Dameaux camélias. She reprimands Casanova for his ide-alistic notions and informs him that on the CaminoReal one must always think and act realistically.

Esmeralda Esmeralda is the beautiful daughter ofthe Gypsy. She is a highly desirable young womanand a lover of many men. Esmeralda’s virginity isrestored every month during a lunar fiesta celebrat-ing the full Moon. She seduces Kilroy, but her criti-cism that he is not gentle enough provokes him toleave before their interaction is consummated bythe lifting of the veil she wears over her face. Esmer-alda represents the regret all men feel for a desirethat cannot be fulfilled. She is a part of the “ruggeddeal,” or the unfortunate moments in Kilroy’s life.

Gautier, Marguerite Marguerite is based on thecharacter of that name in Alexandre Dumas’ novelLa Dame aux camélias. This elegant woman, oncethe best dressed, most expensive, and most success-ful courtesan in Paris, is now Jacques Casanova’saging lover. Hints of her former glory remain in hergrand demeanor and her attire, which includes ahat heaped with violets. She abandons Jacquesearly in the play but ultimately returns to him. Inthis highly symbolic play, Marguerite representsfaithfulness and companionship.

Gutman, Mr. He is the despotic proprietor ofthe Siete Mares Hotel. Gutman orders the death ofpeople who enter the Camino Real. Mr. Gutman issly, well dressed, and indifferent to the plight of theneedy. He functions as a ringmaster of a circus,announcing the “blocks” or acts in the play as wellas the conclusion. Mr. Gutman is a highly politi-cized character who represents the oppressivemood of the McCarthy era.

Gypsy She is a psychic and the mother of Esme-ralda. The Gypsy procures male customers for Esme-ralda after her virginity is restored at the lunar fiesta.

Kilroy Kilroy is an all-American guy and a formerchampion boxer. He has an abnormally large heart,which is said to be the size of a baby’s head. Becauseof this medical condition, Kilroy left his wife for fearthat intimacy would kill him. He becomes trapped

48 Camino Real

in the Camino Real, and although he wants to leavethe destitute and surreal place, he becomes tooafraid to break out on his own. In the moment he isbrave enough to escape, he is caught and forced towear a red clown nose and wig. Hailed as the “Cho-sen Hero,” Kilroy is seduced by Esmeralda. Kilroymeets Don Quixote and becomes his new squire.Together, the two leave the Camino Real.

La Madrecita de Las Soledades A motherly fig-ure who goes to the aid of Kilroy. She holds himduring a surreal moment when simultaneously he iscradled in her lap and has his golden heartremoved by a surgeon on a cold operating table. LaMadrecita de Las Soledades’s name means “littlemother of the lonely.”

Lord Byron (George Gordon, Lord Byron)(1788–1824) Historical figure and character inCamino Real. Williams admired Byron so much thathe included him among his characters. Williams wasinspired by Byron’s sense of freedom and poetic lyri-cism. In the play, Byron is a hopeful dreamer whoencourages Kilroy to live and “Make voyages!” LordByron pontificates on the cremation of his fellowromantic poet, Percy Bysshe Shelley. He tells of hisdecision to travel to Athens in an attempt to findhis poetic voice once more. Lord Byron encouragesKilroy to travel and live.

In addition, Lord Byron is the subject of LORD

BYRON’S LOVE LETTER, a one-act play, which servesas a tribute to Byronic themes of love and romanticcandor.

Officer He shoots the Survivor, who wandersinto the Camino Real desperately in search ofwater. The Officer is Gutman’s ruffian; he obeysorders, however brutal or unjust.

Panza, Sancho Sancho accompanies DonQuixote to the Camino Real; however, he abandonshim there because he is tired of their lifelong travels.

Quixote, Don He is abandoned by his longtimesquire, Sancho Panza. Lonely and desperate, hedecides to commune with the characters in hisdreams. He believes that he will find the answers to

life’s difficult questions in those dreams. Quixote’sdream serves as the framework for the entire play.The Camino Real offers Quixote a new travelingcompanion, Kilroy.

Streetcleaners They are public servants whocollect the dead bodies of the Camino Real. It istheir decision whether a deceased body can beclaimed by relatives or becomes property of thestate, and they base their decision on the amountof money found in the cadaver’s pockets. TheStreetcleaners are fixtures in the corrupt powerstructure of the Camino Real. They are also mani-festations of the ever-present existential and fore-boding tone that permeates the Camino Real.

Survivor He is a drifter dying of thirst who stum-bles on the Camino Real. When Gutman discoversthe Survivor in the plaza, he orders the Officer toshoot him instead of offering him water. JacquesCasanova and La Madrecita de Las Soledades try tohelp him, but he dies.

FURTHER READINGAtkinson, Brooks. “First Night at the Theatre: Ten-

nessee Williams Writes a Cosmic Fantasy EntitledCamino Real,” New York Times, 20 March 1953, p.26.

Falk, Signi. Tennessee Williams. New York: Twayne, 1978.Savran, David. Communists, Cowboys, and Queers.

Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992.Schrecker, Ellen. Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism

in America. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998.Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of

Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.Williams, Tennessee. Where I Live. New York: New

Directions, 1978.

Candles to the SunFull-length play written in 1936.

SYNOPSISThis play is set in a coal mining camp in the RedHill section of Alabama.

Candles to the Sun 49

Scene 1Before sunrise, Bram Pilcher barges out of the bed-room of his cabin. He stumbles into the furniture,complaining to his wife, Hester, that she has notlighted the oil lamp. Hester busily makes a break-fast of hot mush and coffee. She grumbles aboutBram’s refusal to use the milk sparingly. Bramlaughs when Hester demands that he buy a cow. Hehurries her to make his coffee before the workwhistle blows. When Bram scalds his tongue on thehot coffee and yelps, Hester hushes him so that hewill not wake their children, Joel and Star. Bramfusses about Joel’s laziness and complains about hiswasting time in school. He says that coal minershave no use for school. Hester retorts that Joel isnot going to be a coal miner, but Bram reminds herthat all men become coal miners in this part of thecountry; they have no choice. Bram does not likeHester encouraging Joel to leave the camp becausethey have lost contact with their oldest son, John,who left.

When Bram criticizes the newly built school,Hester calls him a “natural born slave,” as he isloyal to the mining company that keeps him igno-rant and poor. Bram notices a shift in Hester’s atti-tude toward him, and he enquires as to the source.Hester produces a letter from her pocket. TimAdams, the postmaster, told her it is from Pennsyl-vania, but she cannot read. They fear somethinghas happened to John. Bram leaves the table towake up Star to read the letter to them. Hesterdoes not want Star to be awakened because she hasonly been home for a few hours. Bram is infuriatedthat Star has been out so late. Hester says that Starhas been hanging out with rich girls in Birminghamwho buy her nice things.

Bram drags Star out of her bed and into the liv-ing room. Refusing to believe her story, he demandsto know how she obtained the bright red kimonoshe’s wearing. When Star states that it is none ofhis business, and Bram slaps her and asks again.Star retorts that her father has never given her any-thing in her life and this is why she has to havefriends that will help her. In her rage, Star admitsthat she has been going to Birmingham with JakeWalland. Bram objects to her relationship with Jakeand demands that Star leave the house.

Joel enters the living room. He notices the letterthat has fallen to the floor and hands it to hismother. He asks what all the shouting is about, butHester instructs him to get ready for school andstudy hard. She also tells him to take the letter toschool and have Mrs. Wallace read it to him.

Scene 2The next evening Mrs. Wallace reads the letter toBram and Hester. John has been killed in a Pennsyl-vania coal mine. His widow has written the letterinforming them that she and their young son, Luke,are on their way to live with them. Bram blamesHester for encouraging John to leave home and,“them damn Yankee mines . . . where they got allthem damn fool contraptions like machine loadin’and things to kill people with.” Hester blamesJohn’s widow for killing him by forcing him to workin the mines.

Tim Adams approaches the cabin with a verythin woman named Fern and a small boy. He saysthat she came into the store looking for them. Hes-ter is delighted to see that her grandson, Luke,looks just like John.

Scene 3One early summer morning five years later, Fernwashes clothes in a big wooden washtub in the mid-dle of the cabin floor. Mrs. Abbey, the mining super-intendent’s wife, enters. She asks Fern about a pair ofpurple pajamas that were missing in the last batch ofwashing that she brought to Fern. Fern says thatthere were no pajamas in the last load. Mrs. Abbeyplops down on a chair and begins to gossip about Joel,who is working at the company store rather than inthe mine. She calls him weak for choosing not to gointo the mines. Fern is insulted, but keeps calm. Mrs.Abbey talks about Bram’s failing eyesight and howunimportant it is anyway because he works in thedark. She tells Fern about a fight that occurred at thestore between Star and a red-haired woman.

Hester enters the cabin. Mrs. Abbey excitedlybegins to relate the story again for Hester, but Ferninterrupts and tells her good-bye. As she is leaving,Mrs. Abbey tells her to be on the lookout for Mr.Abbey’s purple pajamas that may be lost amongJoel’s and Bram’s clothes. Hester takes seriousoffense to this insinuation and throws the bundle of

50 Candles to the Sun

laundry at Mrs. Abbey and tells her never to returnto the cabin or to utter another word about herfamily. Mrs. Abbey threatens to tell her husband,and Hester emphatically encourages her to do that.

After she leaves, Hester regrets her actions andremarks to Mrs. Abbey. She worries that Mrs.Abbey will have Joel fired from the store. Fern triesto comfort her. Hester encourages Fern to startlooking for another husband so she won’t have towash other people’s dirty laundry. She wants Fernto have a good life. Fern confesses that she feelsresponsible for John’s death and has been saving allof her money for Luke as recompense. Fern sendsLuke down the mountain to pick blueberries forlunch. Both women watch him run home, and Hes-ter is struck by his resemblance to John.

Scene 4Five years later Star sits in her cabin with the win-dows open to the passing crowd on a lively Satur-day. Ethel Sunter comes by to deliver dinner to Star.When Ethel comments on the cards on the table,Star says she has been telling fortunes. Ethel chas-tises her for such sinfulness and reminds her thatonly the Lord can divine the future. Ethel also apol-ogizes for missing Jake’s funeral, but says that shecould not attend it because Jake would not “professbelief” on his deathbed. Ethel asks Star what shehas planned for her future, and Star bluntly saysthere is no plan. Ethel proselytizes and leaves.

Luke visits Star. He tells her that Hester is veryill and that the doctor has prescribed a long rest forher. Luke talks about a man he met, called Birm-ingham Red, who is organizing a miners’ strike.Luke has been reading books that Red has loanedhim, and he believes a strike is in order. Star admitsthat she has heard Red speak, but she is puzzled asto why he never pays her any attention. Starexpresses her cynical belief that nothing ever reallychanges, but Luke refuses to accept her point ofview. He is young and hopeful that a strike willimprove his family’s circumstances.

Luke tells Star that Hester thinks and talksabout her all the time. Star makes Luke promisethat he will come and get her if Hester should takea turn for the worse. Later that evening, Red visitsStar. He talks about miners’ rights, the lung diseaseJake contracted in the mines, and the atrocities

that happen underground. Unaware of Star’s familyconnections, he tells her that Hester Pilcher isdying of pellagra, a disease associated with malnu-trition. Star is shaken by this blunt news of hermother, and Red apologizes for his candor. Red andStar go down to the spring to watch the stars. Lukereturns and frantically searches for Star.

Scene 5A few months later, Bram stumbles out of his bed-room, tripping over furniture in the dark. Fern makeshis breakfast in the kitchen and scolds him for beingso loud and cantankerous. Bram says that Hesteralways had the lamp burning for him when he got up.Fern sends him out to pump a kettle of water, andJoel enters to eat breakfast. Tim Adams comes by tocollect payment of a past-due bill. Bram gives him allthe scrip (coal company dollars) he has, but it is notenough to cover the debt. Luke appears in the livingroom in mining clothes. Fern is horrified anddemands that he take the clothes off and go back tobed. Joel and Bram try to reason with her, as they areproud that Luke is going underground with them.Fern is completely beside herself, but Luke says thathe has to earn more money if he is going to collegenext fall. Fern pleads with him, but with Bram andJoel taking Luke’s side, her efforts are stifled.

Scene 6Later that day Star visits Fern. She is lonely andtalks about her excruciating love for Red. Starinforms Fern of the impending strike. She explainsthat the miners are divided over the action and areforming alliances. Star and Fern lament Hester‘spassing, and especially how much they miss her introubling times. At this moment, the women hearthe whistle blow three times, signaling an emer-gency at the mine. A crowd forms in the distance,and there is shouting. Fern sends Star outside to seewho has been killed, as she stands frozen in terror.Fern has a flashback of John’s tragedy. Bram can seeStar’s outline, and he shouts to tell Fern that it isnot Luke. The men approach the cabin rushing Joelinside on a plank. His head is covered with a cloth.

Scene 7Bram’s cabin is swarming with miners who havecome to pay their respects. Ethel enters to conduct


the prayers and service in the back room whereJoel’s body is on display. Eventually the strike comesup in conversation. Bram begins to fight with theyounger miners who believe a strike will create bet-ter conditions. Bram reminds the miners, includingLuke, that the company store will shut down ifthere is a strike and the whole camp will starve todeath. Luke suggests the miners use his mother’ssavings to sustain the camp. Bram refuses to allowLuke to touch Fern’s money. The argument esca-lates when other miners enter after attending Red’sstrike rally. Fern attempts to contain the argument.

Scene 8One or two nights later, Star paces in her cabin whileRed writes something. The camp has been silentsince the strike began. Star begs Red to tell her whathe knows, but he refuses to involve her. Star asksRed when the provisions are going to arrive, as thewhole camp is hungry. Red tells her they will arriveas soon as they can. His answer makes Star angry,and she mentions that Fern has $300. Red insiststhat he will get it from her, but Star tries to convincehim that Fern will never part with Luke’s collegemoney. Red suggests to Star that he move out of herhouse because she is not safe with him there. Starconfesses that she is in love with him and that shewants a home and family with him. Red is surprisedby her declaration. He reminds Star that he is not “awoman’s man.” Red explains that their relationshipcannot get in the way of his mission.

Luke enters the cabin to inform Red that a truck-load of men has arrived at the camp and that theyare convening in the basement of the companystore. Luke has stolen his mother’s savings andhands it to Red. Star is angry that Red has made athief of Luke. Star worries about Red’s safety andbegs him to go into hiding. Red refuses to shrinkfrom the superintendent’s goons. Fern entersdemanding her money. Red tells her that she canhave it back if she can deal with the guilt of refusingto feed 1,500 of her own people. He appeals to hersentimentality and asks her to ask John what to do.Fern relents and leaves the money on the table.

Scene 9Star and Red wait for the superintendent’s men.Star criticizes Red for merely waiting for trouble to

arrive instead of escaping and making the fight a lit-tle harder for the goons. Red asks her why Fern leftthe money. Star jokes that maybe she “saw thelight,” and Red agrees. Star says that she remembersFern looking, “struck blind.” Red says, “There’s a lotof difference between looking at a candle and thenlooking at the sun.” Star does not understand whatRed means, but she begs him to take her away fromthe camp. Red promises her that next spring theywill go north. Star again professes her love and saysthat she wants him all to herself. Red explains thathe must fight before he loves.

A group of men assemble outside Star’s cabin.Red gives Star the money and tells her to take it tothe miners. Star asks what he is going to do, and hereplies, “Nothing.” The men break down the cabindoor, grab Star, and pinion and gag her. The menshoot Red and quickly leave when they hear a mili-tia of miners approaching. Star goes to Red, sob-bing and screaming for help.

Scene 10Two months later Star goes to Bram’s cabin to saygood-bye. She tells Fern that she is going to work inBirmingham. She also promises to send moneyback to pay off Red’s debt, but Fern refuses repay-ment. The superintendent has submitted to theconditions of the strike. Now blind, Bram has alsobecome disoriented. He believes Fern is Hester andthat Luke is John. Luke leaves for work at themines, and Fern rocks in Hester’s old rocking chair.

COMMENTARYOne of Williams’s first full-length plays, Candles tothe Sun was written to be performed by a small semi-professional theater group in Saint Louis, Missouri,called The Mummers. The group was concernedwith social issues and invited Williams to exploresocially conscious themes in the plays he wrote forthem. Addressing the concerns of coal-mining fami-lies, Williams drafted the play during a difficult timein U.S. history. Shortly after the Great Depressionand just prior to World War II, poverty was wide-spread, and the struggle for survival was enormousfor the poor. Coal-mining families were starving;fathers, brothers, and husbands were being killeddue to unsafe conditions underground.

52 Candles to the Sun

Candles to the Sun should answer questions somecontemporary scholars may have about Williams’spolitical convictions. As in his play NOT ABOUT

NIGHTINGALES, Williams is wrestling with the seri-ous social concerns of his time. Nightingales isinformed by the Holmesburg Prison Strike of 1938,during which four inmates were killed for havingparticipated in a hunger strike; in Candles, Williamsrefers to the coal miners’ strikes of the early 20thcentury. The Matewan Massacre and the early Har-lan County (“Bloody Harlan”) strikes were some ofthe most brutally suppressed attempts of coal min-ers to unionize.

Just as Birmingham Red is killed by the superin-tendent’s hired thugs, many miners were brutallybeaten and killed in their attempt to receive fairwages, better living conditions, and safety. Some,like Bram Pilcher, felt they could mine as long asconditions were bearable, but Williams focuses on ashift in the economy that made it impossible for min-ers to feed their families in spite of their hard labor.There is also a generational shift among the minersthemselves, with the younger miners expressing themost dissatisfaction. Luke and Joel’s generation havewitnessed the steady deterioration of their elders,and in Luke’s case, the death of his father in themines. Bram is blind and mentally unstable by theend of the play. Hester dies from malnutrition inthe camp. Star loses all hope when BirminghamRed is killed and leaves to work in a brothel inBirmingham. Every person suffers as a result oftheir association with the mines. There is com-plete destruction—emotional, physical, social, andenvironmental.

Candles to the Sun was, and remains, Williams’spoignant plea on behalf of long-suffering miningcommunities—an impoverished social group that hasbeen largely ignored and brutually disenfranchised.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThere have been no professional productions ofthis play.

PUBLICATION HISTORYCandles to the Sun was published by New Directionsin 2004.

CHARACTERSAbbey, Mrs. The wife of the coal-mining super-intendent, Mrs. Abbey spends her time gossipingand stirring up trouble among the people of themining camp. She considers herself superior to thewomen in the camp.

Adams, Tim Tim Adams runs the company storein a coal camp in Red Hill, Alabama. He is at themercy of the mining superintendent, who conductsbusiness in a dishonest way. Although Tim hasescaped the coal mines, his struggles are the sameas the miners’.

Birmingham Red Leader of a group of coal min-ers in the Red Hill section of Alabama who arefighting for a union. Provocative in his beliefs andconvincing in his speeches, Birmingham Redstorms into the coal camp with the sole intention offighting the tyrannical mining company. He realizesthat he is jeopardizing his own life, but his convic-tions are so great that he is fearless. BirminghamRed falls in love with Star Pilcher, and he promisesthat together they will leave the camp the followingspring; however, Red is killed by the mine superin-tendent’s thugs.

Pilcher, Bram A dedicated coal miner and aprofoundly simple man who believes that he shouldmine coal as long as he is living. Bram is the oldestman in the mines and the brunt of many crueljokes. Though losing his eyesight, Bram refuses tostop mining, in part because he knows that his fam-ily will starve if he does. When Birmingham Redorganizes a miners’ strike, Bram strongly objects,believing that as long as the conditions are bearablehe should never complain. Bram ages very quicklyduring the play, and by the end, he is mentallyunstable and blind. He still believes, however, thathe should be mining coal, even though his body isphysically spent.

Pilcher, Fern The widow of John Pilcher, a minerwho was killed in Pennsylvania. Fern takes heryoung son, Luke, to Alabama to live in a coal campwith her in-laws. She is determined that Luke shouldnot grow up to be a miner, although his fate may be


inevitable. When Luke starts mining coal with hisgrandfather Bram and his uncle Joel, Fern suffers hergreatest disappointment. Like her mother-in-law,Hester, Fern retreats into her own world.

Pilcher, Hester The wife of a coal miner, BramPilcher. Hester struggles to live in the dismal condi-tions of the mining camp. Determined that her sonsnot become miners like their father, Hester tries tosend them out into the world in the hope that theywill better themselves. When her son John moves toPennsylvania and becomes a coal miner and iskilled, Hester realizes that she is waging a losing bat-tle. Exhausted by the constant struggle to feed herfamily, Hester herself becomes weak and dies from adisease associated with malnutrition.

Pilcher, Joel A young miner and the son of aminer. Despite his mother’s wishes, Joel follows hisfather and mines coal. He becomes involved in astrike but is killed due to unsafe conditions. Hisdeath ignites the angry miners to win the strike.

Pilcher, Luke He is the son of John and FernPilcher. His father was a coal miner who was killedwhen Luke was a young child. Luke grows up withhis grandparents and mother in a mining camp inAlabama. He is an avid reader who dedicates him-self to the idea of going to college; however, thesocial pressure to mine coal becomes too great, andhe succumbs to it. Luke gets involved in a strike forunionization. Convinced by Birmingham Red anddespite his grandfather Bram’s warning, Luke alignshimself with the strike. When the strike is eventu-ally won with the benefit of his college savings,Luke once again considers college, but puts on hiswork clothes and he enters the mines.

Pilcher, Star The daughter of a hardworkingmining family, Star struggles to make a life for her-self in a mining camp. She falls in love with Birm-ingham Red, but when he is killed during a miners’strike, Star decides to move to Birmingham to workin a brothel.

Sunter, Ethel The friend of Star Pilcher and thecoal camp’s impromptu minister. Ethel brings dinnerto Star and preaches to her about her sinful ways.

Wallace, Mrs. She is the teacher in a miningcamp school in Alabama. Mrs. Wallace is one of thefew people in the camp who can read. She goes to thePilchers’ house to read a letter telling them that theirson John has been killed in a Pennsylvania mine.


New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1995.

The Case of the Crushed Petunias

A one-act play written around 1939.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a tiny boutique called “SimpleNotions” in the small New England town ofPrimanproper, Massachusetts. Dorothy Simpleinforms a Police Officer that someone with a size11D foot has deliberately trampled all of her petu-nias. A Young Man enters Dorothy’s shop andadmits that he crushed her petunias to liberate hergarden. He offers to replace Dorothy’s petuniaswith wild roses. He also offers to liberate Dorothyfrom her rigid surroundings if she will meet himthat night on Highway 77. The Young Man leavesthe shop with a tentative promise from Dorothy.

One of Dorothy’s regular customers, Mrs. Dull,enters the shop and finds Dorothy considerablytransformed. Dorothy is no longer her prim andproper self. She openly ridicules Mrs. Dull, whorushes out of the boutique in a fury. Dorothy asksthe Police Officer for directions to Highway 77.The policeman advises her that Highway 77 is aderelict road. He warns Dorothy that once shetravels down Highway 77, she can never return toPrimanproper, Massachusetts. Dorothy is exuber-ant in the face of this warning.

COMMENTARYDescribed by Williams as a lyrical fantasy, The Caseof the Crushed Petunias is a delightful tale of a youngwoman’s liberation from the mundane and conven-tional world she inhabits. The Case of the Crushed

54 The Case of the Crushed Petunias

Petunias was one of the three plays that launchedWilliams’s career. In 1939, Williams submitted TheCase of the Crushed Petunias along with MOONY’SKID DON’T CRY and THE DARK ROOM to a playcompetition sponsored by THE GROUP THEATRE.Williams’s one-act collection won a $100 prize anddrew the attention of the talent agent AUDREY

WOOD. The three plays were later publishedtogether in the collection AMERICAN BLUES.

Each of the three plays in the collection illumi-nates the day-to-day existence of ordinary men andwomen and their quest for freedom and a betterway of life. Unlike its companion pieces in Ameri-can Blues, The Case of the Crushed Petunias is acomic fable with a hopeful ending. Dorothy Simpleleaves her Primanproper hometown and travels onthe mysterious Highway 77, metaphorically theroad of life. Although the outcome is uncertain,Dorothy has taken the risk and broken free of herconfined and overly protective environment. Thisdaring young woman calls to mind many of thespirited female dreamers and chance takers whowould later populate the Williams canon, such asLady Torrance in ORPHEUS DESCENDING.

Dorothy Simple’s most immediate successor isthe fallen debutante Cassandra Whiteside in theplay BATTLE OF ANGELS. As Dorothy does, Cassan-dra longs for a life fuller and more vibrant than hersmall-town community can offer her. One of Cassan-dra’s most memorable sections of dialogue in Battleof Angels, in which she tells Valentine Xavier thather dead ancestors frequently admonish her to“Live! Live! Live!” is taken directly from Dorothy’sexchange with the Young Man in The Case of theCrushed Petunias. This one-act play clearly served asa template for Battle of Angels, Williams’s first full-length treatment of life in the South. Aside fromsharing sections of dialogue, both plays are centeredon the story of an attractive female shopkeeper liber-ated from her stifling environment by a charismaticand dynamic young man.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Case of the Crushed Petunias was first producedat the Shelterhouse Theatre, in Cincinnati, Ohio, inMay 1973, under the direction of Pirie MacDonald.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Case of the Crushed Petunias was first publishedin the one-act collection American Blues in 1948.

CHARACTERSDull, Mrs. Mrs. Dull is one of Dorothy Simple’sfaithful customers at her shop, Simple Notions, inPrimanproper, Massachusetts. Mrs. Dull enters theshop after the Young Man has enticed Dorothy toleave her safe small-town life. Dorothy’s impendingescape from Primanproper allows her the freedomto speak her mind frankly. She gleefully crushesMrs. Dull’s feelings.

Police Officer He counsels Dorothy Simpleabout the dangers of traveling Highway 77. ThePolice Officer advises her that she should not leavethe safety and security of Primanproper, Massachu-setts. He warns her that if she does leave, her lifewill never be the same and she can never return.

Simple, Dorothy Dorothy is an attractive 26-year-old unmarried New England woman. She livesa sheltered and restrictive life in Primanproper,Massachusetts, behind a protective double row ofpetunias. She is the owner of a small boutique,Simple Notions. One evening a young drifter,referred to only as the Young Man, crushes herpetunias with his size 11D foot. The next day heenters her shop and explains that his intention wasto liberate Dorothy’s garden from its excessivelymethodical and painfully rigid existence. He offersto do the same for Dorothy if she will meet him inthe evening on Highway 77. Dorothy is warned bya Police Officer that if she travels down that road,she will never be able to return to life in Priman-proper. Dorothy opposes her proper upbringing andconventional wisdom and meets the Young Manthat night on the dark, desolate road. Although herfuture is uncertain, Dorothy is exuberant with hernewly found freedom.

Young Man He is the culprit with the size 11Dfoot who crushes Dorothy Simple’s double row ofpetunias. The formality and rigidity of her petuniagarden enrage the Young Man, who believes thatgardens and people should be wild and free. He

The Case of the Crushed Petunias 55

offers to liberate her garden further by planting wildroses. Likewise, he offers to liberate Dorothy fromher restricted life in Primanproper, Massachusetts.

Cat on a Hot Tin RoofA play in three acts written in 1955.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the Pollitts’ stately home, a South-ern plantation in the fertile Mississippi Valley.

Act 1Brick Pollitt emerges from the bathroom at theinsistence of his wife, Margaret Pollitt (Maggie theCat). With his left ankle broken, Brick hobblesaround the room and dresses. He is coolly detached

from his wife despite her poise and beauty. Maggietells him that the evening’s festivities will include abirthday party in honor of Brick’s father, Big DaddyPollitt. She bemoans Brick’s brother, Gooper, andhis wife, Mae, and the way they strategically displaytheir children for Big Daddy. Maggie is disgusted bythe children, the “no-neck monsters,” who usedher dress as a napkin. As it has become known thatBig Daddy is dying of cancer, Maggie is competingwith Gooper and Mae to secure the family estatefor Brick.

Maggie criticizes Mae and her family, the Mem-phis Flynns. Maggie realizes that Brick is staring ather with cold contempt and she begs to know why.Maggie believes loneliness has changed her, and sheprays for the day when their marriage will be rekin-dled. Maggie asks why Brick remains so handsomedespite his alcoholism. She notes that he has notdeteriorated as his friend Skipper did. The mentionof Skipper’s name sends Brick to the bar to makeanother drink. Maggie comments that she wouldsurely kill herself if Brick chose not to make love toher anymore. When she realizes that her dramaticoverture has not stirred him, she maliciously uttersthe name Skipper again. Brick fills his drink oncemore. He drops his crutch and tries to run fromMaggie’s pronouncements of Skipper.

Brick waits to hear “the click” in his head, thepeaceful feeling he experiences when he drinksenough alcohol. Maggie’s presence and constantnagging to join the party distract him and preventhim from feeling the click. Brick is angered by Mag-gie’s persistence, and just as their argument crescen-dos there is a knock at their door. Mae enters withan old trophy of Maggie’s from her sporting days atMississippi University. Mae orders that this beplaced high enough to be out of the reach of herchildren, to which Maggie replies that if they werewell bred they would not be touching things thatdid not belong to them. Mae retorts that Maggieknows nothing of children because she has none ofher own, a vicious truth. Maggie nastily asks Maewhy she has given her children “dogs’ names”:Trixie, Buster, Sonny, and so on.

Mae storms out of the bedroom, and Brick begsMaggie not to be so catty. Maggie claims that shecannot control her temper because Brick has

56 Cat on a Hot Tin Roof

A scene from the Broadway production of Cat on a HotTin Roof, starring Burl Ives as Big Daddy, Barbara BelGeddes as Maggie the Cat, and Ben Gazzara as BrickPollitt, 1955 (Photograph courtesy of the Billy RoseTheatre Collection of the New York Public Library)

turned her into a cat on a hot tin roof. Brick sug-gests that she jump off the roof and take anotherlover. Maggie shows her longing affection for him,but he refuses her again. She runs to the door andlocks it, turns down the shade, and crawls closer toBrick. She grabs him, and he violently shoves heraway as his disgust for her increases.

Big Mama enters the bedroom. Brick runs intothe bathroom to hide from his mother, and Maggiefinishes getting dressed. Big Mama excitedlyannounces that Doc Baugh has just informed herthat Big Daddy does not have cancer after all. Sheasks Brick to dress and join the party; otherwise,the party will join him in the bedroom (since he hasa broken ankle).

When Big Mama exits, Maggie resumes her talkabout their sex life, which declined abruptly. Mag-gie says that she maintains her figure for Brickbecause she knows he will return to her. She bragsthat other men devour her with their looks. Sherevels in the knowledge that she is still gorgeous.

Brick acknowledges that his father really is ter-minally ill and his mother is oblivious to this truth.Gooper and Mae thought it best to withhold thetruth from Big Daddy and Big Mama in an attemptto put the estate in order.

Maggie returns to the topic of Skipper. Bricktries to avoid the conversation and calls out on thegallery for the party to join him upstairs. Maggiewill not desist. She is determined to get to the truthabout Brick and Skipper. Brick threatens to hit herwith his crutch.

Angrily, Brick demands that Maggie stop tryingto taint the memory of Skipper. Maggie relentlesslytells the story of two college football heroes whoorganized their own team, the Dixie Stars, in orderto keep playing after college. Brick was injuredmidseason, and Skipper also did not have a suc-cessful season. Brick runs around the room tryingto catch Maggie for her vulgar insinuations regard-ing his relationship with Skipper. Maggie confessesthat Skipper had sex with her to disprove the alle-gation that he was gay. Maggie had made this alle-gation the night that Skipper plunged himself intoa fatal drug-induced alcoholic coma.

At this admission, Brick falls to the floor withgrief. One of the children runs into the room shoot-

ing a toy gun. When the child asks why he is on thefloor, Brick responds that he tried to kill Aunt Mag-gie. Maggie yells at the little girl, and she answerssmartly that Maggie is just jealous because she can-not have babies as her mommy can.

Maggie confides to Brick that she visited a fertil-ity doctor who said there was no reason why theyshould not be able to have children. Repulsed,Brick asks how she plans to have a child with aman who cannot stand her.

Act 2The partygoers usher Big Daddy into Brick andMaggie’s quarters. The Reverend Tooker converseswith Gooper about memorial stained glass windowsdonated by certain parishioners and widowers. Maetalks about the children’s vaccinations with DocBaugh, forcing Maggie to blast the radio. Big Daddydemands that the radio be turned off, but when BigMama enters shouting for Brick, he changes hisorder so as to drown out the noise.

Big Mama begs Brick to stop drinking and jointhe family. Big Mama tries to be close to her hus-band, but she is met with a cold stare of irritation.The servants and Gooper’s children enter with BigDaddy’s birthday cake, singing and dancing in arehearsed act. Big Mama cries and Big Daddy quar-rels with her because she is crying. Big Daddy askswhether Brick was drunk and jumping hurdles atthe track field last night. Big Mama shows BigDaddy his cake in hopes of changing the subject.Infuriated by Brick’s asinine actions and Big Mama’sneed to cover them, Big Daddy accuses her of neverknowing anything in her whole life. Big Mamaobjects to being treated this way in front of the fam-ily, but he continues to accuse her of usurping hisposition. Everyone gradually leaves the room.

Big Daddy talks about being a self-made man,one of the richest plantation owners in the South.He orders Big Mama to blow out the candles andshe refuses. As she leaves the room, she repeatsthat she always loved him. Big Daddy comments,“Wouldn’t it be funny if that was true.”

Big Daddy calls Brick back into the room. Mag-gie enters with a begrudging Brick and she kisseshim on the lips as she exits to the gallery. Brickwipes off her kiss and Big Daddy asks why he would

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof 57

object to being kissed by such a beautiful woman.Brick informs him that Maggie and Mae are fight-ing over the plantation. Big Daddy responds thathe intends to live another good 20 years.

They discover Mae eavesdropping on their con-versation. Big Daddy threatens to move them outof the room next door because he is tired of gettingreports about what goes on between Brick andMaggie every night. Brick is amused that his deba-cle of a marriage is so important to everyone. Whenquestioned about his refusal to sleep with Maggie,Brick returns to the liquor cabinet. Big Daddy asksBrick to stop drinking.

Big Daddy reminisces about his travels with BigMama to Europe and the useless things theybought. He comments that one cannot buy backlife or any of the memories that have built it. Brickgrows restless with these ramblings. Brick says he isnot interested in talking to his father because it willturn out as all of their talks do: talking in circlesand leading to nowhere in particular. He just wantsto hear the quiet click and rest in peace.

Big Daddy is compelled to close the doors andconfide to Brick that he was truly frightened abouthaving cancer. He declares that he is going to livelife to the fullest now that he knows he is healthy.Big Daddy confesses that he could never tolerateBig Mama, and he now thinks he will pursuewomen as a hobby. Big Mama crosses through theroom to answer the phone. Brick is so ashamed byhis father’s disgust for his mother that he exits forfresh air.

Big Mama begs her husband to take back all theawful things he said to her. He responds by throw-ing her out of the room and locking the door. Brickaimlessly hobbles around the room. Brick says thathe is waiting for the click in his brain. Big Daddyvows to cure Brick’s alcoholism.

Brick knows his father’s death is imminent andcannot face his father’s talk of a second chance atlife. He tries to leave but Big Daddy violentlythrusts him back into the room by the sleeve of hisshirt. They begin to fight and Big Mama rushes into resolve the situation. Big Daddy orders her outand grabs Brick’s crutch so that he is immobile. BigDaddy will not give it back to him until he cananswer why he drinks. Brick cannot answer him.

Brick confesses that the “mendacity” of life isplaguing him. Big Daddy explains that mendacity ismerely a part of life for everyone with false institu-tions such as church, government, and marriage.Brick suggests that the only true companion is alco-hol. Big Daddy deduces that Brick began drinkingwhen Skipper died. Brick’s cool detachment imme-diately changes to defensiveness.

Brick asks his father whether he believed hisrelationship with Skipper was more than just afriendship. The conversation escalates as Brickrants about the insinuations about his relationshipwith Skipper. Big Daddy doubles over with pain.

Brick describes his friendship with Skipper andtheir closeness as comrades, not as lovers. Brickregains his composure and speaks frankly to BigDaddy. He admits that Maggie threatened to leavehim if he did not marry her and so he did, out of obli-gation rather than love. She tagged along with Brickand the football team all over the country. WhenBrick was hospitalized following his injury, Skipperand Maggie continued on the road. Brick witnessedthe closeness of their relationship from the confinesof his hospital bed. Maggie accused Skipper of beingin love with her husband, which provoked Skipperto sleep with Maggie to prove his heterosexuality.When he could not physically complete the act withher, he was convinced that he was gay. This realiza-tion was too much for him to handle, and led to hisbreakdown and subsequent death.

Big Daddy suspects that there are missing piecesof the story. Brick confesses that later that samenight Skipper called him at the hospital and pro-fessed his love for him. Skipper told Brick about thesituation with Maggie, and Brick hung up on him.He never spoke to Skipper again.

Big Daddy concludes that Brick never resolvedthe issue with Skipper. Brick questions whetheranyone ever completely faces the truth, and hechallenges Big Daddy about his own reality. Brickdeclares that there will be no more birthdays for hisfather. Big Daddy becomes enraged and vows tobury his drunk son before giving the plantation tohim. Brick exits as Big Daddy witnesses his birthdayfireworks in the evening sky.

Brick returns and tenderly explains to BigDaddy that he told him the truth about his illness


because no one else had the courage to face him.Big Daddy exits, condemning his family as liars.

Act 3Mae and the Reverend Tooker search for BigDaddy, who has retired to bed. Gooper gathers thefamily to discuss important matters while Maggiesearches for Big Daddy. Big Mama basks in thenews that her husband is healthy, except for a ner-vous condition. She calls for Brick, and Gooperquickly informs her that he is outside drinking.When Maggie exits to fetch Brick, Mae chargesthat Brick revealed the truth about Big Daddy’shealth to him. Gooper tries to delicately inform BigMama about Big Daddy’s condition.

Big Mama expresses concern for Brick’s depres-sion and his decline after Skipper’s death. Brickoverhears her as he enters and moves toward theliquor cabinet, silencing the family members in theroom. Big Mama sobs and Maggie tries to improvethe situation by forcing Brick to sit beside BigMama; however, Brick leaves the room. Gooper andDr. Baugh tell Big Mama that Big Daddy is termi-nally ill with cancer. Hysterical, Big Mama calls forBrick. Gooper goes to her, but she pushes him awayand says, “You’re not my real blood.” Mae isastounded by her mother-in-law’s hurtful remark,and she rushes over to plead with Big Mama. TheReverend Tooker quickly escapes this heatedmoment of family crisis.

Big Mama accuses Gooper of never liking BigDaddy. She accuses him of being happy that hisfather is dying so that he can finally gain control ofthe plantation and family assets. Maggie joins inthe conversation and is met with insults from Mae,who accuses Brick of being an alcoholic. Maggiedenies the charges, explaining that his current ine-briation is a result of the difficult news. Big Mamacalls for Brick so that she can discuss his takingover the plantation. Astounded by the thought,Gooper quickly instructs Mae to get his briefcase,insisting on handling business contracts he hasreadied for this occasion.

Mae criticizes Brick’s lifestyle. She claims he isstill living in the glory days of his high school foot-ball career. Maggie defends her husband onceagain, and Gooper rages toward her with his fists

clenched. Big Mama sweeps Maggie to her side.Maggie tells Gooper that they plan to leave theplantation as soon as Big Daddy dies. Maggie thenapologizes to Big Mama. Mae accuses Maggie ofbeing barren, and she divulges that Brick refuses tohave sex with his own wife. Gooper shouts at Maefor the plummeting conversation and demands fair-ness and rights to the plantation. When Brickenters the room, Gooper and Mae make fun of hispetty local football stardom. Gooper produces acontract, urging Big Mama to sign it. Maggie con-tests the document while Brick sings and poursanother drink. Big Mama demands that Gooperstop talking as if Big Daddy were already dead. Sherejects the contract, demands it be put away, andcoddles Brick. Big Mama asks him to have a childwith Maggie before Big Daddy dies. Mae scoffs atthis remark which prompts Maggie to announcethat she is pregnant. Big Mama is elated because


Burl Ives (Big Daddy) and Barbara Bel Geddes (Maggie)in the Broadway production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof,1955 (Photograph courtesy of the Billy Rose TheatreCollection, New York Public Library)

she believes a child will sober Brick. Big Mamarushes out to tell Big Daddy the good news. Goopermakes a drink for himself while Mae accuses Mag-gie of lying.

A thunderous moan of pain overcomes thehouse. Gooper and Mae run to Big Daddy’s bed-room. Maggie scolds Brick for not backing herstory. Brick says that it has not happened yet, thepeaceful click in his mind. He asks for a pillow fromthe bed in preparation for his slumber on thecouch, and the peaceful click occurs with Brick’snext drink. Maggie tells her husband that she usedto think he was the stronger in their relationship,but now that he drinks, she has become thestronger. Maggie asks him to bed, and she explainsthat it is her time to conceive. Brick asks how thatis possible with a man in love with his liquor. Mag-

gie counters that she has locked the liquor awayuntil he satisfies her. Brick grabs his crutch andattempts to get up, but Maggie steals the crutchaway from him.

Big Mama rushes into the bedroom still euphoricwith the news of the pregnancy. Big Daddy’s groansare heard, prompting Big Mama to rush out again.Maggie states that the lie is going to become thetruth. She proposes that she and Brick get drunkafter they have conceived. She switches off thelamp and declares her love for him. Brick commentsthat it would be funny if her declaration were true.

COMMENTARYThere are several versions of the final moments ofCat on a Hot Tin Roof. The ending outlined above isfrom Williams’s first published version of the play


Poster art for the film version of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (MGM, 1958)

(1955). The version that was created for the pre-miere production on Broadway (under the direc-tion of ELIA KAZAN) in 1954 differs from thisversion in the manipulation of the last lines. Kazanbelieved the play needed a less harsh ending. In theKazan version, after Maggie suggests she and Brickconceive a child and get drunk together, Brickstates, “I admire you, Maggie.” He then turns outthe light, and she likens his “weak” condition to“gold you let go of.” She says she is determined togive him back his life. This version of the play endswith Maggie posing the following question: “Andnothing’s more determined than a cat on a tinroof—is there? Is there, Baby?” This version of thescript lessens Brick’s tragedy, as he chooses Maggieand their marriage rather than merely surrenderingto her.

A third and final version of the script, created forthe 1974 Broadway revival of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof,starring ELIZABETH ASHLEY, is a combination of thetwo endings. In this version, Big Daddy reappears totell a joke. Although the severity of Brick’s tragicfate (tragic because he does not want Maggie) is notcompletely restored in this version, it is, however,less neatly packaged than the 1950s happy ending.Brick still comments on his admiration for Maggie,but when Maggie declares her love for him, Brickresponds, “Wouldn’t it be funny if that were true?”

The nuances that are created in the slightmanipulation of the last lines dramatically affectthe overall weight of the play. The original version’simpact lies in Brick’s tragic turn in his forfeitingdominance to Maggie the Cat, an ingenious shiftthat occurs in the final seconds of the lengthy play;the second and third versions of the script shift theplay’s focus to Maggie. She remains in control ofthe plot, and the introduction of such sudden andcomplete tenderness between these mismatchedcharacters seems heavy-handed and inconsistent.In his preface or note of explanation about thechanges Kazan wanted in the script, Williamsstated, “The moral paralysis of Brick was a rootthing in his tragedy, and to show a dramatic pro-gression would obscure the meaning of that tragedyin him . . . because I don’t believe that a conversa-tion, however revelatory, ever effects so immediatea change in the heart or even conduct of a person

in Brick’s state of spiritual disrepair.” Williams,however, conceded and made the change becausehe wanted Kazan to direct the play. Williamsadmired Kazan and in the same preface he defendsthe director: “No living playwright, that I can thinkof, hasn’t something valuable to learn about hisown work from a director so keenly perceptive asElia Kazan.”

In this play, Williams pushes the boundaries ofsubjects taboo at this time, such as homosexuality(particularly taboo in the South), decay, diseaseand death, and depression stemming from the men-dacity of life. Interestingly, the play is based on theshort story “THREE PLAYERS OF A SUMMER GAME,”in which the character Brick Pollitt loves the com-pany of women.

Although he is profane, violent, and gluttonous,Big Daddy is interestingly and surprisingly tolerant.He questions the source of Brick’s alcoholism,implying that Brick’s relationship with Skipper wasmore than platonic. Big Daddy explains that hisplantation was previously owned by two men, andBrick and Maggie’s bedroom was in fact the bed-room of the men who lovingly shared their livestogether. In his stage directions to the play,Williams writes, “The room must evoke someghosts; it is gently and poetically haunted by a rela-tionship that must have involved a tendernesswhich was uncommon.” Whereas Big Daddy is tol-erant about this relationship, Brick rages, rails, andcannot accept the idea. Big Daddy validates Brick’sloss. He also addresses his self-possessed tolerance:“Always, anyhow, lived with too much spacearound me to be infected by ideas of other people.One thing you can grow on a big place more impor-tant than cotton!—is tolerance!—I grown it!” Atthe heart of Big Daddy’s unexpected act of under-standing is an enlightened view of himself in rela-tion to the world around him: his rebelliousapproach to living without societal pressures toconform and his uncommon belief that tolerancefor human beings is more important than any cashcrop. His tolerance is widely overlooked and under-rated in traditional scholarship.

The core of Brick’s pain stems from the phonecall in which Skipper revealed to Brick his love anddesire for him. Brick’s guilt arises from his insensitive


response to Skipper and Skipper’s subsequent sui-cide. Big Daddy responds to this story by saying,“This disgust with mendacity is disgust with your-self. You!—dug the grave of your friend and kickedhim in it!—before you’d face the truth with him!”Brick’s only defense when cornered in such a pro-found way is to counter with the attack that BigDaddy is dying of cancer. His rejection of this per-sonal truth runs so deeply, his internalized homo-phobia is so severe, that in this moment of rareunderstanding, Brick lashes out, severing theunprecedented connection with his father.

Big Daddy’s dysfunctional and loathsome mar-riage with Big Mama is mirrored in Brick and Mag-gie’s relationship. This is another tragic element inthe play, as their marriage is destined to becomemore miserable and unbearable. Maggie and BigMama are similar creatures in that they bothsearch for the satisfaction of knowing they areadmired and loved by their husbands. Brick’s lovefor Maggie has been usurped by another: the mem-ory of his beloved Skipper, whom Maggie exposed(Maggie “tested” his sexuality when she lured himto bed and he could not perform). Brick blamesMaggie for Skipper’s death. As Nancy Tischlercomments, “Brick, knowing how Maggie forcedthis intolerable self-realization on Skipper, sees heras his enemy, while Maggie feels that this, likeeverything she does, was a testimony of her all-embracing love for Brick” (Tischler, 201). What isleft of this marriage is a rudimentary set of assignedroles that Maggie must force upon Brick. It isrevealed in the final moments of the play that sheindeed proves victorious. Brick gives up and sleepswith the enemy.

Maggie is a strong woman, determined tobecome a wealthy plantation owner. She does loveBrick, but for her it is impossible to separate theidea of Brick from his social position and potentialpower. Although Brick is the athlete, no oneunderstands competition and winning more thanthe powerful Maggie. In the original version of thescript, it is her strength and her assuming the will-ful characteristics of Big Daddy that finally rewardher. Her trump card is her pregnancy, and upondeclaring herself with child, Maggie wins the plan-tation, conquering Gooper and Mae and their host

of “no-neck” children, as well as achieving inti-macy with her handsome Brick.

PRODUCTION HISTORYCat on a Hot Tin Roof was one of Williams’s mostsuccessful plays. It premiered at the Morosco The-atre in New York on March 24, 1955, produced bythe Playwright’s Company, directed by Elia Kazan,and designed by JO MIELZINER. The cast includedBarbara Bel Geddes (Margaret), Ben Gazzara(Brick), Mildred Dunnock (Big Mama), BURL IVES

(Big Daddy), Madeleine Sherwood (Mae), and PatHingle (Gooper). With this play, Williams garneredthe Drama Critics Circle Award and the PulitzerPrize. Critics generally praised the cast; however,they commented negatively on what they per-ceived as the play’s vulgarity and its treatment ofhomosexuality.

The play was revived in 1974, at the AmericanShakespeare Theatre, Stratford, Connecticut, andthen at the ANTA Theatre in New York. Therevival was directed by Michael Kahn; it starred FredGwynne (Big Daddy), Elizabeth Ashley (Margaret),and Keir Dullea (Brick). Though the 1955 premierehad shocked audiences, by 1974, audiences were nolonger struck by the controversial themes.

A London revival in 1988, directed by HowardDavies and starring Lindsay Duncan (Margaret),Eric Porter (Big Daddy), and Ian Charleson (Brick),restored the original third act. The productionreceived high praise from critics. Howard Daviesalso directed the 1990 New York revival of Cat, star-ring Kathleen Turner (Maggie), Daniel Hugh Kelly(Brick), and Charles Durning (Big Daddy). Theoriginal third act was again produced. As Alice Grif-fin commented, “It took thirty-five years to appreci-ate how much better Williams’s original third actserved the play in production” (167). A 2003 NewYork revival starred Ashley Judd (Maggie), JasonPatric (Brick), and Ned Beatty (Big Daddy).

The film version of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof wasproduced in 1958, directed by Richard Brooks,and starred ELIZABETH TAYLOR (Maggie), PaulNewman (Brick), and Burl Ives (Big Daddy).Maurice Yacowar writes in Tennessee Williams andFilm, “Cat was the biggest grosser of 1958, thetenth biggest that MGM ever had, and the biggest


of all the Williams adaptations.” The film remainsa popular classic.

PUBLICATION HISTORYCat on a Hot Tin Roof was published by New Direc-tions in 1955, including the two versions of thethird act, accompanied by Williams’s “note ofexplanation,” which sparked some controversy assome perceived that Williams was blaming Kazanfor his compromised ending.

CHARACTERSBaugh, Dr. He is the Pollitt family doctor, whodelivers the news that Big Daddy is dying of cancer.He relays this awful news at Big Daddy’s birthday

party. Dr. Baugh stands in the shadows duringheated family arguments.

Big Daddy A prominent Southern plantationowner and tycoon, Big Daddy is profane, gluttonous,and brutally honest. Big Daddy is terminally ill but istold by his family that his test results prove that he ishealthy. In a heated argument with his alcoholic son,Brick Pollitt, regarding Brick’s implied sexual rela-tionship with his friend Skipper, Brick lashes out andtells his father that he is actually dying of cancer.Like Boss Finley of SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH, BigDaddy is a powerful figure in his community. Talk ofhis impending death ushers in a whirlwind of changein which his son, Gooper Pollitt, intends to profit.


Burl Ives (Big Daddy) and Ben Gazzara (Brick Pollitt) in the Broadway production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, 1955(Photograph courtesy of The Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

Big Daddy also shares Boss Finely’s boisterous pointof view and outlook on life. He is arguably Williams’smost famous male character.

Big Mama The wife of Big Daddy. She and BigDaddy have been married nearly 40 years. Despitetheir years together, Big Mama still searches forways to know she is loved by Big Daddy. BigMama is the matriarch of a large family, includingBrick and Margaret Pollitt, Gooper and Mae Pol-litt, and a host of grandchildren. She is fun-lovingand colorful and openly expresses her sincere lovefor her family. When Big Daddy is diagnosed withcancer, Big Mama refuses to believe the newsbecause she cannot fathom a life without him.She is faced with the decision about which sonwill run their plantation.

Maggie the Cat See Pollitt, Margaret.

Pollitt, Brick He is the son of Big Daddy and BigMama and husband of Margaret “Maggie the Cat”Pollitt. Brick is a jaded soul whose life is spent in analcohol-induced haze of memories about Skipper, afriend with whom he shared a mutual attraction.When Skipper revealed his love for Brick, Brick didnot acknowledge it. Skipper then committed suicide.Brick has never forgiven himself for not being honestwith his friend. Brick blames Maggie for revealingthe sexual tension that existed between the twomen. Maggie is very unhappy because Brick refusesto be intimate with her. Brick eventually gives in tohis wife’s continual demands. As the play ends, Brickforfeits his own personal desires to satisfy Maggie. Hesuccumbs to the mendacity of life.

Pollitt, Gooper He is married to Mae Pollitt.Gooper competes with his parents’ favorite son,Brick Pollitt. This tension escalates as it is revealedthat their father, Big Daddy, is dying of cancer and


Burl Ives (Big Daddy) and Mildred Dunnock (BigMama) in the 1955 Broadway production of Cat on aHot Tin Roof (Photograph courtesy of The Billy RoseTheatre Collection, New York Public Library)

Paul Newman (Brick) and Elizabeth Taylor (Maggie theCat) in the film version of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (MGM,1958)

will leave behind an empire of wealth and thelargest plantation in the state of Mississippi. Gooperand Mae have produced several children to pleaseBig Daddy and Big Mama, but their obvious oppor-tunism is scorned by the other members of the family.

Pollitt, Mae She is the wife of Gooper Pollitt.Mae rails against her brother-in-law and his wife,Brick and Margaret Pollitt. She competes withthem by having children to be the heirs of the Pol-litt wealth and plantation. Mae is ruthless aboutsecuring the rights to the estate, and when itbecomes known that Big Daddy is dying of cancer,she and Gooper set up camp at their home,equipped with a contract in preparation for thefinal moment.

Pollitt, Margaret (Maggie the Cat) She is thewife of Brick Pollitt. As the title of the play suggests,Maggie is the catalyst for the plot of the play. Shemarried the handsome Brick because she values hissocial standing and his money and because she loveshim. Having grown up in poverty, Maggie has nodoubts about the power of wealth, and so she openlycompetes with her brother-in-law, Gooper Pollitt,and his wife, Mae Pollitt, for the best position in thefamily. Brick is an alcoholic, and Maggie makesexcuses for his behavior and lack of participation infamily events, as well as covering up the severity ofhis condition. When it is revealed that Big Daddy isdying of cancer, Maggie deceives the family byannouncing that she is pregnant, in a ploy to inheritthe family’s plantation. Despite Brick’s lack of inter-est in the inheritance or his wife, he decides to playthe game with her. Maggie proves triumphant.

Reverend Tooker He is the Pollitt family’s minis-ter. The Reverend Tooker attends a birthday partyfor Big Daddy, who donates significant amounts ofmoney to his church. When the news breaks that BigDaddy is dying of cancer, the Reverend Tooker says aquick good-bye instead of consoling the family. Hisinterest in the family seems fueled by financial gain.

FURTHER READINGGriffith, Alice. Understanding Tennessee Williams.

Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

Tischler, Nancy. Tennessee Williams: Rebellious Puritan.New York: The Citadel Press, 1965.

Yacowar, Maurice. Tennessee Williams and Film. NewYork: Frederick Ungar, 1977.

“Chronicle of a Demise”Short story written in 1947.

SYNOPSISA female religious leader known as the Saint myste-riously disappears and her followers scour the city insearch of her. They find her living on the roof of herCousin’s apartment building. She sleeps on a cotand refuses anything to eat or drink except blackcoffee. Under her cot, she keeps a heart-shaped boxcalled the “Possible Box” that contains the religioussect’s articles of faith. A fierce thunderstorm threat-ens the city, and the Narrator and Agatha Doylegather the Saint and the Possible Box and attemptto take cover inside, but the Cousin claims that hiswife refuses to have the Possible Box in their home.

The Saint has a spiritual manifestation duringthe storm, during which she floats in the air. Afterthe storm, the Saint delivers a sermon. Her cousin islate for the gathering and confronts the Saint aboutthe Order’s current mission. He accuses her ofstalling for time because the latest expeditionreturned empty-handed. The Saint admits that shehas kept this knowledge a secret for several weeks.The Cousin slings the Possible Box from the roof.The Saint rises from her cot and opens her chest,and leaves of thin tissue paper float out of her heart.Her eyeballs, “beautifully blue as marbles,” springout of their sockets. Her disciples try to force the tis-sue paper back into her heart, but it is too late: Herheart has stopped. The Saint melts into the air.

COMMENTARY“Chronicle of a Demise” is a satirical look at religionnarrated by a former member of a religious group.The story is written as an eyewitness account of theevents that changed the disciple’s life and chroni-cles the last days of the Saint, a religious leader of asect called “the Order.” No specific details regarding

“Chronicle of a Demise” 65

the narrator, such as name or gender, are everrevealed. Presenting the narrative in the form of areport is a device which makes the story highlyengaging. The brevity and objectivity of the Narra-tor entice the reader to want to know more.

This story is an example of Williams’s engage-ment with fantasy and magical realism in his fiction:The Saint physically dissolves in midair; she opensher heart, revealing a vault of tissue paper leavesthat blow away; and her eyes spring out of theirsockets, while her body evaporates in front of herdisciples. The fantastic quality of this tale is reminis-cent of other Williams short stories such as “THE

COMING OF SOMETHING TO WIDOW HOLLY.” Similarto that comic fantasy, “Chronicle of a Demise” endson a hopeful, if somewhat solemn, note. Just as theSaint undergoes a miraculous transfiguration, herfollower (the Narrator) has been touched and trans-formed by his or her interaction with the Saint.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Chronicle of a Demise” was first published in 1948,in a collection of short stories called One Arm.

CHARACTERSCousin He is the relative of a much-revered reli-gious figure known as the Saint. He is angered whenthe Saint is not completely honest with him, and, asa result, he becomes the catalyst for her death.

Saint She is the leader of a religious sect calledthe Order. When she retreats to die on a rooftop ofa New York City apartment building, her disciplesfind her and continue their worship of her. Whenshe dies, she opens her heart, and tissue paperleaves float from inside her. She magically disinte-grates in front of her followers.

Clothes for a Summer HotelA play in two acts written in 1980.

SYNOPSISThe action takes place on the grounds of HighlandHospital, Asheville, North Carolina.

Act 1, Scene 1The time is late afternoon in early autumn. F. ScottFitzgerald sits waiting for his wife, Zelda Fitzgerald.As he waits he converses with Sister One and Sis-ter Two. Zelda enters wearing a tattered ballet cos-tume. Scott tries to be affectionate, but theirexchange becomes tense and bitter. Zelda begins tohallucinate and Scott calls out for a doctor. Dr.Zeller appears and speaks to Scott in German andEnglish. Scott loses his temper and an Intern leadshim into the asylum. Zelda approaches the front ofthe stage and speaks directly to the audience. ANurse enters, pushing Boo-Boo in a wheelchair.Zelda greets Boo-Boo and speaks directly to theaudience again.

Act 1, Scene 2A writer’s office is set downstage of the asylumfacade. Scott tries to work at his desk. Zeldaadmires him from a distance. She calls him “pretty,”and a discussion of his sexuality ensues. Scottbecomes cross with Zelda’s interruption and sheresponds by acknowledging his perpetually inter-rupting her work as a writer. He insists she shouldbe happy in her role as the wife of a successfulwriter. Zelda finds this role “too confining.” Sheannounces she will study ballet and threatens totake a lover. A pair of dancers perform a pas dedeux. Zelda returns, dressed in beach attire, fol-lowed by her lover, Edouard. Zelda and Edouardmake arrangements for a romantic tryst as thedancers conclude their duet.

Act 2, Scene 1The downstage area is set to resemble a small hotelroom. Zelda and Edouard lie naked in a double bed.They exchange tokens of remembrance, dressthemselves, and leave the hotel room for anevening soirée. The upstage area has been dressedto resemble a gala lawn party at Gerald and SaraMurphy’s villa. Lively music is heard as assortedparty guests mill about and dance. Zelda andEdouard enter from opposite sides of the stage,greet one another, and go to the dance floor. Scottenters from the asylum. He is distressed by therecent news of Joseph Conrad’s death. He attacksGerald, Sara, and Mrs. Patrick Campbell for failingto grieve properly. Zelda and Edouard reappear,

66 Clothes for a Summer Hotel

dancing the tango. Scott is outraged by theirbehavior and calls for the doctor. Dr. Zeller praisesZelda’s gifts as a writer and proclaims her a betterwriter than Scott. Hadley and Ernest Hemingwayarrive at the party. Scott and Hemingway discussthe “duality of gender” which they share. They alsoexplore their reluctant, though mutual, attractionto each other and the homoerotic content of Hem-ingway’s works. Hemingway abruptly goes in searchof Hadley, while Scott is left alone calling for Zelda.

Act 2, Scene 2The setting and the time are the same as in act 1,scene 1. It is early evening and sunset approaches.Scott once again waits for Zelda outside the asy-lum. She reappears in her distressed tutu. She andScott address the “monumental error” that wastheir life together. Their confrontation concludeswith Zelda’s resolve to release herself from Scott’srestraint. She leaves him begging her to maintaintheir “covenant with the past.”

COMMENTARYClothes for a Summer Hotel is loosely based on Hem-ingway’s epic novel A Moveable Feast. Some havecharacterized this retelling of Hemingway’s life andexperiences in Europe with the Fitzgeralds as his“crazy memories” of those times. In his play,Williams develops Hemingway’s “crazy memories”and actualizes them in a dreamlike and episodicmanner that is notably reminiscent of the erraticstyle of Zelda Fitzgerald’s paintings. The drama is,therefore, an incredible amalgamation of the stylesand techniques of its famous characters.

The scholarly assessment of Clothes for a SummerHotel has been surprisingly limited. Much of thecommentary is focused on an oversimplified notionthat Williams was writing about his sister, ROSE

WILLIAMS, in the guise of Zelda Fitzgerald. Thissuperficial reading of the play illustrates a reluctanceto engage Williams’s artistic license as a dramatist.

Williams defines the piece as a ghost play under-scored by dreamlike passages of time. Clothes for aSummer Hotel, as is SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING

CLEAR, is a play about reliving past events. In bothworks time does not move chronologically: The pastand the present coexist; the dead walk among the

living. As such, the play unavoidably fails whenjudged by conventional standards of theatrical real-ism. Critics who have read beyond the simplisticinterpretation and have not judged the play in termsof realistic value have found quality in its content.Alice Griffin finds the play’s dialogue to be “amongWilliams’s best” (Griffin, 12). Williams’s treatmentof character, particularly that of Zelda Fitzgerald,also makes the play extraordinary. Although Zeldacan be linked thematically to other “TennesseeanOphelias” (Simon, 82) such as Alma Winemiller inTHE ECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTINGALE, she is moreakin to Williams’s frustrated artist-heroes, such asValentine Xavier in BATTLE OF ANGELS and TomWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE. Through thecharacter of Zelda, Williams explores the deteriora-tion of a stifled artist driven to madness by thwartedcreative ambitions. The theme of the artist in tor-ment is prominent in Williams’s work.

PRODUCTION HISTORYClothes for a Summer Hotel was Williams’s last full-length play to be presented on Broadway during hislifetime. It premiered at the Cort Theatre in NewYork on March 26, 1980, and was directed by JoseQuintero. The production was a critical and com-mercial failure.

PUBLICATION HISTORYClothes for a Summer Hotel was published byDramatists Play Service in 1981.

CHARACTERSBecky Becky is a patient at the Highland Hospi-tal asylum along with Zelda Fitzgerald. She is delu-sional and raves about having been a celebrity hairstylist in Hollywood, California.

Black Male Singer He is a professional singerfrom the Moulin Rouge who performs at the partygiven by Sara and Gerald Murphy. One of the Mur-phy’s guests, F. Scott Fitzgerald, provokes theSinger by questioning his sexuality. The Singerresponds by knocking Fitzgerald to the ground.

Boo-Boo Boo-Boo is a mental patient at theHighland Hospital asylum. She shares a room with

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Zelda Fitzgerald. A nurse wheels Boo-Boo on stageto chat with Zelda outside the asylum. Boo-Boo,who is in a catatonic state, does not speak to Zelda.

Campbell, Mrs. Patrick Historical figure andcharacter in the play Clothes for a Summer Hotel.Mrs. Patrick Campbell is a guest at a party given byGerald and Sara Murphy. She is scandalized by theuncouth behavior of F. Scott Fitzgerald and ErnestHemingway.

Edouard Edouard is Zelda Fitzgerald’s Frenchlover. He and Zelda have a romantic tryst at a hoteland attend a party given by Gerald and Sara Mur-phy together. At the Murphys’ party, Zelda’s hus-band, F. Scott Fitzgerald, watches the two loversperform a tango. Edouard’s role is doubled withthat of the Intern.

Fitzgerald, F(rancis) Scott (1896–1940) Histor-ical figure and character in the play Clothes for aSummer Hotel. As a novelist he was regarded as thechronicler of the Jazz Age. He was married to thewriter, dancer, and painter Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald.His major works include Tales of the Jazz Age(1922), The Great Gatsby (1925), Tender Is theNight (1934), and The Last Tycoon (1941).

In Clothes for a Summer Hotel Fitzgerald relivesmoments of his turbulent marriage with Zelda, suchas her infidelity with Edouard and her repeatedaccusations that he stifled her creative ambitions.Their marriage is depicted as strained and unfulfill-ing. Fitzgerald is more moved and engaged by thedeath of Joseph Conrad and his intimate conversa-tion with Ernest Hemingway than he is by Zelda.Williams developed his portrait of Fitzgerald from avariety of sources, notably the collected letters ofErnest Hemingway and his epic novel A MoveableFeast. Williams was drawn to Fitzgerald, as he feltthey shared “the experience of early fame” and “thehumiliation that follows when you fall out of fash-ion” (Terkel, 146).

Fitzgerald, Zelda Sayre (1900–1948) Historicalfigure and character in the play Clothes for a SummerHotel. She was the wife of the renowned novelist F.Scott Fitzgerald. Zelda was also a writer and penned

short stories, articles, a novel—Save Me the Waltz(1932)—and a play, Scandalabra (1932). She was adancer and painter as well. She died in an asylumfire in 1948.

As the central character in Clothes for a SummerHotel, she is depicted as an artist living in theshadow of her husband’s great fame. She feels sti-fled and trapped by her husband’s success and thelimited role that success has created for her. She isnot content to be merely a successful writer’s wife;she has talents of her own, which her husbandforces her to suppress. This torment drives her intoinfidelity and ultimately into madness. During thecourse of the play Zelda relives poignant momentsin her marriage with Scott, such as her affair withEdouard, a French aviator, and her attempts todevelop her talents as a dancer. Doctor Zellerpraises Zelda’s writing and informs Scott that she isthe better writer of the two, completely crushingScott. Madness provides Zelda with the freedom tosay and do whatever she pleases. Although she isthe asylum patient, she appears far more sane andrational than Scott. Williams was drawn to theFitzgeralds’ story as he felt he had “experienced alltheir problems” (Terkel, 146) and in Zelda’s mad-ness he saw the reflection of his sister’s repressionand mental collapse. Because she was greatly over-shadowed by her husband and his success, ZeldaFitzgerald was largely undervalued as a writer.Williams believed that her writing often possessed a“brilliancy that Scott was unequal to” (Hicks, 322).

Hemingway, Ernest (1899–1961) Historical fig-ure and character in the play Clothes for a SummerHotel. Williams considered the Pulitzer and NobelPrize–winning author to be one of the greatestAmerican literary stylists and admired his “poet’sfeeling for words.” Hemingway’s major worksinclude The Sun Also Rises (1926), A Farewell toArms (1929), To Have and Have Not (1937), ForWhom the Bell Tolls (1940), The Old Man and theSea (1952), and A Moveable Feast (1964).

Williams met Hemingway in Havana, Cuba, in1960. Hemingway is said to have been “delighted”(Tynan, 138) to meet Williams. The two writershad a “friendly conversation” (Hicks, 321), andHemingway gave Williams a letter of introduction

68 Clothes for a Summer Hotel

that enabled him to meet the Cuban leader FidelCastro. In his letter to Castro, Hemingway charac-terized Williams as “the great American dramatist.”Ultimately, the two writers did not develop a pro-found rapport, which Williams believed was theresult of Hemingway’s timidity and not, as manyscholars have claimed, a by-product of Heming-way’s supposed homophobia.

In Clothes for a Summer Hotel, Hemingway andhis wife, Hadley Hemingway, are guests at a lavishparty being given by Sara and Gerald Murphy. Atthe party, Hemingway is boisterous and intoxi-cated. He engages in an intimate conversation withF. Scott Fitzgerald. Scott and Hemingway discussthe duality of gender that they both possess. Theyalso explore their reluctant, though mutual, attrac-tion to each other and the homoerotic content ofHemingway’s works. At the end of their conversa-tion, Hemingway abruptly goes in search of Hadley,leaving Scott alone and calling for Zelda. Williamsdrew extensively from Hemingway’s writing in hisre-creation of the Fitzgeralds.

Hemingway, Hadley Historical figure andcharacter in the play Clothes for a Summer Hotel.She is the wife of Ernest Hemingway and attendsSara and Gerald Murphy’s party with him. At theparty, Hadley confronts Ernest with the fact thathe is going to leave her. Her frankness with Ernestparallels Zelda’s with Scott in her assessment oftheir marriage.

Intern He is a member of the staff at the High-land Hospital asylum. He comforts Zelda Fitzgeraldwhen she becomes upset during her conversationwith her husband, F. Scott Fitzgerald. His role isdoubled with Edouard.

Murphy, Gerald He is Sara Murphy’s husbandand a close friend of F. Scott Fitzgerald and his wife,Zelda Fitzgerald. Gerald and Sara visit Zelda at theasylum at Highland Hospital before Scott arrives.Gerald breaks the news to Scott that Zelda’s condi-tion has deteriorated.

Murphy, Sara Gerald Murphy’s wife. She is aclose friend of Zelda Fitzgerald and her husband, F.

Scott Fitzgerald. Sara and Gerald host an eveningparty that is attended by the Fitzgeralds, ErnestHemingway, and Hadley Hemingway. At the partySara admonishes Zelda for her affair with Edouard.

Sister One She is one of a pair of nuns whostand guard outside the gates of Highland Hospital.She and Sister Two converse with F. Scott Fitzger-ald while he waits to see his wife, Zelda Fitzgerald.

Sister Two She is one of a pair of nuns whostand guard outside the gates of Highland Hospital.She and Sister One converse with F. Scott Fitzger-ald while he waits to see his wife, Zelda Fitzgerald.

Zeller, Dr. He is the German doctor who cares forZelda Fitzgerald at Highland Hospital asylum. Dr.Zeller upsets Zelda’s husband, F. Scott Fitzgerald, bydeclaring that Zelda’s writing is better than his.

FURTHER READINGDundy, Elaine. Life Itself! London: Virago Press, 2001.Griffin, Alice. Understanding Tennessee Williams.

Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.Hicks, John. “Bard of Duncan Street: Scene Four,” in

Conversations with Tennessee Williams, edited byAlbert Devlin. Jackson: University Press of Missis-sippi, 1986, pp. 318–324.

Simon, John. “Damsels Inducing Distress,” New YorkTimes, April 7, 1980, pp. 82, 84.

Terkel, Studs. The Spectator: Talk about Movies andPlays with the People Who Make Them. New York:New Press, 1999.

Tynan, Kenneth. “Papa and the Playwright.” Playboy11, no. 5 (May 1964): 138–141.

“The Coming of Something toWidow Holly”

Short story written around 1943.

SYNOPSISIsabel Holly is a widow, the owner of a NewOrleans rooming house. Her only tenants are Regis

“The Coming of Something to Widow Holly” 69

de Winter, and two aging spinsters, Susie Pattenand Florence Domingo. The tenants are constantlyfighting. During these feuds, Widow Holly’s furni-ture, dishes, and glasses are often used as ammuni-tion. Bill collectors also frequent the roominghouse in search of the old bachelor. All of thisgreatly distresses Widow Holly. A business cardmagically appears for Widow Holly advertising theservices of A. Rose, Metaphysician. Widow Hollyvisits A. Rose, who reveals that Widow Holly hasbeen transplanted to Earth from another planet.She does not believe him but considers that itmight provide an explanation for her discontent.

Widow Holly catches Florence carrying a box ofexplosives into the boardinghouse. Widow Hollynarrowly escapes the great explosion. The house isdestroyed, but the occupants are unharmed. A. Rosereturns in this dark moment. He has been trans-formed into Christopher D. Cosmos. He magicallyrestores Widow Holly’s boardinghouse. ChristopherD. Cosmos instructs Widow Holly to burn every-thing from her past life and begin again. WidowHolly and Christopher D. Cosmos become loversand consummate their relationship as the smell ofroasting apples permeates the house.

COMMENTARY“The Coming of Something to Widow Holly” is anexample of Williams’s experimentation with magi-cal realism and ability to weave elements of thefantastical with the mundane experiences of ordi-nary life. In this fable of good being rewarded,Widow Holly is freed from the drudgery of herboardinghouse and its badly behaved tenants. Herlife is leveled when the boardinghouse explodes,but from the dust, there is a resurrection. Her homeis restored to her, better than it was before—betterbecause now it is empty, all hers and free of trouble-some tenants. In addition, she is also released fromloneliness, as her savior also becomes her lover.

Widow Holly, the benevolent and hard-done-bylandlady, is a striking contrast to other landlady fig-ures demonized in Williams’s other works, such as“ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” THE LADY OF LARKSPUR

LOTION, and VIEUX CARRÉ. This comic fantasy, aCinderella story of sorts, is the basis for the play THE

REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE OF MME. LE MONDE.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Coming of Something to Widow Holly” waspublished in ND Fourteen—New Directions in Prose& Poetry and included in the short story collectionHard Candy in 1954.

CHARACTERSCosmos, Christopher Initially, Cosmos appearsas A. Rose, an angel who guides Isabel Holly to theexplanation of her existence. Christopher D. Cos-mos is A. Rose transformed into a supernatural sav-ior who restores Widow Holly’s house.

DeWinter, Regis He is a cantankerous old manwho fights with Susie Patten and FlorenceDomingo in the boardinghouse of Isabel Holly.

Domingo, Florence She is an ill-temperedwoman who fights with the other tenants in IsabelHolly’s boardinghouse. Miss Domingo blows upWidow Holly’s house with a box of explosives. Shemiraculously survives and leaves to find somewhereelse to live.

Holly, Isabel She is an elderly widow who ownsa boardinghouse in New Orleans. She is tormentedby her bickering tenants who wreak havoc in herlife daily. One tenant, Florence Domingo, blows upthe boardinghouse with explosives. The house iscompletely destroyed, but its occupants surviveunscathed. Christopher D. Cosmos magically restoresWidow Holly’s house and becomes her lover.

Patten, Susie She is a mean-spirited tenant whoenjoys the numerous arguments which regularlyoccur in Isabel Holly’s boardinghouse.

“Completed”Short story written in 1973.

SYNOPSISRosemary McCool is a pathologically shy youngwoman in her late teens, who has never experi-enced menstruation. Her mother, Miss Sally McCool,orchestrates a societal debut for Rosemary duringwhich her daughter is completely humiliated. Rose-

70 “Completed”

mary takes refuge in the home of her reclusive rela-tive, Aunt Ella, who is a “proud virgin” and a mor-phine addict. In the company of her aunt,Rosemary feels normal and comfortable. When shereturns to her mother’s house, she menstruates forthe first time. She decides to move in with herAunt Ella and, as her aunt has, resign from theworld. Rosemary is secure with Aunt Ella, but shealso realizes that she has fallen into a trap fromwhich she will never escape.

COMMENTARY“Completed” is the final installment of Williams’s“trilogy-tribute” (Spoto, 162) of short stories to hissister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS. This story, along with“PORTRAIT OF A GIRL IN GLASS” and “THE RESEM-BLANCE BETWEEN A VIOLIN CASE AND A COFFIN,” iscentered on a fragile young woman reminiscent ofhis sister, and each of these stories capture aspects ofthe events in Rose’s pitiable life. Rosemary McCool’sfailed and humiliating societal debut mirrors RoseWilliams’s unfortunate experience in 1927. In hisMemoirs, Williams recalled a formal “coming out” ordebut party that had been arranged for Rose inKnoxville, Tennessee, by her father’s sisters, one ofwhom was named Aunt Ella, as is the other principalcharacter in “Completed.” As Rosemary’s motherhad in the short story, Rose’s aunts had very unreal-istic expectations of Rose’s success as a debutanteand eligible young woman. Williams, who did notattend the festivities, recalled that Rose’s informalpresentation to society was “not exactly a howlingsuccess” (Memoirs, 117) and was, as were so manyevents in Rose’s life, a traumatic fiasco.

When she returned to Saint Louis, Williamsnoticed that Rose had been severely shaken by theexperience. It seemed to Williams that “a shadow”had fallen over his sister, and that she had had thepainful realization that by the standards of heraunts and fashionable society she was “not charm-ing” (Memoirs, 117). In “Completed” Williamsretells Rose’s story but provides his main characterwith a strong, comforting role model and a defiantfemale ally his sister never had.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Completed” was published in the short story col-lection EIGHT MORTAL LADIES POSSESSED in 1974.

CHARACTERSAunt Ella Aunt Ella is Rosemary McCool’smaiden aunt, who lives as a recluse. She is a mor-phine addict who is perfectly content to let life passher by. She serves as an ally and role model for herpathologically shy niece.

McCool, Rosemary Rosemary is a timid,socially inept 20-year-old woman. She is trauma-tized by her mother’s efforts to have her married.Her societal debut is a humiliating disaster. Shefinds solace and refuge in the home of Aunt Ella.

McCool, Sally Miss Sally is the overbearingmother of Rosemary McCool. Her daughter is apathologically shy young woman. Sally forces her tohave a humiliating societal debut and drives her torefuge in the home of her morphine-addicted rela-tive, Aunt Ella.

FURTHER READINGSpoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of

Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

ConfessionalA one-act play written in 1967.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a seaside bar in Southern Califor-nia. The inside of the bar is dark and dingy. As theplay is centered on the intimate confessions of thebar’s patrons, Williams underscores this idea by uti-lizing an area of the stage and special lighting toevoke the sense that each character is entering aconfessional and speaking privately to the audience.

Scene 1The time is late evening. Leona, Violet, and Billare in the middle of a heated argument. Leonacaught Violet fondling Bill. Monk and Steve try tocalm Leona. The Young Man and Bobby enter thebar, and Monk refuses to serve them because they

Confessional 71

appear to be a gay couple. Bill observes the twonewcomers, goes to the confessional area of thestage, and expresses his hatred of gay men. Stevetakes his place in the confessional area. He offersdetails of his relationship with Violet, referring toher as the scraps that life has thrown him. Leonareminisces about her brother, Haley, who died ofanemia at a young age.

Doc goes into the confessional before leavingthe bar to deliver a baby at a trailer park. Violetwalks to the confessional area and shares herthoughts about her life. Leona converses with theYoung Man and Bobby. The Young Man enters theconfessional and discusses his thoughts on being agay man. The Young Man leaves the bar and Bobbybegins his confession. He is traveling by bicyclefrom Iowa to Mexico in search of freedom and tol-erance. He leaves the confessional and exits thebar. Leona rushes after him. Monk enters the con-fessional area and explains his dilemmas as a barowner. Leona observes Violet sitting between Billand Steve. Violet is blissfully engaged in lewd activ-ities with both Bill and Steve simultaneously.

Scene 2One hour later in the same location as scene 1.Leona chastises Bill and announces that she is leav-ing town. Doc returns to the bar. Leona interro-gates him until he admits that he no longer has alicense to practice medicine. Violet, Steve, and Billstart to leave together. Leona chases Violet out ofthe bar. Violet reenters the bar with a bloody nose.Monk offers Doc a nightcap. A Police Officerenters the bar and has a drink. Leona, Monk, andViolet share a nightcap. Violet fondles Monk underthe table. Leona speaks to the audience and leaves$20 for Monk. Monk sends Violet upstairs toshower. He sits holding one of Violet’s tattered slip-pers and contemplates its meaning: It will be wornuntil there is nothing left.

COMMENTARYIn Confessional, Williams provides a harsh look atthe human condition and the yearning for humanconnection. Openly displaying dialogue and actsconcerning sex and sexuality, the play exploresloneliness, longing, and the need for love.

The primary theme of Confessional is the idea ofsex and sexuality as a catalyst and remedy for socialisolation. Each character in Monk’s bar is there toremember, forget, or find someone or something.With the help of alcohol, sex, or flight, they tem-porarily ease their pain and relieve their loneliness.This one-act play, with its mixture of rough hon-esty and lyricism, is the foundation for the full-length play SMALL CRAFT WARNINGS.

PRODUCTION HISTORYWilliam Hunt directed the premiere of Confessionalat the Maine Theatre Arts Festival in Bar Harbor,Maine, in July 1971.

PUBLICATION HISTORYConfessional was published in the one-act playanthology DRAGON COUNTRY in 1969.

CHARACTERSBill Bill is a regular customer at the cheap seasidebar owned by Monk. He is a ruggedly handsomemale prostitute in his 20s who lives with Leona inher trailer. Leona catches Violet pleasuring Bill inthe bar. Bill offers no excuse and continues to dallywith Violet. Leona responds by evicting him fromher trailer.

Bobby Bobby is a young gay man from Iowa whois cycling to Mexico. He is picked up by the YoungMan and accompanies him to the beachside barowned by Monk. The Young Man loses interest inBobby when he discovers he is gay, because heprefers to have intimate relationships with hetero-sexual men. The Young Man leaves Bobby atMonk’s Bar, and Leona offers Bobby a place to stay.

Doc Doc is a regular patron at the cheap seasidebar owned by Monk. He lost his medical licenseafter being caught performing a procedure underthe influence of alcohol. Although he no longer hasa license, Doc continues to practice illegally. Leonatries to stop Doc from delivering a baby at her trailerpark, but her efforts are in vain. Doc delivers thebaby, but there are numerous complications. Thebaby is stillborn and the mother hemorrhages to

72 Confessional

death. He pays the woman’s husband $50 to forgethis face and name. Hoping to avoid imprisonment,Doc plans to leave town as soon as he can.

Leona Leona is a regular patron at cheap sea-side bar owned by Monk. She is a lonely, gregari-ous beautician, who lives in a trailer. Lena is akindhearted person who is often used by herfriends, Bill and Violet. Leona befriends Bobbyand the Young Man, two gay men who are not reg-ulars at Monk’s Place. She shares her trailer withBill; after she evicts him because of his lewdbehavior with Violet, she offers his space in hertrailer to Bobby.

Monk Monk is the owner and bartender of acheap beachside bar in Southern California. Hesincerely cares about his regular patrons and thinksof them as his family.

Police Officer The Police Officer is called toMonk’s bar to break up a fight. Monk offers him adrink, which he accepts although he is on duty.

Steve Steve is a middle-aged short-order cookwho frequents the cheap seaside bar owned byMonk. He is not ambitious and is content to settlefor the scraps in life. He has an affair with Violet,but he does not love her.

Violet Violet is a mentally unstable nymphoma-niac who frequents Monk’s bar. Leona tries to takecare of Violet and be a good friend to her, whereasthe other bar regulars, Bill, Steve, and Monk, useher sexually.

Young Man The Young Man is a wealthy, attrac-tive screenwriter. He picks up Bobby on the high-way and takes him to Monk’s bar for a drink, in thehope of leaving him there.

Creve CoeurThe initial title of the play A LOVELY SUNDAY FOR

CREVE COEUR when it premiered at the Spoleto Fes-tival in Charleston, South Carolina, in June 1978.The literal translation of the title is “heartbreak.”

“The Dark Room”Short story written around 1940.

SYNOPSISMiss Morgan, a social worker, pays a visit to thehome of Mrs. Lucca. For nearly six months, herdaughter, Tina Lucca, has locked herself in herbedroom, where she lies naked and crying in thedark. Tina has done this because her boyfriend,Sol, has married another woman. Mrs. Luccaexplains that Tina only leaves her room to use thebathroom and only eats when Sol takes her food.The social worker is shocked when she realizes Mrs.Lucca allows the former lovers to be alone together.Miss Morgan insists that Tina be removed from thehome. Mrs. Lucca is relieved because she can nolonger tolerate her daughter’s behavior.

COMMENTARYIn his writing, Williams often utilized a two- (andsometimes three-) tiered method, with a direct linebeing drawn from fiction into drama. In otherwords, his short stories were often the first-stagedrafts that would form the basis or outline for subse-quent dramatization of the story as either a one-actplay, full-length play, or both. (In many instancesthe one-act play functioned as a second-stage draftor foundation for an expanded, full-length dramatictreatment of the same material.) “The Dark Room”is a prime example of Williams’s fiction-to-dramaprocess as the text of this short story is nearly com-pletely composed in dialogue. This work laterbecame the one-act play THE DARK ROOM.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Dark Room” was first published in theanthology Collected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSLucca, Mrs. Mrs. Lucca is a poor Italian immi-grant trying to care for her children with fewresources. She is the mother of Tina, a heartbrokenyoung girl.

Morgan, Miss She is a social worker who visitsthe home of the Lucca family. She has been sent to

“The Dark Room” 73

investigate the condition of Tina Lucca, a heart-broken young woman who has resigned herself toliving in a darkened room.

The Dark RoomA one-act play written around 1939.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a small, untidy inner-city tenementapartment owned by the Pocciottis, a family of poorItalian immigrants. Miss Morgan interrogates Mrs.Pocciotti about her husband and children. MissMorgan probes more deeply into the whereabouts ofMrs. Pocciotti’s older children and quizzes her abouther daughter, Tina Pocciotti. It is revealed that Mrs.Pocciotti’s teenage daughter has locked herself awayand lies naked and pregnant in her darkened bed-room, awaiting nightly visits from her estrangedlover. Miss Morgan is shocked and decides that thePocciotti children should become wards of the state.

COMMENTARYIn 1939, Williams submitted The Dark Room alongwith MOONY’S KID DON’T CRY and THE CASE OF

THE CRUSHED PETUNIAS to a play competition spon-sored by THE GROUP THEATRE. Williams’s one-actcollection won a $100 prize and drew the attentionof the talent agent AUDREY WOOD. The Dark Roomwas one of the three plays that essentially launchedWilliams’s career.

The Dark Room and the other plays in AMERI-CAN BLUES underscore the plight of the Americanworking class and depict isolated individuals whoseinvisible life has slipped through the cracks. FeliciaHardison Londré notes that The Dark Room is theleast successful piece of dramatic writing in Ameri-can Blues. Compared to its companion pieces, itscharacters are “flat,” and the play’s ending “fallsshort of its intended shock effect” (Londré, 40).

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Dark Room was first produced in London in1966.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Dark Room was first published in 1948 in aone-act collection, American Blues.

CHARACTERSMorgan, Miss Miss Morgan is a fussy, pretentiousunmarried woman working for a social serviceagency. She has been sent by her agency to visit thehome of the poverty-stricken Pocciotti family, whoare Italian immigrants. Miss Morgan’s sympatheticnature during her interview with Mrs. Pocciotti canbe interpreted as shallowness or arrogance. She haslittle patience for Mrs. Pocciotti, whose English isvery limited.

Pocciotti, Mrs. Mrs. Pocciotti is a heavy-set Ital-ian immigrant mother who lives in poverty with herthree children. Her husband is insane, and hergrown children are scattered about the country. Twoof her children, Lucio and Tina, are still in her care.

Pocciotti, Tina Tina is Mrs. Pocciotti’s onlydaughter. Although the plot of the play centers onTina, she is never actually seen. Her mother, Mrs.Pocciotti, tells Miss Morgan, a social worker, thestory of Tina’s unrequited love.

FURTHER READINGLondré, Felicia Hardison. Tennessee Williams. New

York: F. Ungar, 1979.

“Das Wasser ist kalt”Short story written between the years of 1973 and1979.

SYNOPSISBarbara is a professor at a junior college in Geor-gia, whose colleagues gave her the gift of a trip toItaly. She is enjoying her adventures, trying not tothink about her bad back pain. She recalls her bonvoyage party, the professors who were elated togive her the trip. Barbara is lonely, but she is inparadise, so she tries to make the best of it. Shemeets a German man named Klaus while swim-

74 The Dark Room

ming in the cold ocean. They agree that the wateris shockingly cold. He fondles her body in thewater, placing his hand on her vagina. They swimto a remote cove when an angry female voiceshouts for her husband. The German man returnsthe call, apologizes to Barbara, and swims to hiswife. Several days pass, and Barbara realizes thather colleagues have purchased a one-way ticket forher: She cannot go home.

COMMENTARYBarbara, the protagonist of “Das Wasser ist kalt,” isan example of a persistent figure in Williams’sworks: the troubled teacher. As do Blanche Dubois(A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE), Gretchen (“THE

INTERVAL”), Dorothea (A LOVELY SUNDAY FOR

CREVE COEUR), Jenny Starling (ALL GAUL IS

DIVIDED), the French Club Instructor (WILL MR.MERRIWETHER RETURN FROM MEMPHIS?) and AlmaWinemiller (THE ECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTIN-GALE), Barbara pursues and engages in a clandes-tine relationship with an opportunistic andunattainable lover and ultimately suffers abandon-ment and isolation. Gretchen, who, as does Bar-bara, finds romance while on a shore vacation, isthe only character in this group who develops andsustains a protracted relationship with her loveinterest, Jimmie. However, their relationship, too,is ultimately ill-fated. Jimmie is gay, and eventuallyleaves Gretchen in Iowa to pursue fame, fortune,and his boyfriend Bobby in New York City.

The tragedy and disarray of these teachers’ trou-bled lives leads one to question, as Jane does (anartist, though not a teacher) in VIEUX CARRÉ, howan educated person could land themselves in suchdire circumstances. The problem for each of thesecharacters hinges on a conflict central to Williams’swritings, that of the soul versus the flesh, or the spir-itual versus the worldly. For all of their educationand wealth of knowledge, these scholars are naive intheir understanding of the world and human nature.Their tragic mistake, or hamartia, is a lack of judg-ment and indiscretion. Barbara and her fellow teach-ers are far too trusting of the kindness of strangers.

Barbara vulnerably opens herself to Klaus, andher encounter with him (which is reminiscent ofthe unfulfilling experience Hannah Jelkes recalls in

THE NIGHT OF THE IGUANA) is tentative, adoles-cent, awkward, and incomplete. She is left alone,disappointed, and unsatisfied. Similarly, she blindlyaccepted the seeming generosity of her colleaguesand their gift of an Italian holiday, only to find thatthey had successfully maneuvered her halfwayaround the world. She has been abandoned, withno way to return home. The “cold water” in whichBarbara finds herself serves as a symbol of the chill-ingly rude awakening she has about her life, hersociety, and human nature.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Das Wasser ist kalt” was published in the journalAntaeus in 1982, and was included in the collectionCollected Stories.

CHARACTERSBarbara She is a middle-aged professor at a com-munity college in Georgia. Barbara is thrilled whenher colleagues present her with a free vacation toItaly, but when she has had enough of the solitudeof traveling alone, she discovers that the facultypurchased a one-way ticket for her. She realizes sheis stranded and unwanted.

Klaus Klaus is a German tourist on vacation inItaly. At the beach, he swims with Barbara and fon-dles her body underwater. Barbara enjoys his atten-tion, and they try to become more intimate but areinterrupted by Klaus’s wife.

The Demolition DowntownOne-act play written before 1971.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the homes of two upper-class fam-ilies living in the suburbs of a capital city.

Mr. Kane sits in his living room nervously waitingfor his wife, Mrs. Kane, to return. When she enters,he scolds her for departing unannounced and fordriving the car and wasting gasoline. He suggeststhey run from their city, which has been overtaken by

The Demolition Downtown 75

guerrilla forces. A dynamite blast rattles the pictureson the walls as they debate their next move. Mrs.Kane replies that there is nowhere to go, no way toescape the demolition, as the highways are barri-caded. During this argument, Mrs. Kane notices thather husband’s pants are unzipped, and she suddenlybecomes aroused. She suggests they have sex on thecouch, but Mr. Kane counters that he is too tense.

In the house next door, Mr. Lane notices that hiswife has developed a twitch at the side of hermouth. She considers it a natural reaction to thedynamite blasts and the guerrilla takeover. Shedecides to go outside and rake leaves to pass thetime; however, Mr. Lane objects, stating that thehouse should be made to look abandoned. WhenMrs. Lane takes a rake from the closet, Mr. Lanesnatches it from her.

Their children, Rosemary and Gladys, enter.Dirty and disheveled, they inform their parentsthat their boarding school was seized by guerrillaforces, and the nuns were carted away. Rosemaryand Gladys escaped, but not before they weremolested by a man with a black beard. Mrs. Laneglazes over their story and orders them to take abath and go to bed.

Mr. Lane and Mrs. Lane, enter. The two couplesdecide to escape to the mountains. Mr. Lane andMr. Kane decide that this is a feasible plan, and theyleave to gather equipment. The women discuss aglitch in the escape plan: They must take a majorhighway to get to the lesser-known dirt road thatleads to the mountains. Mrs. Lane shows her con-cern for Mrs. Kane’s bronchial infection, a strangenew virus that began during the guerrilla takeover.

Rosemary and Gladys are heard singing theguerrilla marching song, a variation of “The BattleHymn of the Republic.” Mrs. Lane shouts for themto stop singing, but she too becomes taken by thetune. Mrs. Kane tells Mrs. Lane that she has a planto go to the headquarters of the general of the guer-rilla army wearing only a long gray coat to offer her-self to the young general. Mrs. Lane decides to joinher friend, and she takes off her clothes and puts ona plain overcoat. As they exit, a large dynamiteblast rattles the pictures off the walls. Mr. Lane andMr. Kane run into the house. They hear their wivessinging the marching song as they leave the neigh-

borhood. Mr. Lane dusts the plaster off Mr. Kane’sjacket, and Mr. Kane reciprocates.

COMMENTARYWith nightmarish visions of guerrilla warfare inpost–cold war America, Williams creates drama ofrevolution and chaos in The Demolition Downtown.The upper-middle-class lives of the carbon-copycitizens of the suburban dwellings are drasticallyreduced to survival of the fittest. While Mr. andMrs. Lane are busying themselves with the attemptto feel normal and simultaneously planning anescape in their Jaguar or Cadillac, their daughtershave been molested and brainwashed by the revo-lutionaries. Absurdly, Mr. Lane still addresses thecar by its name brand, a sign that he is grasping foran aristocratic existence while his home is literallycrumbling around him as a result of dynamiteblasts. Even though Mr. Lane and Mr. Kane decideto protect themselves and their families by attempt-ing to escape, they have already been struck by thedissidents.

The violence that obstructs their lives and homesand the propaganda of the new regime infiltrate thesuburban setting through the youth culture of Rose-mary and Gladys. By merely singing the marchingsong, Mrs. Lane becomes infected with the revolu-tion. She and her comrade and doppelgänger, Mrs.Kane, decide to join forces with the guerrillas down-town. In their descent into the capital, the womencast off their social class and actively engage themovement. Felicia Londré states, “Late in his career,however, [Williams] began to write plays that dealtdirectly with problems like the threat of large-scaleviolence” (31). The Demolition Downtown is a primeexample of aspects of Williams’s social consciencedramaturgy and his politically astute sense of hisglobal surroundings.

PUBLICATIONThe Demolition Downtown was published in Esquiremagazine in 1971.

CHARACTERSKane, Gladys She is the daughter of Mr. Kaneand Mrs. Kane. Gladys, along with her sister, Rose-mary, escape their boarding school as it is being

76 The Demolition Downtown

seized by the guerrilla forces who have taken overthe city. Gladys and Rosemary make their wayhome, where they are treated with indifference,even after they inform their parents that they havebeen molested.

Kane, Mr. Mr. Kane teams up with his neighbor,Mr. Lane, to flee their homes and city, which hasbeen taken over by a guerrilla army. While the mengather camping equipment to live in the mountains,their wives are overcome by guerrilla propaganda,and they leave to offer themselves to the guerrillageneral and his brother, the Panther.

Kane, Mrs. She is the neighbor of Mrs. Lane.When their city is conquered by a guerrilla army,the two women decide to offer themselves to thegeneral and his brother, the Panther. Singing themarching song of the guerrilla army, they leave theirfamilies and husbands, Mr. Lane and Mr. Kane, whoare busy making preparations for escape.

Kane, Rosemary She is the daughter of Mr.Kane and Mrs. Kane. Rosemary, along with her sis-ter, Gladys, escaped their boarding school whichwas seized by a guerrilla army. The girls arrive attheir home and are coolly greeted, despite theirannouncements that several of the nuns at theirschool were killed and that they were molested.

Lane, Mr. He is an upper-middle-class man whois forced to consider basic survival when the city inwhich he resides is taken over by a guerrilla armyfrom the nearby mountains. Mr. Lane nervouslyconserves resources while debating and arguingwith his wife, Mrs. Lane. When he teams up withhis neighbor, Mr. Kane, and decides to escape thecity under siege, he is left by his wife, who choosesto offer herself to the general of the army.

Lane, Mrs. She is an upper-middle-class womanwhose life is turned upside down when the city inwhich she resides is seized by a guerrilla army fromthe nearby mountains. Mrs. Lane frantically tries tomaintain order in her home while dynamite blastsshower plaster from her ceilings and knock her pic-tures off the walls. Mrs. Lane teams up with a neigh-

bor, Mrs. Kane, and they decide to offer themselvesto the general of the guerrilla army.

FURTHER READINGLondré, Felicia. Tennessee Williams: Life, Work, and

Criticism. Fredericton, Canada: York Press, 1989.

“Desire and the Black Masseur”

Short story written between 1942 and 1946.

SYNOPSISAnthony Burns is a small, pale, and timid warehouseworker. A coworker suggests Burns have a therapeu-tic massage to relieve a chronic backache. Burnsbecomes sexually aroused at the prospect of having amassage and privately hopes to relieve more than hisback strain. One Saturday afternoon in November,Burns goes to a Turkish bath and massage parlor. Hediscovers that all of the masseurs are African Ameri-can, and their bodies amid the billowy white back-drops appear immense, fierce, and godlike.

Burns’s masseur commands that he remove hisclothes, and he watches Burns as he fumbles out ofthem. The masseur instructs Burns to lie on the tableand Burns eagerly obeys. The Black Masseur thenpours alcohol all over Burns’s body. The stingingsensation spreads over Burns, leaving him gasping ashe tries to cover his groin. The masseur begins themassage by hitting Burns hard in the stomach. Afterthis initial violence, Burns feels pleasure in themasseur’s fists and becomes sexually aroused. Themasseur is pleased at this response and continuesthe massage by flipping Burns over onto his belly. Hepummels Burns’s shoulders and buttocks, each strikemore forceful than the last.

Burns frequents the Turkish bath and remainsloyal to his particular masseur, who enjoys domi-nating the small white body that lies prostratebefore him. As the winter progresses, the massagesbecome more brutal, and on several occasionsBurns is severely wounded. In one instance, helimps into work with broken ribs. During his next

“Desire and the Black Masseur” 77

visit to the baths, the Black Masseur fractures hisleg, and Burns cries out in anguish. His howl echoesthrough the building and draws the attention of themanager. When the manager discovers the numer-ous bruises on Burns’s small, willing white frame, hepromptly dismisses both of them. The BlackMasseur lifts Burns from the massage table and car-ries him to his lodgings. Their relationship contin-ues for several months into the spring.

There is a church in the next building, across fromthe Black Masseur’s room. It is now the Lenten sea-son, and a fiery sermon erupts out of the church andoozes into their room. The minister in the churchbellows the Crucifixion story in gruesome and agoniz-ing detail to admonish his congregation to repent. Inthe masseur’s room, atonement is physically at handas the Black Masseur administers his most violentmassage yet. The minister reaches a fevered pitchand shouts, “Suffer, suffer, suffer!” (210), and his con-gregation becomes impassioned and delirious. Theyerupt in a frenzy and stream out of the church andinto the streets, tearing their clothes in anguish andgrief for Christ’s death. Burns and the Black Masseurare similarly inflamed and consumed, to the pointthat Burns is nearly dead. In a whisper, he remindsthe Black Masseur what he must do to complete theact. The Black Masseur gathers Burns’s broken bodyand places him on a table and begins to feast on hisflesh. This act of communion lasts 24 hours, untilBurns’s bones have been picked clean. The BlackMasseur places Burns’s bones in a bag, carries themto the pier, and drops them into the lake. He acquiresa new position at another bathhouse and waits for hisnext Anthony Burns to appear.

COMMENTARYThis Poe-like tale encapsulates Williams’s view thatthe essence of life is “grotesque and gothic” (Brown,264). In this and similar narratives, Williams uses anexaggerated form to capture the “true essence of life”and the “outrageousness of reality” (ibid.). Williamsbelieved that truth was often more accessible when awriter was willing to “ignore realism” (ibid.).

This story also literally and metaphorically fea-tures the prominent Williams theme of otherness.The story’s principal characters and their relation-ship are manifestations of otherness and opposition:

white/black, powerlessness/powerfulness, rich/poor,master/servant, weak/strong, small/large, sacred/pro-fane, and pain/pleasure. However, for Williams,opposing forces are always two sides of the samecoin. As he often reminds his audience, desire anddeath are two streetcars on the same tramline.Therefore, when opposites meet in “Desire and theBlack Masseur” they not only attract, but willfullycollide, and their conflict produces a blissful, sacra-mental result.

Many critics share Ren Draya’s view that thisintriguing and engaging tale is not only a master-fully written work, but one of Williams’s most“carefully crafted,” a story that overwhelmingly“succeeds as serious, startling fiction” (Draya, 650).

PUBLICATION HISTORYIn his Memoirs, Williams recalled that PAUL

BOWLES wrote a short story similar to “Desire andthe Black Masseur” called “The Delicate Prey.”When Bowles asked Williams to read the story,Williams was surprisingly shocked by its content.Williams quickly advised Bowles not to publish itin America; likewise, Williams did not publish“Desire and the Black Masseur” openly. It waspublished in the short story collection One Arm(1948), which was issued only in private editionsand was not made available to bookstores for thegeneral public. Although it contains some of hismost imaginative writing, Williams feared that itscontent could potentially have been damaging tohis career. Now generally available, the story hasreceived recognition as a major achievement inWilliams’s fiction canon.

“Desire and the Black Masseur” was publishedin New Directions in Prose and Poetry 10: An AnnualExhibition Gallery of New and Divergent Trends inLiterature (1948) and in Williams’s Collected Storiesin 1985.

PRODUCTION HISTORY“Desire and the Black Masseur” was adapted forthe screen by the French film director Claire Dev-ers. Her adaptation Noir et blanc (Black andWhite) won the Camera d’Or prize at the CannesFilm Festival in 1988.

78 “Desire and the Black Masseur”

CHARACTERSBlack Masseur He is the masseur who falls inlove with Anthony Burns. The Masseur is a dark,statuesque, godlike man, in the billowing whitebackdrop of the Turkish baths. He administers bru-tal sadomasochistic massages to Burns, enjoyingthe domination of a white body on his table. Hedelights in the reversal of a master-slave relation-ship. The Masseur is completely infatuated byBurns and daydreams about him when the two areapart. The Masseur is happy to consume Burns, justas Burns savors being consumed.

Burns, Anthony Anthony Burns is a small,timid, and birdlike man, who is childlike in hisappearance and actions. He finds solace from theworld in his relationship with a Black Masseurwho works at a local Turkish bath. Burns longinglyanticipates the beatings he receives during hismassages from his beautiful, large, and darkmasseur. Burns harbors guilty feelings about hispassions—but believes his sins are atoned for inthe beatings he receives. He longs for the simulta-neous pleasure and pain. Burns awakens to lifethrough this passion; however, the massages con-sume him and ultimately lead to his death.

FURTHER READINGBrown, Cecil. “Interview with Tennessee Williams,” in


Draya, Ren. “The Fiction of Tennessee Williams,” inTennessee Williams: A Tribute, edited by Jac Tharpe.Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1977, pp.647–662.

Dragon CountryCollection of one-act plays published in 1970 byNew Directions. The collection contains the fol-lowing works: IN A BAR IN A TOKYO HOTEL; I RISE

IN FLAME, CRIED THE PHOENIX; THE MUTILATED; ICAN’T IMAGINE TOMORROW; CONFESSIONAL; THE

FROSTED GLASS COFFIN; THE GNÄDIGES FRÄULEIN;and A PERFECT ANALYSIS GIVEN BY A PARROT.

Williams defines “dragon country” as “the coun-try of pain, an uninhabitable country which isinhabited” (Williams, Tomorrow, 138). The plays inthis collection present a view of this brutal land-scape. Each of these works offers an examination offractured and broken individuals seeking solacefrom isolation and personal struggle.

FURTHER READINGWilliams, Tennessee. “Landscape with Figures: Two

Mississippi Plays,” in American Scenes, edited byWilliam Kozlenko. New York: John Day, 1941.

The Eccentricities of aNightingale

A play in three acts written in 1951.

SYNOPSIS

Act 1, Scene 1The setting is a public square in Glorious Hill, Mis-sissippi, during the summer of 1916. An elevatedfountain dominates the stage with a stone angelcalled Eternity. It is evening on the Fourth of July.Alma Winemiller can be heard singing offstage. Herparents, the Reverend and Mrs. Winemiller, sit nearthe fountain enjoying fireworks. John Buchanan alsosits near the fountain. Alma joins her parents and isflustered by John’s presence. John’s mother, Mrs.Buchanan, tries to hurry John away from Alma.Alma’s parents depart, leaving Alma alone. Johnthrows a lighted firecracker under Alma’s bench. Hesits beside her and the two discuss John’s vocation asa doctor and Alma’s nervous palpitations. Mrs.Buchanan returns to whisk John from Alma’s side.

Act 1, Scene 2The setting is the interior of the Winemillers’ home,the living room of the rectory. It is Christmas Eve.The Winemillers are gathered in the living room.Alma spies on the Buchanans from the living roomwindow and catches sight of Mrs. Buchanan in a

The Eccentricities of a Nightingale 79

Santa Claus costume out delivering gifts with John.Reverend Winemiller informs Alma that there is talkof her eccentric behavior in town. He denounces herliterary circle as a “collection of misfits” (33). Almahas a panic attack and rushes out of the parlor.

Act 1, Scene 3A few minutes later in the rectory parlor, Mrs.Buchanan and John call on the Winemillers. Almais overwrought with nerves in the presence ofJohn’s mother. Mrs. Buchanan and Alma revel inJohn’s accomplishments. Mrs. Winemiller joins thegathering and embarrasses Alma by sharing the sor-did tale of her sister, Albertine, and her lover, Mr.Schwarzkopf, and their “Musée Mecaniqué.” Johnpersuades Alma to sing, and the two are momentar-ily left alone to sit by the fire. Alma invites John toattend her upcoming literary circle meeting. Mrs.Winemiller catches Alma and John holding hands.

Act 2, Scene 1The scene is the interior of the Buchanan home,John’s bedroom. John and his mother discuss Alma.John finds beauty in her; his mother only sees pecu-liarity. Mrs. Buchanan revels in her visions of John’sfuture, with an attractive, well-bred, and stablewife and many lovely, healthy children. Almawatches John from her bedroom window. She waitsfor his bedroom light finally to go out so that shemay go to sleep.

Act 2, Scene 2The scene is the Winemillers’ parlor on the followingMonday evening. The members of the literary circlegather for their weekly meeting. The group discussesthe manifesto that Vernon has written, which statesthe group’s mission, to make Glorious Hill the“Athens of the South.” Alma reads the minutes ofthe club’s last meeting. John Buchanan arrives lateand is introduced to the group. Rosemary attemptsto read her paper on the poet William Blake but isstopped short by Mrs. Bassett. Alma recites Blake’spoem “Love’s Secret.” John’s mother arrives to col-lect John and rudely escorts him out of the meeting.Rosemary begins her paper once again as Mrs. Wine-miller bursts into the room begging Alma to help herget to the Musée Mecaniqué in New Orleans. Almaruns out of the parlor in tears.

Act 2, Scene 3The scene is the interior of Dr. Buchanan’s office.The time is late evening. Alma visits the Buchananhome to see John’s father. As his father has gone tobed, John offers to assist Alma. He gives her a shot ofbrandy. He opens the shutters and shares his study ofastronomy with Alma. He unbuttons her blouse andchecks her heart with a stethoscope. He tells herthat inside her chest he hears a little voice saying,“Miss Alma is lonesome.” Alma vents her fury anddiscontent on John. She and John make arrange-ments for a date the next evening. Mrs. Buchananenters the office and Alma dashes away happily.

Act 2, Scene 4The scene is the interior of the rectory, the follow-ing evening. It is New Year’s Eve. Roger and Almasit together viewing slides of Roger’s mother’s trip toAsia. Alma waits impatiently for John to arrive.Roger questions Alma’s devotion to John Buchananand surmises that she is “barking up the wrongtree.” He offers Alma permanent companionship.Alma makes it clear that she wants more and tellsRoger the story of her aunt, Albertine, and the manshe loved, Mr. Schwarzkopf. John finally arrives, 25minutes late for their date.

Act 3, Scene 1The scene is the park with the stone angel foun-tain, later that same evening. Alma declares herlove for John and her desire to be making love withhim as the clocks strike midnight. John consentsand goes to find a taxi.

Act 3, Scene 2The scene is the interior of a small hotel room witha bed and a fireplace, a few moments after the previ-ous scene. John tries to light the fire but the logsand the paper are damp. John compares the failingfire with their romantic endeavor: There are nosparks and no heat. The New Year arrives and as thebells chime, the couple slowly develops passion foreach other as the fire miraculously begins to blaze.

EpilogueThe scene is the public square with the stone angelfountain. It is the Fourth of July of an indefinitetime. Alma sits on a park bench listening toanother soprano singing with the town band. She

80 The Eccentricities of a Nightingale

engages a young Traveling Salesman in conversa-tion and points out the landmarks of the town.Alma offers to take him to the part of town that has“rooms that can be rented for one hour.” The trav-eling salesman goes to get a taxi while Alma bidsfarewell to the stone angel.

COMMENTARYAs was that of its predecessor, SUMMER AND SMOKE,the plot of The Eccentricities of a Nightingale wasderived from the short story “THE YELLOW BIRD,”published in 1947. Williams considered The Eccen-tricities of a Nightingale to be a significantly differentplay from its predecessor, Summer and Smoke, andultimately he preferred The Eccentricities of aNightingale. He considered Eccentricities less con-ventional and melodramatic. This shift is duelargely to the substantial paring down of the char-acters and content in the revision.

In Eccentricities Williams completely eliminatessuch characters as Nellie Ewell, Rosa Gonzales, andPapa Gonzales. The stabbing and shooting thatoccur in Summer and Smoke are also eliminated. Themost profound difference between the two plays isthe substitution of the character of John’s father, Dr.Buchanan, with his mother, Mrs. Buchanan, whobecomes a very active obstacle and force in keepingJohn and Alma apart. The addition of this inex-orable character enhances the shift in Williams’streatment of John and Alma in terms of their char-acter development. In this version of the drama,John is less depraved and unmistakably manipulatedby his mother. He is actually drawn to Alma but isrepeatedly pulled away by his mother and conven-tional wisdom. Alma appears less stridently prudishand more clearly eccentric.

In addition, Alma’s dilemma becomes morecompelling and more akin to that of other Williamsheroines such as Heavenly Critchfield in SPRING

STORM. As is Heavenly, Alma is caught between apassionate male (John Buchanan) who has very lit-tle to offer her and a sensible male (Roger Dore-mus) who can offer her only companionship andstability. As a result of these alterations, John andAlma are more balanced figures, and, by extension,their relationship is far more realistic. Their con-

flict and resolution, and the drama as a whole, aremore engaging and straightforward.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Eccentricities of a Nightingale premiered at theTappan Zee Playhouse in Nyack, New York, inJune 1964. Eccentricities premiered on Broadwayat the Morosco Theatre on November 23, 1976,with Betsy Palmer and David Selby, respectively,playing Alma Winemiller and John Buchanan.The Broadway production had a lukewarm recep-tion from critics and audiences and closed onDecember 12, 1976.

The most significant production of The Eccen-tricities of a Nightingale was created for television,presented by the Public Broadcasting Service(PBS) as part of their “Great Performances” seriesin June 1976. It featured Blythe Danner (AlmaWinemiller) and Frank Langella (John Buchanan).Many, including the playwright himself, consideredthis version the play’s most successful incarnation.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Eccentricities of a Nightingale was published byNew Directions in 1964.

CHARACTERSBassett, Mrs. Nancy She is a member of the lit-erary circle led by Alma Winemiller. Nancy is ahypocritical gossip, who talks about Alma and hermother, Mrs. Winemiller, behind their back. She ispassionate about culture and cries when she readsthe literary circle’s manifesto written by Vernon,which declares their mission to make Glorious Hill,Mississippi, the “Athens of the whole South.”

Buchanan, John John is the dashing, wealthy sonof Mrs. Buchanan. He returns to Glorious Hill, Mis-sissippi, as a successful doctor and very eligiblebachelor. Mrs. Buchanan has lofty plans for her son,which do not include the Buchanans’ eccentric,lovelorn neighbor Alma Winemiller. Against hismother’s wishes, John is drawn to Alma and seesgreat beauty and grace in her. Although he does notlove Alma, he grants her wish and has sex with heron New Year’s Eve.

The Eccentricities of a Nightingale 81

Buchanan, Mrs. Mrs. Buchanan is the snob-bish, manipulative, and controlling mother ofJohn Buchanan. She has great hopes for herhandsome and accomplished son. Mrs. Buchananwants him to marry an attractive, well-bredsocialite, who will supply John and the Buchananfamily with strong, sturdy, and mentally soundheirs. For this reason, she adamantly thwartsJohn’s attempts to develop a relationship withtheir eccentric neighbor, Alma Winemiller.Whereas her son sees beauty and grace in the del-icate songstress, Mrs. Buchanan sees Alma asonly a social misfit and fears that mental instabil-ity is in her blood.

Doremus, Roger Roger is a member of the liter-ary circle led by Alma Winemiller. He is Alma’sonly true friend. Roger is fond of Alma and offersher a marriage of companionship. Alma wants amarriage of passion with John Buchanan.

Rosemary A member of the literary circle led byAlma Winemiller. She resents that Alma invitesher neighbor, John Buchanan, to the literary clubmeeting without a group vote. Rosemary has writ-ten a paper on the poet William Blake, which sheattempts to read at the group’s meeting.

Traveling Salesman The Traveling Salesmanmeets Alma Winemiller after she has decided tolead a licentious life. Alma eagerly escorts theSalesman to the part of town where they can rent aroom for an hour.

Vernon Vernon is a member of the literary circleled by Alma Winemiller. He questions the missionof the group and drafts a manifesto, declaring thatGlorious Hill, Mississippi, will become “the Athensof the whole South.”

Winemiller, Alma Known as the “Nightingaleof the Delta,” Alma is the daughter of the Rev-erend Winemiller and Mrs. Winemiller. She givessinging lessons to local children and is a notedeccentric in Glorious Hill, Mississippi. Alma ishopelessly in love with her next-door neighbor,John Buchanan, but his mother, Mrs. Buchanan,

forbids their connection. Williams acknowledgedthis ultrasensitive artist as his favorite character.

Winemiller, Mrs. Mrs. Winemiller is the mentallyunbalanced mother of Alma Winemiller. Unlikethose of her predecessor in SUMMER AND SMOKE,Mrs. Winemiller’s mental problems stem from thetragic death and loss of her sister, Albertine.

Winemiller, Reverend The Reverend Wine-miller is the Episcopalian minister in the town ofGlorious Hill, Mississippi. He is the father of AlmaWinemiller. He warns his daughter that she is devel-oping an eccentric reputation.

Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed:A Book of Stories

Published in 1974 by New Directions, the collec-tion contains the short stories “HAPPY AUGUST

THE TENTH,” “THE INVENTORY AT FONTANA

BELLA,” “MISS COYNTE OF GREENE,” “SABBATHA

AND SOLITUDE,” “COMPLETED,” and “ORIFLAMME.”These stories concentrate on eight women andtheir relationships with men, sexual desire, emo-tional fulfillment, and one another.

“The Field of Blue Children”Short story written in 1937.

SYNOPSISMyra is a restless young college student. Althoughshe is very popular, she is troubled. Writing is theonly activity that settles Myra. She joins a poetryclub and encounters a young man named HomerStallcup. She is aware that Homer has been in lovewith her for some time, but she remains cautiousbecause he is from a lower social class. Homer worksat the college to earn his tuition, and his companionis a strange passionate girl named Hertha. In herrestlessness, Myra approaches Homer. She compli-

82 Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed: A Book of Stories

ments his poetry, and Homer is so honored that hestumbles down the stairs. He hands her pages ofpoems out of his notebook and begs her to readthem.

Later that night, when Myra retires to her room,she reads his poetry. She is completely enthralledby Homer’s talent. She is so captivated by the forceof his words that she is knocking on his door beforeshe realizes it. Homer is pleasantly surprised by hervisit. He is completely ecstatic when Myra tells himshe loves his writing, especially the poem about“the field of blue children.” Homer grabs her armand rushes to show her the field of which he writes.

In the moonlight, Myra views the huge wave ofblue flowers as they dance in the wind. It is an exhil-arating moment for her. Homer leads her throughthe flowers and they kneel in the middle of the field.He kisses her, and as he does so, she gasps andresponds openly to his kiss. The couple gently “layback against the whispering blue flowers.” The nextday Myra sends a note to Homer telling him that arelationship between them would be impossible.She announces that she is engaged to Kirk Abbott,but she assures Homer that what transpiredbetween them was a beautiful memory she willalways cherish.

The following fall, Myra marries Kirk. She andKirk are relatively content. Although she ceases towrite, Myra seems satisfied with her life. Oneevening Myra drives out once again to the field ofblue flowers. She lies down in the midst of themand weeps.

COMMENTARY“The Field of Blue Children” is a “sensitively real-ized” tale (Leverich, 309) of two young college stu-dents drawn to each other by their love of poetry.The basis for this story was Williams’s relationshipwith Hazel Kramer, who was the “great extra-famil-ial love” of Williams’s life (Memoirs, 15). Williamsmet Hazel shortly after his family moved to SaintLouis in 1918, and she became one of Williams’sclosest childhood friends.

His companionship with this curvaceous red-head with “great liquid brown eyes and skin ofpearly translucence” (Memoirs, 15) blossomed into aromantic attachment for Williams. He proposed to

Hazel during his first semester at the UNIVERSITY OF

MISSOURI at Columbia, and she promptly but gentlyrejected his offer of marriage. In “The Field of BlueChildren,” Williams is actively coming to terms withHazel’s rejection. The work is an expression of the“imagined effects” (Leverich, 310) that her rejec-tion could have had on Hazel.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Field of Blue Children” was first published inStory magazine in 1939. It was also published in OneArm, a collection of short stories published in 1948.It was later published in Housewife magazine (1952)and in Four Elements: A Creative Approach to theShort Story (1975). It also appears in Williams’s shortstory collections Three Players of a Summer Game andOther Stories (1960), Collected Stories (1985), andNight of the Iguana and Other Stories (1995).

PRODUCTION HISTORY“The Field of Blue Children” was adapted for thestage by Blue Roses Productions, Inc., and pro-duced at the Manhattan Theatre Source, under thedirection of Erma Duricko, in October 2000.

CHARACTERSAbbott, Kirk Kirk is a young college student at amidwestern university, who marries Myra. Myraand Kirk have a relatively happy life together,although she remains enamored of her former beau,Homer Stallcup.

Myra A restless young college student who findssolace in her writing. She joins a poetry club andmeets Homer Stallcup, a like-minded young manwho shares her love of writing. Despite their classdifferences, Myra is drawn to Homer because hispoetry inspires her. The two spend a romanticevening together in a field of blue flowers; however,the next day Myra ends the relationship. Myraignores her passions and promptly marries herfiancé, Kirk Abbott. She puts aside her writing andleads a relatively contented life with Kirk. On oneoccasion, Myra reminisces about her passionateyouth and returns to the field of blue flowers andsobs for Homer.

“The Field of Blue Children” 83

Stallcup, Homer He is a young college studentwho has a talent for writing poetry. Because Homercomes from a less privileged background, his peersostracize him. However, Myra, also a poet, loves hiswriting. She is especially enamored of the poem hehas written about the field of blue children. Lateone night, Homer takes Myra to the blue flowers.They make love amid the flowers, but the next dayMyra breaks his heart by sending him a noteinforming him that she is engaged to Kirk Abbott.


New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

The Frosted Glass CoffinA one-act play written in 1941.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a retirement community in Miami,Florida. The time is early morning. Three elderly mengather outside their hotel to observe the ritual lineupat the cafeteria across the street. One expresses out-rage over the cafeteria’s recent price increase andshares his plans to start a petition in protest. Two andThree argue that the petition will be unnoticed if themedia do not publicize it. One taunts Two, and themen launch into a heated discussion comparing theirrespective states of health. The three men are inter-rupted by the sound of shouting. They discover thatan old woman has fainted while standing in lineunder the early morning Sun. Someone calls to themen and orders them to fetch a taxi. One laughinglydisregards the request, musing, “In our age bracket,you’re living in a glass coffin, a frosted coffin, youbarely see light through it.”

One delivers news of the recent death of Mr.Kelsey’s wife. Two and Three are shocked by thenews. One divulges the events surrounding Mrs.Kelsey’s death. One and his wife, Mrs. One, haddriven Mrs. Kelsey to the hospital (after she hadcomplained of abdominal pain). They left Mrs.

Kelsey alone at the hospital and went to retrieve Mr.Kelsey from the hotel. When they returned to thehospital, it was too late. Mr. Kelsey has been in astate of denial about his wife’s death ever since.One continues to observe the traffic of the street.He and Two have a conversation about the habits oftheir wives. One remarks that his wife takes pleas-ure in knowing that she will most likely outlive him.

Mr. Kelsey joins the men on the porch; he isdazed and lethargic. Mrs. One tries to persuade Mr.Kelsey to join them at the cafeteria, but he refuses.One, Two, and Three rise to take their spots in thecafeteria line. Mr. Kelsey is left sitting alone on theporch. He utters a pained howl of grief.

COMMENTARYAs are many of Williams’s works, this one-act playis focused on the predicament of old age, aging, andimpending death. These themes are apparent insuch works as “SABBATHA AND SOLITUDE,” THE

ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE, SWEET BIRD OF

YOUTH, and THE LAST OF MY SOLID GOLD WATCHES.However, in The Frosted Glass Coffin, Williamsapproaches these subjects in an essentially comicmanner. Philip Kolin notes that in the play Williamsincorporates “sardonic wit with genuine pathos,”which reveals “the farcical and tragic aspects of oldage” (Kolin, 44).

One of the most notable characteristics of thiswork is the naming, or the lack of naming, of theprincipal characters. By labeling the three principalcharacters as One, Two, and Three, Williams stripsthe characters of any essential humanity or individ-uality. Only the traumatized Mr. Kelsey is set apartfrom the dehumanizing world that the senior citi-zens inhabit. Although he is isolated and motion-less, Mr. Kelsey experiences grief and pain, which,ironically, make him the character who is the mostindividual and the most “alive.” Scholars and the-atrical producers have largely ignored this satiricaldrama. Williams, however, considered The FrostedGlass Coffin to be one of his finest short plays.

PRODUCTION HISTORYWilliams himself directed the first production ofThe Frosted Glass Coffin, at the Waterfront Play-house in Key West, Florida, in 1970.

84 The Frosted Glass Coffin

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe text was published in two one-act play collec-tions: Dragon Country (1970) and In the Bar of aTokyo Hotel and Other Plays (1981).

CHARACTERSKelsey, Mr. Mr. Kelsey is a resident of a retire-ment community in Miami. He is elderly andinfirm and is forced to make weekly visits to thehospital for medical attention. He and the mem-bers of his community are shocked when his wifepasses away before he does. Alone and bereft, Mr.Kelsey is nearly deaf and nearly blind and is livingin what another character refers to as a frostedglass coffin.

One One’s actual name is Claude Fletcher, buthe is never referred to by that name. One is aretired mayor of a small town in the Carolinas. Heis a man in his 70s consumed by fear of becomingsenile. One searches for meaning in his life nowthat he is old. He is married, but he resents his wife,Mrs. One.

One, Mrs. Mrs. One, whose real name is BetsyFletcher, is married to One. She is dedicated tohelping the older members in her community. Herhusband accuses her of gloating about being theyoungest person in the community.

Three Three is the companion of Two. He is anelderly man well past 80, who has a hearing impair-ment and is blind.

Two Two’s real name, although never used, is Mr.Sykes. He is a man in his late 80s, who is oftenaccompanied by his friend, One.

FURTHER READINGKolin, Philip C. “Williams’s The Frosted Glass Coffin,”

Explicator 59, no. 1 (fall 2000): 44–46.

The Fugitive KindA one-act play written between 1936 and 1938, setin a men’s flophouse. In this unpublished work a

criminal on the run falls in love with the adopteddaughter of a man who runs the flophouse. Theplay’s title—and nothing else about it—was bor-rowed for the film version of the full-length playORPHEUS DESCENDING. Willard Holland directedthe first production of this play at the WednesdayClub Auditorium, SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, inNovember 1937.

Garden DistrictSee SOMETHING UNSPOKEN; SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER.

“The Gift of an Apple”Short story written in 1936.

SYNOPSISA young Hitchhiker is attempting to hitchhikefrom California to Kentucky. It is hot and he hasspent more than an hour waiting on the road. He isnot having any luck securing a ride. He continuesto walk and finally spots a trailer off the road. Alarge, buxom, dark-haired woman named Irma sitsnear the trailer. She asks the Hitchhiker whetherhe would like to buy something she is selling. Heinforms her that he is broke and asks whether shemight have some food to spare. Irma gives him anapple. He thanks her and sits down to eat it. It isthe best apple he has ever tasted.

Irma goes back inside the trailer and returnswith another apple, and the young man expectsthat she that will give it to him, but she eats it her-self. He asks her why she is alone, and she tells himthat her husband and son are out on the town get-ting drunk. The Hitchhiker confesses that he is stillhungry. Irma moves closer to him and runs her fin-gers through his hair and down his neck. Irma akshim his age. When he tells her he is 19 years old,she recoils and demands he leave because he is tooyoung. The Hitchhiker denies that he is too youngfor her, but Irma says he is the same age as her son.He walks away, laughing to himself and enjoyingthe lingering clean taste of the apple in his mouth.

“The Gift of an Apple” 85

COMMENTARYThe scholarly assessment of “The Gift of an Apple”has been quite limited. However, this engaging earlywork is an important feature of the Williams fictivecanon. As are many of the short stories and longerfiction that follow it, “The Gift of an Apple” is cen-tered on the theme of hunger and satisfaction.

In this and other works, such as “DESIRE AND THE

BLACK MASSEUR” and THE ROMAN SPRING OF MRS.STONE, the hunger for food is inextricably linkedwith the passionate hunger for sexual intimacy andfulfillment. In this tale of a handsome young drifterand a buxom, sexually deprived older woman,Williams masterfully juxtaposes the twin desires ofthe characters. Both Irma and the Hitchhiker per-sonify hunger; however, both also become the“food” or object of desire of the other. The youngtraveler is weary from his journey, parched from theheat, and ravenous from wandering the road. Thelonely Irma sits idly in the heat, longing for physicalwarmth. The young Hitchhiker, who has quite liter-ally been “cooked” in the Sun, appears before her asa sexy morsel; likewise he in turn devours her greasyfigure with his eyes and imagines her sprawledacross her bed waiting to be being greedily con-sumed by her lover. The meeting of the two pitshunger against hunger, need against need.

As does the biblical character Eve, Irma offersthe Hitchhiker an apple and tempts him. She alsooffers him a compromise: She will satisfy his hungerif he will satisfy hers. This, too, is a familiarWilliams theme: the trade-offs and compromisesindividuals make for a few, fleeting moments of sat-isfaction or happiness. These ideas are explored atgreater length in such works as CONFESSIONAL andSMALL CRAFT WARNINGS.

Although initially content to play the seduc-tress, Irma is unable to follow through on the bar-gain she has proposed. Once she learns theHitchhiker’s age, she rejects the idea of being inti-mate with him. She and the Hitchhiker walk awayfrom their meeting only partially satisfied, or halffull. She must remain content with the sensation ofrunning her fingers through his hair, just as he mustpacify his hunger with the lingering taste of theapple. “The Gift of an Apple” is an example ofWilliams’s skillful mastery of the short story genre.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Gift of an Apple” was first published in Col-lected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSHitchhiker He is a young man traveling fromCalifornia to Kentucky. The Hitchhiker befriendsIrma, a woman who lives in a trailer beside a deso-late desert highway. The young man is famished andIrma offers him an apple. He eagerly eats the appleand hopes that she will share a more substantialmeal with him. She offers him more on the condi-tion of a sexual encounter. However, when she real-izes he is only 19 years old, the same age as her son,she immediately becomes uninterested. The Hitch-hiker continues his journey, relishing the apple hereceived from her and believing it is the best applehe has ever tasted.

Irma Irma is a large dark woman who lives in atrailer beside a deserted road. She encounters ayoung Hitchhiker, who asks her for food. She offershim an apple and the possibility of more food if hewill have sex with her. When Irma realizes the youngman is the same age as her son, she loses her courage.She sends the Hitchhiker on his way. Irma and theHitchhiker share a number of similarities, particularlytheir unsatisfied hunger and their transience.

The Glass MenagerieA full-length play in seven scenes written in 1944.

SYNOPSISThe setting is the Wingfield apartment in a shabbytenement building, in Saint Louis, Missouri, in theyear 1937. The set has an interior living room areaand an exterior fire escape.

Scene 1Tom Wingfield is in the fire-escape area outside theWingfield apartment. He explains the concept of amemory play. He enters the interior setting, wherehis mother, Amanda Wingfield, and his sister,Laura Wingfield, who wears a brace on her leg, are

86 The Glass Menagerie

seated at a table, waiting to eat dinner. All aspectsof the meal are mimed, and as Tom seats himself,Amanda begins to instruct him on how to eatpolitely. Tom abruptly leaves the table to have acigarette. Laura rises to fetch an ashtray, butAmanda tells her to stay seated, for she wishesLaura to remain fresh and pretty for her prospec-tive gentleman callers. Amanda recalls her Sundayafternoons in Blue Mountain, Mississippi, whereshe received and entertained countless callers.Amanda asks Laura how many callers she expectsto have, and Laura explains that she is not expect-ing any callers.

Scene 2In the interior of the Wingfield apartment, Laurasits alone, polishing her glass figurines. Hearing hermother approach, Laura quickly hides her collec-tion and resumes her place behind a typewriter.Amanda reveals that she has discovered that Laurahas dropped out of secretarial school. Laura explainsthat she became ill during the first week of schooland was too ashamed to return. Amanda pleadswith Laura, asking her what she is going to do withher life. Amanda fears that Laura will be dependenton the charity of others for the rest of her life.Amanda warns Laura that there is no future instaying home playing with her glass collection andher father’s phonograph records. She imploresLaura to set her sights on marrying. Laura confessesthat she had liked a boy named Jim O’Connor inhigh school, but she is certain that he must be mar-ried by now. Laura acknowledges her disability asher primary obstacle in forming relationships.Amanda dismisses this claim and advises Laura tocultivate aspects of her personality to compensatefor her disadvantage.

Scene 3The same location as scene 2. Tom addresses theaudience. He explains that Amanda has becomeobsessed with finding a gentleman caller for Lauraand has begun selling magazine subscriptions togenerate extra income. Amanda has a telephoneconversation with a neighbor, trying to convinceher to renew her subscription to The Homemaker’sCompanion. Tom and Amanda quarrel about hishabits, his writing, and his books. Amanda accuses

Tom of being selfish and of engaging in immoralactivities. Tom swears at his mother and bemoanshis fate of working in a warehouse to support hismother and sister. In the heat of the argument,Tom accidentally crashes into Laura’s glass collec-tion, shattering it to pieces on the floor. Amandarefuses to speak to him until he apologizes. Lauraand Tom collect the shattered glass from the floor.

Scene 4The same location as scene 3. Tom returns homefrom a movie and talks with Laura. She asks him toapologize to Amanda. Amanda sends Laura out onan errand so that she may speak with Tom alone.She and Tom make peace. Amanda warns Tom ofthe danger in pursuing an adventurous life.Amanda raises the subject of Laura and the needfor Tom to bring a nice young man home to meetLaura. Amanda promises Tom that she will let himdo as he pleases and leave after he has provided forLaura’s future. Amanda begs him to secure a niceman for Laura first. Tom grudgingly agrees to try tofind someone. Amanda happily returns to solicitingmagazine subscriptions.

Scene 5On the fire escape, the exterior of the Wingfieldapartment, Amanda suggests that Tom be moremindful of his appearance. She makes a wish on thenew Moon. Tom tells her that he is inviting a gen-tleman caller for Laura to the apartment the fol-lowing evening. Amanda inquires about thecharacter of the gentleman caller. Tom describesJim’s qualities and characteristics, and Amandadetermines that he is suitable to call. Tom warnsAmanda not to be too excited, because Jim isunaware that he is being invited for Laura’s benefit.Tom expresses concern that Amanda has unrealis-tic expectations of Laura. Amanda refuses toaccept the reality of Laura’s condition. Tom goes toa movie and Amanda calls Laura out onto the fireescape. Amanda urges Laura to make a wish on thenew Moon.

Scene 6On the fire escape and in the interior of the Wing-field apartment, Tom speaks directly to the audi-ence and explains the nature of his friendship with

The Glass Menagerie 87

Jim. Tom makes Jim feel important because Tomcan recall Jim’s high school glory days. In the livingroom, Amanda and Laura prepare for the arrival ofthe gentleman caller. Amanda dresses Laura anddiscovers one of her own former gowns. At themention of the name Jim O’Connor, Laura refusesto participate in the evening’s events. Amandachastises Laura and orders her to answer the doorwhen the doorbell rings. Laura freezes with anxietyas Amanda forces her to welcome Tom and Jim.Laura hides in the kitchen while Amanda con-verses with Jim O’Connor. Tom goes to the kitchento check on supper. Amanda summons everyone tothe table. Laura maintains that she is sick and lieson the couch for the duration of the dinner.

Scene 7In the interior of the Wingfield apartment, thelights in the apartment suddenly go out. Amandaquickly lights candles, asking Jim to check thefuses. Finding that the fuses are fine, Amanda asksTom whether he has paid the electric bill; he hasnot. After dinner, Amanda asks Jim to keep Lauracompany. She gives him a candelabrum and a glassof wine to give to Laura. Amanda forces Tom tojoin her in the kitchen to wash the dishes. Settlingdown on the floor beside Laura, Jim asks her whyshe is so shy, and Laura asks whether Jim remem-bers her. She explains that they had singing classtogether in high school and reminds him that shewas always late because of her disability. Jim con-fesses that he never noticed her limp and admon-ishes Laura about being self-conscious. Laura takesout her high school yearbook and Jim autographs itfor her.

Laura shows her glass collection to him and Jimmarvels over her delicate figurines. Hearing musicfrom the nearby dance hall, Jim asks Laura todance. She hesitates, but Jim persuades her to joinhim. They stumble into the coffee table, breakingLaura’s favorite figurine, a unicorn that she has hadfor 13 years. Jim apologizes, and Laura consoleshim. Struck by Laura’s charm and delicacy, Jimkisses her. He chastises himself for his hasty actionand informs Laura that he is engaged. Laura giveshim the glass unicorn. Amanda gleefully returns tothe living room with a pitcher of cherry lemonade.

Jim apologizes and announces that he has to leaveto collect his fiancée at the train station.

Amanda is horrified by the news and calls Tomout of the kitchen. She accuses him of playing acruel joke on the family, but Tom explains that hehad no knowledge of Jim’s engagement. Amandaagain chastises Tom for selfishness and for lack ofconcern for his abandoned mother or his disabledsister. Tom finally leaves the Wingfield apartmentfor good. The lights fade on the interior setting,leaving Laura and Amanda in candlelight. Tomappears on the fire escape and offers the audiencedetails of his departure and journey away from hisfamily. He explains that no matter how much dis-tance is between them, he can never forget his sis-ter. He instructs Laura to blow out her candles, andshe does.

COMMENTARYThe Glass Menagerie began its life as a screenplay,The Gentleman Caller. This script was an adaptationof Williams’s short story “PORTRAIT OF A GIRL IN

GLASS.” The script of “The Gentleman Caller” wassubmitted to METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER (MGM) inthe summer of 1943. Williams had hoped that thisscript would impress studio executives and ulti-mately relieve him from other contractual obliga-tions at MGM such as writing what he scathinglytermed a “celluloid brassiere” for the actress LanaTurner. MGM was less than amenable to Williams’sidea. They declared that the popular film GoneWith the Wind (1939) had served up enough South-ern women for a decade (Spoto, 97). In an oddlyironic twist, this response and its implicit prefer-ence for fiction over reality resonated with theplay’s central theme.

Stylistically, The Glass Menagerie reflects its pre-history. The screenplay-turned-stage-script shows anumber of elements more familiar, and perhapsmore suited, to the cinema than to the theater. Intheatrical terms, Williams’s approach is Brechtian:It uses devices meant to create what the Germanplaywright and dramaturge Bertolt Brecht, a con-temporary of Williams’s, called the “alienationeffect.” In The Glass Menagerie, these devices con-stitute a sometimes disjointed sequence of tableaux(or scenes) rather than the more conventional


three-act structure; a narrator/commentator (Tom)who also is a character in the play and steps in andout of the action; Williams’s scripted suggestions oflegends to be projected onto gauze between thedining and front rooms, “to give accent to certainvalues in each scene”; the very strictly definedmusic, which assigns specific pieces or themes tocertain scenes, especially in relation to Laura; andthe lighting, “focused on selected areas or actors,sometimes in contradistinction to what is theapparent center.”

For Brecht, the alienation effect served toremind the audience that what they saw on stageconstituted the real world. Williams takes this con-

cept a crucial step further, in that he turns alien-ation—the conscious or unconscious loss of a per-son’s feeling of connection with his or hersurroundings—into the mainstay of the play: Itbecomes a way of life for the characters. Brechttries to prevent his audience from escaping intoillusion. Williams forestalls his characters’ conquestof “a world of reality that [they] were somehow setapart from.” None of the characters is truly able tocope with the demands of everyday life; therefore,all seek refuge in their own dream world, to such anextent that illusion itself becomes subjective reality.

In this the characters are not alone. Williamsdeclared this denial of reality symptomatic of an


Anthony Ross (Jim O’Connor), Laurette Taylor (Amanda Wingfield), Eddie Dowling (Tom Wingfield), and JulieHaydon (Laura Wingfield) in The Glass Menagerie (Photograph courtesy of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New YorkPublic Library)

era during which individuals would seek out“dance halls, bars, and movies, and sex that hungin the gloom like a chandelier and flooded theworld with brief, deceptive rainbows,” in orderbriefly to forget about their lives and their trou-bles. But the diversion cannot last, and the conflictbetween fact and fiction, reality and make-believe,remains irreconcilable. This is the central theme ofThe Glass Menagerie. From it emerge two relatedthemes: the impossibility of escape and the trap ofmemory—or of the past in general.

The play is memory in more than one sense. Asis much of Williams’s work, The Glass Menagerie ispoignantly autobiographical. However, this is by farhis most autobiographical work. In July 1918,Williams’s father, CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS,exchanged his job as a traveling salesman for amanagerial post with the International Shoe Com-pany in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI. Cornelius, his wife(EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS), and their two chil-dren, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS and Tom, left Clarks-dale, Mississippi, to take up residence in what thenwas the fourth-largest city in the United States anda major industrial center.

From their initial quarters at a boardinghousethey moved into and out of a succession of apart-ments, including one at 4633 Winchester Place indowntown Saint Louis. The apartment had “twosmall windows, in the front and rear rooms, and afire escape [that] blocked the smoky light from aback alley” (Spoto, 16). The wording may be lesspoetic than Williams’s stage directions for TheGlass Menagerie, but it accurately describes theWingfield home, and the Williams’s tenement at4633 Winchester Place in Saint Louis later becameknown as the “Glass Menagerie Apartments.”

For Rose and Tom, both delicate and accustomedto the rural gentility of Mississippi and the relativestability their maternal grandparents had helped toprovide, the relocation and its effects on their homelife proved traumatic. Tom was seven years old at thetime of the move, old enough to recognize that“there were two kinds of people, the rich and thepoor, and that [the Williams family] belonged moreto the latter” (Tynan, 456)—with all the ostracismthis entailed. Although the play’s references to theSpanish civil war and the bombing of Guernica in

April 1937 set The Glass Menagerie nearly twodecades later, during the depression, the social andeconomic context and its bleak inescapability arevirtually the same.

The family’s reduced circumstances were due toCornelius Williams’s compulsive drinking and gam-bling, and the domestic situation was worsened by astring of illnesses and operations Edwina Williamshad after the birth of the Williams’s youngest son,DAKIN WILLIAMS. Caught between a volatile fatherand an infirm mother, Rose and Tom each foundtheir own ways of escaping into safer fantasy worlds.Tom fled into literature, at first reading voraciously(much to his father’s distaste), but when his mothergave him a typewriter, he started to write poetry.The consequences for Rose, however, were farbleaker. By the early 1920s mental illness began tomanifest itself through psychosomatic stomachproblems and an inability to sustain any social con-tact, which turned her enrollment at Rubicam’sBusiness College into a debacle. Her conditionworsened over the next 15 years, until, in 1937, herparents agreed to a prefrontal lobotomy, which leftRose in a state of childlike, almost autistic detach-ment. Tom, studying at the State University of Iowaby then, was informed only after the disastrous pro-cedure. From that point on, the spirit of his sister“haunted his life” (Spoto, 60).

It also haunts The Glass Menagerie. Thoughphysically rather than mentally disabled, LauraWingfield is painfully shy and socially inept, andshe wears her physical difference as a stifling pro-tective cloak. Nicknamed “Blue Roses” in a clearreference to Williams’s sister, she has stomach paincaused by nervous self-consciousness when exposedto strangers, and she visits the penguins at the zooinstead of attending classes at Rubicam’s BusinessCollege. The focus of her life, to the exclusion ofeverything else, is her collection of glass animals,which serves as a symbol of her (and Rose’s)fragility. When Jim O’Connor accidentally breaksher glass unicorn, the loss of the horn offers a sub-tle but nonetheless striking reminder of Rose’slobotomy. As Laura states, her unicorn “had anoperation” to make it “less freakish.”

Rose is not the only member of the Williamsfamily to appear in The Glass Menagerie. With the


exception of Dakin, all of the Williamses are cast.Williams himself infuses his namesake Tom, thetrapped poet-narrator, who hides in a closet to writeand dreams of joining the merchant marine. Tom isa warehouse worker for Continental Shoemakers,and his job fills him with the same desperate frustra-tion that caused Williams to suffer a nervous break-down after his father withdrew him from collegeand forced him to work at the International ShoeCompany between 1932 and 1935. CorneliusWilliams, an alcoholic and a former telephone com-pany employee, is clearly identifiable as the absenthead of the Wingfield household, “a telephone manwho fell in love with long distances.”

A more oblique and more sinister reference,which plays on Cornelius’s middle name, illustratesTom’s/Williams’s attempts to break away from thepresence of the father. Recounting his nightlyexploits to Laura, Tom launches into the tale ofMalvolio the Stage Magician and a coffin trick, “thewonderfullest trick of all. . . . We nailed him into acoffin and he got out of the coffin without removingone nail.” For Williams, his father, Cornelius CoffinWilliams, was a flesh-and-blood opponent; for thecharacter, Tom Wingfield, he is a photograph overthe mantel and the mirror his mother relentlesslyholds up to him. This disembodied specter is all themore oppressive because it cannot be fought orescaped. Condemned to stay at home because hisfather ran away, Tom looks for vicarious adventure,always fancies himself on the brink of moving, buthas no idea when or where. When he finally doesmake a break, it is at the expense of taking the pastwith him. True escape is as impossible for him as itwas for Williams: Laura/Rose constantly haunts him.

Completing the family analogies, Tom andLaura’s mother, Amanda, is a replica of EdwinaDakin Williams. Both have pretensions to be South-ern belles, both claim to have been pursued bycountless gentleman callers only to marry “this boy,”both are capable of prattling incessantly, and neithercan cook or bake anything apart from angel foodcake. They also share a dangerously tenuous graspon reality that materializes in their aspirations forLaura and Rose, respectively. Both mothers are con-vinced that their daughter’s problem—be it lame-ness or schizophrenia—will dissolve if only she finds

the right man. In the autumn of 1933, Edwinainvited a family friend, “the very handsome JimO’Connor” (Spoto, 43), as a prospective suitor forRose. The experiment concluded in only one briefvisit, which apparently upset Rose greatly. In thesame vein, Amanda badgers Tom into inviting hisshoe company colleague, and former high schoolbasketball hero Jim O’Connor, as a gentleman callerfor Laura. This attempt leads to an equally devastat-ing result. Jim, brimming with self-satisfied optimismand bent on self-improvement, has nothing in com-mon with Laura. He has genuine affection for herand does manage to draw her out, but the relation-ship cannot go further, because he is engaged tosomeone else. This revelation occurs just as Laura isbeginning to believe that her high school crush onJim could be fulfilled. In other words, the GentlemanCaller breaks her illusions and her spirit as easily andas casually as he has broken her glass unicorn.

The Glass Menagerie is Tom’s recollection of theevents culminating in the visit of the GentlemanCaller. Everything in the play happens in and frommemory. Insight and perspective are counterpoisedby that peculiar trick of memory that diminishessome things and enlarges others, according to theirimportance. Such distortion always serves tosharpen and explain. Likewise, Tom’s account,always slightly unreal, always slightly over the top,veers between caricature and canonization.

Reminiscent of the brittle translucency of glass,Laura is imbued with a “pristine clarity” similar tothat found in “early religious portraits of femalesaints or madonnas.” In stark contrast to Laura’sotherworldliness, Amanda and her idealized South-ern girlhood—grotesquely laden with jonquils andsuitors—clash with the everyday contingencies ofcold-calling, mastication, a disabled daughter, andan absconded husband in a way that is bothpainfully comical and brutally revealing. Even Jimcannot escape from the exaggeration of memory.Having failed “to arrive at nothing short of theWhite House by the time he was thirty” (53), he isshown to wallow in the sweet smell of former bas-ketball glory, yearbook pictures, and the admirationof a shy, lonely girl. “Try and you will succeed” isthe futile battle cry Jim and Amanda share in theface of stagnation.


Because he is an outsider and inhabits the realworld, Jim is raised to a symbol of hope, “the long-delayed but always expected something that we livefor.” For Amanda expectation does not stop here.Roger B. Stein makes a convincing case that Jimhas been cast as a Christ-like savior figure or, at thevery least, as Moses about to lead the Wingfieldfamily to the promised land of harmony and happi-ness (Stein, 141–153). There is no such land, ofcourse, and only Amanda has promised it. The piv-otal scene between Jim, the flawed suitor, andLaura exposes this fallacy. “Unicorns, aren’t theyextinct in the modern world?” he asks when Laurashows him her favorite glass animal. The unicorn isa mythical animal and an alien even in the unrealworld of Laura’s glass menagerie. In fact, it is sostrange that Jim cannot recognize it as what it iswithout being prompted, just as he is unaware ofthe real reason why he has been invited to dinner.At this point the unicorn stands for the Wingfields’

combined dreams of escape: Amanda’s hope of themiracle cure of marriage for Laura, Tom’s longingfor adventure and motion, and Laura’s tentative,naive, and unformed dream of love. The shatteringof the glass unicorn heralds the collapse of thosedreams as much as it heralds the personal shatter-ing of Laura. Unicorns are extinct in the modernworld, Jim is engaged, and escape from reality isimpossible. Tom’s last monologue underscores thisfact. His own break from home has only succeededin setting him adrift and the sole guilty restingpoint he has left are his memories. Ironically, it isprecisely those memories that prevent his trueescape, because they forever tie him to the past.

With The Glass Menagerie, Williams set out tocreate a new kind of “PLASTIC THEATRE,” a highlyexpressionistic language of the stage that wouldreplace what he saw as the stale conventions ofrealism. He succeeded, thereby revolutionizingAmerican theater. Within two weeks of opening onBroadway in 1945, the play won the New YorkDrama Critics Circle Award. CLAUDIA CASSIDY,present at the Chicago premiere, had predicted TheGlass Menagerie’s success: “It was not only the qual-ity of the work as something so delicate, so fragile.It was also indestructible and you knew right then”(Terkel, 144). Cassidy was correct about the play’sindestructibility, although for a long time, criticseither failed to see or attempted to marginalize theplay’s achievement. For some, the lyricism of lan-guage and expressiveness of theatrical devicesobstructed the action. This response was due to thefact that the critics were married to an Americantheater tradition that demanded realism, which isprecisely what Williams denounced in the produc-tion notes for the play. Instead of scientific photo-graphic likeness, Williams attempted and conveyedspiritual and emotional truth.

The acid test of audience reception bears thisout. Not tied to ideologies and convictions, audi-ences understood and responded immediately andfavorably to The Glass Menagerie. A generation afterits Chicago premiere, critical attitudes and opinionshad shifted markedly. Many acknowledge The GlassMenagerie as possibly Williams’s greatest achieve-ment because of the breadth of its cataclysmicvision, a vision “not only of individuals who fail to


Publicity photo of Williams (Photograph courtesy of theBilly Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

communicate with one another, nor a society tem-porarily adrift in a depression, but of man abandonedin the universe” (Stein, 153). This is the explanationfor the play’s enduring appeal. As are all great worksof art, it is not limited by time and space but man-ages to transcend both by touching on mattersshared and universal. Spoto surmised that nothingWilliams wrote after The Glass Menagerie possessesthe “wholeness of sentiment,” its “breadth of spirit,”or its “quiet voice about the great reach of smalllives” (Spoto, 116).

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Glass Menagerie was completed in the summerof 1944. Williams’s agent, AUDREY WOOD, submit-ted the play to the actor-producer EDDIE DOWLING,who decided to direct the play (with MARGO JONES

as codirector, at Williams’s insistence). Dowlingalso secured the role of Tom Wingfield for himself.Jo Mielziner created the design (omitting the pro-jection device), and PAUL BOWLES composed theincidental music. Julie Haydon was cast as LauraWingfield, with Anthony Ross playing Jim O’Con-nor. The part of Amanda Wingfield went to theveteran theater star LAURETTE TAYLOR. The 60-year-old Taylor, who had recently retired from thestage after the death of her husband, was a calcu-lated risk. After a rehearsal period dogged by prob-lems, not least due to Taylor and her bouts ofalcoholism, The Glass Menagerie opened for a trialrun at the Civic Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, onDecember 26, 1944.

Neither the date (the day after Christmas) northe raging blizzard that hit Chicago that night wasconducive to attracting audiences. By the afternoonof December 27, the box office had taken in only$400 and the producers had begun to prepare a clos-ing notice. What rescued The Glass Menagerie werethe reviews it received from the press. CLAUDIA CAS-SIDY, drama and music critic of the Chicago Tribuneand one of the most influential critical voices outsideNew York, called The Glass Menagerie “a dream inthe dusk and a tough little play [that] reaches outtentacles, first tentative, then gripping, and you arecaught in its spell” (Cassidy, 1944). Cassidy and hercolleague Ashton Stevens, critic for the ChicagoHerald Examiner, actively promoted the play; the

management of the Civic Theatre persuaded themayor of Chicago to sanction a 50 percent ticketsubsidy for municipal employees; word spread, andby mid-January 1945 The Glass Menagerie was play-ing to sold-out houses.

On March 31, 1945, the evening before Easter,the same production opened at the Playhouse The-atre in New York to an extraordinary 25 curtaincalls and shouts for the author to appear on stage.By the following Monday theatergoers were liningthe streets for tickets. New York reviews wereslightly more restrained than Chicago’s, quibblingwith Williams’s style and theatrical language, butthey were unanimous in their extolling of LauretteTaylor’s performance and their appreciation of theimpact of the play. Less than two weeks after open-ing on Broadway, The Glass Menagerie won theNew York Drama Critics Circle Award.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThere are three distinct versions of The GlassMenagerie text: the Reading Edition, the ActingEdition, and the London Edition. These textualvariations are due to Williams’s practice of exten-sively reworking scripts even after they had goneinto production. The earliest in-print version of theplay is the Reading Edition, published in 1945 byRandom House. The Acting Edition, published byDramatists Play Service, containing some 1,100revisions, all introduced by Williams himself, fol-lowed in 1948. In the same year, John Lehmannpublished the London Edition, which reflects theminor textual alterations made for John Gielgud’sproduction at the Haymarket Theatre, London.The version most widely known and used today isthe Reading Edition, which also most closely corre-sponds to Williams’s original script.

CHARACTERSO’Connor, Jim Jim is a former hero of the highschool Tom and Laura Wingfield attended. He isalso a colleague of Tom’s at the International ShoeCompany. Tom invites Jim for dinner at the Wing-fields’ apartment. Jim does not realize that Tom’smother, Amanda Wingfield, has the ulteriormotive of presenting him as a gentleman caller andprospective suitor for Laura. The plan fails, as Jim


is already engaged. The character of Jim is basedon an actual Jim O’Connor, who was one ofWilliams’s fellow students at the UNIVERSITY OF

MISSOURI at Columbia. On one occasion he wasinvited to the Williams home with the goal that hewould become better acquainted with Williams’ssister, ROSE WILLIAMS.

Wingfield, Amanda She is the mother of Tomand Laura Wingfield. Living in a dingy, Saint Louisapartment and struggling to make ends meet by sell-ing magazine subscriptions, Amanda finds solace inthe romantic memories of her girlhood. Her concernabout her children’s future prompts her to bully themto live her ideal life, that of Southern gentility. Herinappropriate sense of propriety makes Tom andLaura miserable. As does Esmeralda Critchfield inSPRING STORM, Amanda places importance on theneed to have Laura marry a socially suitable youngman. This goal causes an unhappy tension in thehousehold and bitter friction, especially betweenAmanda and Tom. At her insistence, Tom invites JimO’Connor, a fellow shoe factory worker, to visit theWingfield home as a prospective gentleman caller forLaura. Amanda Wingfield is based on Williams’smother, EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS. Mrs.Williams acknowledged the similarity and recalledthat in her youth she was always “the belle of theball,” who proudly “made [her] debut in Vicksburgtwice” (Brown, 119). Mrs. Williams also said that shegreatly enjoyed the character of Amanda, especiallywhen she was played by LAURETTE TAYLOR, a “realgenius,” who adequately captured the “pathos” of thecharacter (Brown, 115–116).

Wingfield, Laura Laura is the daughter ofAmanda Wingfield and older sister of Tom Wing-field. A childhood illness has left her with a short-ened leg, for which she has to wear a brace. Laura’sself-consciousness about her disability renders herunable to attend business college, and she seeksrefuge in her collection of glass animals, the epony-mous glass menagerie. Her encounter with JimO’Connor, with whom she has been secretly infatu-ated since high school, proves traumatic when shefinds out that he is engaged. Laura Wingfield isbased on Williams’s sister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS.

Wingfield, Tom Tom is the narrator and simul-taneously a character in the play. He has ambitionsto be a poet, but he is forced to work at a shoe fac-tory warehouse to support his mother, AmandaWingfield, and his sister, Laura Wingfield. Hishome life in their Saint Louis apartment is miser-able. His mother repeatedly accuses him of beingselfish and regularly looks through his possessions.Dreaming of adventure and escape from hisdepressing job and home life, Tom spends most ofhis evenings at movies. He becomes a reluctantaccomplice in his mother’s plan to secure a gentle-man caller for Laura. He invites his workmate andformer high school associate Jim O’Connor to theWingfield apartment for dinner. The evening is adisaster, and his mother blames the negative turn ofevents on Tom. As a result, he leaves home, aban-doning Amanda and Laura to their own resources.Tom is forever haunted by memories of his sister,and the play is his account of events surroundinghis departure. Tom Wingfield is Williams’s mostautobiographical character. Tom’s leave-taking mir-rors Williams’s own departure from his family’sSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, apartment and from hisemotionally unstable sister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS.

FURTHER READINGBrown, Dennis. Shoptalk: Conversations about Theatre

and Film with Twelve Writers, One Producer—andTennessee Williams’s Mother. New York: NewmarketPress, 1992).

Cassidy, Claudia. “Fragile Drama Holds Theatre inTight Spell,” Chicago Daily Theater Tribune,December 27, 1944, p. 11.

Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life ofTennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.

Stein, Roger B. “The Glass Menagerie Revisited: Cata-strophe without Violence,” Western HumanitiesReview 18, no. 2 (spring 1964): 141–153.


Tynan, Kenneth. “Valentine to Tennessee Williams,”in Drama and the Modern World: Plays and Essays,edited by Samuel Weiss. Lexington, Mass.: D. C.Heath, 1964, pp. 455–461.


The Gnädiges FräuleinA one-act play written around 1965.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a seaside landscape calledCocaloony Key. The action of the play takes placeon the porches and the areas surrounding therooming houses owned by Polly and Molly.

ProloguePolly speaks directly to the audience and offers thehistory of Cocaloony Key. She warns the audienceof the island’s inhabitants, the cocaloony birds. Asshe speaks, several of these birds swoop in, causingPolly to duck and dodge them. Polly introducesherself and her neighbor, Molly, who is moppingher porch next door.

Scene 1Molly and Polly engage in light banter about theniceties of mopping a porch. They sit down in theirrocking chairs and “synchronize their rockers.”Molly reveals that she is actually cleaning bloodfrom her porch, shed by the Gnädiges Fräulein ear-lier that morning. Quickly changing the subject,Molly pleads with Polly, who is also the society edi-tor of the Cocaloony Gazette, to place an advertise-ment in her column for her.

The Permanent Transient, a local drunkard,diverts Polly’s attention. Polly inquires about hiscondition and discovers that Molly rents out“Standing Room Only” vacancies on the weekendsto transients who cannot afford a bed. The Gnädi-ges Fräulein’s voice is suddenly heard, asking tocome out to the porch. Molly explains that theFräulein has lost “porch and kitchen privileges”until she can deliver food to Molly. Polly wants tointerview the Fräulein, so she is permitted to leavethe house. When the Fräulein appears, she hasonly one eye, with a bandage wrapped around theother empty socket.

The Fräulein asks Polly to choose a selectionfrom her playbill—she intends to sing for Polly.After the selection is made, the Fräulein begins tosing. She is interrupted by a violent attack by theCocaloony Bird, which forces her back into thehouse. Lighting on the porch, the large bird fright-

ens Polly and Molly, until Indian Joe, another ten-ant, appears to shoo it away.

After Joe disappears back into the house, thewomen resume their banter. Polly reveals that she isinfatuated with Joe, while Molly relays how theFräulein lost her eye to the birds. A fish-boat whis-tle is heard in the distance, and the Fräulein dashesout of the house, armed with a tin bucket. Sheraces to the docks to retrieve the fish the vendorsreject. To accomplish this, the Fräulein is forced tocompete with the Cocaloony Bird.

When the Fräulein returns, she is being viciouslyattacked by the Bird once again. The Bird chases herinto the house and emerges triumphantly with thefish the Fräulein had caught. The Fräulein slowlyemerges minutes later, now completely blinded, andbegins to rifle through an old scrapbook filled withold clippings from her performing days. She begins torecite from them.

Polly prompts Molly to reveal the Fräulein’sentire history, but, before she can begin, a boatwhistle is heard again and the Fräulein dashes off,bucket in hand.

Indian Joe reappears from the house, proclaim-ing that he “feels like a bull,” and a lovelorn Pollyimmediately starts to “moo” and follows him backinto the boardinghouse.

Scene 2The location is the same as in scene 1. The timeis several hours later. Polly reappears on the porchin her underwear, “giggling and gasping.” Mollytakes a photograph of her in this condition toensure that Polly will run the advertisement inthe Cocaloony Gazette for her. The two womensynchronize their rocking chairs, and Mollyrelates to Polly the history of the GnädigesFräulein’s downfall.

When she was younger, the Fräulein performedin a trio with a “Viennese dandy” and a seal. TheFräulein was forced to take second place to the per-forming talents of the seal and the dandy. She feltthe need to prove her worth to the dandy, whonightly gave her an “insincere smile” during theperformance. On one occasion, the dandy threwthe Fräulein an insincere smile as he threw the seala fish. The Fräulein, in a bout of spontaneity,

The Gnädiges Fräulein 95

jumped into the air and, intercepting the seal,caught the fish between her teeth.

The audience loved her stunt, and as a resultthe Fräulein received rave reviews and became theprominent member of the trio. The seal and thedandy were not happy with this new arrangement.The seal took revenge by whacking the Fräuleinacross the face and knocking out her teeth. Afterthis, the Fräulein drifted from place to place untilshe ended up at Molly’s rooming house.

As Molly completes the Fräulein’s history, theFräulein appears, battle-wounded, but with a bucketfull of fish. The Fräulein marches into the kitchenand begins to fry the fish for dinner. She appears atthe door, calling out, “Toivo?”—which, Mollyexplains, was the name of the Viennese dandy.

Indian Joe appears, and he, Molly, and Polly sitdown to eat. Another fish-boat whistle is heard,and the Fräulein once again dashes toward thedocks, bucket in hand.

COMMENTARYThe Gnädiges Fräulein is a powerfully symbolictale. As are many of Williams’s later works,Fräulein is a black comedy centered on destitutesocial outcasts and their fierce fight for survival,dignity, and self-respect.

The wounded and embattled Fräulein, the one-time European singing sensation, is in many ways avictim of her own ambition. Her rise to fameenraged her performing associates (the seal andToivo, the dandy). To gain Toivo’s (and the seal’s)respect, the Fräulein jumped for fish; this cyclecontinues as she is now forced to run for fish toretain her place at Molly’s rooming house and, byextension, to impress Polly, the local art critic.Every performer must, on some level, face seem-ingly insurmountable obstacles to achieve success;the obstacles in the Fräulein’s path are literallyinhuman. However, she does ultimately defeat theCocaloony Bird and returns proudly to the room-ing house with a bucket full of fish. Her tri-umphant “Tovio?” at the end of the play is adeclaration of independence. She calls to him inan acknowledgment of her victory and survival, asshe goes to battle the birds once more. Although

she has lost both eyes, she has not lost her voice,her dignity, or her pride.

The Gnädiges Fräulein is solidly aligned withother dramas of the THEATER OF THE ABSURD, aquality it shares with numerous later Williamsworks, such as THE REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE

OF MME. LE MONDE. The Gnädiges Fräulein, asmany works of this dramatic genre do, featuresgrotesque humor and larger-than-life characterswho are living in fantastical conditions. The localeof the play, Cocaloony Key, is a horrific landscapewhere overgrown vicious pelicanlike birds regularlyattack the human inhabitants. The set design thatWilliams calls for is meant to be rendered exclu-sively in gray-scale coloring, promoting its surrealnightmarish quality. The costumes of all characters,with the exception of the Fräulein, are also meantto be rendered in this “colorless” palette. TheGnädiges Fräulein is a highly evocative and imagina-tive drama. It was Williams’s favorite drama of hislater period.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Gnädiges Fräulein premiered in tandem withTHE MUTILATED. The two short plays were pro-duced together under the title Slapstick Tragedy.Alan Schneider directed the premiere productionin New York in 1966 at the Longacre Theatre.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Gnädiges Fräulein was first published in Esquiremagazine in 1965.

CHARACTERSCocaloony Bird The Cocaloony Bird is a viciouscreature that torments Molly and Polly and stealsfish from the Gnädiges Fräulein.

Gnädiges Fräulein The Fräulein is a once-famous European performer who has fallen on hardtimes. After being attacked by a jealous member ofher performing trio, the Fräulein has drifted aroundthe world and has landed at the rooming houseowned by Molly. To earn her keep, the Fräulein isforced to compete with the Cocaloony Bird for thefish rejected by the fishing boats. The bird and hisfellows viciously and repeatedly attack the Fräulein.

96 The Gnädiges Fräulein

Although they succeed in pecking out her eyes, shecontinues to return to Molly’s house with bucketsfull of fish.

Indian Joe He is a lodger at the boardinghouseowned by Polly. Contrary to the image his namesuggests, he has blond hair and blue eyes. He isshapely and athletic, and he rescues Polly andMolly from an attack by the Cocaloony Bird.Indian Joe earns his keep by having a clandestineaffair with his lovelorn landlady.

Molly She is the landlady of a boardinghouse inCocaloony Key. Her principal tenant is the GnädigesFräulein, a former European singing sensation whohas fallen on hard times. Although she admires theFräulein’s tenacity, Molly has little tolerance for free-loaders. She denies the Fräulein “porch and kitchenprivileges” and forces her to earn her keep by com-peting with the Cocaloony Bird for fish rejected bythe fishing boats. The Fräulein is reinstated whenshe successfully takes home a bucket full of fish.

Permanent Transient He is a local drunk whoresides in the boardinghouse owned by Molly.Because he, and other transients, cannot afford aroom with a bed, Molly rents them “Standing RoomOnly” space in her boardinghouse on weekends.

Polly As is her best friend and next-door neigh-bor, Molly, Polly is the landlady of a boardinghousein Cocaloony Key. She is also the society page editorof the Cocaloony Gazette, and she would very muchlike to interview Molly’s principal tenant, the Gnädi-ges Fräulein. Polly is smitten with her virile youngtenant Indian Joe. Molly uses her knowledge ofPolly’s clandestine affair with Indian Joe to secure afree advertisement in Polly’s column.

“Grand”A short piece of nonfiction written around 1964.

SYNOPSISThis account chronicles the last days of Williams’sbeloved maternal grandmother, ROSINA OTTE

DAKIN, who died of tuberculosis in 1944. Williams’sgrandmother, affectionately called Grand, was aselfless, beautiful woman, whom Williams referredto as “a living poem.” Throughout his life, Williamscredited all of his good qualities to his Grand. Heappreciated her constant sacrifices for her husband,WALTER EDWIN DAKIN, and for her family at large.

Although she was an elderly woman, sufferingfrom tuberculosis, she regularly cared for herdaughter’s young family by cooking and cleaningand was doing so minutes before she died. At themoment of her death, she tried unsuccessfully tocommunicate to her daughter, EDWINA DAKIN

WILLIAMS, that there was money hidden in one ofher corsets in her bureau. The piece is focused onGrand’s tragic end and the realization of her great-est fear, that of being forced—because of her hus-band’s folly—to live with her daughter’s family.

COMMENTARYAlthough published as a short story, “Grand” istechnically not a short story. However, regardless ofits classification, this biographical account of hisgrandmother’s final days is vibrantly and movinglywritten. Williams said he wrote the piece “in partialrecompense for that immeasurable gift of the spiritthat she had so persistently and unsparingly . . .pressed into my hands when I came to her in need”(Leverich, 533–534).

Williams was severely traumatized by his grand-mother’s fight with tuberculosis. He wrestles withthe disease in a number of his works, such as “THE

ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” “ORIFLAMME,” and “THE

KINGDOM OF EARTH.” In several instances the dis-ease itself functions as a menacing or engulfingcharacter. Although many of the characters suffer-ing from the disease ultimately die of it, Williamsoften romanticizes their deaths, which becomeethereal and prove oddly empowering.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Grand” was first published privately by House ofBooks in 1964. It then appeared in Esquire maga-zine in November 1966. It was subsequently pub-lished in two short story collections, The KnightlyQuest and Other Stories (1966) and Collected Stories(1985).

“Grand” 97

CHARACTERSGrand Modeled after Williams’s grandmother,ROSINA OTTE DAKIN, Grand is the principal subjectof this work, which chronicles the tragic death of hisbeloved grandmother.



“Happy August the Tenth”Short story written in 1970.

SYNOPSISElphinstone and Horne are best friends, who haveshared a small brownstone in New York City for thepast 10 years. Horne awakens Elphinstone by shout-ing, “Happy August the Tenth!” As Elphinstone hasnot slept well, she is irritated by Horne’s playful, yetinsensitive intrusion.

The two women bicker all morning aboutHorne’s new “destructive” friends. Horne defendsher need to have her own group of friends apartfrom Elphinstone. Elphinstone feels sorry for herselfbecause her only friends are the women with whomshe attended Sarah Lawrence College. Horneimplies that Elphinstone thinks she is “too good” tosocialize with her new friends. She begs Elphinstoneto spend the evening with her and her friends.

As the argument escalates, Horne accidentallyspills coffee on Elphinstone’s antique white satinlove seat. Elphinstone is enraged by the way inwhich Horne carelessly rubs the delicate materialwith a wet, rough towel. When she attacks Horneas sloppy and thoughtless, Horne loses her temper:She announces that she can no longer live withElphinstone and her precious antique furniture.Horne abruptly decides to move out.

Later that afternoon, Elphinstone calls Horne atwork. Both apologize for the fight. Elphinstone goesto her therapist and tells him about the fight. Headmonishes her to accept that her relationship withHorne has ended. Elphinstone cries, and the doctorconcludes their session early. On the way back to

their apartment, Elphinstone becomes angry withHorne all over again. She forgets their reconcilia-tion, and when she enters the apartment, she beginsto pack the rest of Horne’s possessions. She thenpacks a bag for herself and leaves for Shadow Glade,her mother’s country home. She plans to stay at hermother’s until Horne has moved out completely.

When Elphinstone arrives at her mother’shome, she finds her mother suffering from cardiacasthma. A nurse assists her mother, but Elphin-stone fears that her mother is going to die. In thismoment, she thinks about her mother’s will andspeculates that everything will go to her sister. Shefeels guilty for thinking such thoughts. When hermother recovers from the episode, she and Elphin-stone discuss Horne and their fight. Elphinstone’smother questions her daughter’s relationship withHorne. Elphinstone quickly dismisses her attach-ment to Horne. She states that they are merely twoprofessional women sharing a home in the city, andnothing more.

As her mother falls asleep, Elphinstone contin-ues to ponder her mother’s question and has a sud-den change of heart. She quickly returns to the cityin the hope of surprising Horne and her bohemianfriends. When Elphinstone enters the apartment,she does not find any visitors, or mayhem, justHorne asleep on the love seat. Elphinstone realizesfully that she is indeed in love with Horne andloves her very much. Elphinstone crouches downand places her head on Horne’s slender knees.Elphinstone hugs Horne’s legs and whispers,“Happy August the Eleventh.”

COMMENTARY“Happy August the Tenth” is one of Williams’sfinest pieces of short fiction. It is also his most can-did treatment of same-sex attraction and desirebetween women. Unlike his rather explicit andoften graphic treatment of other romantic relation-ships, his depiction of lesbian desire is presentedtenderly and with very limited physical expressionsof love. However subdued their physical expressionmay be, Elphinstone and Horne’s emotional con-nection and romantic attachment are solidly evi-dent in this beautifully written story.

98 “Happy August the Tenth”

Although their relationship is presented withoutthe steamy sensuality of others in the Williamscanon, Elphinstone and Horne’s relationship isnotably one of the few featured in Williams’s workthat is nurturing and loving and ends happily. Lovebetween women is also at the center of the playSOMETHING UNSPOKEN and a feature of A LOVELY

SUNDAY FOR CREVE COEUR. Donald Spoto believesthat the two lovers in “Happy August the Tenth”were modeled on Williams and his partner, FRANK

MERLO.Donald Spoto sees the “hard and somewhat bit-

ter” Elphinstone as a “stand-in” for Williams andthe slightly “emotionally distant” Horne as a varia-tion of Frank (Spoto, 294). Spoto declares the storya “gentle tribute” (ibid.) to Williams’s relationshipwith Merlo.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Happy August the Tenth” was first published inAntaeus in 1971. It was reprinted in The Best Ameri-can Short Stories of 1973 and Esquire magazine(1973). It was included in a collection of short sto-ries called EIGHT MORTAL LADIES POSSESSED (1974).

CHARACTERSElphinstone Elphinstone is Horne’s best friendand roommate. She and Horne have shared abrownstone apartment in Manhattan for 10 years. Agraduate of Sarah Lawrence College, Elphinstone isa genealogist. She is obsessed with antiques, hermother’s china, and her genealogical study. Fightingdepression because she is sleep-deprived, Elphin-stone is irritable and relies on Horne for emotionalstability. The two women bicker constantly, untilthey realize they are in love with one another andneed each other for comfort and support.

Horne Horne is an intellectual young woman whoshares an apartment in Manhattan with Elphin-stone. When Horne befriends a group of bohemians,Elphinstone feels excluded and becomes jealous.The two women argue over this issue ferociously,and Horne decides to move out. She returns to theapartment to collect her possessions and discoversthat she cannot leave Elphinstone behind. Throughtheir argument the two women discover that they

are actually in love and depend on each otherimmensely.


Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.

“Hard Candy”Short story written in 1953.

SYNOPSISMr. Krupper is an elderly man living in a seaporttown in the U.S. South. He is the owner of a sweetshop; when he retires, he subleases his business to adistant relative and his family. The Cousin has anoverweight 12-year-old daughter, whom Mr. Krup-per refers to as the “Complete Little Citizen of theWorld.” Mr. Krupper visits the sweet shop everymorning, and the cousin and his family detest thesevisits. During his visits, Mr. Krupper helps himselffreely to the candy stock. He loads his pockets withcandy, which he says is for feeding birds. Thecousin, who is struggling to make a living from thelittle shop, resents the old man’s frivolity. Unknownto his relatives, Mr. Krupper is leading a double life.Every day after his routine visit to the sweet shop,he rides a streetcar to a nearby town, dons dark sun-glasses, and enters a dilapidated old cinema calledthe Joy Rio. He wearily climbs the large stairwell tothe second balcony and has sexual relations withanonymous homeless young men. Mr. Krupperentices the young men to join him by offering themcandy and a handful of quarters.

On this particular day, Mr. Krupper discovers abeautiful Spanish youth in the balcony. He is themost handsome of all of the young men waiting inthe balcony. In the flashing shadows of the moviescreen, Mr. Krupper finds monumental pleasurewith this youth. Several hours pass and when thelights finally go up in the theater, Mr. Krupper’sbody is discovered in the balcony alone. He hasdied, his body in a kneeling position, with stickycandy wrappers clinging to his pants and shirt.When his obituary appears in the newspaper, his

“Hard Candy” 99

cousins are elated. Mr. Krupper’s anonymous activ-ities are not disclosed in the death notice; however,the candy wrappers are mentioned in the newspa-per. The Complete Little Citizen of the Worlddelightedly comments, “Just think, Papa, the oldman choked to death on our hard candy!”

COMMENTARY“Hard Candy” is considered by many to be one ofWilliams’s most accomplished pieces of fiction. It isa revision of an earlier short story, “THE MYSTERIES

OF THE JOY RIO,” and as is its predecessor, it isfocused on a defeated individual battling lonelinessand isolation. In both stories, Williams illustratesthe perpetual quest and fundamental need for com-passion and companionship.

Although Williams retains the “bleak land-scape” (Sklepowich, 531) of the Joy Rio moviehouse as a setting, and both stories conclude withthe death of their respective protagonists, his nar-rative style differs considerably in the two stories.In “Hard Candy” Williams withholds the Gothicand fantastical elements found in “The Mysteriesof the Joy Rio” and incorporates a more realisticand naturalistic tone. Although “Hard Candy” hasbeen largely dismissed as merely a reworking of“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio,” in many ways thatstory surpasses its predecessor as a “more con-trolled, realistic and aesthetically effective” narra-tive (Sklepowich, 532).

Williams’s greatest achievements in this story liein his skill for investing “the sordid with the mean-ingful, even with a touch of the transcendent orcompensatory” (Sklepowich, 531), and his abilityto humanize Mr. Krupper, “a character who couldeasily be sensationalized or caricatured” (Summers,148). Recent critical reevaluation has validated“Hard Candy,” “The Mysteries of the Joy Rio,” and“TWO ON A PARTY,” previously shunned as torridtales, as “strong and healthy contributions to theliterature of compassion” and as examples of “themost significant gay fictions of their time” (Sum-mers, 133–134).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Hard Candy” was first published in the short storycollection Hard Candy: A Book of Stories in 1954,

and subsequently in short story collections: TheKingdom of Earth with Hard Candy, (1954) and Col-lected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSComplete Little Citizen of the World TheComplete Little Citizen is the 12-year-old daughterof a sweet shop owner, who is continually tauntedby her distant relative, Mr. Krupper. She is over-weight and becoming larger. Mr. Krupper, a grouchy70-year-old man, gives her this nickname becauseshe is overweight. The young girl cannot stop eatingthe hard candy in her parents’ shop, and when sheis punished for eating it, she finds ways to smugglethe candy out and eat it when no one is looking.The Complete Little Citizen of the World is happywhen she sees Mr. Krupper’s obituary in the news-paper.

Cousins They are the relatives of Mr. Krupperand the heirs to his sweet shop.

Krupper, Mr. Mr. Krupper is a 70-year-old manwho is emotionally remote from his family. He isunable to relinquish control of the sweet shop heran for nearly 50 years, even after he has subletthe business to distant relatives. Mr. Krupper’ssecret passion is to commune with young maleprostitutes in the dark balcony of the Joy Rio, adilapidated cinema in a nearby town. Mr. Krupperdies there and is eventually found in a kneelingposition with candy wrappers stuck to his pantsand shirt. The distant relatives, including TheComplete Little Citizen of the World, are relievedand elated the old man has finally died. They pre-sume he choked on a piece of hard candy that hestole from their shop.

FURTHER READINGSklepowich, Edward A. “In Pursuit of the Lyric

Quarry: The Image of the Homosexual in Ten-nessee Williams’s Prose Fiction,” in TennesseeWilliams: A Tribute, edited by Jac Tharpe. Jackson:University Press of Mississippi, 1977, pp. 525–544.

Summer, Claude J. Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall—Studies in a Male Homosexual Literary Tradition.New York: Continuum, 1990.

100 “Hard Candy”

Hello from BerthaOne-act play written in 1941.

SYNOPSISThe play takes place in a shabby room in a cheapSaint Louis brothel. Bertha, a large blonde prosti-tute, lies on her bed. She is deathly ill and intoxi-cated. Her landlady, Goldie, urges her either to seekhelp from her former lover, Charlie, or go to a con-vent. Goldie is tired of Bertha and wants her out ofthe brothel. Goldie suggests that Bertha write a let-ter to Charlie, but Bertha replies that she wouldonly send him a postcard saying, “Hello from Berthato Charlie, with all her love.” The two women argueand Goldie threatens to call an ambulance. Berthathreatens to call the police, as she believes Goldiehas been stealing money from her. Goldie leavesBertha alone in her room. Bertha talks to herself inprivate and cries about her ailing health, her life,her fading looks, and the loss of Charlie.

Lena enters Bertha’s room and tries to consoleher. Lena helps Bertha pack a few of her belongingsbefore Goldie returns. There is an ambulance wait-ing outside for her, and Bertha reluctantly agrees togo. She asks Lena to write to Charlie for her,requesting his help. Bertha quickly changes hermind; she instructs Lena to send him a postcardinstead, saying, “Hello from Bertha, with all herlove.” Lena is called for and leaves Bertha alone;Bertha repeats, “With all her love.”

COMMENTARYAs are many of Williams’s early one-act plays, Hellofrom Bertha is a “lyrical revelation of character andsituation” (Boxhill, 59). The painful solitude ofBertha’s swansong is bittersweet. There is an obvi-ous similarity between Bertha and Blanche Duboisof A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE as two aging beau-ties who reminisce and lament that which haspassed. Bertha is, however, an engaging study inher own right. There is something noble in herresolve and acceptance of her fate. Instead of giv-ing in to the repeated suggestion that she pleadwith Charlie to rescue her, Bertha accepts responsi-bility for her life and the choices she has made.

Although some view Williams’s one-act plays,particularly his earlier efforts, as merely short stud-ies for the major characters and themes he wouldlater develop, these brief sketches should not be soquickly dismissed. These plays hold a significantplace in the Williams canon and feature the samedramatic force that can be found in his longer dra-mas. Williams’s one-act plays reveal him as a mas-ter of precision and economy.

PRODUCTION HISTORYHello from Bertha was produced for television onthe PBS-TV program “Play of the Week: Four Playsby Tennessee” in 1961.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe play was published in the one-act-play collec-tion 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND OTHER

ONE ACT PLAYS in 1953.

CHARACTERSBertha She is a prostitute who has an unstated ill-ness and is being sent to a hospital. Bertha strives tobe completely independent. However, she lamentsthe loss of her old lover, Charlie.

Girl She is Bertha’s friend, who cares for herwhen she is sick. She enters late in the play andserves as a symbol of lost childhood.

Goldie Goldie is Bertha’s landlady. She runs thebrothel where Bertha lives. Goldie cares for Berthawhen she is sick. Bertha accuses her of stealingmoney from her, but it is not confirmed that Goldiedoes. Eager to have Bertha situated elsewhere,Goldie pressures Bertha to call her former lover,Charlie, or go to a convent.

Lena Lena is a fellow prostitute and a friend ofBertha. She tries to support Bertha through her ill-ness. Lena helps Bertha to pack her belongingsbefore she goes to the hospital. Before she leaves,Bertha asks Lena to write a letter to her formerlover, Charlie.

Hello from Bertha 101

FURTHER READINGBoxhill, Roger. Tennessee Williams. New York: Macmil-

lan, 1988.

Hot Milk at Three in the Morning

A one-act play written around 1930. Written whileWilliams was a student at the UNIVERSITY OF MIS-SOURI, Columbia, the play was a submission for the1931–32 university play competition. Williams wonan honorable mention for the work. The play,about a discontented factory worker, his wife, andtheir month-old child, was subsequently revisedand retitled MOONY’S KID DON’T CRY.

I Can’t Imagine TomorrowA one-act play written in 1966.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in the home ofOne, a middle-aged woman. Her home is not real-istically presented. The actors mime action involv-ing doors and windows. The location and theperiod are not specified.

One, and her male friend, Two, repeat a scenethat they relive each day. One watches from a win-dow as Two arrives at her door. He stands beforethe door and raises his arm as if he will knock. Heknocks, and One opens the door. She states, “Oh,it’s you.” He responds “Yes, it’s me.” This is a partof the ritual they perform. One has grown weary ofthis senseless, empty daily routine. Although shedemands a change in their relationship (“Somethingor nothing”), their situation remains unaltered. Oneand Two bicker and try unsuccessfully to invent newforms of communication and connection for them-selves. They try writing messages to each other ratherthen speaking, but this also proves unfulfilling.

Two professes his love for One. One expresses herfrustration and disdain (“I don’t have the strengthanymore to try to make you try to save yourself from

your paralyzing—depression! Why don’t you stoplooking like a middle-aged lost little boy?”). Onetries to end the visit; Two begs her to let him stay onher sofa. They try to complete a game of cards.

COMMENTARYAbout his dramaturgy Williams once stated: “Asomber play has to be very spare and angular . . . youmust keep the lines sharp and clean—tragedy is aus-tere” (Remember Me to Tom, 134). This comment isan adequate assessment of his gripping late play ICan’t Imagine Tomorrow: Sharp, spare, angular, andaustere, it is a tragedy of the human condition thatbears “a nod towards Absurdism with its depiction of[human] inability to communicate” (Grecco, 586).

Reminiscent of many later Williams dramas(such as FROSTED GLASS COFFIN and NOW THE

CATS WITH JEWELLED CLAWS) and other works ofthe THEATER OF THE ABSURD, this play features twounnamed protagonists who grapple in a desolatevoid to form some semblance of human connec-tion. They perform their mindless daily ritual toavoid the “intolerable silence” that surroundsthem. Their disjointed dialogue is a verbal manifes-tation of their helplessness and isolation. In thisplay Williams uses the “dialogue of pathos” (Cohn,45) to expose “the bruised individual soul and itslife of ‘quiet desperation’” (ibid).

PRODUCTION HISTORYI Can’t Imagine Tomorrow was first produced for tel-evision in 1970. Glenn Jordan directed Kim Stan-ley as One and William Redfield as Two forPBS-TV. The first stage production was in Bar Har-bor, Maine, in 1971.

PUBLICATION HISTORYI Can’t Imagine Tomorrow was first published inEsquire magazine (March 1966).

CHARACTERSOne She is a middle-aged woman who livesalone. Her only friend and companion is a middle-aged man, named Two. He visits her daily and theyengage in routine conversation and card games.One is desperate for change. She has grown wearyof the senseless, empty ritual they perform.

102 Hot Milk at Three in the Morning

Two He is a pathologically shy middle-agedschoolteacher. His only friend and companion is amiddle-aged woman, One, whom he visits daily.She is the only person with whom he can speak.However, even with her, his speech is severelyimpaired and disjointed.

FURTHER READINGCohn, Ruby. “The Garrulous Grotesques of Tennessee

Williams,” in Tennessee Williams—a Collection ofCritical Essays, edited by Stephen Stanton. Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1977, pp. 45–60.

Grecco, Stephen. “World Literature in Review: En-glish,” World Literature Today 69, no. 3 (summer1995): 586–591.

Williams, Edwina Dakin, with Lucy Freeman. Remem-ber Me to Tom. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,1964, p. 134.

“The Important Thing”Short story written in 1945.

SYNOPSISA young writer, John, attends the spring dancegiven by the Baptist College for Women. When hebecomes bored and tries to leave the dance, he isstopped by one of the teachers, referred to as “theHarpy.” The teacher forces him to dance withFlora. Flora recognizes that both she and John areuncomfortable in the environment of the dance.John suggests they venture outside. They go out-side and smoke cigarettes in the oak grove. Theysneak into the college chapel and talk about reli-gion, agnosticism, and the concept of guilt. Theydelightedly discover that they are both writers.

They discuss the craft of writing and Florastresses the supremacy of honesty and personalintegrity over style. John and Flora return to thegymnasium where the dance is being held but do notventure back inside. They remain outside watchingthe dance and the dancers through the windows.Flora declares that she is seeking “the importantthing,” in life and that writing is the means by whichshe will find it.

John encounters Flora again at the start of thenew school year. She has transferred from the BaptistCollege to State University, where John is also a stu-dent. While speaking together, John is embarrassed,as he notices other girls making funny of Flora. Theirmockery enrages John but is unnoticed by Flora. Sheproudly acknowledges that she is different from theother students and refuses to compromise or con-form. She declares herself a “barbarian,” and John isinspired by her defiance. He is happy to have found akindred spirit. Flora encourages him to submit theplay he has just written to a competition. Over thenext several months the two become inseparable.They both write for the university literary journaland join the Poetry Club, the French Club, and theYoung Communists League. John becomes a zealousradical and is nearly expelled from the university forprotesting fraternities and academic conservatism.Although John and Flora seem to be soul mates,they find that there is uneasiness between them,awkwardness in the lulls of conversations.

By the spring, John’s life changes dramatically.Conforming more to his environment, he joins afraternity, buys a car, and starts to become perturbedby Flora’s reluctance to adapt. She has developed areputation on the campus as an odd and eccentriccharacter. John’s fraternity brothers ridicule him forhis relationship with such a “queer” person as Flora.John begins to resent that Flora does not attempt tomodify her behavior or make herself more sociallyacceptable. Flora and John frequently picnic in thecountry and spend afternoons studying and dis-cussing civilization, art, and literature.

On one such occasion, John brings wine,although he knows that Flora does not drink. Asthey study for their upcoming French examination,John drinks the wine, while Flora quizzes him. Johnbecomes intoxicated as the sun beats down uponthem. Flora becomes agitated that John is inebri-ated; her reaction and the look on her face remindJohn of a child he once knew in grammar school,named Peekie. Peekie was an effeminate little boywho was regularly mistreated by the older boys atJohn’s school. John recalled that something inPeekie’s demeanor caused the bigger boys to mockhim and feel the need to abuse him physically. Inthat moment, John feels a similar urge to harm

“The Important Thing” 103

Flora. He suddenly grabs her thighs, but she rejectshis advances and pushes him away. John becomesmore aggressive, and a violent struggle ensues.They claw at each other and wrestle in the grass“like two wild animals.” Flora fights to free herself,but John knees her in the stomach to make her liestill. He overpowers her and forces himself on her.

Flora whimpers when John tells her that he isfinished and that he will not hurt her again. Johnstands and observes the university town in the dis-tance. His face is bleeding where Flora hasscratched him. He becomes angry and confused.He imagines the happy couples dancing, laughing,and whispering at the parties that are taking placeall over town. These are the “natural celebrationsof youth,” but John realizes that he and Flora areeach destined for “something else . . . outside thecommon experience.” John declares that he andFlora were only deluding themselves to think thatthey were a couple, as the others are. John observesFlora, looking at her as if for the first time, and seesthat she is completely unattractive. He ponders herintensity, her strangeness, her “anonymous” genderand realizes how much of an outsider she truly is.As he speaks her name and helps her to her feet,the fear and awkwardness between them have sub-sided. However, their intimacy has also revealed tothem the important knowledge that each of themshall remain an outsider in the world, individualand alone.

COMMENTARYAs is the short story “THE FIELD OF BLUE CHILDREN,”“The Important Thing” is centered on the struggleagainst convention and the plight of the writer. Bothstories involve two college students at a midwesternuniversity, who are writers in search of artistic andpersonal fulfillment. Both stories also focus on theact of writing and the intensely passionate, thoughsolitary nature of the craft.

In “The Field of Blue Children” Myra dallies withnonconformity and unconventional possibilities butultimately chooses to conform to societal expecta-tions, although she fondly regrets the bohemian lifeshe could have led with Homer Stallcup. In “TheImportant Thing” the battle against conformitytakes on new dimensions. Flora, whose name means

“flower” and is a reference to nature, is the embodi-ment of nonconformity. Her passionate, eccentricdemeanor and her “queerness” are what made herinitially attractive to John. However, as Myra does in“The Field of Blue Children,” John chooses con-formity over difference. Unlike Myra’s, his choice isreluctant. He is nudged by his society to be more likehis fellows. The primary signifier of his acquiescenceis his sudden membership in a fraternity, the tradi-tional brotherhood he had previously vehementlydisdained and openly fought.

Once John modifies his behavior, Flora begins torepresent something wild that must be physicallysubdued and tamed. In “taming” Flora, John uncov-ers a part of himself that cannot be tamed or sup-pressed—his attraction to and desire for other men.His sexual orientation is implied throughout thepiece, as is Flora’s. Repeatedly John refers to her as“queer,” and after his sexual assault of her, John isimmediately cognizant of Flora’s sexual ambiguity,or her “gender anonymity.” John sees himself andhis own “nature” reflected in Flora. She becomes a“repository of certain repellent qualities which[John] would like to disavow” (Haskell, 244). Johnprojects onto Flora all that he fears is developingand surfacing inside himself, particularly his sexual-ity, eccentricity, and marginalization. John’s lust forFlora is laced with self-hatred and fear of self-exposure. John uses Flora to relieve his isolationand sexual confusion. He tries to build a bridge toconformity through their physical act.

Conformity within this context is an issue of aheterosexual mandate that is vividly illustrated atthe beginning of the story when the Harpy physi-cally coerces John to dance with Flora. His violentattempt at conforming to heterosexual expectationleaves John feeling empty, enraged, and disgusted.His isolation and his true nature remain. John’sassault on Flora, as that of Stanley Kowalski againstBlanche Dubois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE,can be viewed as “the ravishment of the tender, thesensitive, the delicate, by the savage and brutalforces of modern society” (Haskell, 230). The rapeserves as a brutal awakening for both Flora andJohn. Although it relieves the physical tension thatexisted between them, it shatters the delicate bondof their friendship and serves only to isolate them

104 “The Important Thing”

further as individuals. This violent episode is a cru-cial moment in their development.

Unlike John, Flora had completely accepted hersexual identity and embraced her (and John’s) “dif-ference” from others in regard to “human relation-ships.” The values she holds dear are honesty andpersonal integrity. The “important thing” that theyhave each discovered is the acceptance of one’s truenature and marginality. “The Important Thing” isone of Williams’s most engaging and complex worksof fiction.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Important Thing” was first published in thecollection of short stories One Arm in 1948. It is alsoincluded in Collected Stories, published in 1985.

PRODUCTION HISTORY“The Important Thing” was adapted for the screenby Anne Borin for Anne Borin Productions in1980. Borin directed and produced the film, whichfeatured Mark Kaplan and Jackie Jacobus as Johnand Flora.

CHARACTERSFlora Flora is an intelligent young woman who isattending an all-female Baptist college. As she isextremely bored by her education, writing and thephilosophy of writing dominates her thoughts.Flora prides herself on being a freethinker, and awoman uninhibited by religious moral codes orgender roles. She is radical in her beliefs and finds acompanion in John, a like-minded young man. Herrelationship with John is intense and awkward. He,too, is a writer and an intellectual. They spendmany hours together talking. Flora is overwhelmedby John’s sexual longings. There is an altercationwhile they are alone on a picnic. John sexuallyassaults her, and she claws and fights to free herself.Her dedicated pursuit of the “important thing” inlife comes full circle as she realizes there is no kindof intimacy that will make her feel less of a strangerin the world.

John John is a college student at a midwesternuniversity. He is a young writer who is absorbed byhis writing and the philosophy of writing. John

meets and befriends Flora, another young writer, ata college dance. He is overwhelmed by Flora’s radi-cal thoughts and eccentric behavior. Although ini-tially drawn to Flora because of her uniqueness,John grows weary of her unwillingness to conform.In her nonconformity John sees his own differenceand natural tendencies, which he hopes to sup-press. During a picnic in the country with Flora,John acts on his frustrations and rapes her. After-ward, John and Flora are left in quiet desperationwith the knowledge that they are equally isolatedfrom society.

FURTHER READINGHaskell, Molly. From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment

of Women in the Movies. Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1987.

“In Memory of an Aristocrat”Short story written in 1940.

SYNOPSISThe Narrator and his friend, Carl, are pennilessand living in New Orleans. They visit their artistfriend, Irene, who sustains herself by prostitution.The three of them lie on a bed together, talk, andsmoke cigarettes. Carl is passionately attracted toIrene, but he has no money to pay her for sex.While they fight, the Narrator helps himself to abowl of stew. When Carl and Irene make up, shetells the two men they have to leave because shehas to work.

A couple of weeks later, there is the AnnualSpring Display of Paintings in New Orleans. It is ahighly exclusive event, to which Irene anxiously sub-mits 10 of her best paintings. When she is informedthat her paintings have been rejected and are goingto be burned by the police for their indecent themes,she becomes enraged. At the exhibit, Irene collectsher paintings from the storeroom. She starts a riot inthe gallery and is arrested.

The Narrator and another friend leave NewOrleans for Hollywood. The Narrator begins towrite screenplays, and runs into Carl, who says

“In Memory of an Aristocrat” 105

Irene left New Orleans, too. However, he has noidea where she resides.

COMMENTARYAs are Tom Wingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE,Sebastian Venable in SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER, andMatilda Rockley in YOU TOUCHED ME!, the Narra-tor in this story is a struggling writer. He attacheshimself to colorful (and shady) characters in orderto feed his imagination. As is Irene, the Narrator isan ambitious artist.

“In Memory of an Aristocrat” details the diffi-cult and often tragic existence of the artist. Irene’sartwork is rejected because she supplements hercreative endeavors and supports herself with prosti-tution. Her New Orleans peers are hypocritical, asthey participate in the debauchery of Mardi Grasbut do not accept innovative paintings from a“whore.” Irene’s story is open-ended, as neither theNarrator nor Carl know what has become of her. Inhis introduction to CARSON MCCULLERS’s novelReflections in a Golden Eye (1950), Williams writes,“Of course there are those who are not practicingartists and those who have not been committed toasylums, but who have enough of one or both mag-ical elements, lunacy and vision, to permit themalso to slip sufficiently apart from ‘this so-calledworld of ours.’” Irene is one such example of theartist who dares to slip through the liminal space ofsocial margins to live in order to create. She losesher composure when her artistic vision collideswith censorship.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“In Memory of an Aristocrat” was published in Col-lected Stories, in 1985.

CHARACTERSCarl He is a professional thief operating in theFrench Quarter of New Orleans. Carl is the friendof the Narrator and Irene. He has a crush on Irene,a prostitute, but does not have money to pay herfor sex.

Irene Irene is a painter who supplements herincome by engaging in prostitution. She has had avery rough life, which has included severe physical

abuse. Irene left New York City in search of a newstart in New Orleans.

Narrator He is the friend of Carl, a thief, andIrene, an artist who is also prostitute. The Narratoris an observant young man whose life becomes abohemian adventure with Carl and Irene. He exem-plifies the plight of the artist living in New Orleans.

“The Interval”A short story written in 1945.

SYNOPSISTwo Iowa schoolteachers, Gretchen and Augusta,take a summer road trip to Hollywood, California.Augusta bullies Gretchen into covering all of theirvacation expenses. Gretchen is too polite to com-plain. Instead, she remains silent and sulks. Augustachastises Gretchen for being moody and miserable,thus pushing her further into silence. Gretchen plotsways to get away from her friend, until Augusta meetsCarl Zerbst. Carl claims he knows Cary Grant andcan introduce the young women to various Holly-wood stars. Carl turns out to be a liar, and instead ofmeeting stars, he and Augusta drive around in a bor-rowed flashy convertible roadster. Carl and Augustaabandon Gretchen to sit alone on the beach or inthe rented tourist cabin. On the few occasions whenGretchen encounters Augusta, Augusta uses the sit-uation as an opportunity to degrade Gretchen.Gretchen is left feeling unwanted, unattractive, andundesirable.

One day on the beach, Gretchen meets Jimmie,a handsome young actor. Jimmie spies Gretchenwalking alone on the beach and starts a conversa-tion with her. Gretchen is delighted to have foundcompanionship, and her self-confidence begins toflourish because of Jimmie’s attention. Jimmie isuncertain and uncomfortable around women butfeels safe with Gretchen. The two swim togetherand find their bodies entwined as popular love songsplay on a nearby radio.

The couple marry and remain in Hollywood.Gretchen works as a private tutor for Hollywood

106 “The Interval”

children, while Jimmie continues to pursue his act-ing career. Jimmie loses interest in Gretchen and hasan affair with Bobby, a fellow film actor and a risingstar. When their affair becomes public, Bobby andJimmie are dismissed from the studio; both men aredisgraced and never work in Hollywood again.Gretchen ignores the incident and does not questionJimmie about it. Bobby is forced to move in with Jim-mie and Gretchen when he is evicted from the Bev-erly Wilshire Hotel. Gretchen is so enamored ofJimmie that she welcomes Bobby into their apart-ment and occasionally into their bed.

Just as World War II begins, Jimmie and Gretchenleave California and move to Dubuque, Iowa. Jim-mie avoids the draft because of his temperament andgets a job at a defense plant. Jimmie and Gretchenhold on to their faith that he has talent and will oneday be a famous actor. Jimmie becomes disheartenedby his life at the defense plant, where his coworkerscall him “Piggy.” Jimmie is rescued by a telegramfrom Bobby summoning him to New York. Jimmiepacks and leaves immediately without Gretchen. Hetelegrams her frequently.

Gretchen discovers she is pregnant but has noway of contacting her husband. She receives anotherenthusiastic telegram and promptly packs her bags,anticipating her summons to New York. The nexttelegram she receives presents a grim outlook anddelays her departure indefinitely. Gretchen travels toNew York despite the telegram. Jimmie meets her atthe train station, and they cry together joyfully whenGretchen gives him the news of her pregnancy.Bobby is very accommodating and gives the couplehis apartment. He moves into the apartment nextdoor with a bachelor friend. Gretchen is impressedby Bobby’s apartment and Jimmie’s “up-and-coming”Broadway friends.

Late one evening, during Gretchen’s second weekin New York, Bobby’s friend the bachelor barges intothe apartment calling out to her and making accusa-tions about Jimmie and Bobby. Bobby and Jimmiephysically restrain the bachelor and remove himfrom the apartment. Gretchen is stunned but refusesto believe the bachelor’s claims. Jimmie, Bobby, andGretchen discuss the situation and decide it wouldbe best for her to return to Iowa and have the babythere. Gretchen returns to Iowa, has the child, and

returns to teaching. She leads a very quiet life buthopes for more. She maintains her faith in Jimmie,trusting in his innate goodness. Gretchen romanti-cizes her memories of him and hopes that her beauti-ful son will be just like his father. Jimmie sendsGretchen a final, apologetic postcard advising her toforget him.

COMMENTARYIn this engaging short story, Williams masterfullyexplores many of his principal themes: the sadnessof defeated relationships, the deceptions of loveand sexuality, homosexuality and the pressures ofheterosexual society, the shattering of dreams, theindefatigable specter of old age, and the loss ofyouthful beauty.

At the center of this tale is another compellingfemale Williams character. Gretchen, the loyal,naive schoolteacher, is a kindred spirit of fellowteachers Jenny Starling (ALL GAUL IS DIVIDED),Dorothea Galloway (A LOVELY SUNDAY FOR CREVE

COEUR), and Blanche Dubois (A STREETCAR

NAMED DESIRE). Gretchen is also an early proto-type of the “abused wife” (Kolin, 26) who appearsthroughout the Williams canon, such as StellaKowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire.

Gretchen is also reminiscent of the characterNina Leeds in EUGENE O’NEILL’s play Strange Inter-lude. As Nina does, Gretchen drifts mindlessly into amarriage of convenience and finds happiness in sub-mission to her husband’s wishes and to the fulfill-ment of his dreams. Gretchen’s interval or “strangeinterlude” with Jimmie is an awakening, whichleaves her with a “hunger for more than a routinecomfort.” Although she has experienced the daz-zling, romantic glamour of Hollywood and New Yorkwith Jimmie, Gretchen is left, as are Amanda Wing-field and so many of Williams’s women, with onlyher memories of the beautiful boy who deserted her.All that remains are the final resignation andacceptance of the life that is available to her.

Scholars and critics have unjustly neglected“The Interval.” This work demonstrates Williams’sability as a writer to reveal “the secrets of thehuman race, and deepest truths about ourselves”(Burnett, 4). This sensitivity permeates Williams’swork as his art originates in such an intimate and

“The Interval” 107

deeply personal place. Philip Kolin reads “TheInterval” as a self-reflective “fictional record” ofWilliams’s “dreams, fears and defeats in the worldof ‘terrible glamour’” (Kolin, 21).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Interval” was first published by New Direc-tion in 1985 in the short story anthology CollectedStories.

CHARACTERSAugusta Augusta is an exuberant and adven-turesome schoolteacher from Iowa. She travels toHollywood, California, with her friend, Gretchen, anaive fellow teacher. Augusta dominates the friend-ship with Gretchen. She bullies her into coveringtheir expenses during their vacation, and she cru-elly shatters Gretchen’s self-esteem. When Augustameets the flashy, smooth-talking Carl Zerbst, shequickly abandons Gretchen. Carl convinces thestar-struck Augusta that he can introduce her toCary Grant and other glamorous Hollywood stars.

Bobby Bobby is a Hollywood film actor whobecomes romantically involved with Jimmie, a fellowactor. When their affair is publicly exposed, Bobby isfired by the studio and loses his “near-royalty of Hol-lywood” status. He is never again offered roles inmotion pictures. He takes to drinking and is evictedfrom his apartment in the Beverly Wilshire Hotel.After the eviction, Bobby moves in with Jimmie andhis wife, Gretchen. Because Gretchen is so enam-ored of Jimmie, she tolerates Bobby’s presence intheir apartment. She feels only “sorrow and perplex-ity” toward him. Bobby moves to pursue his actingcareer in New York City. He sends Jimmie a telegraminviting him to join him in New York. Jimmie leavesGretchen and follows Bobby to New York to becomean actor on Broadway.

Gretchen Gretchen is a naive schoolteacher fromIowa. She is a quiet, contemplative young woman,who is easily manipulated by her friend, Augusta.When she and Augusta travel to Hollywood, Cali-fornia, Augusta intimidates Gretchen to cover all oftheir expenses. Gretchen fulfills Augusta’s needsuntil she can find something better. Augusta is easily

impressed by Carl Zerbst, a smooth-talking local manwho says he can introduce Augusta and Gretchen tovarious Hollywood stars. Having found Carl, Augustaabandons Gretchen. Gretchen meets Jimmie, a hope-ful actor, and the two marry. When Jimmie’s actingcareer and male lover, Bobby, take him away fromher, Gretchen remains loyal to him.

Jimmie Jimmie is a young actor living in Califor-nia, pursuing his dream of a Hollywood film career.He regularly has small roles in films. When he isnot acting, he spends much of his time on thebeach. Jimmie meets Gretchen on the beach,immediately feels comfortable around her. Ignoringthe fact that he is gay, Jimmie and Gretchen marry.When his sexuality becomes public knowledge,Jimmie is shut out of the film industry and he andGretchen move to Iowa. Ultimately, he becomesdiscontented with his life in Iowa. He abandonsGretchen for a career on Broadway and a life withhis lover, Bobby.

FURTHER READINGBurnett, Hallie. On Writing the Short Story. New York:

Harper & Row, 1983.Kolin, Philip. “Tennessee Williams’s ‘Interval’: MGM

and Beyond,” The Southern Quarterly 38, no. 1 (fall1999): 21–27.

In the Bar of a Tokyo HotelA one-act play in two parts written in the mid- tolate 1960s.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in the bar of aJapanese hotel.

Part 1Miriam Conley sits at the bar making friendly con-versation with the young Barman. She flirts withhim and he graciously tries to avoid her attention.Miriam drafts a telegram to Leonard Frisbiedemanding that he fly to Tokyo immediately toassist her with her husband, Mark Conley. Markenters the bar, dazed, disheveled, and incoherent.

108 In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel

He tries to discuss his art and painting withMiriam, but she orders him to return to his room.Miriam reveals that she wants a separation andadvises Mark to fly back to New York. Their tem-pers flare and a heated argument ensues. Markphysically attacks Miriam and throws her out ofthe bar.

Part 2In the same location as part 1, Miriam flirts withthe Barman. The Hawaiian Lady enters the barand Miriam makes a joke about her. As Miriamtries to order a drink, the Barman informs her thatthe bar is closed. She strikes up a conversationwith him about sightseeing in Kyoto in order tokeep him engaged.

Leonard arrives at the bar, and he and Miriamargue about Mark. Mark appears and Leonardobserves that he has cut his face shaving. Miriamtries to convince Leonard to take Mark back to NewYork. Mark interrupts their discussion; he is breath-less and on the verge of collapse. He confrontsMiriam about her intention to ship him off and sheadmits that she would like him to leave. Markaccuses her of adultery and announces that he isvery tired. Shortly thereafter, Mark collapses anddies. The Barman and Leonard remove Mark’s bodyfrom the bar. Miriam expresses her relief and feelingof being released by Mark’s death. Leonard attacksher and warns her not to show any happiness. Hequestions Miriam about her future plans, and shereveals that she has none. Miriam suddenly becomesdistraught and throws her bracelets to the floor.

COMMENTARYIn the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel is possibly the most mis-interpreted of all of Williams’s dramatic works. Theinitial critical reception of the play was overwhelm-ingly and scathingly negative. In his review of theplay, Clive Barnes labeled it as Williams’s “sad birdof loneliness” (Barnes, 54). Henry Hewes viewedthe play as an expression of “Williams’s agony bothat the difficult process of artistic creation and atthe specter of old age, waning sexual magnetism,and death” (Hewes, 18).

Because the play was written in the mid- to late1960s, critics assumed that it was largely autobio-

graphical and reflective of Williams’s own artisticfrustrations and his personal struggles with depres-sion and chemical dependency. Critics failed to seethat the artist at the center of the play, Mark Con-ley, was not a Williams self-portrait, but rather asketch of the legendary American artist, JACKSON

POLLOCK.Mark Conley shares many aspects of Pollock’s

tormented life, such as his frustrated genius, alco-holism, sexual anxieties, sensitivity, rage, and slowdescent into madness. Mark and Miriam’s volatilerelationship in many ways mirrors Pollock’s turbu-lent, and often abusive, marriage to fellow-artistLee Krasner. Mark’s interactive painting techniqueof being physically engaged with a horizontal can-vas is the most revealing signifier that he is Pollock.Williams places himself in the drama within thecharacter of Leonard Frisbie, the art dealer whounderstands and cares for Mark in a way thatMiriam cannot. The triangle of Leonard, Mark,and Miriam is a heightened variation on Williams’srelationship with Pollock and Krasner. Williamsand Pollock shared a bond as kindred spirits andhad a playful friendship. Krasner deeply resentedPollock and Williams’s relationship. On one occa-sion she barred Williams from her studio.

Williams greatly admired Pollock and believedthat he could “paint ecstasy as it could not be writ-ten” (Memoirs, 250). In many ways the play servesas a projection of what Williams may have believedwould have transpired if Pollock had not died, inhis prime, in a car accident in 1956.

PRODUCTION HISTORYIn the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel was first performed inNew York in 1969 at the Eastside Playhouse. Her-bert Machiz directed Donald Madden and AnneMeacham as Mark and Miriam.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe play was first published by Dramatists Play Ser-vice in 1969.

CHARACTERSBarman The nameless bartender of the hotel bar,the Barman is a young, attractive Asian man. Hebecomes the focus of the seductive tactics of Miriam

In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel 109

Conley. Although very articulate, he serves as abystander and witness of much of the play’s action.

Conley, Mark Mark is a famous Americanpainter at the end of his career. He and his wife,Miriam, are traveling abroad together. The changeof location has irritated rather than improved theirstormy relationship. Mark is slowly, but steadily,being driven into madness by his work and isdeathly ill as a result of alcoholism. Mark is a por-trait of the great American abstract painter JACK-SON POLLOCK. As does Pollock, Mark paints in ahighly physical and interactive style; he appears inthe play with his clothes covered in paint and has ahighly volatile relationship with his wife.

Conley, Miriam She is an attractive, impatientAmerican tourist. Miriam is married to Mark Con-ley, a famous painter on the brink of a completenervous breakdown. She is restless and hungry forlove. She feels trapped in her relationship withMark and wants to have him committed to a men-tal institution. Her promiscuity and infidelity arehinted at by her pursuit of the attractive younghotel Barman. Miriam’s turbulent relationship withMark is reminiscent of the relationship betweenthe artist JACKSON POLLOCK and his long-sufferingwife, Lee Krasner. Miriam is a complex blending ofthe supportive Krasner and Pollock’s provocativepatron, Peggy Guggenheim.

Frisbie, Leonard He is an art dealer and MarkConley’s publicist. Mark’s wife, Miriam Conley,seeks Leonard’s help in an attempt to place Markin an asylum. Leonard, who loves and respectsMark deeply, goes to Tokyo and is infuriated byMiriam’s request, behavior, and negligence towardMark.

Hawaiian Lady She is a tourist on vacation anda guest at the hotel. She appears in the hotel bar forbrief moments throughout the play. She is the focusof Miriam Conley’s jokes with the Barman.

FURTHER READINGBarnes, Clive. “Theatre: In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel,”

New York Times, May 12, 1969, p. 54.

Hewes, Henry. “Tennessee’s Quest.” Saturday Review,52 (May 31, 1969), 18.

Naifeh, Steven, and Gregory White Smith. JacksonPollock: An American Saga. New York: C. N. Pot-ter, 1988.

Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:Doubleday, 1975.

In the Winter of CitiesA collection of poetry published in 1954. An hon-est and intensely private portrait of Williams’sinner thoughts, this collection of poetry, alongwith his other collection, ANDROGYNE, MON

AMOUR, serves as the fullest account of Williams’sdesires and fears. Williams presented merely hispublic persona in his MEMOIRS; his poetry is thetruest testament of the actual man. Although thiscollection of poetry is an early publication, italready details the conflicts Williams would wres-tle with his entire life—sexuality and religion, self-loathing and desire, death and isolation—as wellas representations and images of those people clos-est to him. Just as in his plays, Williams createspowerful images in his poetry that invoke a severesense of melancholy and isolation as well asmoments of spectacle and oddity.

Williams would, however, be continually con-flicted about his need to write poetry and aboutthe public’s refusal to accept him as a poet/drama-tist. Williams writes in an unfinished preface tothis collection,

When some of these poems first appeared,eleven years ago, in a book called Five YoungAmerican Poets 1944, they were fallen upon andtorn couplet from couplet with that specialcold-blooded ferocity which is peculiar to thetiger shark and saw-toothed barracuda and thepoet-critics that hiss and spit in the groves ofacademe (qtd. in Roessel, 2002, xi).

Williams would be discouraged by his peers frompursuing a career writing poetry as well as writingfor the theater, because these forms of expressionseemed impossible to maintain simultaneously on a

110 In the Winter of Cities

professional level. Committed to his craft, Williamsnever stopped writing poetry; in fact, he stated: “Iam a poet. And then I put poetry in the drama. Iput it in the short stories, and I put it in the plays.Poetry’s poetry. It doesn’t have to be called a poem,you know” (Radar, 98). Furthermore, Williamstraverses these mediums with the ease of a poetwhose verse does in fact become the action of thestage. William E. Taylor claims that “as one readsWilliams’s poems, the mind constantly flashes tocharacters, situations, themes, and symbols in theplays and the fiction” (Taylor, 624).

Because In the Winter of Cities was not enthusi-astically received, Williams believed it would be hissole volume of published verse. However, Andro-gyne, Mon Amour would be published more than 20years later.

FURTHER READINGAdler, Thomas P. “Tennessee Williams’s Poetry: Inter-

text and Metatext,” Tennessee Williams AnnualReview 1 (1998): 63–72.

Radar, Dotson. “Interview with Tennessee Williams,”in Playwrights at Work: The Paris Review Interviews,edited by George Plimpton. New York: ModernLibrary, 2000.



“The Inventory at Fontana Bella”

Short story written in 1972.

SYNOPSISThis narrative is centered on Principessa LisabettaVon Hohenzalt-Casalinghi. At 102 years old, shehas become senile, and her sight and hearing arefailing. Her most vivid memory is that of her lastlover and husband, Sebastiano. When Lisabetta

thinks of him, she hits herself in the groin violentlywith her fist to recall their lovemaking. One night,after dreaming of Sebastiano, she awakens, risesfrom her bed, and summons her doctor and ser-vants to her chamber. She announces they willaccompany her to her other estate, Fontana Bella,on the north shore of Lago Maggio. She requiresher entire retinue of servants, including her lawyer,bookkeepers, and curator, as she plans an officialappraisal of her belongings and treasure at FontanaBella.

As they journey to Fontana Bella by boat, theservants amuse themselves as the old woman talksto herself. A lawyer cavorts with a chambermaidand there is much merrymaking around Lisabetta.When the party arrives at Fontana Bella, Lisabettais taken to bed immediately. During the night, sheawakens and demands that the inventory com-mence. Lisabetta imagines that her servants andchambermaids are dressing her and rushing busilyabout her heeding her orders. Unknown to Lisa-betta, her entourage has left her in the palace unat-tended and have all ventured out to a nearbycasino. Naked and alone, Lisabetta goes outside andconducts the appraisal with imaginary courtiers anda flock of storks who are nearby. Lisabetta stridesabout the terrace grandly giving orders and makingdemands. A female stork trying to protect heryoung suddenly attacks her. The stork pecks at theold woman’s arms, breasts, and stomach. Lisabettafights with the stork and grabs its beak and forces itinto her vagina. In her delirium, Lisabetta believesthat she is having sex with Sebastiano. Her servantsreturn to find Lisabetta on the terrace physicallyengaged with the stork. Her doctor intervenes andfrees the bird, but it has suffocated inside her.

Lisabetta’s servants convince her to leave FontanaBella. They lie to her and make her believe that aparty is being given in her honor on a nearby island.On the return boat ride home the old womanreclines on a mound of pillows, as her servants onceagain amuse themselves. Lisabetta is delirious anddreams of her lover. She suddenly awakens fromher slumber and pounds her groin with her fistonce again. Her doctor attempts to restrain her toprevent serious injury. Lisabetta dies in ecstasy andher servants are relieved.

“The Inventory at Fontana Bella” 111

COMMENTARY“The Inventory at Fontana Bella” is more thanmerely a short story about an old woman who “getsher jollies in a very peculiar fashion” (Peden, 82).The story is a prime example of Williams’s use ofsexuality as a metaphor for life. In this storyhaunted by death, the elderly Lisabetta clings to herpassionate memories of Sebastiano, and theybecome her life force. The memories of this once-lived intense physical passion propel her into actionand keep her alive. Unlike her health, her sight, andher hearing, her passion remains constant andunchanged. It is an essential part of her that will notage or decay. In the end Lisabetta succumbs will-ingly and violently to her passion. She dies inecstasy as her spirit is released upon the water.

In this grotesque tale Williams combines “poeticdelicacy with primal violence” (Hassan, 142) and“fuses images of uncontrollable sexual urges withthe fact of death” (Spoto, 301) to acknowledge thefrailty of the body and to celebrate the passionatepower of the sensuous spirit. In this, and similarnarratives, Williams uses exaggeration as an artform to “catch the outrageousness of reality,” as hefound the very essence of life to be “grotesque andgothic” (Brown, 264).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Inventory at Fontana Bella” was first pub-lished in Playboy magazine in 1973. It was includedin the short story collections EIGHT MORTAL LADIES

POSSESSED (1974) and Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERHohenzalt-Casalinghi, Principessa Lisabetta vonShe is an exceedingly wealthy old noblewoman. Atthe age of 102, Lisabetta is remarkably agile and alert,although her sight and hearing are rapidly failing. Sheis obsessed by her strong, visceral memories of herfifth and final husband, Sebastiano, and their pas-sionate lovemaking. Lisabetta is also obsessed by herwealth and power. She orders her retinue of secre-taries, lawyers, curators, bookkeepers, and chamber-maids to attend her as she takes an inventory of herpalace at Fontana Bella on the north shore of LagoMaggio. While her servants secretly enjoy themselvesat a nearby casino, Lisabetta conducts an inventory

at midnight outside the palace with a gaggle of storks.Lisabetta does not realize that she is naked and hold-ing court with the birds. Her followers return and dis-cover her on the portico, where she has mistaken oneof the birds for her dead husband, Sebastiano. Herservants induce her to forgo the inventory by tellingher that a great party is being held in her honor on anearby island. During the boat ride home, thePrincipessa has one final, forceful memory of her pas-sionate husband and dies in ecstasy.

FURTHER READINGBrown, Cecil. “Interview with Tennessee Williams,” in


Hassan, Ihab. Contemporary American Literature:1945–1972. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1973.

Peden, Williams. The American Short Story. Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1975.


I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix

One-act play written between the years 1939 and1941.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the French Riviera. Dying oftuberculosis, the famous writer D. H. Lawrencerests on the sun porch of a home overlooking theocean. A banner of a phoenix in a nest of flameshangs on the wall behind him. Frieda Lawrenceenters to deliver a package for Lawrence from afemale admirer. The package’s sender provokesLawrence to question the nature of woman andGod and to express bitter hatred for Frieda.Lawrence makes her promise that she will not touchhim or allow any other woman to touch him duringthe act of his death. When Frieda agrees to hisrequest, he continues to criticize her. He is inter-rupted by the arrival of Bertha, who has just returnedfrom London with news regarding Lawrence’s latest

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work—an exhibition of his paintings. When Berthatells him that the collection was not well received,Lawrence responds with anticipated pessimism. Heexplains that only he can truly understand hispaintings.

Lawrence dives into yet another tirade aboutwomen and their shortcomings as the Sun sets.Watching the Sun fall in the sky, Lawrence pontifi-cates on the similarity of light and darkness towomen and men. He proclaims himself a prophetof things to come. Frieda and Bertha witnessLawrence’s death throes. True to her promise,Frieda restrains herself and Bertha as Lawrenceexpires savagely and alone.

COMMENTARYWilliams admired D. H. Lawrence for the freedomhe assumed to write about taboo subjects such assexual conduct and sensuality. He also admiredLawrence “for his spirit . . . his understanding ofsexuality, of life in general” (Rader, 153). Williamswould become the premier playwright of decay anddecline of the human spirit as well as the body, soit is no surprise that he would decide to pen thelast days in the life of D. H. Lawrence. I Rise inFlame, Cried the Phoenix is an example of theanguished dying male and the gaggle of womenwho never psychologically “touched” him in lifeand, therefore, are not privileged to hold himphysically during his passing. In the note to thelimited edition (New Directions, 1951), FriedaLawrence writes that the central theme is “theeternal antagonism and attraction between manand woman” (8).

Overwrought with the desire to model a savagecreature at the time of his death, with the image ofthe classical phoenix rising from the ashes, Lawrencebecomes a timeless and legendary creature when hedies.

PRODUCTION HISTORYI Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix premiered at theTheatre de Lys on April 14, 1959, starring AlfredRyder as Lawrence, Viveca Lindfors as Frieda, andNan Martin as Bertha. This production was wellreceived and thought to be “Williams’s purest pieceof dramatic writing” by the critic Henry Hewes.

PUBLICATION HISTORYIn 1951 New Directions published a limited edi-tion of this play with a note by Frieda Lawrence.An acting version of the script was also publishedthat year by Dramatists Play Service. The two ver-sions have slightly different endings, but theimpact is immense: In the New Directions ver-sion, Frieda agrees to allow Lawrence to die aloneand untouched, but when the moment occurs, hecalls for her and she rushes to his side. In the act-ing version of the script (the one used for this syn-opsis), Frieda and Bertha refrain from going toLawrence.

CHARACTERSBertha She is a young English gentlewoman. Anadmirer of D. H. Lawrence, she is sent to London tooversee the opening of his exhibition of paintings.

Lawrence, D. H. (1885–1930) Historical figureand character in I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix.In the play he is a controversial 20th-century writerwho succumbs to tuberculosis and hopes to leavethe world as a phoenix rising from the ashes of life.Williams chronicles the last days of Lawrence withhis wife, Frieda, and his friend and admirer, Bertha.D. H. Lawrence was one of Williams’s favorite writ-ers because Lawrence challenged the puritanicalorder of society with his candid exploration of thesensual and sexual dynamics between men andwomen. In this one-act play, Lawrence is a frus-trated and caged animal who wishes to be aloneduring his death throes.

Lawrence, Frieda She is the wife of the writerD. H. Lawrence, and a patient admirer of her hus-band’s intellect and energy. Frieda suffers the rant-ing of Lawrence and calms his rage. She fulfills herpromise not to go to her husband when he finallysuccumbs to tuberculosis, demonstrating extremecourage and restraint. Frieda holds Bertha as theywitness Lawrence’s tormented death.

FURTHER READINGHewes, Henry. “Off Broadway,” in The Best Plays of

1958–1959. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1959, p. 50.

I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix 113

Rader, Dotson. “The Art of Theatre. V.: TennesseeWilliams,” Paris Review 81 (fall 1981): 145–185.

Williams, Tennessee. I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix,limited ed. Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions, 1956,p. 16.

“It Happened the Day the Sun Rose”

A short story written before 1981.

SYNOPSISSet in Tangier, Morocco during the summer.

Part IMadame La Sorcière, a woman of considerableage and sexual prowess as well as supernaturalpowers, resides at the Grand Hotel des Souhks.Known for her escapades with young, handsomehotel employees, Madame La Sorcière desiresAhmed, the evening barman.

Late one evening, the Narrator follows Madameand a young man to Madame’s room. After a fewminutes he overhears her protestations over theman’s inhibited approach to sexual positions. Sheadministers an aphrodisiac of camel dung to him,and soon after the Narrator hears a wild ruckuscoming from the suite. The next morning, the Nar-rator dines on the patio below Madame’s suite win-dow. He witnesses a crow fly out of the suite, andhe does not see the young man for several days.When the young man resurfaces at the hotel, hesporadically makes winglike gestures with his arms.

Princess Fatima sits next to Madame at El Bar.She challenges Madame’s assertion that Ahmedhas no body hair and charges that Madame has notbeen intimate with him. Madame summons thefour-piece orchestra to her table. As they play aseductive melody, she unzips the caftan she iswearing, exposing herself below the waist toAhmed. Madame’s powerful stare transfixesAhmed. Feeling as though she is losing the argu-ment, Princess Fatima counters Madame’s actionsby loudly asking her age; however, Madame is notdistracted by the question. She simply answers that

she was born on a day when the sun rose. PrincessFatima is perturbed by the coolness of Madame’savoidance of the question. Madame baits theprincess further by questioning her social status.Enraged by this slight, the princess states that sheis second in the line of succession to the throne ofthe country of Kughwana. Madame retorts thatshe has never heard of such a place.

Madame positions her chair to expose hervagina to Princess Fatima, who is stunned by itsbeauty. She does not believe it is real, but Madamesuggests they retire to the bathroom so that theprincess may investigate its authenticity. The twowomen agree to end their argument, though asenemies, and agree to avoid any future contact.Before Princess Fatima exits, she asks Madame theexact date of her birth, and Madame repeats herprevious answer. Again, Madame questions theimportance of Princess Fatima’s country. Insultedand furious, Princess Fatima instructs Madame totake a closer look at the gold jewelry adorning herbody. Madame deems the ornaments nothing morethan brass or copper. Madame coolly purrs and dis-engages from the tiresome Princess Fatima. Dis-gusted by Madame’s actions, Princess Fatima quicklyrises from her table, overturning a carafe of chilledwine on her two guard-eunuchs. One eunuch yelpswith pain, as his castration is recent. Madame goesto this eunuch, wipes his tears, and propositionshim with a night in her suite. He questions herchoosing him, but she assures him that she can stillgive him pleasure.

Part IIOne night in July of the same summer, Lady Abh-fendierocker docks her yacht at the port in Tangier.Banned from most ports in the Mediterraneanbecause of previous lascivious behavior with a high-ranking official, Lady Abhfendierocker is accompa-nied by a set of notorious jewel thieves who havepaid for their passage with a fake emerald and sex-ual favors. During their passage from Nice, one ofthe thieves suffered a moment of impotence, whichmade Lady Abhfendierocker suspicious of the emer-ald. Upon appraisal in a port, she learns the emeraldis not real. She forces the thieves to board a slowlydeflating raft in the middle of the ocean in an act of

114 “It Happened the Day the Sun Rose”

revenge. The thieves, however, manage to survive,make their way to shore, and room with Madame atthe Grand Hotel des Soukhs.

Ahmed proposes to spend a night with Madame.Madame however rejects him because she knows heis only interested in garnering a passport toArgentina. Ahmed becomes angry, cursing Madameas she exits the bar. In response to this humiliation,Ahmed phones the front desk and alerts them tothe jewel thieves in Madame’s suite. Ahmed’s blun-der results in his own dismissal from the hotel.

Now unemployed, Ahmed submits to beingseduced by a wealthy older man, Lord Buggersmythe,who has courted him for many months. Lord Bug-gersmythe arranges a trust fund for Ahmed from theearnings of his five-star restaurant. This fund willforever be available to Ahmed on the condition thatAhmed never strays for a single night from their bed.Ahmed happily agrees to this condition.

One evening nearly one month later, Madameenters the restaurant of Lord Buggersmythe. Sherequests that Ahmed serve her. Ahmed apprehen-sively acquiesces. Madame coos with delight whenshe sees him. She congratulates him for his newoccupation as Lord Buggersmythe’s kept boy.Despite the voluble orchestra, Ahmed faintly hearscrows cawing from under Madame’s chair. Madame’sdinner date whispers that Madame is afflicted bycrows, five of which have entered her person. Theman explains that Madame has an extra orifice,much like the pouch of a kangaroo. Madame inter-rupts to say that the crows are pecking away at herabdomen because their sedation has worn off. She isable to release them, but not without a type of magicpracticed with camel manure and the bottle of elixirin her purse.

Ahmed tells her that he cannot bring camelmanure to her table. Furthermore, there are nocamels for miles and miles. Madame replies thatshe only needs a tiny amount of manure, and pro-duces a small box for Ahmed to gather it in. Shebegs him to hurry before her screams blow the roofoff the building.

The chef presents a platter of manure to Madamewithin minutes. She immediately recognizes themanure to be human, not camel. Angered andinsulted, Madame hurls the manure at the chef and

Ahmed. Chaos breaks out in the restaurant, and fivecrows begin to circle overhead. Pleased that thecrows are released in spite of the lack of ingredientsfor the elixir, she thanks Ahmed. Madame inviteshim to share a bottle of champagne in celebration.He hesitantly walks to her and is transformed intothe sixth crow circling the ceiling.

Time passes. In the moonlight of Lord Bug-gersmythe’s bedroom, a 12-year-old Balinese boyand a physician tend to the dying old man. LordBuggersmythe calls out to Ahmed, the crow. Heaccuses Ahmed of escaping his cage when hesleeps. Lord Buggersmythe wishes he could havesex with Ahmed. The cries of women and men andthe barking of dogs throughout Tangier interruptthis sentimental moment. Miraculously, Ahmed’shuman body is reinstated. Madame appears in theroom and throws a brilliant gem at Ahmed’s feet.Another gem is discarded at the threshold of theroom. She calls out her suite number and disap-pears. Lord Buggersmythe dies.

The moral of the story is, “truth is all that weknow of right in this world, and therefore itsabsence is all that we know of wrong. In otherwords, it is not good, it is God.”

COMMENTARYWilliams investigates the power of feminine sexual-ity in this story. He pushes the boundaries that hecreated in such archetypal women as Maggie the CatPollitt (CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF), Blanche DuBois(A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE), and Miss ValerieCoynte (“MISS COYNTE OF GREENE”). Like Blanchewho “avoids adult sexual relationships but activelyseeks affairs with adolescents” (McGlinn, 513),Madame La Sorcière seeks sexual encounters withconsiderably younger men, but her actions, com-bined with supernatural powers, literally transformher conquests if they do not satisfy her sexualappetite.

Wielding their sexuality as weapons to conquertheir male counterparts and manipulate situations,Williams’s overtly sexual female characters “seemto have been conceived by their creator, if not asrepresentatives of a sort of salvation, then at leastas attractive earth goddesses whose salvation istheir own sexuality” (Jones, 211). Madame’s power

“It Happened the Day the Sun Rose” 115

is her beautiful vagina. Men and women alike areenamored of it. Williams presses the boundaries offeminine sexuality to involve the physical organ,and what was merely (yet powerfully) the essenceof feminine sexuality in past characters such asBlanche and Maggie is now physically manifest.Madame La Sorcière’s earthiness is exemplifiedwhen she states that she was “born the day the sunrose,” revealing a wraithlike and ancient soul.

In the short story “Miss Coynte of Greene,”Williams portrays another earthy woman who issexually liberated and profoundly concentrated onsexual fulfillment. Miss Coynte is also a characterwho is centrifugal to the cycle of life. Her daughter,Michele Moon, carries on the sexual liberation inher affair with twin lovers. Michele Moon and MissCoynte are also unconventional as they publicly cel-ebrate their African-American lovers in a raciallysegregated setting. Their fearless love, desire, andwants supersede any human-based laws or social,religious, or political mores.

Ahmed the barman does not escape Madame’swrath, as his invitation to have sex is not sinceredesire but rather a means to garner a passport. Theall-knowing Madame is aware of Ahmed’s deceit.His downfall is that he underestimates her psychicpowers. Ahmed also attempts to trick Madameinto believing that he has delivered the requiredcamel dung for her case of crows. His punishmentfor this misdeed is that he, too, becomes a crow.And while Ahmed does not succumb to Madame’sseduction, he suffers the same punishment becausehe rejects her sexually. In this instance, Madame’ssexual power is an inescapable trap.

Characters such as Madame La Sorcière aremost often found in Williams’s fiction rather thanhis dramatic works. Jürgen C. Wolter writes in hisessay, “Tennessee Williams’s Fiction,” “Since fictionallows space for undramatic reflections and digres-sions and since the breaking of taboos can be muchmore radical in a text that is written for the privatecloset of the individual reader than in a script forthe ‘public theatre,’ a story can be a more sponta-neous reaction.” This is also evident in Williams’streatment of gay issues and themes. His short sto-ries and fiction detail and celebrate gay charactersand situations, and in no way has he shied away

from this topic, which was generally consideredtaboo during his lifetime. Williams provides a sub-plot in this story that involves a relationshipbetween Ahmed and Lord Buggersmythe, whobecomes Ahmed’s savior after he is fired from thehotel. Even after Ahmed has been turned into acrow, Lord Buggersmythe desires him.

Tennessee Williams visited Tangier in the sum-mer of 1973. This visit is chronicled in the bookTennessee Williams in Tangier, by Muhammad Shukri.Williams was struggling to write THE RED DEVIL

BATTERY SIGN. According to Gavin Lambert, in hisintroduction to the book, Williams was very restlessand having terrible luck in his travels that summer.What proved, however, to be an unplanned successwas the relationship between Shukri and Williams:two men who seemed to have very little in com-mon. During their chance encounters in cafes, onthe streets, or at PAUL BOWLES’s apartment, Shukribecame very interested in Williams as a writer.Williams was very pleased with the book, calling it“gently humorous and discreet with a reticent sym-pathy implicit” (Shukri, Epilogue), and Williamswas relieved and surprised that he was chronicled insuch a positive light after years of suffering a waningpublic image.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“It Happened the Day the Sun Rose” was publishedin It Happened the Day the Sun Rose and Other Sto-ries by Sylvester & Orphanos in 1981.

CHARACTERSAhmed A handsome young Moroccan barmanwho works at the Grand Hotel des Souhks.Ahmed’s life changes when he encounters MadameLa Sorcière, a woman with supernatural powersand a robust sexual appetite. Ahmed coolly keepshis distance from her. When Ahmed proposes tospend a night with Madame La Sorcière in hopes ofsecuring an Argentine passport from her, sherejects him. When Ahmed tries to trick MadameLa Sorcière a second time, she turns him into acrow. Ahmed is restored in the final moments ofthe story when Madame La Sorcière returns andturns him back into a man. She also reinstates theinvitation to her suite.

116 “It Happened the Day the Sun Rose”

Lady Abhfendierocker A wealthy woman whodocks her yacht in Tangier. She is accompanied by agang of notorious jewel thieves who have paid herfor their passage with a fake emerald. When LadyAbhfendierocker has the emerald appraised at theport and learns that it is counterfeit, she forces thethieves to board a slowly deflating raft in the mid-dle of the ocean in an act of revenge.

Lord Buggersmythe An aging wealthy bachelorwho, smitten by Ahmed, supports him financiallyon the condition that Ahmed never stray a singlenight from their bed. Lord Buggersmythe desiresAhmed even after he is turned into a crow.

Madame La Sorcière A wealthy and powerfulwoman who lives at the Grand Hotel des Souhks inTangier, Morocco. Endowed with supernaturalpowers and psychic intelligence, Madame La Sor-cière has an insatiable sexual appetite. She is also inthe habit of turning her young lovers into crows ifthey do not meet her expectations. Equipped withan extra pouchlike orifice around her stomach, shecarries these crows inside her, calming them with amagic elixir when they become restless. MadameLa Sorcière fancies Ahmed, the barman at thehotel, but when he attempts to trick her, she turnshim into a crow. She does return after some timeand reinstates his human form, rewards him withtwo precious gems, and leaves an open invitation totryst in her suite.

Princess Fatima Madame La Sorcière’s rival,Princess Fatima is second in succession to thethrone of Kughwana. Madame La Sorcière ques-tions the importance of her country, insultingPrincess Fatima and causing her to retire to herroom with her eunuch-guards, but not before shetries to embarrass Madame LaSorcière by askingher age. Madame La Sorcière ripostes by displayingher youthful and extraordinary vagina for PrincessFatima to envy.

FURTHER READINGJones, Robert Emmet. “Tennessee Williams’s Early

Heroines.” Modern Drama 2 (1959): 211–219.

McGlinn, Jeanne M. “Tennessee Williams’s Women:Illusion and Reality, Sexuality and Love.” In Ten-nessee Williams: A Tribute, edited by Jac Tharpe.Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1977.

Shukri, Muhammad. (Mohamed Choukri). TennesseeWilliams in Tangier. Santa Barbara, Calif.: CadmusEditions, 1979.

Wolter, Jürgen C. “Tennessee Williams’s Fiction.” InTennessee Williams: A Guide to Research and Perfor-mance by Philip C. Kolin. Westport, Conn.: Green-wood Press, 1998, pp. 220–228.

“The Killer Chicken and theCloset Queen”


SYNOPSISStephen Ashe is a successful lawyer on the brink ofbecoming partner at a prominent Wall Street lawfirm. Stephen hides the fact that he is gay in anattempt to protect and preserve his career and rep-utation at work. The other partners in the firm aresupporting his promotion and the retirement of asenior member, Nat Webster.

One afternoon at the gym and while receivingmassages at adjoining tables, a colleague, JerrySmythe, gossips about Nat’s brother-in-law, whohas been in jail for “lewd vagrancy” or male prosti-tution. The brother-in-law was staying with Natand his wife until Nat found out. Stephen isuncomfortable with the topic of conversation andchanges the subject.

Several weeks pass and Stephen receives a callfrom Nat’s teenage wife, Maude. She tells him thather brother, Clove, has been renting a room at theYoung Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) andshe would like him to stay with Stephen. She wor-ries about him at the Y because they are “overrunwith wolves out for chickens.” Maude does not givehim a chance to object before she hangs up thephone. Stephen has a dilemma, as his mother willsoon be visiting him from Palm Beach, and he hasonly one guest bedroom.

“The Killer Chicken and the Closet Queen” 117

Concerned about what to tell his mother aboutClove and contemplating how to handle her con-stant reminders that she wants to meet his girl-friend, Stephen invites his colleagues for Sundaybrunch. During a limousine ride to the airport tocollect his mother and after indulging in the back-seat bar, Stephen has a drunken tryst with thedriver. Stephen has a moment of sobriety andrejects the previously welcomed advances of thedriver. The driver becomes angry and calls Stephena “closet queen.” Stephen’s mother is delayed inPalm Springs and does not arrive when she isscheduled, so he returns home.

The next morning, Stephen wakes up with ahangover. He stumbles out of bed and realizes that itis Sunday, and Clove and Maude are on their way tohis apartment. When they arrive, Stephen is imme-diately smitten with Clove. Stephen asks Clove topretend to be his teenage son, the product of a loveaffair with a socialite, Miss Sue Coffin of NantucketIsland. Stephen goes back to bed and wakes upnearly an hour later with Clove. Nat Webster entersthe apartment, realizes what has transpired betweenthe two men, and demands Stephen’s resignationMonday morning. Stephen returns to bed and isawakened by his mother’s exclamation upon meet-ing her supposed teenage grandson. After taking aquaalude tablet and drinking a Bloody Mary,Stephen’s mother is calmed. Clove also givesStephen a quaalude tablet and sends him out to facehis mother. Stephen and Clove send his mother to ahotel. After several days, she leaves for Palm Beach.

Stephen and Clove board a train for Miami,accompanied by a French pug puppy. Clove feedsStephen more quaaludes while he plans to partakein his “grandmother’s” money. Clove urges Stephento stop living his life in the closet.

COMMENTARY“The Killer Chicken and the Closet Queen” is a“wonderfully crazed” tale in which Williams dis-plays his gift for storytelling (Vidal, xxv). Writtenlate in Williams’s life, the story is an intense exami-nation of such themes as the conflict of success andsexuality, social acceptance, and familial relations.These are all topics that Williams continually tra-versed both in his works and in his life.

The story immediately calls to mind such worksas AUTO-DA-FÉ and STEPS MUST BE GENTLE,which also feature a mother and a son caught in acat-and-mouse game centered on the son’s sexualorientation. There are also overtones of SUDDENLY

LAST SUMMER, which also depicts a mother con-cerned by her son’s sexuality, but more important,the two works share the prevailing idea of a youngman’s sexuality threatening his future success andreputation.

Structurally “The Killer Chicken and the ClosetQueen” exhibits a wonderful, playful absurdist viewmore often associated with Williams’s later dramas,rather than his fiction. This concept is chiefly illus-trated in the character Clove. As his name sug-gests, Clove adds much needed spice to Stephen’sbland existence. Clove is a liberating force forStephen and literally personifies Stephen’s hiddensexuality and repressed nature. Crude, crass, andsensual, Clove storms into Stephen’s stiff andrefined life, throwing the doors of his emotionalcloset wide open. Clove is also a trickster character,like the mischievous sprite Puck in Shakespeare’s AMidsummer Night’s Dream. As does Puck, Clovecasts a spell upon Stephen and his mother with hismagical potions (quaaludes and Bloody Marys). Heoffers them a new way of seeing the world and ulti-mately transforms their sense of reality and way oflife. Clove also calls to mind his namesake, Clov,from SAMUEL BECKETT’s Endgame. Both Clove andClov serve an enlightening function in their respec-tive plays. In Endgame, Clov actively and literallyreveals what is hidden or unseen to his audience,and provides vision for the blind character, Hamm.In much the same way, Clove uncovers and exposesStephen’s repressed sexuality both to Stephen andto his “audience,” or onlooker, Nat Webster. “TheKiller Chicken and the Closet Queen” also shares acommon theme with Endgame, which is the ideathat “a new path out of the old ruts might lead, ifone has the courage to walk it, to a new vision anda new life” (Webb, 57).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Killer Chicken and the Closet Queen” waspublished in Christopher Street in 1978. It was subse-quently published in Collected Stories, in 1985.

118 “The Killer Chicken and the Closet Queen”

CHARACTERSAshe, Stephen A closeted gay man who hideshis sexuality for the advancement of his law career.He anticipates partnership at a prominent WallStreet law firm but is forced to resign when itbecomes known that he is gay. He meets histeenage lover, Clove, in the midst of this fiascothrough the teenage wife of his boss.

Clove He is a handsome young man of 16 who isjailed for being a male prostitute in Arkansas.When Clove moves to New York City as the wardof his sister, he lives with Stephen Ashe, a success-ful lawyer.

Smythe, Jimmie A young lawyer at a prominentWall Street law firm, Smythe is a colleague ofStephen Ashe. Jimmie and Stephen often exerciseat the gym together. On one occasion at the gym,Jimmie shares with Stephen the company gossipthat a senior partner’s brother-in-law has beenarrested for lewd vagrancy, or prostitution.

Webster, Maude She is the teenage wife of NatWebster, a senior partner at a prominent WallStreet law firm. Maude calls upon one of her hus-band’s younger colleagues, Stephen Ashe, to do hera favor. She asks Stephen to allow her delinquentbrother Clove to stay at his apartment while Cloveis visiting New York City. Stephen begrudginglycomplies with Maude’s request because he is anx-ious to gain a promotion and needs Nat’s support.

Webster, Nat He is an elderly senior partner at aprominent Wall Street law firm, with a teenage wifenamed Maude. Nat demands the resignation of hisyounger colleague, Stephen Ashe, when he discov-ers that Stephen has become intimately involvedwith his wife’s delinquent brother, Clove.

FURTHER READINGVidal, Gore. “Introduction” in Collected Stories. New

York: New Directions, 1985.Webb, Eugene. The Plays of Samuel Beckett. University

of Washington Press: Seattle, 1974.

“The Kingdom of Earth”Short story written in 1942.

SYNOPSISA young man named Chicken leaves his family’sfarm when he learns that the homestead has beenbequeathed, at the death of his father, to his halfbrother, Lot. Chicken is quickly summoned backwhen Lot becomes terminally ill of tuberculosis.Chicken returns on the condition that the propertywill be his when Lot dies. When Lot returns homewith a new bride, Myrtle, Chicken rejects Myrtlebecause he fears she will usurp his claim to thefarm. Although Chicken is sexually attracted toMyrtle, he is suspicious of Lot’s reasons for marry-ing her and her interest in a dying man.

Chicken’s suspicion stems from the fact that hehas been mistreated his entire life because he ispart Cherokee and illegitimate. Myrtle is not awarethat Lot is dying, so she tries to find ways of makinghim desire her sexually. While Lot grows weaker,Myrtle and Chicken become increasingly attractedto each other. Finally, they succumb to their attrac-tion while Lot suffers one final and violent cough-ing attack. Lot calls for help, but Chicken andMyrtle ignore his pleas as they are enrapt in vigor-ous lovemaking. The next morning, they find Lotdead on the floor in a pool of blood. Myrtle andChicken marry. When Myrtle becomes pregnant,she and Chicken decide that they will name theirchild after Lot.

COMMENTARYIn this provocative and explicit tale, Williams usespassionate sexuality as an expression of life and liber-ation. Myrtle and Chicken’s energetic lovemakingprovides a vision of life, which contrasts sharply withthe resounding death throes of the dying Lot. Theoppressed Chicken is an outcast who has spent hislife fighting for his right to his family’s farm. He hasbeen repeatedly mistreated, and when the opportu-nity to gain a better life presents itself, he takes it.This opportunity is embodied by Myrtle. Throughher, Chicken gains his inheritance, material wealth,status, and love. In the act of consummating his

“The Kingdom of Earth” 119

relationship with Myrtle, Chicken triumphs overthe oppression he has faced as a racial and socialminority.

Chicken is reminiscent of Stanley Kowalski in ASTREETCAR NAMED DESIRE. Both characters possessan animalistic sexuality and a brutish disposition.They also share an obsession for inheritance,legacy, and what they believe to be their “right,”what is owed to them. Whereas Stanley is unable torealize his claim, Chicken is rewarded for hispatience and hard work. Chicken calls himself alustful creature and acknowledges his indifferenceto the kingdom of heaven. He is more concernedwith the kingdom of Earth, a place of pleasure andcarnal living that is finally accessible to him.

“The Kingdom of Earth” is considered by someto be one of Williams’s lesser works of fiction. How-ever, this powerful short story is an engaging studyin character and contains some of Williams’s mostvivid writing.

PRODUCTION HISTORY“The Kingdom of Earth” is the basis for the one-actplay of the same title and the full-length play THE

KINGDOM OF EARTH, OR THE SEVEN DESCENTS OF

MYRTLE. A film version of this story, THE LAST OF

THE MOBILE HOT SHOTS, was released in 1969.GORE VIDAL wrote the screenplay for the film,which was directed by Sidney Lumet and featuredLynn Redgrave as Myrtle, James Coburn as the Lotcharacter called Jeb, and Robert Hooks as Chicken.

PUBLICATION HISTORYBecause of its provocative content, Williams wasadvised not to include “The Kingdom of Earth” inhis short story collection Hard Candy (1954).Instead, the story was published privately in anunbound edition in 1954 and eventually publishedin the short story collection The Knightly Quest(1966). “The Kingdom of Earth” also appears inCollected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSChicken He is the half brother of Lot. He is ayoung part-Cherokee farmer who fears that he willnot inherit the family farm, although he spends his

life working on it. Chicken experiences completesatisfaction when he inherits not only the farm, buthis deceased half brother’s wife, Myrtle.

Lot Lot is the son of wealthy landowners and heirto a farm on the Mississippi Delta. Handsome andblond, he has debonair good looks that belie histerminal illness and impotence. Lot is slowly dyingof tuberculosis. He marries Myrtle, a former prosti-tute, and loses her and his farm to his despised ille-gitimate half brother, Chicken. Lot dies crying outfor help, but neither Myrtle nor Chicken goes to hisaid.

Myrtle A former prostitute who marries Lot, ahandsome man who is dying of tuberculosis. Lottakes Myrtle to his family homestead, a farm on theMississippi Delta. When Myrtle meets his halfbrother, Chicken, she is immediately drawn to hissexy, brutish disposition. She gives in to her sexualdesires and abandons her husband as he dies.

The Kingdom of EarthOne-act play written in 1967.

SYNOPSISThe setting is a Mississippi Delta farmhouse duringa flood. A voice calls out to a young man in rubberhip boots called Chicken. The voice belongs to aneighbor who is leaving his farm to escape theflood. He tells Chicken that he would give him aride, but he does not have the room in his car.Chicken proudly states that he would never leavehis house. He says that he will climb onto the roofif the water level rises. Chicken explains that ishow he got his name—he sat on the rooftop withthe chickens during a flood nearly 18 years ago.The neighbors drive away, and Chicken returns tohis kitchen to make coffee. Another carapproaches the farmhouse. Chicken peers out ofthe window, recognizing that his brother, Lot, hasreturned. He is shocked to see that there is awoman with him.

120 The Kingdom of Earth

Lot calls out to Chicken. Registering Lot’s frailcondition, Chicken is surprised that he has beenreleased from the Memphis hospital. Lot introducesthe woman as his wife, Myrtle, whom he met threedays ago. Lot orders Chicken to carry their bagsinto the house. Lot follows them to tell Myrtle thatthe house will soon be completely flooded in anattempt to scare them back to Memphis. Lot sayshe does not have the strength to make the tripagain, as he goes to rest. Chicken goes to thekitchen, where he talks with Myrtle. She admitsthat she did not know Lot had just been releasedfrom the hospital. Chicken assures her that theflood will occur and that she will be at his mercy toclimb up to the roof. Myrtle runs a plate of frenchfries upstairs to Lot, but she quickly returns. Shetells Chicken that Lot is panting heavily andbelieves that Chicken thinks he is dying. Chickenconfirms that Lot is dying of tuberculosis and thatthe hospital released him to die in his home. Myrtlesays that she has been deceived by her new hus-band, knowing nothing of his failing health.

Chicken informs Myrtle that when Lot dies, heis to inherit everything. He explains that he is Lot’shalf brother: Their father had an affair with aCherokee woman, Lot’s mother. For this reason,Chicken has been discriminated against not onlywithin the family, but in town. Chicken threatensto allow the flood to get Myrtle because she couldtake the farm. Myrtle pleads that she despises thecountry and would never want to live there.Chicken demands that Myrtle give him the mar-riage license. She goes upstairs and gets the docu-ment. Chicken orders her to destroy the paper, andshe complies.

Myrtle says her marriage to Lot is already over,and she feels as though he is already dead. Shebegins to talk about her “maternal cord,” and howLot took advantage of that part of her nature.Chicken blames his dark complexion on workingon his own farm, “like a field hand.” Chicken tellsher the story of a girl he dated for three years.When they broke up, she spread rumors aroundtown that he was mulatto, not Cherokee. Now nowhite women will have anything to do with him.Chicken talks about his spiritual conversion, whichdid not “stick.” He had to return to his lustful ways.

Myrtle says that she is the same way. Lot shouts forMyrtle, but she ignores him. Chicken continues totalk about the carnality in his nature and his effortsto read books to “shut the gates” on such thoughts.He gave up and returned to thinking about “drink-ing and screwing, and trying . . . to make somethingout of the place.” Lot calls for Myrtle once again. Inagitation, she demands that he “shut up.”

Lot is heard coughing and gagging. Myrtledecides to check on him, but she remains seatedwith Chicken. She confesses that she does notwant to witness Lot’s suffering. She says she hashad a bad life, working since she was 15 years old.She talks about being sexually harassed at her jobs.Lot calls for her once again, and she shouts that sheis on her way. Chicken suggests that she allow himto keep screaming, to strengthen his lungs. Myrtlesays that her boss raped her in his office, and sheimmediately fell in love with him. She stayed withhim for a long time, until he grew tired of her. Myr-tle left Biloxi and traveled around everywhereworking at odd jobs. Myrtle confesses that life justhappens to her: She does not plan anything. WhenLot asked her to marry him the morning after shemet him, she saw no reason she shouldn’t.

Myrtle finally tends to lot. She is angry when shereturns because he has accused her of beingChicken’s whore. Chicken responds to the state-ment by philosophizing on the most perfect thing inthe whole “kingdom of earth”: “what’s able to hap-pen between a man and a woman.” Lot calls andMyrtle goes to him. She returns panicking becauseLot is fighting to breathe. She fumbles to find thedoctor’s phone number on the wall. Chicken sitson the stoop coolly admiring the evening. Theyhear Lot crawling down the hallway. Myrtle begsChicken to put him back into bed, but Chickensays he has no respect for the weak. He grabs Myr-tle and kisses her. She falls to her knees as Lot’smovements cease. Chicken picks up Lot’s lifelessbody and instructs Myrtle to go upstairs andchange the sheets on the bed. Chicken goes outsideand surveys his kingdom.

COMMENTARYThis one-act play is part of an evolution that culmi-nates in the much more seedy and severe full-length

The Kingdom of Earth 121

play of the same title. This version of Chicken’sstory has not fully matured to the level of dramaticaction Williams’s other plays possess. Chicken andMyrtle are streamlined characters, less volatile andless sexually engrossed. Here, Lot has very littleactual stage time, and becomes merely a voice frombackstage. His persistent pleas for Myrtle and herdismissal of them set up a very different dynamicfrom that of the full-length play. In this version,Myrtle expresses her maternal instinct toward Lot;however, the ironic twist is that she wants nothingto do with him when she realizes that he cannotprovide for her. Myrtle will become a more roundedcharacter who does in fact act on her need to beneeded by caring for her dying husband. In this one-act play, Lot and Myrtle’s relationship is not fullyestablished, as Lot leaves the action as soon as theyenter the farmhouse.

The theme of sexual and personal fulfillment isprominent in this play. Myrtle is somewhat likeBlanche Dubois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE;however, she is less refined in the one-act version.Myrtle is a sexually uninhibited woman whose femi-ninity has shaped her life. Her sensual nature can bebetter aligned with that of “Maggie the Cat” Pollittin CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF, whose sexual prowess isa celebrated aspect of her personality. Myrtle admitsto Chicken that she has always enjoyed sex. Shedoes not have a puritanical morality; rather, shefocuses on survival. She does not find much happi-ness in life, viewing it as “killing time, no changeexcept time going.”

In the full-length KINGDOM OF EARTH, OR THE

SEVEN DESCENTS OF MYRTLE, Williams changesChicken’s ethnicity from Cherokee to AfricanAmerican. With this change he creates a topicalsocial commentary rooted in the injustices of racismin the American South. Chicken garners much moresympathy as a marginalized man in his own familyand society, and despite his crude disposition, thereis a more defined sense of retribution at the end ofthe full-length play, Chicken’s existence is finally val-idated, and he is worthy of his father’s farm.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThere is no production history for this version of“The Kingdom of Earth.” Williams expanded it tothe full-length play shortly thereafter.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Kingdom of Earth was published in Esquire mag-azine, February 1967.

CHARACTERSChicken Chicken is a young man of Cherokeedescent, whose life’s sole intent is to gain the farm ofhis white father. Nicknamed Chicken after a previousflood had forced him to stay on the rooftop with thechickens, he prepares for another flood of similarmagnitude. Chicken is a simple man who has facedracism and has become isolated in life. He does findtemporary redemption when he converts to Chris-tianity, but he gives up this pursuit when he cannotrid his life of lustful thoughts. Chicken is angered byhis tuberculous brother, Lot’s, recent marriage to astranger named Myrtle. Chicken’s baseness and pri-mal behavior earn him the position of authority whenMyrtle realizes that Lot is dying. Chicken immedi-ately gains a wife who will follow his orders as well asthe farm, when by the end of the play, Lot dies.

Lot Lot is a pallid young blond man who is dyingof tuberculosis. He meets Myrtle at a Memphisdrugstore after his release from a nearby hospital.Lot takes her home to the farm during a great floodand loses her to his hedonistic brother, Chicken.Lot dies shouting for Myrtle, who has become theproperty of Chicken. He crawls for help but diesbefore he is aided by either of them.

Myrtle A cynical woman who has only knownintimacy through one-night stands and rape. WhenMyrtle meets Lot and he proposes to her, she isrelieved to be released from a life fueled by the goalof survival. Myrtle returns to Lot’s farm and meetshis virile brother, Chicken. When he tells her thatLot is dying of tuberculosis, she immediately clingsto Chicken to provide for her.

The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle

A play in seven scenes written in 1967.

122 The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle

SYNOPSISThe action of this play takes places in a farmhouseon the Mississippi Delta, during the flooding seasonin early spring. The lower level of the interior of thefarmhouse consists of an ornate living room/parlorand a kitchen. There is a master bedroom on theupper level of the farmhouse set.

Scene 1A car is heard approaching, and it stops near thefarm of Chicken. A man and woman shout saluta-tions to Chicken and inform him they are leavingtheir homes as the floodwaters continue to swell.The unseen couple warn Chicken to escape whilehe can. Chicken refuses and is determined to guardhis home. The couple drive away. Another carapproaches; Chicken’s half brother, Lot, and hisnew wife, Myrtle, have arrived. Chicken panics,runs inside, and locks himself in the kitchen. Lotand Myrtle enter the house and go directly to theornate parlor. Myrtle investigates her new homewith excitement. She approves of her surroundingswhile Lot explains that the house belonged to hismother and everything has been preserved as sheleft it when she died. Chicken eavesdrops on Lotand Myrtle’s conversation through the kitchendoor. Lot continues to romanticize his mother, andMyrtle becomes disgusted and accuses him of hav-ing a “mother complex.” She intends to cure him ofthis disorder. Lot does not allow Myrtle to sit on hismother’s furniture. Myrtle is hurt by his rudenessbut does not allow it to darken her mood.

Myrtle discovers that the kitchen door is locked.Lot confesses that his half brother, Chicken, is hidingin the kitchen. Myrtle becomes angry that Lot didnot tell her about Chicken before they were married.Lot has a violent coughing spasm that leaves himexhausted. Myrtle promises to nurse Lot back tohealth. Lot apologizes for his disappointing sexualperformance the previous night. Lot makes Myrtlepromise that if Chicken asks her whether he is a goodlover, she will say that he is. Myrtle tells Lot that hedoes satisfy her, even if they have not yet consum-mated their marriage. Lot reveals that the family farmbelongs to him, and to Myrtle by extension.

Chicken enters the parlor and asks Lot about hishealth. Lot refuses to discuss it in Myrtle’s presence.He tells Chicken he has been cured of his ailment;

Chicken does not believe him. Lot introduces Myr-tle. She becomes frightened by their talk of theflood. Myrtle suggests that she and Lot escape whilethey can; however, Lot is determined to stay andprotect his home. Chicken reminds Lot of their for-mer agreement concerning the farm. Lot disavowsthe agreement now that he is married. Lot, Myrtle,and Chicken go into the kitchen for coffee. Chickenassumes that Myrtle is Lot’s nurse, and his assump-tion upsets Myrtle. Lot defends Myrtle and tells hishalf brother that Myrtle once had a career in showbusiness. Myrtle seizes this opportunity to tell herhistory. Chicken accuses Myrtle of being a stripper,and she is offended. She rushes out to the car to res-cue her electrical appliances from the flood. Chickeninforms Lot that he knows Lot does not have long tolive. Chicken again reminds Lot about the contracthe signed. The men begin to fight. When Myrtlereturns, she finds Lot on the floor. Lot and Myrtleretire to their bedroom, and Lot tells her he is dying.

Scene 2The time is two hours later. Lot sits in a rockingchair smoking a cigarette with his mother’s ivorycigarette holder. Myrtle is very upset by Lot’s newsand expresses her feelings of betrayal. Lot confessesthat he kept the information about his health andhis half brother secret because he feared her reac-tion. In the kitchen Chicken busily carves a lewddrawing into the breakfast table. When Myrtleenters for dinner, she notices the carving. Stunnedand offended by it, she becomes uncomfortablewith Chicken and exits with the plate of food heprepared for her. Chicken watches Myrtle as sheascends the stairs. Unnerved by Chicken, Myrtledrops her plate.

Scene 3Myrtle returns to Lot’s bedroom. She tells Lotabout the lewd picture Chicken carved into thetable and Lot laughs hysterically. Myrtle threatensto call the police. Lot urges Myrtle to return down-stairs, find Chicken’s wallet, and steal his contract.Lot instructs her to get Chicken drunk and stealthe contract when Chicken passes out.

Scene 4Myrtle returns to the kitchen with her laundry.Chicken sits at the kitchen table. She apologizes to

The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle 123

Chicken for abruptly leaving earlier and confessesto him that she is worried about Lot. Chicken isindifferent to his brother’s illness. Myrtle asks for adrink, and Chicken obliges. They both drink whileMyrtle hangs her underwear to dry on a clotheslinethat has been strung up in the kitchen. Lot calls forMyrtle, but she remains in the kitchen talking withChicken. Myrtle and Chicken sing and drink.

Scene 5When Myrtle returns to the bedroom she finds Lotsmoking a cigarette in the dark. He tells her that hehates his half brother and admits that he cannot tol-erate the thought of Chicken’s having his mother’shome, an estate worth more than $50,000. Myrtledresses in one of her theatrical costumes, deter-mined to get the contract from Chicken. Lot accusesher of being physically attracted to Chicken.

Myrtle returns to the kitchen, and she andChicken discuss Lot’s condition. Chicken comparesMyrtle’s predicament to buying a used car and find-ing out it is a lemon. Myrtle cries and Chicken tellsher his family’s history. He explains that his fatherwas not married to his mother when he was born,and 10 years later he married Lot’s mother, MissLottie. Lot is therefore the legitimate heir. Miss Lot-tie made Chicken leave the farm shortly before shedied. Chicken was asked to return when Lotbecame too ill to manage without him, and Chickenreturned on the condition that he would own thefarm after Lot died. When Myrtle becomes fright-ened by Chicken’s passionate tirade she pretendsthat she is not legally married to Lot. She claims itwas just a joke. Chicken therefore demands to seethe marriage license. Myrtle goes to the bedroom tofind the license. Lot calls Myrtle a whore and she isshocked by his terrible temper. Nervously fumblingto find the marriage license, Myrtle leaves Lot, vow-ing not to return until he apologizes.

Scene 6Myrtle enters the kitchen with the license. Chickeninspects the document. He forces Myrtle to draft acontract that states she will give the farm to himwhen Lot dies. Chicken brutishly kisses Myrtle andshe is aroused by his strong body and callousedhands. Chicken blows out the kitchen lamp. Lotnotices that the house is completely dark. He rec-

onciles himself to the fact he has brought home awoman for Chicken. He considers Myrtle his lastgift to Chicken.

Scene 7The lights return in the kitchen. As a result of theirintimacy, Chicken confides that his mother was amulatto. He relates stories of prejudice and abuse.Myrtle advises him to simply deny his identity.Chicken also confides that Lot is a transvestite,who often wears a wig and his mother’s lingerie andmimics her in the parlor. In the bedroom, Lot strug-gles out of his rocking chair. He dresses himself inone of his mother’s white summer gowns anddescends the stairs. Lot appears in the hallway, andMyrtle is horrified by his appearance. Chickenrestrains her as Lot walks into the parlor and per-forms his “Miss Lottie” act one final time. WhenLot collapses on the parlor floor, Chicken picks uphis limp body and places him on the couch. Myrtlebecomes hysterical in the kitchen. Chicken entersthe kitchen and asks her to have his children. Myr-tle tells him she has already had five children, whohad to be given up for adoption because she wastoo poor to keep them. Chicken exits to monitorthe flood. He calls out to Myrtle, informing her it istime to climb onto the roof.

COMMENTARYThe Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myr-tle is based on the short story “THE KINGDOM OF

EARTH” written in 1954 and is an expansion of theone-act play THE KINGDOM OF EARTH written in1967. The result of this re-writing is a suspensefultale of three ambitious outcasts struggling for sur-vival. In this version of the Lot-Chicken-Myrtlestory Williams heightens the contrast and tensionbetween Lot and Chicken. They remain half broth-ers, though their racial and sexual differences arefar more dramatic.

Chicken, who is described as “part-Cherokee” inthe short story, becomes the son of an African-African woman in the full-length play. Lot, who issexually “disappointing” in the short story, takes tocross-dressing and imitating his deceased mother.Lot’s transvestitism is a notable feature of thisprovocative work, as his final moments are ren-

124 The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle

dered with a delicacy reminiscent of the characterBlanche Dubois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.

The Kingdom of Earth has suffered critically fromscholarly comparisons made between this play andWilliams’s masterwork A Streetcar Named Desire.The similarities are numerous and persist even withthe shifts in gender. Lot is often viewed as a revisionof the fading beauty Blanche Dubois; the virileChicken fills Stanley Kowalski’s role, and Myrtlethat of Stella Kowalski. The plays also share con-cerns with inheritance and legacy. Similar connec-tions can be made between The Kingdom of Earthand BATTLE OF ANGELS and its subsequent revision,ORPHEUS DESCENDING. These three plays depict alove triangle consisting of a dying man, his sexuallyunfulfilled wife, and an able-bodied young man.Myrtle, Myra Torrance (Battle of Angels), and LadyTorrance (Orpheus Descending) share the occupationof traversing up and down a set of stairs, literally andfiguratively traveling between the world of the dying(the kingdom of heaven) and the world of the living(the kingdom of Earth).

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Kingdom of Earth was retitled The SevenDescents of Myrtle for its Broadway premiere. Theproduction, directed by Jose Quintero, opened atthe Ethel Barrymore Theatre in March 1968 withEstelle Parsons as Myrtle, Harry Guardino asChicken, and Brian Bedford as Lot. The produc-tion received very poor reviews and closed after 29performances. A film version, THE LAST OF THE

MOBILE HOT SHOTS, was released in 1969. GORE

VIDAL wrote the screenplay for the film, which wasdirected by Sidney Lumet and featured Lynn Red-grave as Myrtle, James Coburn as the Lot charactercalled Jeb, and Robert Hooks as Chicken.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Kingdom of Earth was first published by NewDirections with the title The Seven Descents of Myr-tle in 1968. It was subsequently revised and pub-lished with the former title reinstated in 1976.

CHARACTERSChicken He is a young farmer, the half brother ofLot. Because Chicken is a mulatto man living in a

small Mississippi Delta town during the 1940s, he ismistreated and regarded as inferior by his commu-nity. Because of this ill treatment he has becomecallous and resentful. Chicken also feels he is anoutcast in his own home. He suffers the wrath of hisstepmother, an upper-class, genteel white woman.She throws him off the farm after his father dies.Chicken wants to own the family farm to prove thathe is worthy of something more than work as a fieldhand. He finds some sort of happiness when Myrtlearrives with Lot. Chicken considers his intimateencounters with Myrtle the only truly happy andworthwhile moments in his life. Chicken has atumultuous relationship with Lot; their bitternessstems from competition, and from Chicken’s low-class upbringing as well as his dark skin. In the end,Chicken inherits Lot’s farm and his wife.

Lot Lot is the son of wealthy landowners and heirto a farm on the Mississippi Delta. Handsome andblond, Lot has dashing good looks that belie his ter-minal illness and impotence. He is slowly dying oftuberculosis. Lot lives with his half brother, Chicken,and has spent his adult life pining for his deceasedmother, Miss Lottie. When he takes home his newbride, Myrtle, he is disappointed that she is not likehis mother. Because he is dying, Lot quickly marriesMyrtle to ensure that his property will not be ownedby Chicken. Lot despises his half brother because heis from a lower class, is insensitive, and is raciallymixed. As the play progresses, it makes clear thatLot is a transvestite and a homosexual. Lot blameshis sexual impotence on his terminal illness andMyrtle believes him. Chicken reveals his secret sex-ual identity to Myrtle. He tells Myrtle that Lotdresses in his mother’s clothing and impersonatesher in the parlor. Lot is a complex character, frus-trated by his social status, sexuality, and health. Hebecomes a stranger in his own body. Lot loses hiswife and his inheritance to the socially inferiorChicken. In many ways he is reminiscent of “fadingbeauties” in the Williams canon, such as AmandaWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE and BlancheDuBois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.

Myrtle The newlywed wife of Lot. Myrtle is avivacious and gregarious woman, who once had a

The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle 125

career in show business. She returns to her new hus-band’s homestead, a farm on the Mississippi Delta,and is content to care for him and nurse him backto health. Lot has not been completely honest withMyrtle; he has failed to mention that he is slowlydying of tuberculosis and that he shares his homewith his illegitimate half brother, Chicken. Myrtle isstunned by Chicken’s crass behavior but is simulta-neously attracted to his rugged physique. She subse-quently realizes that she is faced with an impossiblesituation with Lot: He is dying and he is impotent.Myrtle pursues a relationship with Chicken initiallyto obtain his deed to the family property; however,as she wants nothing more out of life than to be aloving and fulfilled wife and mother, she decides totry to create this sort of life with Chicken.

The Knightly QuestA novella written before 1968.

SYNOPSISAfter years of travel and the drug death of his tutorand traveling companion Dr. Horace Greaves inManhattan, Gewinner Pearce returns to his home-town of Gewinner. He is met at the airport by hissister-in-law, Mrs. Violet Pearce. During the years ofhis absence the town of Gewinner has changed; themost prominent evidence of this change is The Pro-ject, which people shy away from discussing in public.

On the drive back to the Pearce residence itturns out Gewinner’s brother, Braden Pearce, hastransformed their father’s business, the Red DevilBattery plant, into The Project—a bomb factory.Gewinner’s questions are unanswered and are cutshort when Violet informs him the car is bugged.Over the coming days, he is able to piece togethermore information and notes that The Project hasattracted scientists and workmen to the town ofGewinner, which has grown since he left. Thenewcomers live in a new development called Sun-shine Houses. Overall, the town of Gewinnerseems to have prospered from the changes; how-ever, its namesake, Gewinner Pearce, is shockedby the loss of tradition and heritage, as symbolized

by a drive-in built on what used to be Pearce fam-ily land.

The story flashes back to events in the recentpast: While undergoing her daily Vibra-Wondertreatment, Gewinner’s newly widowed mother, NellyPearce, dictates a letter to a society friend, Boo, inwhich she describes a weekend visit of PresidentStew Hammersmith and his family to the Pearcemansion. Braden and the president formally discussthe problems in Ghu-Ghok-Shu. Babe, the presi-dent’s daughter, has designs on Braden Pearce, anattraction that their mothers decide to encourage.After all, Braden’s wife, Violet, is a social upstart andnot suited to the position she currently holds.

A further flashback reveals that Gewinnerbegan his travels at the age of 16 in the company ofDr. Greaves, who contracted a nervous conditionand collapsed. While Dr. Greaves is hospitalized,Gewinner enlists in the navy, but his service lasts amere 10 days before he is dismissed and all hisrecords are destroyed. His return home is not onlyprompted by the death of Dr. Greaves, but also bythe fact that his late father has left the Pearceestate to Mother Pearce and Braden. Gewinner hasreturned in order to convince Braden that theircontinued financial support of his travels would bein the best interest of all parties involved.

Gewinner and his younger brother, Braden, areopposites: Gewinner is slight and youthful-lookingand tries to hold himself apart from the family,whereas Braden is robust, bullish, and energeticand practically controls the town. The energyextends to his sexual drive, and his and Violet’smarital pursuits even disrupt a bridge match withthe neighbors, Mrs. Fisher and her son. As NellyPearce goes upstairs to quiet them, Gewinner startsmaking seemingly random conversation and pro-ceeds to win the game. The end of the bridge gameis marked by a cessation of the noise, the return ofMother Pearce, and the arrival of an order fromLaughing Boy Drive-In. It is Braden and Violet’spostcoital snack, which is delivered to the bedroomby Billy Spangler, the drive-in’s proprietor, whousually stays for a nightcap with Braden. Billy andBraden go a long way back, and they spend theseoccasions reminiscing about their racist pranks asboys. Braden intimates that come Halloween, there

126 The Knightly Quest

will be an event at The Project that will ensure a“white Christmas.”

Two weeks after his return home, Gewinner hashis first personal encounter with Billy. Curiousabout Braden’s boyhood chum, he visits thedetested drive-in. Recognizing the car as Violet’s,Billy emerges from the shop, and the two menappraise each other. Gewinner is not fooled byBilly’s innocent good looks, ignores him, and strikesup a conversation with the girl carhop. Still notknowing who his customer is, Billy begins praisingthe merits of the business location and the wisdomof Braden Pearce. Gewinner is too angry to replyand drives off abruptly, slightly injuring Billy.

Billy complains to Braden, who confronts Gewin-ner that same evening. When Gewinner suggeststhat the problem could be solved by Braden andMother Pearce’s restoring, or better yet, increasing,his traveling allowance, Braden warns him that newarrivals in town are vetted and if they do not fit in,they run the risk of being interned in order to safe-guard The Project. In order to prevent problems, heurges Gewinner to go to the drive-in the next dayand apologize to Billy. Gewinner points out thatrestoring his travel allowance would spare Bradenthe embarrassment of having a brother in “isola-tion.” However, despite his overtly material motives,Gewinner becomes increasingly aware of a moralresponsibility to oppose The Project.

Morality of a different sort is displayed by BillySpangler. He is proud of the fact that his drive-incontributes to The Project in a small way, and helets customers know that he loses money by makingsure that the guards at The Project have a steadysupply of coffee. This evening he is alone in thedrive-in with Big Edna, the carhop, who still isshaken up over her conversation with Gewinnerearlier in the day. He wonders whether he shouldlet her go home, because he does not expect tohave much business. The Project, which governsthe life of the people in the town of Gewinner as aquasi religion, encourages early bedtimes and pun-ishes those who frivolously stay out late. Butinstead of sending Edna home, he rapes her in thegents’ toilet. His own interpretation is that he hasbeen seduced by her, and the following morning hefires her because she is a bad woman.

While Billy places an ad for a new carhop,Gewinner enters the drive-in and takes a seat atthe counter. He has been dropped off by Braden,who is waiting in his limousine outside, escorted bytwo motorcycle cops. Aware that Braden has forcedGewinner to apologize, Billy orders some coffee forhim and explains that apologies are not necessary.All Gewinner has to do is drink the coffee andleave a dime tip for Little Edna, the carhop. Gewin-ner’s response is to spit in the coffee and leave a$100 tip before going back home. Called out byBraden, Billy walks over to the limousine unable totell Braden the truth.

As Gewinner returns to the Pearce mansion, heexpects a renewed confrontation but finds thatBraden and Mother Pearce have flown to the statecapital by helicopter to attend the deathbed of thegovernor, who has been shot by an assassin. OnlyViolet is at home, mixing drinks in the game room.It is, as she informs her brother-in-law, the onlyroom in the house that is not bugged. Their con-versation is briefly interrupted by the arrival of acarrier pigeon and the exchange of messages withViolet’s childhood friend, Gladys. After the pigeonhas flown, Violet resumes the conversation. She isfully aware of Mother Pearce’s attempts to bringBraden and Babe together, and she approves of it,wanting to be rid of Braden’s sexual demands aswell as of their child, who makes a brief, startlingappearance. She also confides that she is aware ofBraden’s plans to achieve world dominationthrough the Project. Together, Violet and Gewin-ner decide to thwart Braden’s plans.

The town of Gewinner is subject to constantsuspicions about spies. Outside mail and the inhab-itants are rigorously screened, and the town is rifewith undercover detectives. Project employees livein a perpetual state of anxiety, which they do notdare to admit. Anyone who is diagnosed as unbal-anced is removed from the town and sent to CampTranquility for readjustment. People who go thereare not heard of again; allegedly they transfer toRancho Allegro when their condition improves.Fear of the spy prevents workers at The Project fromforming close relationships, as there is a constantawareness that anything said or done may bereported to the authorities.

The Knightly Quest 127

Billy Spangler is extremely conscious of this spythreat, and so he carefully screens the applicantsfor the carhop vacancy. In the interviews he askstwo key questions, the first of which regards theapplicant’s opinion of Gloria Butterfield, a famousspy at The Project, who has been caught by TheEye. It is widely assumed that Billy knows moreabout the disappearance of Gloria and her associ-ates than anyone else. The second question is“How do you feel about love?” Billy expects aclean-minded, open-hearted attitude on the sub-ject. So far the interviews have not been going well.The girls all share the same bland looks, with onlyone exception, an exceptionally attractive youngwoman. However, her answer to the Gloria Butter-field question reveals that she is aware of how thespy and her associates were killed, information Billyhad thought only he and Braden had. Her answerto the question about love—“I have not had muchexperience with it but I think the idea is great!”—isequally unsettling. Torn between unease and attrac-tion, Billy tells her to wait while he interviews theother applicants, none of whom meets his expecta-tions. Her figure and smile eventually overcome hisreservations and he hires her.

In early February there is a sudden outbreak ofcrime in the town of Gewinner. Policemen and Proj-ect workers on the night shift are beaten uncon-scious and robbed by offenders who become knownas the Black Cat Gang. Measures imposed to pro-tect the population are unable to stop the crimewave, until the investigating committee disclosesthat the chief perpetrator is the Chief of Police him-self. The entire police force is sent to Camp Tran-quility and replaced by government agents.

Every night between midnight and dawn Gewin-ner carefully prepares himself for his nocturnal wan-derings. Initially he has been stopped by the oddpatrolman, but now the authorities are sufficientlyfamiliar with him and Violet’s car not to interfere.His nightly journeys always follow the same patternand frequently end at the high school stadium topick up a lover for a brief, wordless affair.

After an uneasy night, Billy puts Gladys, the newcarhop, to work the next morning, determined notto let her attractiveness affect him. By midafternoonshe has proved herself to such an extent that he

feels comfortable with expressing his appreciation.However, matters become fraught with tensionwhen Big Edna’s old uniform is delivered from thetailor’s and is slightly too tight for Gladys. Billyorders her to wear it anyway, and come closing time,he sends home the two other women and asksGladys to stay.

In a long explanatory passage, Gewinner islikened to Don Quixote, his nightly cruising a cru-sade to rediscover Sancho Panza. Crucially, he is aromantic, who believes in the transforming powerof vision.

Gewinner and Violet, the two conspirators, arecarrying on a secret correspondence by carrierpigeon with Gladys the carhop, who is Violet’s child-hood friend. Within days of starting to work at thedrive-in, she tells Billy that she is an undercoveragent for The Project, but that even Braden is not toknow about this. Billy, completely influenced by lust,agrees to keep it a secret but soon develops doubts,as Gladys’ counterespionage methods seem less thansubtle. On the occasion of a tryst in his office, sheexplains to him that their overt counterespionageefforts are purposeful to make the spies think sheand her associates are stupid.

On Saturday, March 19, Braden Pearce arrangesa dinner at the Pearce mansion in celebration of hisand Violet’s seventh—and last—wedding anniver-sary. Also invited are the Catholic and Methodistministers, Father Acheson and the Reverend Dr.Peters, whom Braden has bribed to create a truce.During dinner, Violet becomes embarrassinglydrunk and is carried off to her room by two atten-dants. Gewinner follows to look after her, whileMother Pearce converses about flowers, as thoughnothing has happened. Eventually Braden cuts inand delivers an incoherent political diatribe, occa-sionally interrupted by Mother Pearce, whoannounces that the First Family, including Babe, isdue for another visit the following weekend. Aftercoffee, she excuses herself and visits her aviary inthe conservatory, where she finds Gewinner andViolet, the latter unaccountably sober now and car-rying a flight bag. According to Gewinner, he andViolet have been invited to an event at the drive-in. Mother Pearce, although slightly bemused, letsthem go, hoping she will be rid of both for good.


Billy meanwhile has received an order for a quartof coffee and a dozen barbecue sandwiches fromThe Project. The order is to be delivered by him,not to the guards but to the Golden Room in theadministration building; he interprets the instruc-tion as a huge promotion of his standing within TheProject. Miraculously, Gladys presents him with theready-made sandwiches, and the transport problemis solved, too, when a conciliatory Gewinner pullsup with Violet. Both Billy and Gladys get in, and thefour speed off to the plant. En route, Billy believeshe hears a ticking sound, but Gewinner reassureshim that it is merely the engine, which needs serv-ice. The guard at the gate lets them through whenViolet tells him that her husband, Mr. BradenPearce, is expecting them. Insistent electronic beep-ing is heard from several different areas of the plant.Billy gets out of the car, and as it drives off, he real-izes that something must be seriously wrong at theplant. Alarm lights are flashing and klaxons blaring,people running around. Despite this, he decides tofulfill his mission, which is to deliver his famous cof-fee. Suddenly silence falls, only broken by a loud-speaker announcement, but Billy has heard theticking sound again. He examines the coffee con-tainer and finds a bomb, which detonates while heis looking at it.

Moments before the detonation, Gewinner, Vio-let, and Gladys escape on a spaceship. The space-ship is piloted by three astronauts, and in the courseof their journey to an unknown destination, Gewin-ner befriends the Navigator, who eventually informshim that he will be allowed to land with them.

COMMENTARYOf course, America, and particularly the South-ern states, is the embodiment of an originallyromantic gesture. It was discovered and estab-lished by the eternal Don Quixote in thehuman flux. Then, of course, the businessmentook over and Don Quixote was an exile athome: at least he became one when the fron-tiers had been exhausted. (Williams, 74)

This, in Tennessee Williams’s own words, is thecentral dilemma of his 1966 novella The KnightlyQuest. It also is the thread that unifies a sometimes

disjointed narrative and the multilayered imagerytypical of his later work. Thematic strands appearto develop and mutate as the story unfolds—thenovella has variously been read as an “antiwarsatire” (Spoto, 265), dealing with cold war issues,or “a Kafkaesque parable set in a secret weaponsfactory” (Price, New York Times, Dec. 1, 1985). It isall of these, and a few more: a scathing indictmentof 1950s small-town morality, an equally scathingverdict on McCarthyism, a uniquely Williamsesqueversion of Brave New World, an unlikely piece ofchivalric romance, and a rite of passage for an evenmore unlikely hero. Signally, the hero is an outsider,and with this, the core theme of The Knightly Questcan be distilled in Williams’s recurring subject ofthe outcast’s struggle against a society intolerant ofdivergence.

The novella’s title is a none too subtle pointer.As the subversive Gladys points out, “the term‘knightly quest’ instead of ‘nightly quest’ is not justa verbal conceit but a thing of the highest signifi-cance in every part of creation, wherever a man inthe prison of his body can remember his spirit.”The knight errant Gewinner Pearce takes sometime remembering, and for a protagonist heremains strangely reactive throughout most of thestory. The German word Gewinner means “win-ner,” specifically of a contest or competition. Hisname, too, has significance, suggesting that he willemerge victorious at the end. For his namesaketown Gewinner, on the other hand, the word isironic: Having won in material terms, the town haslost its spirit.

As many of Williams’s characters are, GewinnerPearce is at least in part an incarnation of his authorand trapped in the familiar idealized vision of aSouthern past. Remembering his hometown as “aromantic ballet setting,” he at first instinctivelywants to reboard the plane when confronted withthe vulgar reality of the town of Gewinner. How-ever, the past cannot have been as idyllic as Gewin-ner Pearce’s memory would have it. As outrageousan eyesore and earache as the Laughing Boy Drive-In may be, the Pearce family home—“Pearce’sFolly,” as he refers to it—is a mock-medieval castlewith an imitation drawbridge, hardly in better taste.The name recurs in the 1975 play The Red Devil


Battery Sign, which also deals with cold war issues.His father’s Red Devil Battery Plant has been con-verted into The Project, an indication that theforces shaping the town of Gewinner may not havebeen as concentrated in the past but surely havebeen at work for a long time. However intenselyGewinner may cling to a supposedly romantic child-hood, evidence suggests that it is a distortion ofmemory rather than genuine. His sister-in-law, Vio-let, fellow outsider because of her unsatisfactorysocial background, calls him a changeling, “some-thing else, not of this world,” implying that he is analien within his own family; Gewinner’s estrange-ment is underlined by his taking up residence in thesecluded tower of the family mansion.

Distance and discretion constitute a modusvivendi that allows for coexistence at least, and it isan established pattern. Rather than enforce con-formity, his parents were quick to ship off 16-year-old Gewinner—and the problem—to Europe onceit was obvious that his tutor, Dr. Horace Greaves,was teaching the boy more than humanities.Whereas Braden and Violet’s marital cavorting andthe attendant decibel levels are tolerated (qua het-erosexual) and Billy Spangler’s predatory sexualaggression can be explained away (qua misogyny),Gewinner’s lonely cruising must take place undercover of night and be couched in rituals and secretsignals recognizable only to the initiated. The rea-son for the secrecy is obvious: “New legislation isbeing pushed through at high speed for the isola-tion of all you don’t-fit-inners.”

The “don’t-fit-inners,” sexual and otherwise,are sent to Camp Tranquility and Rancho Allegro,both of which undoubtedly are ironic referencesto Williams’s own periods of hospitalization, butbeyond that they also hold a far more sinister con-notation. Nobody ever returns from these places;the last life sign of an internee usually consists of asingle postcard. In other words, the victims’ fate isnot unlike that of the South American desparecidos.As in any totalitarian system, The Project and itsproponents will insist that this method is necessaryfor there “is too much at stake, too much pending,on a world-wide scale.”

The Project’s specific intent is never fullyspelled out. There are several hints, most of them

unsavory, such as the “white Christmas” and“white-hot snow,” which Braden promises, blanketimages for both ethnic holocaust and nuclear win-ter. It seems equally clear, however, that “bomb fac-tory” is merely one function of The Project. Itvariously takes on the guises of corporate giant,quasi religion, and new world order, as defined byBilly, a global community of “friendly Cau-casians . . . dedicated to a Great New Thing.” Thesponginess of purpose is driven home in Braden’smemorably muddled after-dinner speech, a superbtravesty of political utterances past and present. Inone respect, however, The Project’s effects are per-fectly obvious. Aided and abetted by the nationalgovernment, it succeeds in creating a totalitarianstate within a state whose absolute ruler is BradenPearce and whose citizens are intimidated andequalized to the point of facelessness. The jobapplicants screened at the Laughing Boy Drive-Inbear witness to it; they are all daughters of Projectworkers, and there is “a sameness about them, ablank kind of neatness and trimness which madeyou feel a bit let down somehow.” The smells andsounds of The Project permeate the entire town,and Gewinner, the changeling, feels “a vibration inhimself like a counter-vibration to the one that[comes] from The Project.”

Beyond being a moral imperative, resistance thusbecomes an inevitable physical instinct for Gewin-ner, a logical development within the context of pro-hibited sexuality. He finds a coconspirator in Violet,who, having an abusive husband and unwantedchild, is as trapped as he. As the conspiracy gainsmomentum, the objectives change. Initially the goalis to cut the little wire that connects a button to thedoomsday machine, which will either blow theplanet or put it “under the absolute dominion of theProject.” But disabling this mechanism, thoughlikely to be beneficial to the world, can hardlyamount to more than an act of personal revengeagainst Braden. “Yes, I would love to be there whenhe pressed the little button and it dawned on hissensitive mind that someone had cut the little wire,”says Violet. In the end it emerges that the plan hasgrown significantly beyond the cutting of wires.With their dupe Billy Spangler carrying in a bomb,Gewinner, Violet, and Gladys destroy the doomsday


machine, The Project, and—one would infer—theworld, while the trio of conspirators escape in a con-veniently available spaceship.

The implicit verdict is that there exists no smalltown, no state, and no nation on this planet thatwill accept divergence from the—usually arbi-trary—norm. The only recourse for the oppressedmust be to do as the oppressor would, blow up theexhausted frontiers, and find an entirely new one.Such an ultimate escape is, of course, both disillu-sioned and disillusioning, but it promises release forthe hero at least. Romantic to the core, Gewinnerreacts with quiet surprise when the spaceship’sNavigator informs him that he has been cleared toland on the new planet:

. . . the possibility that he might not beaccepted had never occurred.

But what, he asked, about this? . . .Will this be admitted with me?

This refers to his silk scarf, a token of homosexu-ality that Gewinner wears as a knight would wearthe token of his lady. The Navigator sees it differ-ently, merely as a “highly valued . . . historical itemin our Museum of Sad Enchantments in GalaxiesDrifting Away.” At that moment the champagnecorks begin popping, reinforcing the message thatwhere Gewinner is going, the quest may be con-ducted in broad daylight and without secrecy. Theexile is over.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Knightly Quest was first published by NewDirections in 1966 in a volume with four short sto-ries. It was published again in 1968 by Secker &Warburg, in a volume that included 12 short stories.

CHARACTERSBig Edna She is a carhop at Billy Spangler’sLaughing Boy Drive-In. Edna is raped by Billy inthe bathroom of the restaurant. Afterward, he firesher and sends her home.

Butterfield, Gloria She has been a spy at theProject, who has been caught passing on informa-tion. She and her associates have been killed.

Gladys She is the school friend and carrier pigeoncorrespondent of Violet Pearce. Gladys is a spy, whotakes a job as carhop at Billy Spangler’s drive-in.

Greaves, Horace He is the former tutor andtraveling companion of Gewinner Pearce. He suf-fers from a nervous disorder and dies in conse-quence of a drug overdose, leaving Gewinner toreturn to his hometown.

Pearce, Braden Braden is the younger brotherof Gewinner Pearce. He is the creator of the Proj-ect, a military weapon factory. A white suprema-cist, he practically controls the town of Gewinner.

Pearce, Gewinner Gewinner returns to hishometown; he has traveled since the death of hismentor, Dr. Horace Greeves. Gewinner finds thatmany conditions have changed for the worse,namely, a bomb warehouse called the Project.Gewinner returns to convince his family that fund-ing his travels and thus keeping him out of their wayis in the best interest of everyone, but he is warnedby his brother, Braden Pearce, that outsiders or thosewho oppose the Project are not tolerated. With hissister-in-law, Violet Pearce, Gewinner blows up thebomb factory, and they escape on a spaceship.

Pearce, Nelly She is the mother of the protago-nist, Gewinner Pearce. Generally referred to as“Mother Pearce,” she is a society lady and friend ofthe First Family.

Pearce, Violet Violet is the sister-in-law of theprotagonist, Gewinner Pearce. She is married to thebrutish Braden Pearce and tries to drown her prob-lems in alcohol. Together with Gewinner, Violetblows up the bomb factory as a protest against theunwanted changes in the town. She then escapeswith him on a spaceship.

Spangler, Billy He is a former amateur wrestlerand old friend of Braden’s. Billy is the owner of theLaughing Boy Drive-In and sexually harasses hisemployees. He rapes Big Edna and then fires her.


FURTHER READINGPrice, Reynolds. “His Battle Cry Was ‘Valor’!” New

York Times, Dec. 1, 1985, Sunday, Late City FinalEdition. Section 7, Page 11, Column 1.

Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: DaCapo, 1997.

Williams, Tennessee. “The Knightly Quest.” In TheKnightly Quest: A Novella and Twelve Short Stories.London: Secker & Warburg, 1968.

The Lady of Larkspur LotionA one-act play written before 1942.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a shabby rooming house in NewOrleans. Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore sits on her bed asher landlady, Mrs. Wire, knocks at her door anddemands the rent. Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore admitsMrs. Wire and complains to her about the poorconditions of the boardinghouse. Mrs. Wire sug-gests that Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore find anotherplace to live. Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore makesexcuses for being unable to pay her rent. Sheexplains that she is expecting money from her rub-ber plantation in Brazil. Mrs. Wire does not believemoney is in transit and accuses Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore of being a prostitute and an alcoholic.

The Writer enters the room and tries to end theargument. Mrs. Wire attacks him, calls him analcoholic, and condemns all the “[French] Quarterrats, half-breeds, drunkards, degenerates, who tryto get by on promises, lies, delusions!” She harassesMrs. Hardwicke-Moore by calling her “the lady oflarkspur lotion,” again implying that she is a prosti-tute. Mrs. Wire quizzes The Writer about his rentpayment and when his great masterpiece will befinished. The Writer becomes sullen as he realizeshis book may never be finished. He has lied to hislandlady about promises of commission checks.The Writer shoves Mrs. Wire out of the room. Shethreatens to evict them. The Writer inquires aboutMrs. Hardwicke-Moore’s Brazilian rubber planta-tion. She launches into a series of reminiscencesabout her life on the plantation. She thanks The

Writer for his kindness, and when she asks hisname, he tells her he is Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.

COMMENTARYLarkspur lotion is used in a treatment for body ver-min. Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore’s possession of thisointment identifies her as a prostitute, but she hascreated a fictitious existence in an attempt to sal-vage some dignity for herself. The Writer is equallygiven to fantasy and delusion. He struggles to writein the hope that someday he will be as famous ashis favorite writer, ANTON CHEKHOV. Since he hasnot reached that point in his life, he takes on theRussian writer’s identity, at least in the presence ofMrs. Hardwicke-Moore. These two companions inmisery allow each other to dream and live out theirfantasies as a means of escaping their wretched lifein their separate rented rooms.

The Lady of Larkspur Lotion is reminiscent ofWilliams’s experiences as a young artist living in theFrench Quarter of New Orleans, in the late 1930s.Williams moved to New Orleans in 1938, and thisvibrant environment became a major influence inhis development as a writer. This bohemian localeintroduced Williams to a community of fellow arti-sans and liberated him socially, artistically, and sex-ually. Williams would later describe New Orleans as“the paradise of his youth” (Holditch, 194). It was aparadise of young, ambitious, and poverty-strickenartists living in shabby conditions presided over bysuspicious, unstable, and often violent landladies.One such landlady, Mrs. Louise Wire, who ownedand ran the boardinghouse Williams lived in at 722Toulouse Street, became the inspiration for hernamesake in the play and for other landlady charac-ters in such works as “THE ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE”and VIEUX CARRÉ.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Lady of Larkspur Lotion was first produced at theMonceau Theatre, Paris, France, in 1948. It pre-miered in New York at Lolly’s Theatre Club in 1963.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Lady of Larkspur Lotion was first published inthe collection 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND

OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS.

132 The Lady of Larkspur Lotion

CHARACTERSHardwicke-Moore, Mrs. She is a middle-agedprostitute and a tenant in the boardinghouseowned by Mrs. Wire. While she has fantasticdreams of owning a Brazilian plantation, she fightsto survive and avoid eviction from her drearyrented room. Mrs. Wire feels an obligation toremind Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore of the reality thatshe is only a prostitute. Mrs. Hardwicke-Mooreencounters another tenant in the boardinghouse,the Writer, and discovers a fellow dreamer whochooses to deny reality.

Wire, Mrs. Mrs. Wire is the landlady of a pair ofdeadbeat tenants, Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore and theWriter, whom she despises. Mrs. Wire must harassthem for rent and mocks their fantastic excuses.

Writer He is an aspiring writer who dreams offame and acceptance. He befriends another tenant,Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore, and the pair indulge eachother in their fantasies of fame and fortune. TheWriter fantasizes about being ANTON CHEKHOV,while Mrs. Hardwicke-Moore dreams of owningher own Brazilian rubber plantation. Both arethreatened with eviction.

FURTHER READINGHolditch, W. Kenneth. “Tennessee Williams in New

Orleans,” in Magical Muse: Millennial Essays on Ten-nessee Williams, edited by Ralph Voss. Tuscaloosa:University of Alabama Press, 2002, pp. 183–206.

“The Lady’s Beaded Bag”A short story written in 1930.

SYNOPSISOne cold November morning, The Rag Picker dis-covers a splendid lady’s beaded bag in a dumpster.He is cautious as he removes the purse from itsmauve box, afraid that someone on the street willsee him take it. The Rag Picker quickly grabs thepurse and stuffs it into his pocket. Upon further

inspection, he finds that it is stuffed with money.As The Rag Picker walks to the end of the alley, hesees a chauffeur standing guard. They make eyecontact and the trash picker becomes alarmed,imagining that the police have been called.

He begins to wonder what the authorities willthink if they find the beaded bag in his possession.The trash picker thinks he must rectify the situa-tion by returning the bag to its original owner. Hebolts out of the alley and follows the street until hefaces an extravagant gray stone house. He rings thedoorbell and a maid answers. Unable to face herdirectly, he holds his head down and raises up hisarm to hand her the bag, which he tells her hefound in the trash. The maid takes the bag, realiz-ing she accidentally threw it away when she dis-carded the milliner’s box. Without thanking orrewarding the Rag Picker, she informs its owner,Mrs. Ferrabye, that she found it lying on the piano.

Mrs. Ferrabye is dressing for dinner and isannoyed by the maid’s interruption. She orders themaid to put away the bag. A few minutes pass and aparcel arrives for Mrs. Ferrabye. It is a glisteningwhite evening wrap. She investigates it, proclaimsthe item ridiculous, and throws it onto the bed as ifit were a rag. Mrs. Ferrabye returns to the businessof dressing for dinner.

COMMENTARY“The Lady’s Beaded Bag,” one of Williams’s earliestworks of fiction, was written when Williams was afreshman at the UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. Thestory’s protagonist, the Rag Picker, is the first ofWilliams’s fugitive kind. He is a poverty-strickenindividual with no hope of bettering his life. TheAmerican dream has failed the Rag Picker, and for15 years he has been rummaging through dump-sters in search of treasure. His survival depends onabsentminded behavior of someone richer than he.

“The Lady’s Beaded Bag” is social commentaryon the class structure of the modern-day America.Williams demonstrates the vast division betweenthe rich and the poor and examines the question ofmorality. The trash picker finds the beaded bag andreturns it because he fears he may appear to be athief, although it is clearly his ticket out of direpoverty. He feels guilty just for finding the beaded

“The Lady’s Beaded Bag” 133

bag. The trash picker upholds moral order, whereasMrs. Ferrabye is rude, wasteful, and unappreciativeof the luxuries she possesses. The equation of crim-inality and poverty is clearly established, as theTrash Picker knows if he is caught with the bag, hewill never be able to prove his innocence.

The plight of the poor and invisibility of theworking class are recurring themes in Williams’searly work. Williams illustrates their predicamentin a number of ways in “The Lady’s Beaded Bag.”For instance, the protagonist, the Rag Picker,remains nameless. He and the other members ofthe working class in the story, such as the chauffeurand the maid, are identified exclusively by thefunctions they fulfill in society. Their existence isdefined by their relationship to the upper classeswhom they serve. They are without an essentialhumanity and individuality that the privileged,such as Mrs. Ferrabye, possess. In an ironic twist,which underscores the insignificance of the poor,once Mrs. Ferrabye’s character is introduced, theRag Picker is forgotten. His welfare is inconsequen-tial, and he is not rewarded for doing the rightthing. He is left to continue his rummaging throughrubbish, while Mrs. Ferrabye grows richer with verylittle effort. “The Lady’s Beaded Bag” is a primeexample of the significant social commentary foundin many of Williams’s works.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Lady’s Beaded Bag” was first published by theUniversity of Missouri’s English Club in 1930. Itwas subsequently published in the short story col-lection Collected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSFerrabye, Mrs. She is a wealthy aristocrat whoowns so many priceless possessions that she dis-misses the beaded bag that is returned to her by theRag Picker.

Rag Picker He is an impoverished street dwellerwho during his routine dumpster sifting discovers alady’s beaded bag. The Rag Picker’s imaginationwhirls as his daily routine has finally paid off. Hethen becomes fearful and imagines that he will go toprison if he is found with such an exquisite item.

The Rag Picker returns the purse to the nearestmansion. The maid quickly snatches it, without anythanks or compensation for the Rag Picker.

The Last of the Mobile Hot Shots

A film version of THE KINGDOM OF EARTH, OR THE

SEVEN DESCENTS OF MYRTLE produced by WarnerBrothers in 1969. Sidney Lumet directed the film,which featured Lynn Redgrave (Myrtle) JamesCoburn (Lot), and Robert Hooks (Chicken).

The Last of My Solid Gold Watches

A one-act play written before 1946.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a hotel room in a Mississippi Deltatown. The room is rundown but has vestiges of itsformer coziness, now faded with time. The room isfilled with luggage and top-quality shoes. CharlieColton is a traveling shoe salesman, who hopes tosell a selection of shoes to Harper. Harper is boredby the talk of leather shoes. He pulls a comic bookout of his back pocket and starts to read. Mr. Coltonis frustrated by Harper’s lack of interest and respect.Charlie reprimands Harper and launches into aspeech about the “world of illusion” Harper nowinhabits. Charlie acknowledges the numerous goldwatches he has collected over the years as the topsalesman. He realizes that he is now surviving onthe last of his solid gold watches but still deservesrespect from the younger generation. Harper leavesthe senior salesman alone to reminisce.

COMMENTARYCharlie Colton struggles with growing old andreaching the end of his career as a traveling shoesalesman. He is left alone in a shabby hotel room,reliving his former glory and success. Mr. Colton is

134 The Last of the Mobile Hot Shots

enraged that he is being replaced by a younger gen-eration who do not appreciate the art of sellingshoes. Old age, dying, and the frivolity and brevityof youth are recurring themes in Williams’s writingand are a prominent feature in such works asSWEET BIRD OF YOUTH and “THE INTERVAL.”

The narrative of this one-act play was drawnfrom aspects of Williams’s life. His father, COR-NELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS, was a traveling shoesalesman for the INTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY.Cornelius forced Williams to work for the companyafter his poor academic performance at the UNI-VERSITY OF MISSOURI. The young Williams hatedthe job and documented his experiences at Interna-tional Shoe in such works as STAIRS TO THE ROOF

and THE GLASS MENAGERIE. The uninterestedHarper, who cares more for fantasy and reading,resembles the youthful Williams.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Last of My Solid Gold Watches was first pro-duced at Laboratory Theatre, Los Angeles, Califor-nia, in 1948. It was also produced by MARGO JONES

at Theatre ’48 in Dallas, Texas, 1948. In 1958 thisplay was turned into a television movie directed bySidney Lumet.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Last of My Solid Gold Watches was published inBest One-Act Plays of 1942 and in 27 WAGONS FULL

OF COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSColton, Mr. Charlie Charlie is a traveling sales-man who has won numerous gold watches for beingthe top salesperson. He realizes that he is losing hiscompetitive edge and will probably not receiveanother gold watch. Mr. Colton grapples to recoverthe remains of his reputation and nourish the rem-nants of his better days. Failing to sell his wares, heis faced with the reality that his era has passed.

Harper, Bob Bob is a young shoe salesman, whois completely indifferent to his occupation. Heencounters Charlie Colton, a proud older salesman,and is bored by Charlie’s tales of the antics of theolder generation.

Life Boat DrillA one-act play written around 1970.

SYNOPSISAn elderly couple, E. Long Taske and his wife, EllaTaske, a pair of ailing nonagenarians, are sailingtogether on the Queen Elizabeth II (QEII), a luxuryocean liner. They occupy twin beds in their state-room cabin. The frail couple bicker fiercely, andElla suggests they contemplate legal separation. Inthe midst of their wrangling they entertain the ideaof attending the ship’s daily “lifeboat drill.”

Ella and Long are joined in their stateroom bytwo members of the ship’s staff. The Steward andStewardess serve the couple breakfast and tell themthat the lifeboat drill has been canceled. At thesound of the lifeboat drill whistle, the staff mem-bers depart. The Steward lets slip that the lifeboatdrill is occurring that day.

Mr. and Mrs. Taske fall into a panic as they realizethey will miss the drill and have been left to theirown devices. Mr. Taske makes a frantic searchthrough their cabin for their life-preserver jackets. Inthe process, he breaks his glasses and upsets Ella inher bed. He eventually finds the two jackets underthe beds. With great effort, Ella and Long struggle todon their jackets. Alone and unsure, the elderly cou-ple cling to their beds and each other in desperation.

COMMENTARYLife Boat Drill is a short, grotesque comedy thatexplores the panic, isolation, confusion, and senseof abandonment that often accompany old age. Mr.and Mrs. Taske are set adrift in their stateroom,attempting to settle past grievances and grapplingfor survival. Beyond the slapstick humor of Mr.Taske’s breaking his glasses and crawling under thetwin beds to retrieve their life jackets and Mrs.Taske’s swatting him away with her life jacket,there is a sober and a desperate sense of helpless-ness in their tale. Mrs. Taske’s fight for dignity andrespect in the midst of the impersonal treatmentthe couple receives from the condescendinglycheerful staff members is poignantly depicted.

In many ways the nautical Life Boat Drill is remi-niscent of two other Williams seaside dramas: SMALL

Life Boat Drill 135

CRAFT WARNINGS and CONFESSIONAL. In each ofthese plays the characters search for a means of sur-vival and life preservation in whatever form. Thereis a sense of lives set adrift, lost at sea and clingingdesperately to those around for safety and security.Life Boat Drill is also similar in theme and tone toTHE FROSTED GLASS COFFIN. Both of these playsportray the pain and bewilderment of aging and thefear of impending death.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThere have been no major documented produc-tions of Life Boat Drill.

PUBLICATION HISTORYLife Boat Drill was published in The Theatre of Ten-nessee Williams, volume VII, by New Directions in1970.

CHARACTERSSteward He is a member of the crew of the QEIIluxury ocean liner. Along with his fellow staff mem-ber, the Stewardess, he is responsible for attendingto a pair of elderly passengers, Mr. E. Long Taskeand his wife, Mrs. Ella Taske. He is irritated by theailing, demanding couple and greets them with a“bright, icy smile.” After delivering their breakfast,the Steward lies to Mr. and Mrs. Taske telling themthat the ship’s daily lifeboat drill has been canceled.Just before he leaves their cabin, the Steward letsslip that the drill is occurring.

Stewardess She is a giggly, condescending mem-ber of the crew of the QEII luxury ocean liner.Along with her fellow staff member, the Steward,she is responsible for attending to a pair of elderlypassengers, Mr. E. Long Taske and his wife, Mrs.Ella Taske. She is annoyed by the ailing, demand-ing nonagenerians. The Stewardess conspires withher colleague to lie about the time of the dailylifeboat drill.

Taske, Mr. E. Long An ailing, elderly man in hisnineties, Mr. Taske is the husband of Mrs. EllaTaske. Mr. Taske and his wife are passengers on theQEII luxury ocean liner. The couple are confinedto their stateroom cabin and remain in their twin

beds for much of their journey. Mr. Taske’s exis-tence at this stage in his life is not a happy one. Hehas a strained relationship with his argumentativeand physically abusive wife, who enjoys chroniclingher husband’s faults and shortcomings. He suffersher wrath, as well as the condescending treatmentof the ship’s staff. When it becomes apparent thatthe Steward and the Stewardess are not going toassist the couple in preparing for the lifeboat drill,Mr. Taske takes it upon himself to make provisionsfor himself and his wife. He frantically searchestheir room for their life-preserver jackets and even-tually finds them under their twin beds.

Taske, Mrs. Ella An ailing elderly woman in her90s, Mrs. Taske is the wife of Mr. E. Long Taske.Mrs. Taske and her husband are passengers on theQEII luxury ocean liner. The couple remain in theirstateroom cabin and keep to their twin beds formuch of their journey. At this stage in her life, Mrs.Taske has found her voice and is very frank abouther feelings. She will no longer remain silent abouther husband’s faults and shortcomings, particularlyhis dalliances with other women. These past deedshave led Ella to become argumentative and physi-cally abusive with her husband. She demands thatLong agree to a legal separation. Ella also feels shehas been violated and treated with disrespect bythe condescending ship’s staff. She struggles tomaintain her dignity against the “advances” of theyoung Steward. When it becomes apparent thatthe Steward and his fellow staff member, the Stew-ardess, are not going to assist the couple in prepar-ing for the lifeboat drill, Mrs. Taske panics andurges her husband to take action.

The Long GoodbyeA one-act play written in 1940.

SYNOPSISJoe and his friend, Silva, clear out Joe’s family’sapartment. As the movers take out the furniture,Joe is bombarded with memories of his Mother andhis sister, Myra. Joe explains to Silva that his

136 The Long Goodbye

mother suffered from cancer and took her own lifeso that her children could collect the insurancemoney. In a flashback, Myra enters the room withher boyfriend, Bill, whom Joe despises. Bill is richand arrogant and treats Myra disrespectfully. Thecouple leave the apartment as the movers enter,and Joe returns to the present time.

Hearing children playing outside, Joe asks Silvaabout the games he played as a child. Joe stiffensas another flashback emerges. His mother askshim to keep an eye on Myra. She urges Joe towarn Myra about Bill. His mother informs himthat her cancer is in remission. She and Joe remi-nisce about his father. She reassures Joe that shewill not abandon her children, as their father did.As the flashback ends, Joe’s mother tells himwhere her insurance policy can be found. Themovers return once again.

Silva suggests that he and Joe have a drink, butJoe does not want to disengage from his memories.One of the movers asks what to do with the perfumebottles. The smell of perfume propels Joe into aflashback of Myra and Bill fighting. Bill pressuresMyra to have sex with him, and Joe ejects him fromthe apartment. Their mother screams in her bed-room as she dies. Joe returns to the present moment.

Silva notices a picture of Myra and inquires as toher whereabouts. Silva’s question prompts anotherflashback for Joe: Myra appears wearing a negligee.Joe and Myra have an argument, during which Myrathreatens to throw Joe out of the apartment. Theflashback ends and Joe says he received a postcardfrom Myra but still has not heard from his father. Ashe looks around the apartment a final time, Joe real-izes that life is merely one “long goodbye.”

COMMENTARYThe Long Goodbye is a companion piece and anearly template for THE GLASS MENAGERIE. As is itssuccessor, The Long Goodbye is a memory play thatdepicts the unfortunate life of an abandonedmother and her two children. By contrast, The LongGoodbye features a reversal of the brother-sisterdynamic found in The Glass Menagerie. Here it isthe female sibling, Myra, who is determined to liveher own life and actively pursues a means of escape.Joe is the one left behind.

He, as is Tom Wingfield in The Glass Menagerie,is a narrator-protagonist who moves fluidly betweenthe past and the present. Williams’s treatment oftime, whereby the past and the present coexist, is aprominent feature in many of his works, such asCLOTHES FOR A SUMMER HOTEL and SOMETHING

CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR, another highly autobi-ographical work.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Long Goodbye was first produced at the NewSchool for Social Research in 1940. It was subse-quently produced at the Straight Wharf Theatre,Nantucket, Massachusetts, in 1946.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Long Goodbye was published in the collection27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSBill Bill is Myra’s new boyfriend. Myra’s brother,Joe, dislikes Bill and tries to dissuade Myra fromdating him. Bill is rich, arrogant, and aggressive. Hetreats Myra disrespectfully and pressures her tohave sex with him. Myra and Joe’s Mother are veryconcerned about the situation and urge Joe to talkwith Myra about Bill. Bill appears with Myra inJoe’s flashbacks.

Joe Joe is a 23-year-old man who is moving outof his family’s apartment. As the movers clear outhis belongings, Joe has flashbacks of the time hehas spent in the apartment with his Mother and hissister, Myra. Joe feels utterly alone in the world. Hislife has been a litany of loss. His father abandonedhim, his mother committed suicide, and his sistercommunicates with him only through occasionalpostcards. With the help of his friend Silva, Joeleaves the apartment to start a new life. As TomWingfield is in THE GLASS MENAGERIE, Joe is thenarrator-protagonist of the play.

Mother The mother of Joe and Myra. When shediscovers she has cancer, she decides to commitsuicide so that Joe and Myra can collect the insur-ance money. Mother is very concerned about her

The Long Goodbye 137

daughter and is not happy that she is dating Bill.She pleads with Joe to take care of his sister. Joe’sMother appears to him in flashbacks on the day hemoves out of their apartment.

Myra As is Tom Wingfield in THE GLASS MENAG-ERIE, Myra is restless and wants more out of life. Sheis unhappy living in her family’s shabby apartmentwith her overly protective Mother and brother, Joe.Her Mother and brother are concerned about herbecause she is dating Bill, who is rich, arrogant, andaggressive. Bill treats Myra disrespectfully and pres-sures her to have sex. When Myra leaves home shecommunicates only with Joe, through postcards.

Silva Silva is Joe’s friend, who helps Joe moveout of his family’s apartment. Silva’s presenceserves to trigger Joe’s flashbacks of his family beforetheir tragic decline.

The Long Stay Cut Short, orThe Unsatisfactory Supper


SYNOPSISThe setting is a small, rundown cottage in BlueMountain, Mississippi.

Sucking his teeth, Archie Lee Bowman com-plains to his wife about the undercooked dinner ofcollard greens and salt pork that Aunt Rose pre-pared. Aunt Rose enters and walks to the rosebush,announcing that she needs fresh roses in the houseon Sundays. Aunt Rose pontificates on the joys ofcooking for relatives, but not for others. Archie Leereminds his wife, Baby Doll, that Aunt Rose hasoverstayed her welcome in their home.

Aunt Rose creeps around the rosebush, singing,“Rock of Ages, cleft for me / Let me hide myself inthee!” Archie Lee orders Baby Doll to tell her auntthat she has to leave. Aunt Rose becomes hysteri-cal when Baby Doll asks whether she has madeother living arrangements. Aunt Rose says that anold maid does not give much thought to the futurebecause she will soon die as do the roses that drift

away in the wind. Archie Lee informs Aunt Rosethat he will drive her to someone else’s house inthe morning. Considering the matter settled,Archie Lee slams the screen door shut as he disap-pears into the house. After a long pause, Aunt Roseremarks, “I thought you children were satisfiedwith my cooking.”

As a blue dusk settles over the cottage, a faintstrain of music is heard, followed by a tornado.Archie Lee and Baby Doll beg Aunt Rose to comeinside as the storm roars, but she is resolute as thefierce wind lashes her dress. Aunt Rose sinks to herknees and thinks of her life as if “she had alwayscarried an armful of roses that no one had everoffered a vase to receive.” With a mighty gust, thestorm carries Aunt Rose away.

COMMENTARYThe Long Stay Cut Short or The Unsatisfactory Sup-per is a tribute to Williams’s maternal grandmother,ROSINA DAKIN (whom he affectionately called“Grand”). During the autumn of 1943, RosinaDakin and her husband, Williams’s grandfather,WALTER EDWIN DAKIN, moved in with Williams’simmediate family. Grand was dying of tuberculosis;however, she insisted on performing her usualdomestic duties. Her efforts did not appeaseWilliams’s father, CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS,who, as does Archie Lee, resented the elderly cou-ple’s living in his home. This tension was verypainful for Williams, who had a deep, reverentiallove for his grandmother. He retells this traumaticepisode in several works, such as “The Man in theOverstuffed Chair” and “GRAND.” There are alsoovertones of Grand’s death in “ORIFLAMME” and“THE ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE.”

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Long Stay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Sup-per was produced in London in 1971. Most impor-tantly, this one-act play served as the basis forWilliams’s most controversial work, BABY DOLL.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Long Stay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Sup-per was published as The Unsatisfactory Supper inBest One-Act Plays of 1945 and as The Long Stay

138 The Long Stay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Supper

Cut Short in AMERICAN BLUES (1948). With thiscollection of one-act plays, Williams caught theattention of Molly Day Thacher of the Group The-atre, who awarded him $100 for the plays. She alsodirected his writings to the woman who wouldbecome his longtime agent, AUDREY WOOD.

CHARACTERSAunt Rose She is Baby Doll Bowman’s aunt.Aunt Rose takes refuge at the Bowman house. Sheis an elderly woman who “resembles a delicatewhite-headed monkey.” Aunt Rose does not realizethat she has become a nuisance to the Bowmanfamily. Her absentmindedness infuriates Baby Doll’shusband, Archie Lee. Her aggravating laughter andnaïveté prompt the Bowmans to ask her to findsomewhere else to live. Aunt Rose is emotionallycrushed by her family’s insensitivity.

Bowman, Archie Lee Archie Lee is Baby DollBowman’s husband. He resents his wife’s relative,Aunt Rose, who lives with them. He is insensitiveand becomes impatient with the elderly woman.Eventually, Archie Lee forces Baby Doll to tellAunt Rose she must leave their home.

Bowman, Baby Doll Baby Doll is Archie LeeBowman’s wife. She feels an obligation to care forher elderly relative, Aunt Rose, and has allowedher to stay in the Bowman home. Archie Lee is dis-pleased with this arrangement and does not wantthe old woman in his home. He presses Baby Dollto evict Aunt Rose, and she eventually obeys.

Lord Byron’s Love LetterA one-act play written before 1946.

SYNOPSISThis play is set in the parlor of an old mansion inthe French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana.The time is the late 19th century, during MardiGras. Sounds of the annual Mardi Gras festivitiesare heard in the distance, as the Spinster (Ari-adne) and the Old Woman (Irenée) sit in their

parlor. The Spinster is sewing. The doorbell rings.The Old Woman hides behind a curtain andwatches what transpires from this location. TheSpinster opens the door and admits the Matron(Mrs. Tutwiler), who is interested in viewing LordByron’s love letter. The Spinster and the OldWoman discuss the details of the infamous letter’shistory. The Matron drags her husband, WinstonTutwiler, into the parlor to hear the story, but hefalls asleep instantly.

From behind the curtain, the Old Womanexplains that the letter’s recipient met Lord Byronon the steps of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece.The Spinster reads aloud from a diary, recountingthe romantic encounter at the Acropolis. The OldWoman repeatedly and strictly instructs the Spin-ster to “remember where to stop” in the diary. Thetwo women then allow the Matron to view theactual letter. The Spinster reveals that upon LordByron’s death, her grandmother became a recluse.She reads the sonnet that her grandmother wrotefor Byron, the poem “Enchantment.” The OldWoman recites it from behind the curtain, alongwith the Spinster. The Old Woman recites the verylast lines of the poem by herself.

A Mardis Gras parade marches past the house,rousing the husband from his slumber. He rushesout of the parlor to see the parade. The Matronstarts to follow him, and the Spinster and the OldWoman beg her for a donation. The Matronbecomes preoccupied with finding her husband,who has disappeared in the crowd. The Spinsterpursues the Matron and confetti is thrown in herface. The Old Woman is furious that customershave left without paying. She chastises the Spin-ster for dropping her grandfather’s letter on thefloor.

COMMENTARYLord Byron’s Love Letter is a Williams theatricalminiature that possesses all the “rueful poetry andtheatrical dexterity that characterizes [his] bestwork” (Atkinson, 1955). The Spinster (Ariadne)and her grandmother (Irenée) are reminiscent ofmany of Williams’s heroines, who are left watchingthe parades of life pass them by and time march onwithout them. In this delicate tale of long lost love,

Lord Byron’s Love Letter 139

Williams also pays homage to one of his favoritepoets, George Gordon, Lord Byron, who appears asa character in Williams’s play CAMINO REAL.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThere is no record of a professional theatrical pre-miere of Lord Byron’s Love Letter. However, Williamscollaborated with Raffaello de Banfield on an oper-atic version of the play that was produced at TulaneUniversity in New Orleans, Louisiana, in January1955. The opera was subsequently performed atthe Lyric Theatre in Chicago, Illinois, in Novem-ber 1955.

PUBLICATION HISTORYLord Byron’s Love Letter was published in the collec-tion 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND OTHER

ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966) and The Best AmericanOne-Act Plays (1964).

CHARACTERSHusband Also known as Winston Tutwiler, theHusband is a tourist on vacation in New Orleanswith his wife, the Matron. His wife is interested inseeing the famous letter owned by the Old Womanand the Spinster; Winston is more concerned withseeing the Mardi Gras parade. He is in a celebra-tory mood and has been drinking heavily. His wifeforces him to sit down and listen as the two womenrecount the story of the love letter written by LordByron; however, Winston cannot stay awake. He isrevived by the sound of the marching bands andrushes into the street to join the festivities.

Matron She is a middle-aged woman on vacationin New Orleans with her Husband, WinstonTutwiler. She visits the home of the Spinster and theOld Woman to see the infamous love letter writtenby Lord Byron. After viewing the letter the Matronleaves without giving the two women a donation.

Old Woman She is the grandmother of the Spin-ster. Her name is Irenée Margúerite de Poitevent.The Old Woman claims to have had a love affairwith Lord Byron when she was a young woman. Shereads the letter from Byron to tourists in NewOrleans as a means of making a living.

Spinster Also known as Ariadne, she is a womanof 40 who lives in poverty with her grandmother,the Old Woman. Together they eke out a meagerliving by displaying a love letter her grandmotherreceived from Lord Byron.

FURTHER READINGAtkinson, Brooks. “Theatre: 2 by Williams,” New York

Times, January 19, 1955, p. 23.

The Loss of a TeardropDiamond

Screenplay written during the 1950s.

SYNOPSISFisher Willow returns from a party in Memphis thatlasted until the early morning hours. She drives toJimmy Dobyne’s house and proposes that he be herescort to the debutante parties through the season.Jimmy is uncomfortable in the presence of Fisher, astrong and extremely wealthy young woman. Fisherhas become an outcast in her hometown in Missis-sippi because of her father’s disastrous decision toblow up a levee, which resulted in several deaths andin destruction to farms below their plantation. As aresult, Fisher is forced to bribe Jimmy with new suitsand exposure because she is no longer highlyregarded. She has also been summoned home byAunt Cornelia, who dangles a large inheritancebefore Fisher in exchange for following her orders.Fisher is not happy to conform to Southern protocol.

Jimmy visits his mother in an asylum, where shehas become violent and no longer recognizes him.Jimmy has been left to care for his alcoholic father.Although Jimmy is the grandson of the former gover-nor of the state, his family has been ruined by accusa-tions of theft. The allegations were false, but Jimmy’sfamily served as the scapegoats for a wealthier family.

Fisher and Jimmy attend a soirée at the home ofan old friend, Julie. Before they arrive, Fisher tellsJimmy to take a detour to the river. She tries toseduce Jimmy, but he ignores her advances. Upsetby this rejection, Fisher jumps out of the car before

140 The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond

it stops, and she loses a valuable teardrop diamondearring. Sifting through the gravel, Julie, Jimmy,Fisher, and several other partygoers finish empty-handed. Angered by Jimmy’s indifference to herand his attention to Vinnie McCorkle, a beautifulyoung woman at the party, Fisher publicly accusesJimmy of stealing the earring. Deeply insulted bythis remark, Jimmy announces that he has beenpaid to be Fisher’s date and demands to besearched for the earring.

Fisher pays her respects to Julie’s Aunt Addie,who has suffered a stroke and is bedridden. Addierelates to Fisher and her desire for exotic travel.She lived in Hong Kong most of her life and after astroke became dependent on opium to relieve herpain and deterioration. Addie asks Fisher to helpher “go on her travels” once again by overdose.Fisher complies, giving her several pills and promis-ing to return to administer the final dose. Fisherleaves her other teardrop diamond earring onAddie’s mantle as she exits.

Fisher discovers that Jimmy has furthered hisacquaintance with Vinnie. They disappear to havesex in Jimmy’s car. Vinnie confides that she didindeed find Fisher’s missing earring but has kept itbecause although she is pretty, she does not haveenough money to marry a man who has socialstanding. Jimmy is horrified by her dishonesty. Hedemands she return the earring.

Jimmy and Fisher leave together. Fisher asksJimmy to take a detour to the river. She suggeststhat she could have his mother placed in a bettercare facility if they marry.

COMMENTARYFisher Willow is a combination of two characters inthe Williams canon: Heavenly Critchfield and DickMiles, both from SPRING STORM. As does Heavenly,Fisher finds her Southern society too restrictiveand narrowly focused. As Heavenly is hopelessly inlove with Dick Miles, Fisher is enamored of JimmyDobyne, a fallen aristocrat and socialite. Fisherdoes not know how to handle this attraction, as shehas never been attracted to one particular person.Heavenly desperately tries to rein in Dick, but sheis left alone, and, as Fisher Willow subconsciouslyfears, a spinster.

Fisher suffocates under the rules of proper South-ern society. Although she is undeniably wealthy, sheis living as a part of an outcast family, because of herfather’s dastardly actions against his neighbors.Fisher suffers from his actions, and she is a target ofridicule of a society that has eagerly awaited anopportunity to disown her. Fisher has been pulledback to Mississippi and to Memphis as a dutiful heir;however, she is misunderstood by even her powerfuland wealthy aunt, whose approach to life mirrorsFisher’s. Although Aunt Cornelia and Fisher arevery similar creatures, with only age separating theirlife experiences, Aunt Cornelia is often bewilderedby her protégé’s actions. This, more than any otherelement in the screenplay, is the most realistic.

Fisher’s love of the river, symbol of freedom, ismuch like that of Dick Miles. She restlessly attendssocial events with an uncontrollable desire to befree and wild. Fisher finds other young womenchildish and foolish in their pursuit of the oppositesex. As Fisher has been educated in Europe andspent a great deal of time there, she lives in a divideof cultures, not quite European and certainly intol-erant of the ways of her Southern community.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Loss of a Teardrop Diamond has never beenproduced.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis screenplay was published by New Directionsin 1984.

CHARACTERSAunt Addie She is a wealthy woman who hassuffered a stroke that has left her bedridden. Livingin Hong Kong most of her adult life, Addie has hada stroke that has led her to use opium to curb heranxieties about her poor health. She is taken backto her home in Mississippi, where she urges FisherWillow to help her overdose and end her misery.

Dobyne, Jimmy He is a handsome young manwho is pressured to be Fisher Willow’s seasonalescort to social events. Jimmy’s family, once aprominent Southern clan, has been ruined by

The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond 141

untrue allegations of theft. Jimmy feels uncomfort-able around Fisher, but he also pities her position asanother type of social outcast.

Fisher, Aunt Cornelia She is a wealthy womanwho orders her niece, Fisher Willow, to return fromEurope. Ever dissatisfied with Fisher’s behavior,Aunt Cornelia struggles to teach her protégée graceand etiquette.

Julie Julie is an old friend of Fisher Willow andJimmy Dobyne. She hosts a grand debutante party ather home that Fisher and Jimmy attend. WhenFisher loses one of her diamond earrings at the party,Julie and other partygoers try to help her find it.

McCorkle, Vinnie A partygoer who catches theeye of Jimmy Dobyne. Vinnie is a simple, yet elegantgirl who, after being intimate with Jimmy, revealsthat she has stolen a teardrop diamond earringbelonging to Fisher Willow. Vinnie views the earringas her ticket to a good life. Because of her dishon-esty, she loses Jimmy, but she returns the earring.

Willow, Fisher She is a socialite whose familyhas become a source of ridicule because of herfather’s dastardly deeds. Fisher returns from Europeat the wish of Aunt Cornelia to attend the socialevents of the season. Fisher only agrees to do so inorder to remain her aunt’s heir. Fisher falls in lovewith a man of a lower class, Jimmy Dobyne, whorejects her but eventually succumbs to her moneyand aggressive pursuit.

A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur

A play in two scenes written in 1976.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place on a summerSunday morning in June in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI,during the mid- to late 1930s.

Scene 1The setting is the interior of a modest middle-classefficiency apartment in an urban housing complex.

Dorothea performs her morning exercise routine inher bedroom. Bodey enters the apartment carryinga copy of the Sunday St. Louis Post-Dispatch news-paper. Just as she makes her way to the sofa, whichstands in the center of the living room, the tele-phone begins to ring. Bodey, who has a hearing dis-ability, ignores the phone, sits on the sofa, andbecomes engrossed in her newspaper. At the soundof the telephone’s ringing, Dorothea falls into apanic and is so struck with emotion she cannotmake herself move. She waits for Bodey to answerthe phone; when the phone stops ringing Dorotheastorms out of her bedroom to attack Bodey. Bodeyrises quickly in response to Dorothea’s outcry.Dorothea has been waiting all morning for a callfrom Ralph Ellis, the principal of Blewett HighSchool, where Dorothea teaches civics. He is alsothe object of Dorothea’s romantic affections, andhe has promised her that he would call her beforenoon to tell her something very important. Bodeyresponds indifferently to Dorothea’s rage. She triesto turn Dorothea’s attention to other matters, suchas their regular Sunday outing, a picnic at CreveCoeur amusement park, and Bodey’s twin brother,Buddy. Dorothea demands that Bodey use herhearing aid. Bodey expresses her concern aboutDorothea’s attachment to Ralph Ellis and suggeststhat her brother might be a better choice. A squab-ble ensues over whether Ralph Ellis is actually inter-ested in Dorothea or Dorothea is merely infatuatedby him. Dorothea shares the intimate details of thislove affair with Bodey. Dorothea’s story infuriatesBodey, who threatens to report Ralph to the boardof education. Dorothea insists unashamedly thatshe must have romance, passion, and sex in her life.

Dorothea’s rich and pretentious friend, HelenaBrooksmire, stops by the apartment to speak withher. She surveys the squalor of Dorothea and Bodey’sapartment. Dorothea and Bodey’s upstairs neighbor,Sophie Gluck, opens the apartment door and peeksinside. At the sight of Helena, Sophie is alarmed andhides behind the door. Helena rushes to the door,slams it shut, and bolts it locked, leaving Sophie cry-ing outside. The telephone rings once again andHelena answers it. Helena announces she is going tosee Dorothea and marches directly into her bed-room. Bodey follows quickly behind. Dorothea is

142 A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur

surprised and embarrassed to see Helena. Helenapromptly shuts the door behind her so that they mayhave a private conversation regarding the arrange-ment they have made to share a plush apartment onthe fashionable side of Saint Louis.

Bodey drags Helena out of Dorothea’s bedroomand attacks her for being cruel to Sophie. She alsoaccuses Helena of trying to sponge money fromDorothea. Helena clarifies that, on the contrary,she is here to rescue Dorothea. While Bodey andHelena are engaged in their verbal volley, Sophiestalks Dorothea around the living room. Dorotheahas a panic attack and collapses behind the sofa.Helena, Bodey, and Sophie are momentarily con-fused. Bodey and Helena carry Dorothea into herbedroom. Bodey comforts Sophie, who is grievingfor her deceased mother.

Bodey tries to escort Sophie back upstairs to herapartment, leaving Helena alone in the apartmentliving room momentarily. She is drawn downstage tothe center of the living room. Her shallow mask ofsuperiority has dropped and she reveals her own fearof being alone. She needs Dorothea’s permanentcompanionship to avoid loneliness and the attentionsof “vulgar old maids.” As Sophie and Bodey return tothe apartment, Sophie screams and clutches herabdomen. She is struck by severe diarrhea. Shedashes into Dorothea’s bathroom. Bodey returns tothe living room to keep an eye on Helena. There is asudden crash; Sophie has flooded the bathroom.Bodey rushes around to collect a mop. She returns,pushing Helena out of her way as she goes throughthe bedroom to take the mop to Sophie. Dorotheaaccuses Bodey of intercepting her telephone call fromRalph and of lying to her. Helena looks out of a win-dow and catches sight of a solitary pigeon, the onlysign of life she can see in this urban landscape. Sheremarks that although the bird is capable of obtainingits freedom, it has chosen to remain perched for amoment in this desolate place.

Scene 2The setting is the same as that in the previous scene,the time a few minutes after a previous action.Dorothea sits at her dressing table drinking from asherry bottle. As she drinks she soliloquizes aboutthe time she wasted with her former love, Hathaway

James. Although gifted as a musician, Hathaway wasnot a skillful lover. She laments that Hathaway had achronic case of premature ejaculation and her doc-tor advised her to let him go. Sophie shoves themop out the bathroom door. Helena is shocked todiscover that Dorothea is talking to herself soloudly. She rushes to the bedroom door to hearwhat is being said. Bodey searches franticallythrough the newspaper for a particular item.Helena knows what Bodey has been hiding andadvises Bodey that hiding the truth from Dorotheais pointless. Bodey finds the page she has beenlooking for and quickly tears out the offensive itemand throws it away.

Bodey and Helena divulge their respective plansfor Dorothea’s future. Bodey will offer Dorothea herbrother, Buddy. Helena can offer Dorothea a civi-lized and stylish life, away from the squalor sheresides in currently. While Bodey and Helena debateDorothea’s future, Sophie walks out of the bathroomand falls onto Dorothea’s bed. Dorothea cries out forhelp and Bodey rushes from the kitchenette into thebedroom. As Bodey plunges into the bedroom,Dorothea rushes out. Helena informs Dorothea thatshe has shared their plans with Bodey and suggeststhat Bodey has already found a suitable replacementin Sophie. Helena and Dorothea discuss their finan-cial arrangements. Dorothea informs Helena thatshe will not be residing with her at WestmorelandPlace very long. Sophie creeps back into the livingroom. Helena sees her and warns Dorothea thatbridge parties, an elegant foreign car, and a stylishaddress are the only safeguards against a life such asSophie’s. Sophie responds by splashing the contentsof her water glass in Helena’s face.

Dorothea explains to Helena that what she seeksis marriage, and particularly marriage with RalphEllis. Bodey begins to sing nervously in the kitchen.Dorothea is perturbed that Helena and Bodey areboth so adamantly opposed to her relationship withRalph Ellis. She tells Bodey for the last time that sheis not going anywhere until she has received her callfrom Ralph Ellis and that she is not interested inBuddy. Bodey begins to cry and offers Dorothea thestreetcar schedule in the event she changes hermind. Helena suggests that Dorothea should have alook at the society page in today’s newspaper.

A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur 143

Dorothea searches and finds the newspaper but isunable to locate the society page. Bodey explainsthat she used that portion of the newspaper to wrapher fried chicken. Dorothea goes into the kitchenand unwraps the greasy newspaper only to find thatBodey has torn an article from the page.

Dorothea finds the torn section of the newspaperin the trash and reads that Ralph Ellis has becomeengaged to another woman. Dorothea ferociouslyforces Bodey out of the apartment. Helena comfortsDorothea and urges her to solidify their planstogether. Dorothea announces that she has changedher mind about moving in with Helena and affirmsthat she would find a life with Bodey, Buddy, andSophie less disappointing than a life with Helena.Helena is hurt but elegant as she takes her leave ofDorothea, her only prospect for companionship andhappiness. Dorothea makes a dash for the tele-phone and calls the Creve Coeur train station. Sheasks the station worker to deliver a message toBodey and Buddy, asking them to wait for her.Dorothea pulls Sophie into an embrace and the twoweep together. Dorothea collects her hat, gloves,and handbag and rushes out of the apartment.

COMMENTARYCreve Coeur in the title is French, for “heartbreak.”The name also refers to an amusement park of thesame name outside the city of Saint Louis in the1930s. The heartbreak at the center of A LovelySunday for Creve Coeur is the pain of rejection andisolation. Loneliness, and the fear of being leftalone, are the primary themes of the play. Eachcharacter has a need and constant yearning for loveand human connection. Thematically, the play isnot unusual in the Williams canon, particularlyamong his later works, which avidly address issuesof seclusion, aging, and death. As a study ofimpending spinsterhood, A Lovely Sunday for CreveCoeur is also reminiscent of other Williams workssuch as THE GLASS MENAGERIE, SPRING STORM, andA STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.

However, the female characters who inhabit theexclusively female world of this play (there are nomale characters present) make the play truly excep-tional. Williams’s treatment of the unmarriedschoolteacher, Dorothea Gallaway, sets the play

apart significantly. Unlike her fellow “aged South-ern belles,” such as Blanche DuBois and AlmaWinemiller, Dorothea accepts her lover’s rejectionwith resolve. She has loved and lost, given herselftoo quickly, but she wastes little time on regret. Sheis a hopeful, strong-willed survivor. When she findsshe is unable to have what she wants, she ismomentarily crestfallen but promptly seizes thenearest available, if unattractive, option. Scholarshave generally found the play to be sparse in termsof plot, but highly intriguing in terms of characterstudy. The plot does suffer from the lack of any realdramatic tension beyond Helena and Bodey’s battleof words and wills. Yet, the four female charactersare notably fascinating, particularly the elegantlycatty and “quasi-lesbian” Helena (Bilowit, 17), whofights ardently in her tug-of-war with Bodey forpossession and love of Dorothea.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe play premiered at the Spoleto Festival inCharleston, South Carolina, in June 1978, underthe title Creve Coeur. Keith Hack directed the pro-duction and Shirley Knight played Dorothea. CreveCoeur ran for 36 performances and was unani-mously praised in the press and well received byaudiences. The play premiered in New York underits new title, A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur, atthe Hudson Guild Theatre on January 10, 1979. Itwas directed again by Keith Hack, with ShirleyKnight as Dorothea, Peg Murray as Bodey, Char-lotte Moore as Helena, and Jane Lowry as Sophie.

PUBLICATION HISTORYA Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur was published byNew Directions in 1980. Some of the charactersand dialogue from A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeuralso appear in the screenplay ALL GAUL IS DIVIDED.

CHARACTERSBodenhafer, Bodey Bodey is Dorothea Gall-away’s roommate and Sophie Gluck’s neighbor.Bodey is a homely, plump, middle-aged working-class German woman. She is single and has devotedher life to caring for and promoting the happinessof others. She is very mothering to Sophie, whospeaks very little English and has recently lost her

144 A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur

mother. Bodey’s primary goal is to secure Dorotheafor her twin brother, Buddy. Their union wouldprovide nieces and nephews to compensate for thechildren she never had. Bodey tries unsuccessfullyto protect Dorothea from the news that her sweet-heart, Ralph Ellis, has recently become engaged toanother woman. She also tries to guard Dorotheafrom the advances of Helena Brooksmire. Bodeyhas a hearing impairment that requires she wear ahearing aid. The hearing device, which she detests,is a source of humor throughout the play.

Brooksmire, Helena Helena is Dorothea Gall-away’s best friend. As is Dorothea, Helena is ateacher at Blewett High School. Helena is an arthistorian and cares only for the finer things in life.As are the other characters in the play, Helena isyearning for love, companionship, and human con-nection. She tries desperately to lure Dorotheaaway from Bodey’s shabby apartment in downtownSaint Louis. She hopes to convince Dorothea toshare an upscale apartment with her in an exclu-sive neighborhood in another part of the city.Helena’s attachment to Dorothea is more than aplatonic need for companionship. However, she isas misguided in her devotion and attraction toDorothea as Dorothea is in her attachment to thephilandering Ralph Ellis. Both women receiveharsh rejections from the object of their affection.Helena’s cool, elegant, and often sarcastic exteriorbelies a delicate, frightened interior.

Gallaway, Dorothea Dorothea is a 30ish sin-gle high school civics teacher. She shares ashabby apartment with her roommate, Bodey.Dorothea has a romantic notion that her boss,Ralph Ellis, the principal of Blewett High School,is going to marry her. She has been engaged in aclandestine affair with Ralph and is awaiting hismarriage proposal. He has promised to phone heron Sunday morning before noon. Bodey andDorothea’s best friend, Helena Brooksmire,knows that Dorothea is waiting in vain. Theaction of the play is driven by Dorothea’s eagerlyanticipated telephone call, which never occurs.Although reminiscent of other Williams “jiltedspinsters,” such as Heavenly Critchfield, Blanche

Dubois, and Alma Winemiller, Dorothea isunique in that she accepts her rejection withresolve. She is a hopeful, strong-willed survivor.When she finds she is unable to have what shetruly wants, she is only momentarily crestfallen.She promptly seizes the nearest available—ifsomewhat distasteful—option in the form ofBodey’s beer-swilling twin brother, Buddy.

Gluck, Sophie Sophie is Bodey and DorotheaGallaway’s upstairs neighbor. She is the most iso-lated character in the play. Dorothea detests thevery sight of Sophie; Bodey pities her and tries tocare for her. Bodey and Sophie are both German;however, Sophie speaks very little English. In addi-tion to the language barrier, Sophie suffers fromhysterical depression as a result of her mother’srecent death. Throughout the play, she assailsBodey and Dorothea, sobbing, weeping, and howl-ing uncontrollably in their apartment.

FURTHER READINGBilowit, Ira J. “Tennessee Williams (Playwright), Craig

Anderson (Producer/Director) Talk with T. E.Kalem (Theater Critic) about Creve Coeur.” NewYork Theatre Review, March 1979, 14–18.

The Magic TowerAn early one-act play written around 1935.Williams hurriedly sketched the play for the Web-ster Groves Theatre Guild. It centers on a relation-ship between a young artist named Jim and avaudeville actress named Linda and their studioapartment, which becomes a magic tower for them.The Guild produced the work in 1939, and the St.Louis News-Times called the play “a poignant littletragedy with a touch of warm fantasy.”

“The Malediction”Short story published in 1945.

“The Malediction” 145

SYNOPSISA nervous man named Lucio befriends a homelesscat while inspecting a room for rent. The Landladyof the boardinghouse explains that the cat (whosename is Nitchevo) belonged to a previous boarder.The former tenant had a special arrangement withher: In order to accommodate the cat the manwould help her with chores her husband can nolonger do. Lucio agrees to have sex with the Land-lady in order to keep Nitchevo.

The Landlady secures a job for Lucio at the localfactory. He hates the mundane work. Lucio writesto his brother, Silva, who is in prison. In this letter,he creatively exaggerates about his great life, but inreality Lucio is miserable. Lucio encloses three dol-lars to Silva; however, he soon receives a noticethat Silva was shot dead in an attempted jailbreak.

Several days later, as Lucio is returning home fromwork, he encounters a man who claims to be God.He thinks the man is drunk or insane, but a little partof him entertains the idea that maybe the man istelling the truth. Soon after this incident, Lucio isfired from his job, and he encounters the man again.Carrying empty beer bottles, the man speaks maledic-tions of the factory, the workers, and the lies in theworld. He drops his beer bottles and Lucio, when hehelps him gather them, becomes ill and faints. Thepolice appear to collect Lucio. The man protests thatLucio is not a drunk, but they ignore him.

When Lucio gains consciousness, he is disori-ented and panicked. He searches for Nitchevo.When the police ask him questions, he answers,“Nitchevo.” One week later, he is released fromjail. Lucio returns to the boardinghouse to find hiscat. The Landlady does not let him enter his oldroom because she has rented it to someone else andhas ejected the cat. Lucio finds Nitchevo in a darkalleyway around the house. Nitchevo has beenwounded. Lucio picks her up, realizing that she willnot live much longer. He feels they both deserve tobe released from pain. Holding Nitchevo, he walksout into the river, disappearing forever.

COMMENTARYLucio is another example of Williams’s fugitivekind, the lost traveler without a history or an iden-tity who often appears in his works. As does the

Hitchhiker in the short story “THE GIFT OF AN

APPLE,” Lucio wanders through his life without asense of vocation or purpose. Ren Draya explainsthat for these characters, their “lack of purpose inlife is the sad corollary to lack of identity.” Lucio is astranger, even by the resolution of the story. Therole of victim becomes his sole identity, and eventhis role is indeterminate, as it is dependent uponexternal factors. His one true human connection,with his brother, Silva, is tragically severed by Silva’sviolent death. The sexual intimacy in his life is thecondition of a deal with his Landlady. It is a merce-nary, passionless act which instead of providing sol-ace, merely serves to alienate Lucio further. Lucio’sonly source of connection is with the cat. Nitchevoand the odd transient who believes he is a divinespirit. Lucio’s arrest leads to the victimization ofNitchevo, his only true source of companionship.Lucio and Nitchevo are similar creatures: They areboth victims at the mercy of a cruel industrial town.

As does that of Anthony Burns in “DESIRE AND

THE BLACK MASSEUR,” Lucio’s psyche functions onviolence. Even his encounter with “God” is one ofmaledictions and physical harm. The message ofthe corruption of the world and the lies people tellis related to Lucio’s way of life: The lies he writeshis brother, and the affair with his landlady, areartificial means by which Lucio strives to survive.However, this encounter with God leads Lucio toimprisonment and to the realization that his life isat its end. Williams establishes the mystical experi-ence as a culminating religious impulse that cata-pults Lucio to action; the action, however, is darkand unheavenly.

“The Malediction” is the groundwork for theone-act play THE STRANGEST KIND OF ROMANCE.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Malediction” was published in One Arm(1948), Three Players of a Summer Game and OtherStories (1960), and Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSLandlady She is a large blonde woman, who hassexual relations with her male tenants, includingLucio. She is mystified by his affection for his cat,Nitchevo. She finds their relationship very peculiar.

146 “The Malediction”

Lucio Similar to the character Musso in THE

STRANGEST KIND OF ROMANCE, Lucio is a desper-ately lonely and frail man, who befriends a catcalled Nitchevo. The Landlady rents him a room inher boardinghouse and allows him to keepNitchevo there. Lucio has an affair with his land-lady, but he is emotionally connected to Nitchevo,the cat. The Landlady becomes jealous and con-demns him for his love for the cat.

“Mama’s Old Stucco House”Short story written before 1965.

SYNOPSISAt noon Jimmy Krenning wakes up, stumbles intohis kitchen, and drinks coffee. His maid, Brinda, isa young, attractive African-American woman whois filling in for her ailing mother. Brinda is appre-hensive about her work because Jimmy and hisfriends have reckless parties while his mother, Mrs.Krenning, lies in a coma in her upstairs bedroom.

Mrs. Krenning has had five different nurses, butall have quit because Jimmie’s parties made themfeel unsafe during the night. When Mrs. Krenningdies, Jimmy is devastated. He finds it ironic thatwhen his mother was living, she refused to give hima key to her old stucco house, and now he owns allof the keys.

The minister and friends arrive to pay theirrespects. Brinda’s Mother makes sandwiches andcoffee and sets the dining room table while Jimmysits on the back porch drinking whiskey. Brinda’sMother has become very weak, so Jimmy drivesthem home. Brinda’s Mother asks Jimmy what hashappened to him, why he has stopped painting, buthe cannot answer her. Brinda’s Mother says she isgoing to die. She reminds Brinda and Jimmy to takecare of each other and tells Jimmy to take Brindahome with him. Jimmy drives Brinda back with him,and they retire inside Mama’s old stucco house.

COMMENTARYJimmy Krenning is a failed painter who lashes out inlife because he is so miserable. The one person he

respects is Brinda’s Mother, who serves as his mater-nal figure. She encourages his talent, motivates him,and reprimands him for his bad behavior. As isQuentin in Small Craft Warnings, Jimmy is a clos-eted gay man who picks up strange men for pleas-ure. He lives a reckless life, enjoying the newness ofevery man he takes home. Jimmy is in search ofsomething that will cancel out his severe depressionand loneliness. Brinda will live a life of servitude inthe Krenning household just as her mother didthrough the years. She does not have the resourcesor courage to leave. Instead, she will take care ofJimmy in his self-destructiveness. The results will benothing short of tragic for both of them.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Mama’s Old Stucco House” was published inMademoiselle (1959), Esquire (1965), The KnightlyQuest: A Novella and Four Short Stories (1966), andCollected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSBrinda Brinda works as a maid for Jimmy Kren-ning and his dying mother. She becomes the Kren-nings’ maid when her mother becomes too ill tocontinue working for them. When Mrs. Krenningdies, Brinda helps Jimmy cope with his loss.Brinda’s Mother is very fond of Jimmy and has asense of maternal affection for him. Brinda and hermother try to help Jimmy come to terms with lifeand his craft as a painter.

Brinda’s Mother She is an old African-Americanwoman who has worked as a maid for Jimmy Kren-ning and his family her entire life. When Jimmy’smother dies, Brinda’s mother goes to his aid. Eventhough she is deathly ill herself, she musters the lastbit of strength she has to cook and receive themourners in the Krenning home. Brinda’s motherloves and understands Jimmy. She pleads with himto stop drinking, live his life, and develop his talentas a painter.

Krenning, Jimmy Jimmy is a reckless young manand a failed painter. He spends his nights drinkingand carousing with strange men. When his motherdies, he finally feels free. He believes his mother has

“Mama’s Old Stucco House” 147

been a terrible parent, and he revels in the fact thathe now owns her house and all of her belongings.He also finds solace in the elderly African-Ameri-can woman who has served his family as a maid allof his life. She advises him to clean up his life andtake care of himself and her daughter, Brinda.

“Man Bring This Up Road”Short story written in 1953.

SYNOPSISMrs. Flora Goforth is a rich woman in her 70s. Sheowns three seaside villas on the Amalfi coast,where she hosts artists. Giulio, one of her many ser-vants, delivers a book of poetry and says, “Manbring this up road!” Flora sends him to fetch thepoet as she watches from her mountaintop view.The man, whose name is Jimmy, is taken to thevilla and ushered to a guest bedroom, where he col-lapses with exhaustion. Mrs. Goforth phones herfriends to find out the gossip about Jimmy. Shelearns that he lived in New York with a rich womanand, socializing in prominent social circles, he wasknown as the ski instructor/poet. The woman whotook him to New York published his poetry, gaininghim considerable notoriety, but he soon stoppedwriting. Now in his mid-30s and no longer a hand-some gigolo, Jimmy resorts to making mobiles toearn money to eat.

When Jimmy wakes up, he joins Mrs. Goforth inher breakfast room. He is starving, but she informshim that only black coffee is served for breakfast inher home. He tries to remain polite and focused onher, but he is starving. Mrs. Goforth cruelly interro-gates him. When she ushers him into the library tocontinue talking, Mrs. Goforth removes her clothes.Jimmy is scandalized and she is terribly insulted. Hepleads with her for a second chance, and she agreesto let him stay for dinner. He is elated as he returnsto his room to sleep until the evening. Jimmyreceives a phone call, informing him that he mustleave because a large party of friends is on the way tothe villa, and there will be no spare rooms. Jimmycollects his knapsack and heads out into the hot sun.

COMMENTARYIn “Man Bring This Up Road” Williams developsthemes, ideas, and situations similar to those foundin an earlier short story, “THE GIFT OF AN APPLE”(1936). Both these stories are centered on the con-cepts of hunger and satisfaction. In these twopieces of fiction, and other works, such as “DESIRE

AND THE BLACK MASSEUR” and THE ROMAN SPRING

OF MRS. STONE, the hunger for food is inextricablylinked and paralleled with the passionate hungerfor sexual intimacy and ultimately for life itself.

Mrs. Goforth and Jimmy are both in search offulfillment and satisfaction. Their joint quest to befed (physically and emotionally) is matched bytheir similar struggle against aging and isolation.

Jimmy has lived a wonderful life as a gigolo tothe elite widows of the world, and now that he is nolonger in his 20s, he is left to commune quite liter-ally with the scraps of life in his business of mobilemaking. Although she is at the end of her life, Mrs.Goforth remains a sexual creature; however, shehas ceased to be sexually attractive. She is desper-ate to have a male companion, someone to beordered around and to please her (to feed her ego),but she is never satisfied with her options. Whenshe removes her clothes, Jimmy is too busy fightinghis hunger for food to play the game, so heexpresses a genuine response to Mrs. Goforth’sbody. As a result, both characters are left to starveas they refuse to satisfy each other.

This story is the basis for THE MILK TRAIN DOES-N’T STOP HERE ANYMORE and the screenplay Boom!

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Man Bring This Up Road” was published in TheLondon Magazine (1965), The Knightly Quest: ANovella and Four Short Stories (1966), and CollectedStories (1985).

CHARACTERSDobyne, Jimmy He is an escort and the keptman of rich older women. As he begins to age,Jimmy realizes that his charms are fading. He pur-sues Mrs. Flora Goforth, but she does not keep him.Jimmy is left penniless and is forced to move on,walking from town to town.

148 “Man Bring This Up Road”

Giulio He is the son of Flora Goforth’s gardener.Giulio introduces Mrs. Goforth to Jimmy Dobyne, ayoung escort.

Goforth, Mrs. Flora She is a wealthy woman inher 70s whose pastime is socializing with excitingyoung artists. She owns several villas in Italy, onthe Amalfi coast, and she entertains her friendsand acquaintances there. When Jimmy Dobynevisits her, hoping to stay with her, she is too embit-tered to realize that she is starving for male atten-tion. She sends him on his way and remains lonely.

“The Mattress by the Tomato Patch”


SYNOPSISOlga Kedrova runs a seedy hotel in Santa Monica,California. She tends a garden of tomatoes andlounges on a ragged mattress at the edge of heryard. The Narrator reckons the mattress was tossedinto the garden because it was ruined by excessivelovemaking. Her primary worry is that a guest willfall asleep with a lit cigarette and burn down herhotel. Ernie, her husband, helps her remove themattress from an upstairs room. The immense joyof daydreaming fills her leisure moments, and themattress has taken on a new life, even after it hasbeen discarded.

COMMENTARYOlga appears to be earthen as she lies in the tomatopatch. Like a sensuous statue, she reclines on hermattress and revels in her existence as a goddess oflove in this woman-made garden of Eden. She enjoysher life, listening to all types of human responsearound her. She is content to provide unmarriedlovers with a place in which to make love. Passionand romance are central to Olga’s existence andnature. She stays with Ernie because he needs her,but she sleeps with anyone she chooses.

Williams is the Narrator of this largely autobio-graphical story. In a letter to Donald Windham,

Williams describes his encounter with a landladywho inspired the creation of Olga. Her name wasZola, and she “[was] a wonderful character . . . shesleeps with any man in the house who will haveher. . . . There is a tremendous short story in theplace . . . [about] the woman on the raggedy mat-tress . . . with the great rocking days of Californiaweaving in and out while she ages and laps up lifewith the tongue of a female bull.” Zola also inspiredWilliams’s Maxine in THE NIGHT OF THE IGUANA.Williams enjoyed detailing the idiosyncrasies of lifeat the Santa Monica hotel, and he adored Olga’s—and Zola’s—liberated and passionate views on life.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Mattress by the Tomato Patch” was publishedin Hard Candy (1954), The Kingdom of Earth withHard Candy (1954), The London Magazine (1954),American Short Stories Since 1945 (1968), CollectedStories (1985), and Writing Los Angeles: A LiteraryAnthology (2002).

CHARACTERSKedrova, Ernie Ernie is the owner of a hotel inSanta Monica, California. He suffers from a dis-eased intestine and is perpetually miserable. Whilehis wife, Olga, suns herself on the mattress by thetomato patch, he undertakes the housekeeping.

Kedrova, Olga Olga is Ernie Kedrova’s wife. Sheand her husband own and run a hotel in SantaMonica, California. Unlike her husband, who isalways miserable, Olga greatly enjoys her life. She isespecially proud of the tomatoes she grows in hergarden. Olga spends her days sunbathing and day-dreaming on an old mattress near her belovedtomato patch.

FURTHER READINGWindham, Donald, Tennessee Williams: Letters to Don-

ald Windham, 1940–1965. Athens: University ofGeorgia Press, 1977.

Me, Vashya!Written for the WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Play-writing Competition while Williams was a senior

Me, Vashya! 149

there in 1937. The play is about a munitions mogulwho wins in a love triangle by having his rivalshipped to the front line. Williams was furiouswhen he learned that the play only placed fourthin the competition.

The MigrantsA screenplay written around 1973. The screenplaywas a dramatization of the epic poem The Migrants,written by the U.S. poet Clark Mills. Mills, a literaryassociate of Williams’s, met Williams while theywere both students at Washington University in ST.LOUIS, MISSOURI. He published The Migrants in 1941and dedicated the book-length poem to Williams.

The Migrants is the story of a simple family ofmigrant farmers who worked the fields, loved eachother, and dreamed of seeing their hard workrewarded. Williams’s screenplay was never pub-lished, but it was adapted for film in 1973. TomGries directed the film, which featured RonHoward, Sissy Spacek, and Cloris Leachman.

FURTHER READINGMills, Clark. The Migrants: A Poem. Prairie City, Ill.:

James A. Decker, 1941.

The Milk Train Doesn’t StopHere Anymore

Full-length play written between 1959 and 1962.

SYNOPSISThe setting is a magnificent mountain estateowned by Mrs. Flora Goforth. The estate is situatedon Italy’s Divina Costiera.

PrologueA pair of stage assistants, named One and Two, serveas Japanese Kabuki characters. One announces theflag-raising ceremony on Mrs. Goforth’s mountain.They place the banner with a golden griffin into itsstand. They introduce themselves and explain theirfunction as stagehands who shift props and furniture

throughout the play. They are also characters (whenthey appear in costume).

The elderly Mrs. Goforth’s morning laments canbe heard, although it is already noon.

Scene 1Mrs. Goforth dictates her memoir to her always-exhausted secretary, Blackie. She speaks lovingly ofa former young lover with Romanov blood whorecklessly drove a red “demon” sports car. Blackiebecomes frustrated because the memoir, as Mrs.Goforth is establishing it, is confusing and ran-domly structured. Mrs. Goforth explains that herfirst marriage was to a tycoon named HarlonGoforth. She then becomes infuriated by Blackie,shouting insults and explaining that she has beentalking about her fourth husband, “the last one”(although she has had six husbands), who drove hissports car off the Grande Corniche and died. Mrs.Goforth believes that her heart died with him.

Mrs. Goforth blames her condition on the med-ication she is taking. Blackie suggests that they takea break. Mrs. Goforth does not care that Blackiegets little sleep due to caring for Mrs. Goforth nightand day. The elderly woman has nightmares andshouts through the night. While Mrs. Goforth istalking on the phone with her stockbroker, DoctorLullo enters pushing an X-ray machine into theroom to examine Mrs. Goforth, who has lung can-cer. The aging woman vehemently objects to themachine, and she shoves it out the door and overthe cliff. Mrs. Goforth confesses to Blackie that shefears she will die this summer.

Insisting on getting back to the memoir, shetalks about Alex, her last husband. She describeshis beauty and loving grace. In this moment, thewatchdogs are heard attacking someone outside.The servants shout in Italian for Rudy, the overseer.Mrs. Goforth is annoyed that her wonderful recol-lections have once again been interrupted. Ayoung man named Chris Flanders stumbles ontothe terrace. His pants are ripped and he is weak.Blackie runs out to meet him, and she offers to getthe doctor for him. Chris is concerned only withseeing Mrs. Goforth. Blackie helps him sit downwhile she fetches her boss. Mrs. Goforth is worriedthat the visitor will sue her for the attack. Chris

150 The Migrants

calls out for Mrs. Goforth. Rudy admits that he setthe dogs on Chris because he was trespassing fromthe highway. Mrs. Goforth instructs him to add“Beware of the Dogs” to the “Private Property” signthat stands at the bottom of the mountain.

Chris sends his book of poetry to Mrs. Goforthvia the gardener’s son. She uses binoculars to seehim before meeting him. Mrs. Goforth is notpleased to have a visitor, as she is tired of beingbombarded by houseguests who have no intentionof leaving. She says the island has been overrun bybeatniks with little money, and a list of rich olderwomen to call on for accommodations and food.She sends Blackie out to tell Chris that she will notbe used. Mrs. Goforth becomes interested in Chriswhen she notices that the lederhosen he is wearingresembles the ones Alex wore. She orders Blackieto interrogate Chris, and if he answers to her satis-faction, he will be in the pink villino to bathe andrest. Blackie shows Chris to the small villa.

Scene 2Blackie escorts Chris to the pink villino, which isdecorated with cupids. She is concerned about thedog bites on his legs, but he assures her he is fine.Blackie explains that she is helping Mrs. Goforthwith her memoir. A servant draws a bath for Chris.Blackie rummages through Chris’s rucksack andfinds metalsmith tools and mobiles. Chris catchesher and explains that he was once a poet, but nowhe makes mobiles. They smoke a cigarette together,and Chris asks whether Mrs. Goforth remembershim. Blackie indicates that Mrs. Goforth did likehis looks. Blackie advises Chris that if he handlesthe situation correctly, he will be able to stay withMrs. Goforth for a long time. Blackie calls heremployer a “dying monster.” Blackie explains thatMrs. Goforth eats nothing but pills, suffers night-mares, and hysterically raves into a tape recorderfor Blackie to transcribe. She tells Chris that Mrs.Goforth has “demented memoirs,” which are recol-lections of her position as an international beauty.Chris says that he has had experience with dyingwomen who refuse to admit that they are. He givesa mobile entitled “The Earth Is a Wheel in a GreatBig Gambling Casino” to Blackie to give to Mrs.Goforth. He gives Blackie a copy of his book of

poetry. He asks to make a phone call to anotherelderly woman in Sicily. Blackie orders food forChris to eat when he awakens.

Mrs Goforth sits on the terrace. She shouts atthe Italian servants, who do not understand herpigeon Italian. Blackie chastises her for her hatefuldisposition toward them. Mrs. Goforth asks aboutChris. Blackie gives her the mobile and tells her itstitle. Mrs. Goforth is too cranky to acknowledgethe gift and orders Blackie to help her up to escapethe Sun; they return to the library. Mrs. Goforthdecides she needs a lover to combat her depression.Mrs. Goforth sends for Chris’s rucksack. She beginsdictation again, but Blackie leisurely smokes a ciga-rette. Mrs. Goforth talks about the season of ’24and the costume ball at Cannes. She went as LadyGodiva, entirely gilded except for a green velvet figleaf. She recalls the year 1929, the year the madparties ended.

Mrs. Goforth searches through Chris’s rucksack,finding metalsmith tools and metal. She is impressedthat he has been hauling such a heavy load. She alsofinds his address book and fumbles through its con-tents. She learns that he is 35 years old when shefinds his passport. Mrs. Goforth asks how he lookedin the bathtub, as she finds a samurai warrior’s robethat once belonged to Alex. She tells Blackie to takeit to Chris to wear while his clothes are beingrepaired. Mrs. Goforth orders Blackie to call theWitch of Capri and invite her to dinner.

Scene 3Later that evening Mrs. Goforth dresses in akimono and wig. Blackie announces that the Witchof Capri’s boat has arrived. Mrs. Goforth greets herand they sit down for dinner. After several minutesof conversation, Mrs. Goforth inquires about ChrisFlanders. The Witch knows his entire history: Hehas an affinity for dying old women. At an eliteparty in Texas, he was christened with champagne“Christopher Flanders, the Angel of Death.” Mrs.Goforth says that she has met him somewherebefore. The Witch recounts that Chris was a skiinstructor and a poet in Nevada. Sally Fergusonfound him there the season she broke her hip. Chriscarried her back to the ski lodge and stayed with herfor several years. She had her hip repaired but broke

The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore 151

it again on a cruise. Sally’s friends blamed Chris forallowing Sally to fall again. Sally kept Chris until shedied; after her family contested her will, Chris leftempty-handed.

Scene 4Rudy hears an intruder on the terrace in the middleof the night. He discovers Chris, searching for food.Rudy beats him with his stick. Blackie runs ontothe terrace and stops Rudy. Chris tries to catch hisbreath and confesses that he has not eaten in fivedays. Blackie tells him that she had food sent to hisroom. He answers that nothing was delivered.Blackie deduces that Mrs. Goforth intercepted herorder. She says he will have to wait until morningto eat because Mrs. Goforth locks the kitchen. Mrs.Goforth calls Blackie on the intercom to dictate.When Blackie enters her bedroom, she begins thestory of the death of her first husband, Harlon, whobecame deathly ill during their lovemaking. Mrs.Goforth guiltily confesses that she let him diealone. She runs onto the terrace, stopping at theedge of the cliff. Blackie pleads with her to standstill. She sways and Blackie runs to grab her. Mrs.Goforth begs her to stay with her.

Scene 5The next morning Mrs. Goforth and Blackie areseated on the terrace. Mrs. Goforth begins the dic-tation, pondering the meaning of life. Chris entersand stands at the edge of the terrace. Blackie seeshim and motions for him to stay out of Mrs.Goforth’s sight for a moment. One and Two enterand play a game of ball, elaborating on Mrs.Goforth’s ideas. When they exit, Blackie introducesChris in the samurai robe. Mrs. Goforth beckonshim to her. She addresses the dog attack, and Chrisapologizes for disturbing her. Mrs. Goforth calls thevicious dogs necessary, as she possesses very rarejewels and furniture. She asks whether he read the“Beware of the Dogs” sign. Blackie becomes angryand states that the sign was put up after his attack.Mrs. Goforth asks Chris to sign a statement releas-ing her from responsibility of the attack. Chris ishappy to oblige her.

Mrs. Goforth compliments Chris on his beauti-ful teeth. She calls him a Trojan Horse because he

arrived without invitation. Chris asks whether sheremembers their meeting a few years ago and herinvitation to visit. Mrs. Goforth retorts that invita-tions expire. Chris asks her how it feels to be leg-endary. She replies that she was blessed with abeautiful face and body. She was born “between aswamp and the wrong side of the tracks” in Geor-gia. She started in show business at age 15, becamefamous, and married a tycoon. She says that latelyshe has been a little run down. Mrs. Goforth asksChris how he feels about being a legend. He isdumbfounded by the question.

Chris suggests they picnic on the beach andhave a wonderful late night dinner on the terrace“with the sea still booming.” He tells her that hehas lost his sense of reality lately and this summer’stravels have made him realize that he is treated as aleper. Mrs. Goforth calls him a professional house-guest. She addresses him by his nickname, Angel ofDeath, and informs him that she is not supersti-tious. Chris tells Mrs. Goforth that he just needssomeone to care for. The Witch enters. She missedher boat to Capri the previous night. Mrs. Goforthimmediately calls for another boat to take herhome. The Witch tries to embarrass Chris by men-tioning his nickname. She asks him to go to Capriwith her. Mrs. Goforth ushers the Witch off theveranda and suffers a coughing fit.

Chris asks about the numerous villas Mrs. Goforthowns on the mountain. She tells him about thesmallest of them, “the Oubliette,” by the ocean. Mrs.Goforth says she has been bombarded with guestsclaiming to be famous people. When she inspectstheir passports, she learns their true identity andplaces them in the Oubliette, or “the place wherepeople are put to be forgotten.” Blackie enters with aplate of long-awaited food for Chris. Mrs. Goforthdetests the smell of food and orders that the plate beremoved. Famished and weak, Chris watches thefood disappear from sight. He reaches for a cigarette,but Mrs. Goforth will not let him have one unless hekisses her. He does not oblige her. He takes her handin his. She admits that she has been very lonely thissummer. Mrs. Goforth talks about Mrs. Ferguson andChris’s freeloading relationship with her. Chrisdefends his position by stating that he made her walkagain, and in return, she published his book of

152 The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore

poetry. Chris goes on to tell Mrs. Goforth that she issuffering from unnecessary loneliness.

Mrs. Goforth produces a letter she recentlyreceived from her publishers praising her unfinishedmemoirs as equal to Marcel Proust’s Remembrance ofThings Past. Chris believes the publisher is “snowing”her, and Mrs. Goforth grows livid at this remark.Chris is entertained by her ire. He reiterates hisbelief that she needs companionship. Mrs. Goforthorders Chris to remove the sword belt he has beenwearing to keep the samurai robe shut. When heobeys, she gives him the scarf from around her neckto use as a belt. Blackie interrupts with a call forChris. The call is from Madelyn, the daughter of anelderly admirer, who reveals that her mother hasdied. Mrs. Goforth is unnerved by the call.

Chris returns to Mrs. Goforth. He gazes out atthe ocean and imagines a time when Romantriremes rowed ashore. Chris grabs her diamond-studded cigarette lighter. When he refuses to put itdown, she rings a bell for Rudy. Chris takes the bellout of her hand and says that he was only joking;Mrs. Goforth is not amused. Blackie enters andasks why Mrs. Goforth has dismissed the kitchenstaff. Mrs. Goforth explains that they were stealingvaluables. Blackie reminds her that the items shementions are in storage. Mrs. Goforth is offendedby Blackie’s outburst in front of a guest. Shedemands that Blackie go to her desk, write a checkfor herself, and leave. Blackie is happy to do so. AsBlackie leaves, Chris shouts that Mrs. Goforth iscoughing blood. The doctor in Rome is called.

Scene 6Later that evening Blackie sits on the terrace writ-ing lists of things to do before she leaves. One andTwo are ready to lower Mrs. Goforth’s banner. Onesuggests contacting Mrs. Goforth’s daughter toinform her that her mother is dying. One and Twodiscuss a death celebration. One states that Rudyis pillaging the library safe for jewels. Chris enterswearing his repaired clothes. Blackie tells him thatthe doctor gave Mrs. Goforth a shot of adrenaline,which made her frantic and fearful that someonewould steal her jewels. Blackie continues compil-ing her list. She tells Chris that she has placed abottle of milk in his rucksack. He should drink it

now and dine with her later. Chris asks whether hecan stay in the Oubliette. Blackie says he wouldnever be discovered down there. He says he wouldlike to stay by the beach and make a mobile enti-tled “Boom.”

Mrs. Goforth calls for Chris but asks him tostand by the door until she is ready to receive him.She believes working on her memoir has made herill. She decides to stop the dictation for a while.Chris agrees that this is a good idea. He is embar-rassed when he enters her quarters and discoversthat she is nude. He compliments her beautifulbody. Mrs. Goforth hopes that he will stay at thevilla with her. Chris hangs a mobile and prepares toleave. Mrs. Goforth orders a huge feast be preparedfor Chris in an attempt to persuade him to stay.Chris says good-bye. Mrs. Goforth says he is thefirst man who ever refused an invitation to her bed-room. He apologizes, and she says, “Man bring thisup road, huh?” showing him his book of poetry. Shemakes him take back the book because she is surehe is running short of copies and she is certain shewould not enjoy it.

Chris calls Mrs. Goforth a fool for not under-standing that everyone eventually needs someoneto care for them at the end. Chris tells her abouthis relationship with Mrs. Ferguson: about thedrowning man he saved and the Swami who toldhim that this would be his vocation in life. TheSwami taught him how to live and die in a dignifiedway, without fear. Mrs. Goforth acknowledges thatChris is the Angel of Death. Mrs. Goforth stub-bornly rejects his comfort. She tells him that he willget nothing from her, and that “this milk traindoesn’t stop here anymore.”

Mrs. Goforth coughs blood into a tissue. Shecalls it a paper rose and hands it to him. She begshim not to leave her alone. Chris says he neverleaves until the end. He holds her hand, removingthe rings on her fingers. She tells him to be presentwhen she wakes up.

One lowers the flag on Mrs. Goforth’s moun-tain. Chris enters the forestage to meet Blackie.Blackie inquires as to what transpired. Chris relatesMrs. Goforth’s order and tells Blackie that heplaced Mrs. Goforth’s rings under her pillow, “like aPharaoh’s breakfast waiting for the Pharaoh to


wake up hungry.” Blackie comments on the soundof the sea, and Chris says, “Boom.”

COMMENTARYIn his Memoirs, Williams writes that The Milk TrainDoesn’t Stop Here Anymore was a work which“reflected so painfully the deepening shadows ofmy life as a man and artist.” During this period ofhis life, Williams’s life partner of 16 years, FRANK

MERLO, died of cancer and the dramatist began hisdownward spiral into depression and drugs.Williams experienced severe loneliness and trav-eled as a means of alleviating his pain and runningfrom the shadows of bad reviews. As Williamsbelieved, “The very root-necessity of all creativework is to express those things most involved inone’s particular experience” (Too Personal?, 157),Milk Train is no exception, as it reflects the impactof Merlo’s death and the end of a creatively fruitfuland socially exciting era in the writer’s life. Thecharacter Mrs. Goforth is dying of cancer, and asWilliams witnessed in the protracted illness ofMerlo, Mrs. Goforth battles death, refusing to yieldto the inevitable.

In Milk Train Williams wrestles with mortality.He addresses life’s larger questions through Mrs.Goforth. Her intensely materialistic and narcissis-tic life has placed her in a very lonely and vulnera-ble position as an ailing elderly woman because, asBlanche must, she must depend on the “kindnessof strangers.” Chris Flanders is the one person whocares for her, and even he is questionable in hisrole as the Angel of Death reserved only for richold women.

Creative and good-looking, Chris Flanders hasbreezed through life on his charm and sex appeal;now he is an aging playboy, like Chance Wayne(SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH) who undergoes a life crisisbecause aging has made him less desirable. Unlikeother playboy characters, such as the Comte PaoloDi Leo (THE ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE), Chrisis unique in that he, like The Poet in the short storyof the same name, has a spiritual duty to thedrama’s protagonist. He is an otherworldly charac-ter who knows his higher calling is to serve human-ity in a spiritual capacity. His presence as the Angelof Death is at once alarming and soothing to Mrs.

Goforth, whose glory days are filled with handsomemen by her side.

Hunger is another dominant theme in the play.Chris is starving for sustenance while Mrs. Goforth’sdesperation manifests itself through her need to bedesired and to have sexual intercourse. She cannotaccept Chris as a friend who has entered to see herthrough death. Mrs. Goforth is too jaded for that.She must have him physically in order to considerher relationship with him legitimate. Chris rejectsthat intimacy. His prolonged physical hungerresults. The quest for life is also central to the play,as Mrs. Goforth struggles to find a life-sustainingpower through retelling her memories. In a desper-ate attempt to immortalize herself, Mrs. Goforthrushes to deliver all of her memories—and thosememories are of lovers and great passion.

As is the griffin on her flag, Mrs. Goforth is amonster at the end of her life. She is callous andcruel, but in moments of deep contemplation, herfear of death is revealed. In these moments, Mrs.Goforth becomes sincere and childlike. Nothinghas prepared her for this moment, the time whenshe dies a violent and painful death.

The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore isbased on the short story “MAN BRING THIS UP

ROAD” (1953). After an extended trip to Japan,where Williams met the famous novelist YukioMishima, he was influenced by Eastern philosophy.After he had expanded this short story into the playand revised the play several times, those influencescan be traced through the use of the Kabuki char-acters as well as the philosophies regarding death.

PRODUCTION HISTORYMilk Train premiered at the Festival of Two Worldsin Spoleto, Italy, July 11, 1962. It was produced onBroadway on January 16, 1963, directed by HerbertMachiz and starring Hermione Baddeley. The playwas not well received. Williams blamed the poorreception on the newspaper strike in New York Cityat the time. Williams advocated another run, forwhich he revised the script one year later. This sec-ond New York production included Kabuki charac-ters and starred TALLULAH BANKHEAD. One reviewof the production stated, “The saddest thing of all,however, is that time runs out on the play and all

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the gimmicks fail, one after another, one hears Mr.Williams more and more frequently rattling the drybones of old speeches from old plays together to tryto strike a spark” (West, 40). Despite its Americanfailure, Milk Train premiered in London in 1968,where critics responded with fervent praise.

Milk Train was adapted into a screenplay enti-tled Boom! The 1968 film starred Elizabeth Taylor,Richard Burton, and Noel Coward. Despite theremarkable cast the film was not a success.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore was pub-lished in The Best Plays of 1962–1963 by Dodd,Mead. It was subsequently published by New Direc-tions in 1964.

CHARACTERSBlackie She is the abused secretary of Mrs. FloraGoforth. Blackie is in charge of transcribing Mrs.Goforth’s memoirs. Blackie serves as her compan-ion, taking care of the dying woman through hermorphine nightmares. Blackie is finally releasedwhen the woman dies. Blackie befriends a wan-derer, Chris Flanders, at the estate.

Flanders, Chris He is another of Williams’s fugi-tive kind, a wanderer of the world. Chris has madea career of attaching himself to wealthy agingwomen who admire his charm and good looks. AsChris has himself aged, he has reached a desperatepoint in his life in which he is no longer in demand.He arrives at Mrs. Flora Goforth’s Italian estate inhopes of securing food and accommodations. Chrisalso claims to have a spiritual duty, to help womendie peacefully, gaining him the nickname the Angelof Death. Mrs. Goforth does not immediately wel-come him; however, Chris fulfills his obligation andstays with her until she dies.

Goforth, Mrs. Flora She is an angry agingwoman who is dying of lung cancer. Mrs. Goforthhas long tired of the social life of the elite. Shefights death by living in the domain of memory. Shefrantically writes her memoir, detailing the sexualescapades of bohemian parties of the 1920s. Whenshe is interrupted by a visitor, a “beatnik” or “pro-

fessional house guest,” as she calls Chris Flanders,Mrs. Goforth does not warm to him immediately.She does, however, ask him to be by her side whenshe dies.

Lullo, Dr. He is Flora Goforth’s doctor. Lullo triesto care for Mrs. Goforth, who has cancer, but theelderly woman adamantly resists his efforts.

One Inspired by the conventions of Kabukidrama, Williams created this character and hiscohort, Two, to serve as stage assistants in the play.One and Two introduce themselves to the audienceat the start of the play and explain their function asstagehands.

Rudy He is a rough and drunken guard at theestate of Mrs. Flora Goforth. Rudy is willful anduntrustworthy. As Mrs. Goforth lies dying, he emp-ties her jewelry vault.

Two Two is one of a pair of stage assistants in theplay. A convention taken from Kabuki drama,these stagehands complete their tasks of shiftingproperties and moving furniture and scenery in fullview of the audience.

Witch of Capri She is a contemporary of Mrs.Flora Goforth’s. The Witch is one of a number ofwealthy aging women who compete for the atten-tion of young men. The Witch dines with Mrs.Goforth and tries to convince her guest, ChrisFlanders, to go home with her.

FURTHER READINGPaller, Michael. “The Day on Which a Woman Dies:

The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore and NohTheatre,” in The Undiscovered Country: The LaterPlays of Tennessee Williams, edited by Philip Kolin.New York: Peter Lang, 2002, pp. 25–39.

West, Anthony. “One Milk Train, One Scandal.”Show 3, no. 4 (April 1963): 40–41.

Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City: N.Y.:Doubleday, 1975.

———. “Too Personal?” In Where I Live. New York:New Directions, 1978.


“Miss Coynte of Greene”Short story written in 1972.

SYNOPSISValerie Coynte, a 30-year-old single woman, hasdutifully cared for her cruel, bedridden, incontinentgrandmother, Mère, for the past 10 years. On a par-ticularly stressful day, the old woman adamantlyrequests a bowl of sherbet. Valerie makes a cruderemark and slams the door as she leaves the oldwoman’s room. Mère becomes enraged and literallyscreams herself to death in her bedroom. Valerie lieson the couch and fantasizes about her future and thefreedom she will have now that her grandmother isdead. One week after Mère’s death, Valerie uses herinherited money to open an antiques store.

Jack Jones, a handsome young mulatto man, vis-its the store. After several minutes of conversation,the two engage in Miss Coynte’s first sexual experi-ence. Their affair continues over an extendedperiod of time until Jack suffers a heart attackcaused by overexertion. Miss Coynte visits him inthe hospital and has sex with him as he dies. MissCoynte’s next sexual partner is Sonny Bowles, alarge African-American man who works as a deliv-eryman in her shop. When Sonny becomes unre-sponsive to Valerie’s sexual advances, she sendshim on a vacation. Sonny returns to discover that aset of African-American twins, Mike and Moon,have replaced him. Mike and Moon take Valerieout dancing at various African-American clubs andshow her a world she has never seen. She thor-oughly enjoys her newly found freedom, and herbliss is complete when an angel descends to informher that she is pregnant. Miss Coynte gives birth toa daughter, Michele Moon.

Twenty years pass, and Michele Moon is pregnantwith Miss Coynte’s grandchild. Miss Coynte is dying,and the two women visit the grave of Jack Jones,Valerie’s first lover. Valerie spreads roses over Jack’sgrave as Michele Moon has a sexual encounter witha cemetery caretaker. Miss Coynte dies on Jack’sgrave, completely satisfied with her legacy.

COMMENTARYA survey of the very limited commentary on “MissCoynte of Greene” reveals highly superficial analyses

of the story that largely dismiss it as “shallow” and“trite” (Vannatta, 69, 115). However, beneath thesurface of this tale of sexual excess, Williams is mak-ing a powerful political declaration. Valerie Coyntewages a personal crusade for racial, sexual, andsocial equality. The excessively judgmental stancesome critics have taken toward the story and thecharacters in it reveals much about the prejudicesand social mores that Williams actively confronted,challenged, and flouted throughout his work—particularly the societal constraints regarding sexualfreedom, women’s liberation, and civil rights. HarryRasky acknowledges that Williams felt a real senseof kinship with African Americans. As a gay man,Williams was intimately aware of what it meant tobe an “outcast” in U.S. society. “Miss Coynte ofGreene” illustrates Williams’s concern with thesocial injustices faced by African Americans, and heoffers a vivid vision of the future in which there isracial harmony, with the races blending completely,symbolized by a genteel Southern white woman whohappily leaves a legacy of mulatto children.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Miss Coynte of Greene” was first published in Play-boy magazine, in 1973. It was subsequently includedin the short story collection EIGHT MORTAL LADIES

POSSESSED in 1974 and the Williams short storyanthology Collected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSBowles, Sonny Sonny works as a deliverymanfor a short time in the small-town antique shopowned by Valerie Coynte. He and Miss Coyntebecome lovers, and they frequently engage in sex-ual activity in her shop. Sonny is one of severallocal African-American men who become romanti-cally involved with Miss Coynte.

Coynte, Miss Valerie She is a woman who dedi-cates 10 years of her youth to her mean-spiritedand bedridden grandmother, Mère. When Mèredies, Miss Coynte is free to live as she chooses, andshe chooses to live without regard to her Southernsociety’s codes of conduct. She engages in affairswith various local African-American men, such asJack Jones, Sonny Bowles, and the twins, Mike and

156 “Miss Coynte of Greene”

Moon. She becomes pregnant and has a biracialdaughter, whom she names Michele Moon.

Jones, Jack Jack is a young handsome mulattoman who becomes Valerie Coynte’s first lover.Valerie has lived as a repressed virgin, caring for hercruel bedridden grandmother. At Mere’s death,Valerie is liberated to live as she pleases. Jack opensa world of sexual freedom to Valerie. Their wildaffair is the first of several in Valerie’s life, but it isthe one she treasures most.

Mère Mère is the spiteful bedridden grand-mother of Valerie Coynte. It is suspected thatMère may not actually be unwell, that she is pre-tending in order to force Valerie to devote her lifeto taking care of her. Valerie literally shocks Mèreto death by responding crudely to her request forsherbet.

Michele Moon The mulatto daughter of ValerieCoynte and her twin African-American lovers Mikeand Moon. As is her mother, she is a passionatewoman. When Miss Coynte dies, Michele Moon isleft to carry on her mother’s passionate legacy.

Mike and Moon They are handsome African-American twins. They work in the store owned byValerie Coynte, and both become romanticallyinvolved with her. Miss Coynte becomes pregnantby one of the twins but is uncertain as to which.She names their female love child Michelle Moonafter each of them.

FURTHER READINGRasky, Harry. Tennessee Williams: A Portrait in Laugh-

ter and Lamentation. Oakville, Canada: MosaicPress, 2000.

Vannatta, Dennis. Tennessee Williams: A Study of theShort Fiction. New York: G. K. Hall, 1988.

Moise and the World of ReasonNovel published in 1975.

SYNOPSIS

Part 1The Narrator lives in a squalid walled-off section ofan abandoned warehouse near the South HudsonDocks, together with his lover, 25-year-old Charlie.He is a writer in his 30s from a small town in theSouth. He has “inherited” his present abode from hisfirst lover, Lance, an African-American ice skater.

The Narrator and Charlie visit Moise, an artist-friend, who is preparing to host a party later thatnight. When they arrive, they find the apartmentopen, but Moise nowhere in sight. They see wine,some snacks, and a nearly empty port bottle, indi-cating that she is already drunk. A painter himself,Charlie mocks Moise’s painting that stands in thecorner. Two well-dressed young men enter theroom and begin taking photographs with old-fash-ioned box cameras. Moise appears from a doorhalfway down the hall, wearing a see-through dressand refusing to wear anything underneath. Sheposes for the photographers.

Later that night, Moise admits to the Narratorthat her patron has recently died, leaving her desti-tute. She says that her last resource is Tony Smithin South Orange, New Jersey, and his wife, Janie.The Narrator notices that Moise’s voice is failingand recommends she make her announcementnow, so the guests will be listening. Moise whispersthat conditions have become untenable in herworld. The statement is not heard, and the Narra-tor repeats it, shouting. With the exception of theActress Invicta, the guests listen uncomprehend-ingly as Moise tells them about her depleted paintsupplies and her patron and client, an 87-year-oldgentleman, recently deceased. In exchange for hisfinancial assistance, she regularly provided sexualfavors for him. A new guest, Big Lot, arrives, andwhen Charlie shows an interest in him, the Narra-tor declares the party over. Big Lot invites Charlieto join him for chili, and a brief argument ensues,which is broken up by Moise.

The Narrator has a flashback about being noti-fied of Lance’s death and about spending the nightwith Moise, not for sex but for comfort. The ActressInvicta rises and puts on her cloak to leave. At thatmoment, several newcomers arrive, led by Moise’srival, Miriam Skates. The Narrator is dismayed and

Moise and the World of Reason 157

unable to believe that Moise has invited Skates,but Moise greets her and repeats her announce-ment. The sole candle illuminating the room dies,and the guests stumble over each other, frantic toget out the door. Skates strikes a match as herentourage drag her through the corridor and outinto the street. Moise says that she has to pray andsends the Narrator home.

Leaving the aftermath of the party and suspect-ing betrayal, the Narrator goes in search of Charlieand Big Lot. He comes across a speed freak, who isabusing his dog, and shouts at him to stop. Theman threatens to beat the Narrator and scares himacross the street and into the brightly lit area out-side the Truck and Warehouse, an off-off-Broadwaytheater. There is a public rehearsal or performancegoing on, and the pavement is obstructed by a bum,who asks the Narrator for change. He refuses, andsuddenly the door flies open, and a man in a furcoat storms out, complaining loudly. It emergesthat he is a playwright, author of the play rehears-ing inside, and he left in a huff when the leadinglady insulted him. Then he realizes that he has metthe Narrator, at a party at Moise’s. The playwrightasks about Moise, saying that he has not seen hersince that party, and requests that the Narratorwalk him to the corner. The Narrator realizes thatthe man is neither drunk nor drugged, but ill. Theygo to a corner bar, with the intention of calling acab. Instead, the playwright orders a bottle of wineand two glasses and punches the same song on thejukebox three times. The playwright, as is the Nar-rator, is originally from the South. The Narratoradmits that Charlie has left him, and the play-wright counsels against an attempt to win himback. They catch a cab, and the playwright turnsamorous, but they reach the Narrator’s home, adockside warehouse. Seeing the warehouse, theplaywright feels he has found a kindred soul: Onlya dead person could live in a place like that, and hehad thought he was the only one: “The only tenantof the great ebony tower!” At that moment the cabwhisks the playwright away.

Part 2The Narrator is back home and alone with his BlueJay notebook. Thirty years old, he still feels he is on

the run from the truant officer of his hometown ofThelma, Alabama, and from his mother, who hashad no contact with him for years. He imagines herin a rocker in the day room of a care facility. TheBlue Jay notebook is nearly full, and in an effort toconserve the remaining pages, he begins writing onrejection slips from publishers. The notebook is anextension of him, and he and the Blue Jay are alonewith the clock now. The clock is the subject ofCharlie’s most recent painting, which attempts tobe more precise than the actual object but fallsshort of it. The Narrator places Charlie’s portrait ofthe clock in the same place as the clock itself.

He attempts a chronological account of his life.He was thrown out of his home by his father at age15 and went to New York City, where he met Lanceand Moise at the San Remo bar in Greenwich Vil-lage. He recalls his first night together with Lance atMoise’s apartment, leading to a love affair that lasted13 years, and his mother’s pleading letters to returnhome. The Narrator remembers his mother’s visit tothe city to collect him and her collapse on the streetand subsequent arrest for public drunkenness.

The Narrator has never known a writer to saythat he cannot write alone, but he himself preferscompany. He has fallen into the habit while livingwith Lance, and it is one of the reasons for usingthe Blue Jay notebooks, as the noise of a typewriterwould be too distracting. However, at the momenthis only companion is the clock. At 4:10 A.M. hewaits for Charlie.

The Narrator moves to the boarded-off livingarea, saying out loud a snatch of lyrics he has heardonce, “Boys are fox-teeth in the heart.” For the thirdtime in his life, he contemplates committing suicide.The first time was during his stay at a sanatorium,Governor’s Island, and the second time after Lancehad given him gonorrhea for the first time.

During his confinement on Governor’s Island,the Narrator is interviewed once a week by a stu-dent psychiatrist. On the last visit, the student tellshim that he considers the Narrator a sexual deviantand asks whether he has ever had a “normal” sex-ual experience. The Narrator recounts an exagger-ated childhood memory of a summer afternoon inThelma when he was seduced to perform cunnilin-gus by a 13-year-old playmate. The psychiatrist

158 Moise and the World of Reason

calls him a “pervert,” but the Narrator points outthe psychiatrist’s erection. The psychiatrist ejacu-lates, confirming to the Narrator his ability toexcite with words. The psychiatrist’s verdict on hispatient is “Arrested at puberty. Hopeless.”

The Narrator recalls the time when he went ona tour with Lance, which resulted in “a crescendoof disasters.” The tour manager was horrified bythe thought of desegregation, so Lance told himthat the Narrator was an albino and threatened toleave the tour unless the manager acquiesced.Lance and the Narrator shared a hotel room withanother skater and his dog. One night, drugged bya pill that was supposed to prevent him from talk-ing in his sleep, the Narrator became lost on hisway back from the bathroom and was repeatedlybitten by the dog. Insufficiently treated, the biteson his ankles became severely infected; one nightin Sheboygan, the Narrator was rushed to a hospi-tal, where he nearly died.

The Narrator explains about “Bon Ami,” a cratehe uses as a work desk. Lance resented Bon Ami,because it diverted the Narrator’s attention fromhim. Occasionally, Lance’s interruptions wouldforce the Narrator to leave the warehouse and con-tinue writing in a nearby bar. On these occasionsLance would follow him to the bar and, in the end,physically carry him home.

Shoving away Bon Ami, the Narrator begins toroot around inside the crate, finding more rejectionslips, some of them preprinted, others containingmessages accusing him of sexual hysteria or sug-gesting confinement at a monastery. He searchesfor ways of dealing with his “chronically inflamedlibido” now that his youth has gone and he is deter-mined not to stoop to the indignity of haunting thebaths. Without noticing, he has taken his penis outand is holding it. Putting it back into his pants, hewonders about where one lives when alone, possi-bly in a corner of the day room in the asylum.

The Narrator writes to combat his loneliness.He remembers a time when Lance inquired abouthis self-education in Thelma. The Narrator toldhim that he went to the public library every night.At the library he had access to all the classics, fromthe Greeks to the works of Rimbaud, whom hethinks he resembles. The identification with Rim-

baud was so strong that he tore his picture from alibrary book. Lance doubted that this qualified himfor pursuing a writing career in New York and pre-ferred that he pursue his literary ambitions while hewas on tour.

The impoverished Reverend and Mrs. Lakelandalso lived in Thelma, Alabama, in the house nextdoor, and their audible conversation would revolvearound the failing health of Mrs. Lakeland. Occa-sionally anonymous gifts of food would be placed attheir door, and, too proud to accept them, theywould pass them on to an old African-Americanman. His grandmother told the Narrator that theLakelands had received an intolerable insult fromthe bishop of the diocese and the town. Theyprotested the insult by making themselves everpresent on their porch. The Narrator’s mother for-bade the grandmother to reveal the nature of theinsult. It piqued his curiosity, and he persuaded alady named Pinkie Sales to tell him the story. TheLakelands had a daughter who was in the habit ofscreaming out the window, and on one occasionshe threw a chicken leg at the bishop. The bishopgave an ultimatum to the Reverend Lakeland, tohave his daughter committed and publicly recanthis heretical opinions about the Bible. The Rev-erend Lakeland did neither. Subsequently he wasdismissed without a pension and his daughter ranoff. A few days before the Narrator himself leftThelma, Mrs. Lakeland died, and the same nightthe Lakelands’ house burned down, cremating bothher and the Reverend Lakeland. Both were buriedin unhallowed ground.

The Narrator goes into the bathroom to look athis face and assure himself that he is real. Whilethere, he hears footsteps on the staircase andassumes that it is Charlie returning home. Thearrival speaks out, and the voice is not Charlie’s, butthe playwright’s. He sits on the bed, leafing throughthe Narrator’s notebooks. The playwright says thathe could not make himself enter his hotel roomalone. Studying the playwright, the Narrator real-izes that the man’s loneliness must correspond inmagnitude to his effrontery. He seriously contem-plates whether he is enough of a hustler to acceptthis invitation, but decides he is not. He takes adeep breath, tells the playwright that he is not for


sale, and, looking at the man, is struck by a vision ofa Dorian Gray–like portrait of himself. The Narratoraccuses the man of being egocentric, and the accu-sation is turned back at him. They argue briefly;then the Narrator tells him to be gone by the timehe returns. He leaves the living area, seeing withoutlooking, that the playwright begins scribbling on apiece of hotel stationery.

The Narrator walks up a long flight of stairs tothe roof of the building, six floors above where heand Charlie live. It is light enough to write now, andhe sits on a ledge, waiting for his heartbeat to stabi-lize. He believes that the irregularity is due to one ofthe childhood diseases he suffered, which were mis-diagnosed. As his heartbeat steadies, he wondersabout the point of lingering on in life.

Sitting on the ledge in clothes that are too lightfor the cold temperature, he shivers but does notfeel cold. The warmth he feels is that of fever anddrugs. He returns his attention to the light fromstreet lamps, a few windows, and a cloudy sky. Therooftop feels mystical to him, a place of purifica-tion. The play of light and dark reminds him ofMoise’s painting style and her attention to “plasticspace,” space that is alive.

The Narrator considers the “absolutes of exis-tence” and from there contemplates the sky and thememory of Moise’s retirement from the world ofreason. A violent fit of shivers sends him back downthe stairs and to the living area. As he arrives, hehears a cab honking outside the warehouse andwonders whether it is Charlie. A female voice callshis name, and he runs down to street level, wherehe finds the Actress Invicta. She is looking for BigLot but the Narrator only comments that Big Lot iswith Charlie. The Narrator returns to the livingarea, contemplating that “love is demolition.”

At first he is not aware that there is somethingmissing from the room and sits down in front ofBon Ami. Then he realizes that the one-leggedclock has stopped. He reenters the warehouse tolook out the window again and realizes that it hasbecome morning. Sneezing and noticing his fever,he thinks he will not survive it. At this momentCharlie returns. He is nonchalantly unrepentant,wishes to sleep alone, and declares that his infideli-ties are not confined to the present. His remarks

recall thoughts of Lance, his constant search forbeauty, and his eventual overdose.

The Narrator asks Charlie where he has been,and Charlie admits he has been with the poet LaLanga. The admission makes the Narrator realizethat their relationship is over, and he decides tovisit Moise. Charlie informs him that he probablywill not get in, as there was some kind of riot afterthey left. Moise bolted the door and will not open ituntil Tony from South Orange arrives. MiriamSkates also claims that she killed Moise. The Nar-rator doubts the latter and Charlie looks at himcontemptuously and tells him that he has no con-cept of reality or truth. The Narrator counters thathaving sex with a poet will inject neither Charlienor Skates with talent. Charlie tells him to leave,and as the Narrator staggers down the steps, herealizes that Moise, although she has locked outthe world of reason, cannot lock him out, becausehe is not part of that world. He walks east, down toBleecker Street, holding Lance’s photograph as if itis a cross above him.

Part 3As the narrator approaches Moise’s apartment,policemen stop him. When they harass the Narra-tor for being gay, the Narrator provokes them tofurther brutalization. Moise appears, claiming she iswell connected and has phoned police headquar-ters. The Narrator loses the picture of Lance duringthis beating, and Moise refuses to tell him how sheknew what was going on.

Part 4The absence of a watch or clock tends to accentu-ate the Narrator’s obsession with the passage oftime. He keeps looking at the frosted window inMoise’s back wall to figure out what time it is.Despite Moise’s calm he feels anxious and notready to drift out of existence. Attempts to makeconversation with Moise fall flat. The Narrator ispersistent in his efforts to draw out Moise. Shebreaks her silence to accuse him of substitutingwords for authentic emotion. He tells her that hedoes not recognize her, and she replies that isbecause she is not thinking but reflecting on theprofusion of crones in the city. Feigning ignorance,the Narrator asks about the meaning of crone, and


she advises him to look it up in the dictionary.Instead of a dictionary, he finds an edition of Who’sWho for 1952. The Narrator finds a candle andmatches, places them on the table, and sits byMoise. She launches into an explanation of whatshe means by “crone” and finally reveals that,according to a letter from a friend of hers, hermother has turned into a “scavenger crone,” jig-gling pay phones for change and eating at a cheapdiner. The friend blames Moise and suggests sheshould either have her mother stay with her ormove back to Midtown and provide for her mother.Moise admits that she fears Moppet is dead, and ittranspires that Moppet is a dog who had turnedinto a scavenger crone, foraging for food in garbagepails despite being well fed. Moise fears that hermother has assumed the character of Moppet. TheNarrator points out that this idea might be a littleunreasonable, and that Moise by her own accountleft home 15 years ago because her mother threw apiece of luggage at her. Moise claims not to under-stand and explains that her mother blocked thedoor when she said she was leaving for good. Pos-sessed with superhuman powers, Moise flung thedoor open, her mother fell, and Moppet tried to fol-low her into the street.

The room is ice-cold, and the Narrator takesMoise’s hand, telling her that her story parallels hisleaving Thelma and fleeing from his mother. Moiseconcedes the parallel but feels that he has alterna-tives and will not stay with her long: His nature isevanescent. He takes up a Blue Jay and begins towrite. When he stops writing, the atmosphere inthe room has gone colder and darker.

Moise continues talking, saying that she oughtto get an animal for a companion, because the Nar-rator will remain with her only temporarily and shedoes not want to repeat her accurate analysis of hisnature. When he points out that nothing in theworld is totally accurate, she retorts that this mayapply to his world, but her world is more simplisticnow. The Narrator offers to find her a kitten forcompany and warmth, but Moise does not believehim, because the living always lie to the dying. Shethen touches his face, finds that he is unshaven,and admonishes him not to let his appearance slip.He says he did not bring a razor, and Moise tells

him she once had one to shave her pubic hair. Sheconfesses to a certain vanity about her vaginal areaand says that although she has performed fellatio,she never has had vaginal sex because she refusesto contribute to the worldwide population problem.The Narrator drifts into ruminations about EdgarAllan Poe.

Moise lights a candle and after a while remarksthat the handwriting on the piece of hotel sta-tionery she has picked up with his papers is not theNarrator’s. He takes a look at the sheet and realizesthat it is the one the playwright has used during thenight. Under the hotel’s letterhead is a poem, andMoise orders the Narrator to copy it into his BlueJay. Disliking the poem as much as its author, heobeys reluctantly. Moise asks about the playwright,concludes that he is the Narrator grown old, andwarns the Narrator to stay away from him, because“Monsters of loneliness receive and offer no mercy.”Moise suffers a seizure and the Narrator tends toher. Then there is loud banging on the door.


Portrait of Tennessee Williams, taken in the mid-to-late1970s (photographer: Vandamm Studio)

A delivery of painting materials arrives from theSmiths in South Orange, who have been alerted toMoise’s appeal by the Actress Invicta. There is also anote promising a weekly delivery of food until Moisefeels strong enough to have a small exhibition atHunter. She suffers another seizure and declines the“invitation to join the Symbionese Liberation Armyas their Field Marshal’s mate,” in favor of painting.

The Narrator records her declaration in thenotebook and is interrupted when she approacheshim on her knees, washes his feet, and dries themwith her hair. He helps her to rise, and she turns toher easel and a painting she has already begun.Submerged again in the notebook, the Narrator isvaguely aware of the two men with the box camerasMoise has admitted into the room. The youngerone shyly flirts with him, and he reciprocates hisinterest. Moise announces that they all belong inthis room and begins undressing the older of themen, just as the younger man turns to the Narrator.With this the last Blue Jay is completed.

COMMENTARYWilliams’s second novel, Moise and the World of Rea-son, was published in 1975, the same year as hisMemoirs. In many respects it poses a riddle, and, inorder to be at least partly solved, it requires the“unencrypted” companion piece of the Memoirs.Parts of the novel are clearly autobiographical, “link-ing [the author’s] Greenwich Village life in the early1940s with his difficult time during SMALL CRAFT

WARNINGS” (Spoto, 311)—the play that was to pro-vide a theatrical comeback for him at the Truck andWarehouse Theatre on East Fourth Street in 1972.The eponymous Moise, a struggling artist, is basedon Williams’s friend, the promiscuous painter, OliveLeonard and named after one of his fraternity broth-ers, Matt H. Moise, pictured in the University ofMissouri yearbook of 1932. Other friends, such ashis fellow writer CHRISTOPHER ISHERWOOD; Isher-wood’s partner, the painter Don Bachardy; and theartist/designer Tony Smith and his wife, the actorJane Lawrence (faithful supporters of OliveLeonard), are featured with their real names andidentities. The sense of the autobiographic is height-ened by the unnamed first-person Narrator, suggest-ing that the author himself is speaking. However, if

anything, this complicates—perhaps intentionally—the interpretation of the novel.

Moise and the World of Reason is divided into fourparts, the second part the longest, and the third theshortest. The division is less arbitrary than itappears. Its criteria are defined by events and theirchronology rather than by structural considerations.The first part deals with what happens before, dur-ing, and immediately after Moise’s party. In the sec-ond part, the Narrator waits for Charlie to returnhome, writing the night away. His escape from thewarehouse and Charlie makes up the brief thirdpart; the fourth part consists of his conversationwith Moise. Overall, however, the novel’s “narrativestructure mirrors the complexity of a post-modernworld and contradicts traditional assumptions aboutsequence, logic, order, and completion” (Bray, 62).Narration and occasionally language are fracturedthroughout, and there are frequent, seemingly ran-dom interjections of memories and metatextual sty-listic comments by the author-Narrator.

The critical response to the work ranged fromspeechlessness to bewilderment. In an attempt toapply quantifiable terms of interpretation, criticsfastened on to the autobiographical content and,given that the novel is more explicitly and moreopenly gay than any of Williams’s previous work, onpersonal sexual enfranchisement. The latter,according to David Savran, accounts for the work’soften frustratingly incoherent style, for “finallyempowered to speak directly after so many years of(self-)censorship, [Williams] could only stutter, onlyhammer out broken and lacerated speech” (137).Heavily drawing on Savran and on deconstruction-ist theory, as well as D. W. Winnicott’s study of tran-sitional phenomena, Matt Di Cintio sees theNarrator’s writing as an “object” intended to allowhis transition from internal to external world. Thedevelopment as outlined by Di Cintio necessitatesthe destruction of the object in order to completethis transition—hence the fragmentation language.However, in Moise, the much-cited incomplete sen-tences amount to 24 over 190 pages: frequentenough to constitute a dent, but hardly indicative ofdestruction. Above all, sense remains and thereforelanguage (and writing) must be considered func-tional. Ultimately any linguistic peculiarities can,


perhaps more cogently, be explained as a function ofcharacter and theme.

In the most detailed and most illuminating studyof Moise to date, Robert Bray points out that the“connections between character, situation, andbiography are so obvious in this novel that one dis-cerns the imprimatur of Williams’s life on virtuallyevery page” (67). Bray correctly perceives the Nar-rator, Moise, and the playwright—the Narrator’saging future self, who hopes to make a comebackwith a production at the Truck and WarehouseTheatre—to form “a composite of the author him-self” (67). There is a good case for assuming afourth “persona” that constitutes an integral part ofthe composite: the French rebel poet Arthur Rim-baud. This is far from surprising given that Rimbaudhad become an icon of the sixties and particularly ofthe gay movement. In Moise, Rimbaud is a memberof that heady group of writers and painters who fea-ture among the novel’s slew of incidental charac-ters. But unlike the collection of other artistsreferred to, Rimbaud does not remain incidental.He is the one with whom the Narrator identifies.

As has Rimbaud, the Narrator escaped anoppressive home life to flee to a cultural metropoliswhile still a child. As did Mme. Rimbaud, the Nar-rator’s mother bombards him with letters and setsthe authorities on him. The 15-year-old ArthurRimbaud meets and seduces the married poet PaulVerlaine; the 15-year-old Narrator meets Lance,who at the time is living with Moise, and seduceshim into his first submissive sexual experience. BothRimbaud and the Narrator read voraciously andstart writing at a very young age (as does Williams).Both Rimbaud and the Narrator prefer notebooks astheir medium; both attach sexual connotations totheir writing; both write on any scrap of paper avail-able, for the sake of continuing to write. As does theNarrator’s future self—the Playwright—Rimbaudtravels obsessively, to a list of countries thatincludes Indonesia and Ethiopia. The Narrator, at30, calls himself a “failed, distinguished writer”(much as Williams is at the same age) (Bray, 63).Rimbaud, in his early 20s, has abolished writing—“the impossible telling of things”—altogether.

However, above and beyond these biographicalsimilarities between fictional and real characters,

there exists a striking thematic link that proveshelpful in the reading of Moise. The novel is “a self-conscious testimony to the act of writing. It con-tains numerous musings about fragmented languageand the ineffable nature of words” (Bray, 61).Indeed, fragmentation and ineffability are unavoid-able because true communication is a function ofthe world of reason, which has been left behind inPart 1. In Part 2, the Narrator’s wake is filled with anendless, frequently incoherent string of memories,fever- and drug-induced hallucinations that turn outto be real, and absurd snippets of reality that in theirrecursiveness often feel more distorted than ostensi-bly “unreal” images—in short, compounded unrea-son. Parts 3 and 4 introduce dawn and with it theprospect of new beginnings, unknown as yet but nolonger tied to reason or unreason—or any stable ruleof society—and possibly containing renewed humancontact and thus the demolition of a terrifyinglysolipsistic vision. This takes the main theme of Moiseand the World of Reason beyond a chronicle of the actof writing, to encompass the journey of the writer.

PUBLICATION HISTORYMoise and the World of Reason was published bySimon and Schuster in 1975.

CHARACTERSActress Invicta She is a partygoer at Moise’sapartment. Appearing dramatically in a cape, Invictasearches for Big Lot, but he is interested in spendingthe night with the Narrator’s lover, Charlie.

Big Lot He is a partygoer at the apartment of hisartist friend Moise. Big Lot becomes interested inthe Narrator.

Charlie He is the Narrator’s lover. A painterhimself, Charlie scoffs at Moise’s artwork. Whenthey attend a party hosted by Moise, Charlie leaveswith Big Lot. Charlie returns to his destitute apart-ment, where the Narrator has waited all night forhim. Charlie evicts the Narrator out onto thestreet.

Lance He is the former lover of the Narrator.Lance is a professional ice skater whose life of touring


shows affords him a life of promiscuity. WhenLance dies the Narrator recollects on the manytimes they spent together.

Moise She is a struggling artist who fancies herselfas a socialite of the artist subculture in New YorkCity. Moise delights in promiscuity and enjoys usingdrugs and being the center of attention. Gatheringall of her friends (and enemies), Moise announcesthat her art patron and financial supporter, an eld-erly man, has died. She is left wondering how shewill survive through this winter in the city. Moiseoften bolts herself into her apartment to paintbecause she refuses to be interrupted until her workis completed. When Moise locks herself in after theannouncement, her friends worry that she will hurtherself. Moise is said to live outside the world of rea-son, as she is consumed by her art through the con-centration she finds when she is intoxicated.

Narrator He is a struggling writer in his 30s whorecords the life of his artist-friend Moise. The Nar-rator is hopelessly in love with a now-deceased for-mer lover, Lance. He spends his time recollectingthose days spent with him and angrily waits for hispresent lover, Charlie, to return from an evening ofsex with Big Lot. The Narrator ponders his writingand Moise’s paintings, and falls into a state ofdepression. He is accosted by police officers, andMoise saves him from further brutality.

Skates, Miriam She is the archrival of Moise.Miriam and Moise are visual artists, and Miriam isjealous of the praise Moise received from a teacheryears ago.

FURTHER READINGBray, Robert. “Moise and the Man in the Fur Coat,”

The Southern Quarterly 38, no. 1 (fall 1999): 58–70.Di Cintio, Matt. “Ordered Anarchy: Writing as Tran-

sitional Object in Moise and the World of Reason.”The Tennessee Williams Annual Review, availableonline, URL: http://www.tennesseewilliamsstudies.org/archives/2002/4dicintio.htm. Accessed January18, 2004.

Korda, Michael. “That’s It, Baby,” The New Yorker, 22March 1999, 60–68.

Savran, David, Communists, Cowboys, and Queers:The Politics of Masculinity in the Work of ArthurMiller and Tennessee Williams. Minneapolis: Univer-sity of Minnesota Press, 1992, p. 137.

Spoto, Donald, The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: DaCapo, 1985.

Moony’s Kid Don’t CryA one-act play written in 1930.

SYNOPSISThe setting is the kitchen of a small three-roomapartment. It is cheaply furnished and shabbilyunkempt. An old table that has a small artificialChristmas tree on it occupies much of the kitchenspace. Over the stove hangs a sign that reads, “KeepSmiling.” At center stage stands an extravagantlyexpensive rocking horse—it seems out of place inthe cheap surroundings. Soft, blue lights illuminatethe stage, and a clothesline is stretched across anupstage corner of the set. Jane enters the kitchen tomake Moony a cup of hot milk. Moony follows herinto the kitchen, complaining that it is four o’clockin the morning and he will have to go to work soon.

He paces restlessly, mumbling about the small sizeof their apartment. He reminisces about his formerlife in the open air as a lumberjack. Jane ignoresMoony’s reverie. When he spills milk on the floor,she scolds him. She ridicules his dreams and remindshim that she, too, has sacrificed a better life to bewith him. Moony suggests that he should follow inhis father’s footsteps and leave Jane and their babybehind. Jane physically attacks Moony, and he retal-iates by choking her and throwing her against a wall.Jane crawls to Moony and begs him not to abandonher. Moony flings a few coins at her. She responds byflinging the baby into his arms, telling him that heneeds to take the child with him. The baby begins tocry and Moony tries to soothe him. He reassures thechild that he is not going to desert them.

COMMENTARYWritten in 1930, Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry was initiallytitled Hot Milk at Three in the Morning. In 1939,

164 Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry

Williams submitted this play along with THE DARK

ROOM and THE CASE OF THE CRUSHED PETUNIAS toa play competition sponsored by THE GROUP THE-ATRE. Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry, as well as the otherplays in this collection, underscores the plight ofthe American working class and their quest forfreedom and a better existence. Williams’s one-actcollection won a $100 prize and drew the attentionof the talent agent AUDREY WOOD. Moony’s KidDon’t Cry was one of the three plays that essentiallylaunched Williams’s career.

PRODUCTION HISTORYMoony’s Kid Don’t Cry was first produced in 1946at the Straight Wharf Theatre in Nantucket,Massachusetts. It was filmed for NBC Television’sKraft Theater along with THIS PROPERTY IS CON-DEMNED and THE LAST OF MY SOLID GOLD

WATCHES in 1958.

PUBLICATION HISTORYMoony’s Kid Don’t Cry was first published in BestPlays of 1940. It was subsequently published in theone-act collection AMERICAN BLUES in 1948.

CHARACTERSJane She is Moony’s frail and sickly wife andmother of Moony’s Kid. Although she is only in hermid-20s, there is a weariness about her that makesher seem much older. She has a caustic attitudetoward her husband and his dreams of escape andfreedom. She, too, dreams of a better life, yet sheacknowledges the reality of their menial existenceand accepts her fate.

Moony He is Jane’s husband and father of achild referred to only as Moony’s Kid. As his namesuggests, Moony is a dreamer. He works in a factorybut dreams of returning to his life as a lumber-jack. He feels trapped by city life, cramped in theconcrete jungle of his slum apartment and factoryjob. He expresses his desire to escape to his wife,who ridicules him for his fantasies and ambitions.Moony’s struggle and longings suggest that he mayhave been an early prototype for Tom Wingfield inTHE GLASS MENAGERIE. His bulk, physicality, andaggressiveness to Jane link him with Stanley Kowal-ski in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.

Moony’s Kid Moony’s Kid is the month-old childof Moony and Jane. The child appears only in thefinal moments of the play. He is the one thing thatkeeps Moony from leaving. As Moony prepares towalk out on his family, Jane presents him with thebaby. Moony remains, cradles the child, and rockshim to sleep.

“Mother Yaws”Short story written before 1977.

SYNOPSISBarle McCorkle is a woman married to a cruel,abusive man named Tom McCorkle. He treats heras the servant to their three disrespectful, unlovingchildren. Barle notices that a strange sore is form-ing on her face. When Tom sees the sore, he makesfun of it, harasses her about the condition, anddemands she stay out of the kitchen until it heals.

Barle becomes very sick. Tom forces her to takethe train to the city and see the doctor. He saysthat if she is contagious, she cannot return home.At the doctor’s office, Barle is quarantined in theheat of the midday sun, and she faints. The doctorexamines Barle and admits her to the hospital.After a few days, he diagnoses her condition asyaws, a rare African disease. Barle returns home toher malevolent family, who make her sleep on apalette in the storeroom until the morning whenshe can go to her father’s house.

The next morning, Barle journeys to her father’shouse; however, she finds a sign in his front yardthat states, “BARLE, YOU CANNOT ENTER.”She has no other option than to go into the woodsto find shade and water. Barle climbs Cat’s BackMountain to live. When she encounters baby wild-cats, she is attacked and killed by their mother.

COMMENTARYThis macabre tale, written in a style reminiscent ofEdgar Allan Poe, is an example of the SouthernGothic tradition. “Mother Yaws” deals with thevery grotesque nature of human decay and degen-eration. In this mode of writing, the grotesque leads

“Mother Yaws” 165

to alienation, and Barle’s physical condition leads toridicule and rejection. Barle could be redeemed bybeing cured, but she is forced to live in the wild andis killed by those elements. By rejecting her, theMcCorkle family sentence Barle to death. “MotherYaws” is a prime example of Williams’s Gothic style,and it is stylistically and thematically aligned with“DESIRE AND THE BLACK MASSEUR,” an importantwork of fiction in the Williams canon.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Mother Yaws” was first published in Esquire (1977)and in Collected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSGatlinburg Doctor He is the physician whocares for Barle when an unusual growth developson her face. The Gatlinburg Doctor runs clinicaltests on Barle, and his diagnosis is that she has mys-teriously contracted “yaws,” a rare African disease.He coldly informs Barle that there is nothing hecan do to help her.

McCorkle, Barle Barle is a weak and submissivewoman who is married to a barbaric man, TomMcCorkle. When Barle becomes ill and develops alarge, unusual sore on her face, she becomes asocial outcast. Tom sends her to the doctor andwarns her that if she is contagious, she cannotreturn home. She is mistreated at the doctor’soffice by being forced to wait outside in the blazingsun. Barle’s father reacts in a similarly inhumanefashion: He forbids her to enter his home. Barle is apathetic figure, who is ultimately attacked andkilled by a wildcat, when she tries to pet its cubs.

McCorkle, Tom Tom is the cruel and insensitivehusband of Barle McCorkle. He enjoys mistreatinghis wife. When she becomes ill with yaws, a rareAfrican disease that causes sores to develop on herbody, Tom forbids her to live in their home.

FURTHER READINGFlora, Joseph M., Lucinda Hardwick MacKethan,

Todd W. Taylor. The Companion to Southern Litera-ture. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UniversityPress, 2002, pp. 311–316.

The MutilatedA play in seven scenes written in 1965.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the French Quarter of NewOrleans, Louisiana. The action of the play takesplace in and around the Silver Dollar Hotel, duringthe Christmas holiday.

Scene 1A group of Carollers are heard singing verses ofsongs that pertain to the theme of the play. Theysing about the residents of the French Quarter andthe loneliness that surrounds them during the fes-tive Christmas season. The Carollers also singabout “the mutilated being touched by hands thatnearly heal.”

Celeste and her brother, Henry, arrive at the Sil-ver Dollar Hotel. Celeste has just been releasedfrom jail and has returned to reclaim her belong-ings and her old room. Henry reprimands Celesteand abandons her at the hotel. Maxie and the Bird-Girl come along the street. Maxie invites spectatorsto pay to see the Bird Girl, a “freak of nature.”Celeste chastises Maxie and the two begin to fightin the street. A Cop breaks up their fight. Celestegoes to find her old friend and fellow tenant, Trin-ket Dugan, Trinket accuses Celeste of manipulatingher for money and turns Celeste away. Celestedeclares that she will get even with Trinket. In thelobby of the hotel, Celeste meets Bernie, the deskclerk, and tries to persuade him to allow her backinto her old room. Bernie refuses and informsCeleste that all her belongings have been lockedaway. Celeste tries to offer Bernie sexual favors inexchange for a room. Trinket calls for Bernie to seewhat “some vicious person has scratched on thewall.” Trinket knows that Celeste has scrawled the“vicious lie” about her on the wall, and, as sheleaves, Celeste threatens to do it again. As Celesteleaves, she calls out, “So long, Agnes Jones!”

Scene 2This scene is set on a bench in Jackson Park, nearthe Silver Dollar Hotel. Trinket is alone. She talksto herself and recounts the shock of seeing Celeste

166 The Mutilated

once again, and the history of their friendship. Trin-ket reveals that she has been mutilated. One of herbreasts has been surgically removed, and Celeste isthe only person who knows about it. While under-going her mastectomy, Trinket used the alias “AgnesJones.” Trinket tries to exorcise this name from hermemory throughout the scene, shouting, “Out outout! Agnes Jones, out!”

Because of her mutilation and the memories sur-rounding her friendship with Celeste, Trinket hasspent the past three years with no one to love. Trin-ket swears that a miracle will happen, and that shewill meet a man this Christmas night at the CaféBoheme. As Trinket exits the park, the Carollersreappear. They sing another round of verses, touch-ing upon the theme of love and the miracle of find-ing it.

Scene 3This scene is set in the interior of the CaféBoheme. Tiger, the owner of the bar, is conversingwith two bar patrons, Woman at the Bar and thePious Queen, as Trinket enters. The three discuss arecent death and Tiger announces that drinks areon the house in memory of the deceased. Trinketorders an absinthe frappe and learns that the per-son they are referring to died in the bar.

Two sailors on leave, Slim and Bruno, arrive atthe bar, and Trinket immediately takes a liking toSlim. Bruno arranges for Trinket to take Slim homewith her.

Scene 4This scene takes place outside the Café Boheme.Trinket covers for Slim and Bruno when the ShorePolice arrive. She claims that Bruno is her brotherand she is about to take him to the candlelightChristmas service at the chapel. As they leave,Trinket confides in Bruno about her relationshipwith Celeste. Suddenly, Bruno tries to grope Trin-ket. Trinket becomes frightened and yells for Slim.Celeste reappears, drunkenly singing “Jingle Bells.”Trinket decides to take Slim back to her hotelroom and departs with him, hurling insults andabuse at Celeste.

As she calls for a taxi, Trinket threatens to haveCeleste committed to the State Hospital for theCriminally Insane. Celeste snatches Trinket’s purse,

but Trinket has hidden her money and Celeste getsaway with only Trinket’s empty purse. The Car-ollers return and sing about forgiveness.

Scene 5This scene takes place in Trinket’s room at the SilverDollar Hotel. Slim debates whether or not he wantsto spend the night with Trinket. When he finallylearns of Trinket’s mutilation, he demands that Trin-ket pay him for his company. She agrees. Celeste isheard howling insults under Trinket’s window. Sheshouts for “Agnes Jones!” A screaming matchbetween the two women ensues at Trinket’s window.Trinket calls for Bernie and Celeste retreats. Shetakes rosary beads out of Trinket’s purse and starts toconfess her sins, as Trinket resumes her encounterwith Slim. Celeste mutters to herself about Trinket’sbeing mutilated, while Trinket mutters aboutCeleste’s being alone. The Carollers reappear,singing verses about the lonely and misfit findinghomes, warmth, comfort, and mercy.

Scene 6This scene takes place in the interior and exteriorof the Silver Dollar Hotel. Celeste wakes from sleepon the hotel lobby couch, as Trinket wakes in herroom, beside Slim. Slim searches for his wallet andaccuses Trinket of stealing it. Trinket becomes hys-terical and starts to scream. Bruno collects Slimfrom the hotel, while Trinket cries, whimperingthat the pain in her chest has returned. The Car-ollers enter and the lead singer tunes his pitch pipe,but no one starts to sing. Instead, Jack in Blackenters. He is dressed in a black cowboy outfit thathas diamond detailing on the pockets and holsterand on the edges of his hat. The Carollers sing withJack about measured time, the tolling of a final bell,and denial.

Scene 7This scene takes place in the interior and exteriorof the Silver Dollar Hotel. Trinket inquires whetherCeleste is still in the lobby. Trinket gives Bernie amessage for Celeste, instructing him to tell her thatshe is ready to “bury the hatchet.” Celeste tries topretend that she is indifferent to Trinket’s message,but she reveals her true feelings by racing up thestairs to Trinket’s room.

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Celeste informs Trinket that her friendship is “notfor sale.” Trinket entices Celeste into the room withthe promise of wine and Nabisco wafers. After sittingdown and snacking together, Celeste decides to for-give Trinket. She begins making plans for them forthe week. Celeste relates a prophecy that an old nunonce told her. True to the prophecy, Celeste sensesan invisible presence in the room with them. Celestesmells roses, candles, and incense. Celeste hears atolling bell and realizes that she is being visited bythe Virgin Mary.

Falling to her knees, Celeste reaches out andtouches the robes of the Virgin Mother. She begsTrinket to do the same. Together, they witness amiraculous visitation and Trinket’s pain is healed.As they cry together, “A miracle! A miracle!” Jackin Black appears. He smiles as he begins the Car-ollers’ final verses. They sing about a miracle andthe halting of death. In their song they admonishthe audience to forget about Jack in Black for a lit-tle while.

COMMENTARYThe Mutilated, as is its companion piece, THE

GNÄDIGES FRÄULEIN, is a powerfully symbolic tale,another example of a Williams’s black comedy cen-tered on destitute social outcasts and their questfor love, acceptance, survival, and self-respect.

The two women at the center of The Mutilated,Trinket and Celeste, are damaged and stigmatized.Because of her mastectomy, Trinket is perceived as“less of a woman,” and after her time in prison,Celeste is treated as “less of a person.” Williamsoften uses physical deformity as a badge or outwardexpression of social isolation and loneliness. Thistechnique is a feature in such works as ONE ARM,The Gnädiges Fräulein, and THE GLASS MENAGERIE.

With its fantastical conclusion—a visitationfrom the Virgin Mary—The Mutilated shares thetheme of extraordinary events occurring in squalidplaces with other “boardinghouse dramas” such asTHE REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE OF MME.LEMONDE, THE COMING OF SOMETHING TO WIDOW

HOLLY, and the short story “ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE.”In these works Williams often depicts elements ofthe magical or divine interceding into the lives ofthose who are forgotten or abandoned. The charac-

ters in these works may be destitute and forlorn, yetthey are not without hope or comfort.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Mutilated premiered in tandem with TheGnädiges Fräulein. The two short plays were pro-duced together under the title Slapstick Tragedy.Alan Schneider directed the premiere productionof Slapstick Tragedy in New York in 1966 at theLongacre Theatre.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Mutilated was first published by DramatistsPlay Service in 1967, then revised for inclusion inDRAGON COUNTRY, published by New Directionsin 1970.

CHARACTERSBernie He is the desk clerk at the Silver DollarHotel. Bernie is very loyal to his tenants andanswers to an unseen manager called Katz.

Bird Girl A hooded, pigeon-toed creature whoappears briefly in the play. Labeled a “freak ofnature,” the Bird Girl is the play’s ultimate outcast.Her deformity, otherness, and isolation providefinancial sustenance for Maxie, a low-life con artist.Their working arrangement is indicative of themercantile nature of all of the relationships in theplay.

Bruno Bruno is Slim’s friend. He is an old sailoron leave, who talks to Trinket in the bar.

Carollers The Carollers resemble a Greek chorusin that they weave in and out of every scene of theplay, either opening or closing it with verses filledwith thematic elements important to the story.

Celeste Celeste is a tiny, plump woman in her50s. She is a shoplifter who dresses provocatively inthe clothes she has stolen. Celeste is mentallyunstable and possesses the emotional and mentalconsciousness of a child.

Cop He is the police officer who breaks up thefight between Maxie and Celeste.

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Dugan, Trinket Trinket is a lonely tenant of theSilver Dollar Hotel, in the French Quarter of NewOrleans. The mutilation she has suffered is theresult of a recent mastectomy. Trinket spends herdays alone in her room, writing in her diary.Although she is wealthy (her father left her threeoil wells), Trinket chooses a squalid existence in acheap, run-down hotel with bottles of Californiawine. While in the hospital for her operation, Trin-ket used the alias “Agnes Jones.” Trinket is threat-ened by the return of her friend, Celeste, who is theonly other person who knows about her mutilation.

Henry Henry is the brother of Celeste. He is afinancially stable family man, with very little respectfor his delinquent sister. Celeste has become a bur-den for Henry. After retrieving her from jail, Henrydiscards her at the Silver Dollar Hotel and wishesher good luck.

Jack in Black He is a mystical figure whoappears toward the end of the play wearing a blackcowboy outfit that is encrusted with diamonds.Jack in Black is an ominous presence who symbol-izes death. Trinket Dugan, a breast cancer survivor,fears death when the pain in her chest returns. TheVirgin Mary miraculously appears to heal Trinket,and Jack in Black is kept at bay.

Jones, Agnes An alias used by Trinket Duganwhen she enters the hospital to have a mastectomy.

Maxie Maxie is a small-time con artist in theFrench Quarter of New Orleans, who makes moneyselling a view of a “freak of nature” called the Bird-Girl. He gets into a fight on the street outside theSilver Dollar Hotel with Celeste.

Slim Slim is a young sailor on leave in NewOrleans. He and his friend, Bruno, meet TrinketDugan in a bar called the Café Boheme. Trinkettakes Slim home for a romantic encounter. WhenSlim discovers that Trinket has had one of herbreasts removed, he agrees to be intimate with heronly if she pays him. Trinket is so desperate foraffection that she agrees to Slim’s terms.

Tiger Tiger is the owner and proprietor of a barin the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana,called the Cafe Boheme. In his 50s, he is a formerboxer and seaman.

“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio”Short story written in 1941.

SYNOPSISPablo Gonzales is the 19-year-old apprentice of anelderly watch repairman, Emiel Kroger. The menare also lovers. When Emiel dies of old age, Pablotakes over the business. Just as Emiel frequentedthe Joy Rio Theater, Pablo frequents this cinema tofind sexual pleasure with young male prostitutes inthe darkness of the balcony.

When Pablo is an old man, he accidentally inter-rupts an usher having sex with a young woman inthe theater bathroom. An argument ensues andPablo escapes this altercation to be visited by vividmemories of Emiel. As he is caressed in the darknessof the theater, Pablo is soothed by his lover’s voice.He dies in the arms of his beloved deceased Emiel.

COMMENTARYIn “The Mysteries of The Joy Rio” Williamsexplores the universal theme of loneliness. The taleis centered on Pablo’s battle with grief and hisquest to overcome his loss and isolation. He findstemporary relief in anonymous sexual acts in ashabby, darkened movie theater, but these futileattempts at intimacy and human connection nevereradicate his feeling of emptiness and loss. As Pabloages and faces his own mortality, his need for com-passion and companionship is heightened. Hefinally finds solace in the arms of his deceased lover,who returns to guide Pablo into death.

“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio” is the basis forthe short story “Hard Candy,” considered by manyto be Williams’s most accomplished piece of fiction.“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio” and “Hard Candy,”along with “TWO ON A PARTY,” are considered“strong and healthy contributions to the literatureof compassion,” and prime examples of “the most

“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio” 169

significant gay fictions of their time” (Summers,133–134).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Mysteries of the Joy Rio” was published in thecollections Hard Candy (1954), The Kingdom ofEarth with Hard Candy (1954), Collected Stories(1985), and The Omnibus of 20th Century GhostStories (1989).

CHARACTERSGeorge George is an usher who works at the JoyRio Theater. He is in love with Gladys.

Gladys Gladys is a young girl who lingers at theJoy Rio Theatre every afternoon to spend timewith George.

Gonzales, Pablo Pablo is an apprentice at thewatch shop owned by Emiel Kroger. During hisapprenticeship, he and Emiel become lovers. WhenEmiel dies, Pablo takes over the watch shop. Hefinds solace from his grief and loneliness in thedarkness of the Joy Rio Theater.

Kroger, Emiel He is an aging watch repairmanwho lives with his apprentice and lover, Pablo Gon-zales. Emiel loves Pablo deeply and bequeaths hishome and his business to him when he dies.

FURTHER READINGSummer, Claude J. Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall—

Studies in a Male Homosexual Literary Tradition.New York: Continuum, 1990.

“The Night of the Iguana”Short story written between 1946 and 1948.

SYNOPSISMiss Edith Jelkes is staying in a Mexican pensioncalled Costa Verde. She is a painter and art teacherwho suffered a nervous breakdown and has resignedherself to drifting through the world. Remarkablylonely, Edith tries to connect with the only other

guests at Costa Verde: two handsome men (theyounger is named Mike) who concentrate on theirwriting and each other. The two writers converse inlow tones, intensifying Edith’s curiosity. Getting toknow them becomes a challenge, and she remainsat the pension to penetrate their world.

Edith places her easel near the writers’ verandato demonstrate that she is a member of the artisticcommunity. When they respond with indifference,she complains to the Patrona that their radio keepsher up at night. Edith resorts to stalking the couple,discarding her daily routines to align herself withtheir schedule. Edith overhears just enough of theirconversations to fuel her imagination. Edith even-tually recognizes that one of them is a famous writer.

The Patrona’s son catches an iguana and ties itto the post of Edith’s veranda. She discovers itwhen she hears a strange scratching sound outsideher door. She screams and runs to the two writers,who are drinking and lying in hammocks. They arefinally cornered and forced to converse with her. Todistance herself from the restrained animal, Edithmoves into the room next door to the two writers.She delights in eavesdropping on them, but whenshe overhears the couple mocking her and laugh-ing, she is deeply offended.

She falls asleep and wakes a few hours beforedawn. The writers are still awake. When they hearher stirring, they quickly turn off the lights for pri-vacy as the walls have cracks in them. They begintalking about her once again. One writer says thatthe Patrona is eager to get rid of Edith, going so faras to order the cook to oversalt her food. Edithjumps to her feet and knocks on their door.

When she enters, Mike shoves her to the floorand storms out of the room. The old writerremains in the room as Edith begins to cry. Hegrabs Edith and attempts to rape her. Edith panics,fights to free herself, and escapes to her originalroom. Crying, she discovers that the iguana hasalso freed itself. Although it was horrific at thetime, Edith becomes aroused by this sexualencounter. “Ah, Life,” she ponders.

COMMENTARY“The Night of the Iguana” is the basis for Williams’slater creation, the full-length play of the same

170 “The Night of the Iguana”

name. Edith Jelkes becomes Hannah Jelkes, withthe addition of an elderly poet grandfather for herto look after and dote upon. The Patrona becomes amore fully developed character named MaxineFaulk, and Williams adds another central character,the Reverend T. Lawrence Shannon, a defrockedminister who leads tours through Mexico.

The short story version of this plot hinges on theiguana as a symbol for Edith’s life. Edith is similar tothis subdued and restrained creature in that she isan aging, lonely unmarried woman trapped and iso-lated in a world that finds her undesirable. She isfreed during a violent sexual encounter and findssatisfaction in the interconnectedness she feels withthe world as a result of sexual assault. By contrast,the play focuses on several characters for whom theiguana becomes a metaphor for the oppressive stateof their lives.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Night of the Iguana” was published in the col-lections One Arm (1948), Collected Stories (1985),and Escape to Mexico (2002).

CHARACTERSJelkes, Miss Edith Edith is a traveling painterstaying at a resort in Mexico. She actively seeks theattention of two vacationing writers, who are alsoguests at the resort. Edith becomes bored at theCosta Verde, and instead of moving on to the nextadventure, she stays to eavesdrop on the otherguests.

Older Writer He is an accomplished writer whovacations with his lover, Mike, at the Costa VerdeHotel in Mexico. Another guest at the villa, EdithJelkes, harasses and stalks them out of curiosityand boredom. There is a confrontation among theOlder Writer, Mike, and Edith that culminates inthe Older Writer sexually assaulting Edith.

The Night of the IguanaFull-length play written in 1962.

SYNOPSISThe play is set on the west coast of Mexico, a towncalled Puerto Barrio, in the Costa Verde Hotel. It isthe summer of 1940.

Act 1Maxine Faulk owns the Costa Verde Hotel inPuerto Barrio, where the Reverend T. LawrenceShannon has taken his tour group of begrudgingBaptist travelers from Texas, including a younglove-struck woman named Charlotte Goodall andher overbearing chaperone, Miss Judith Fellowes.Stumbling onto the porch of the hotel, Shannongreets Maxine and falls into a hammock, breathingheavily. Calling for help with baggage, Maxineoffers Shannon a drink, which he refuses, insteadasking to speak with Maxine’s husband, Fred (whodied two weeks before Shannon’s arrival). Shannoncalls for Hank to lead the ladies up from the bus,while he complains about his tour bus full ofwomen to Maxine; he is on the verge of a nervousbreakdown, for he has engaged in sexual relationswith Charlotte (one of the tourists), who is not oflegal age. Frau Herzkopf and Herr Herzkopf enterand troop down toward the beach, and Maxineexplains their presence as favored guests in herhotel. Hank appears, complaining that the womenon the bus will not walk up to the hotel becausethey have found out about Charlotte’s seductionand are in an uproar about it.

Miss Fellowes charges in and demands that Shan-non hand over the bus key. She is dissatisfied withthe conditions of the trip and demands that Maxinelet her use a phone. Hannah Jelkes appears, lookingfor the hotel manager. A vagabond artist, accompa-nying her elderly grandfather poet, Hannah asks fora vacancy; securing two rooms, she disappears tofetch her grandfather, Nonno. Miss Fellowes accusesShannon of cheating the women of their hard-earned money. She also chastises him for being adefrocked minister. Shannon loses his cool andchokes out the command, “Don’t! Break! Human!Pride!” Miss Fellowes charges back to the bus to tryto stop the porters, who are collecting the luggage.

Nonno and Hannah enter. Hannah tries sweetlyto persuade Maxine to let them entertain the otherhotel guests in exchange for accommodations.

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Nonno interrupts the negotiations with incoherentand random phrases. Hannah explains, due to arecent stroke, Nonno falls victim to narcolepticepisodes. Maxine begrudgingly grants them a room,promising to find them another hotel in the morn-ing; she leaves to tend to the luggage dilemma.Shannon heads to the beach “for a swim,” andNonno pipes up again with a few verses from hispoem, which describe the nondespairing attitude ofa skyward-tilting orange branch.

Act 2Several hours later, Maxine and Hannah appear onthe veranda to set the tables for supper. Maxinerefuses to let Hannah stay at her hotel on credit,even after Hannah offers her jade jewelry for pay-ment. Shannon and the German tourists appearfrom the beach, calling for beer. Maxine goes tofetch the beer and Charlotte enters, calling forShannon. He quickly ducks into his cubicle, butCharlotte hears him and demands that he marryher, as she is in love with him. Shannon refuses,saying that his “emotional bank account [is] over-drawn” and that he does not love her. Miss Fel-lowes approaches, scolds Charlotte for conversingwith Shannon, and forbids her to be near him. Shehappily boasts that a warrant for his arrest has beenissued in Texas.

Hanna fetches Nonno for supper and Shannonreappears from his cubicle, dressed in a clerical robeto prove that he has not been defrocked. Hannahbegins to sketch his profile as Shannon reminiscesabout his life: An Episcopal minister, Shannon hada nervous breakdown after he was seduced by ayoung Sunday school teacher. He gave a blasphe-mous sermon that angered his congregation, whothen locked him out of the church. Shannon spenttime in an asylum and gave up the ministry tobecome a tour guide. He now spends his timesearching for a personal idea of God. When he asksto see his portrait, Hannah asks him to promise thathe will give gentle sermons if he ever returns to thechurch. She believes people need someone to guidethem beside “still waters.”

Maxine enters with her porters, who havecaught an iguana. Hearing a crash in Nonno’sroom, Shannon goes to help the old man down to

supper. Nonno embarrasses Hannah by asking herhow much money she has made selling her paint-ings. Shannon gives Nonno five pesos to calm him.Hannah laments the “dimming out of the mind”that accompanies old age. Maxine offers everyonecocktails. She then bickers with Shannon, andturns on Hannah, warning her to stay away fromShannon. Hannah is surprised (and amused) thatMaxine considers her a threat. She assures Maxinethat she has no interest in Shannon. Shannonreturns, and offers Hannah a smoke, as a rainstormapproaches. Reaching shelter under the porch,Shannon watches the storm and bathes his face inthe downpour.

Act 3A few hours later, Shannon and Hannah sit on theveranda—Hannah reading a book and Shannonwriting a letter to his bishop. Maxine criticizesShannon for being rooted in his guilt concerning hismasturbatory pleasures. (Maxine once overheard aconversation about the source of Shannon’s mentalinstability: His mother once paddled him for mas-turbating as a little boy and told him the paddlingwas better than what God had in store for him.)Maxine says that since that incident, Shannon hasbeen subliminally spiting his mother (and God) byseducing young girls and preaching blasphemous ser-mons. Jake Latta, a tour guide for Blake Tours andShannon’s boss, arrives. Fiercely reluctant, Shannonhands over the bus key. Shannon demands his sever-ance pay, to which Miss Fellowes objects. Sheinforms him that she has made certain that he willbe “blacklisted from now on at every travel agencyin the States.” Delirious with rage, Shannon runsdown the hill and urinates on the ladies’ luggage.

When Shannon returns, Maxine orders herporters to tie Shannon in a hammock, while shegoes to fetch the bill for the tourists. The Germantourists enter, tormenting Shannon, who is panick-ing in the hammock. Hannah shoos them away, andShannon asks her to untie him; Hannah refuses todo so until he has calmed down. Brewing poppy teafor him, Hannah surmises that Shannon enjoys hispanic attacks as they are easier than a crucifixion.Shannon tries viciously to wrench himself free fromthe hammock, and Hannah calls for Maxine, who

172 The Night of the Iguana

sits on him and threatens him with a trip to the asy-lum. Shannon calmly sips his tea. He escapes fromhis prison and makes himself a “rum-coco” cocktail.

Hannah reveals the story of her life: how sheherself had a nervous breakdown, how she is accus-tomed to traveling alone with her grandfather, andhow she feels about being a spinster. Noticing ascuffling sound under the veranda, Hannahinquires about it. Shannon tells her that it is aniguana, tied up and “trying to go on past the end ofits . . . rope.” Hannah begs Shannon to untie theanimal; he refuses, at Maxine’s request. Nonnosuddenly calls from his room, requesting that Han-nah record his finally finished poem. Maxineenters, ready for a swim, and finds that Shannonhas escaped the hammock. Shannon appears frombelow the veranda and tells Maxine that he has setthe iguana free. Maxine invites Shannon for a swimand asks him to stay and help manage the hotelwith her. Exiting to the beach, they discuss theirplans for renovating the hotel. Alone with Nonno,Hannah speaks to the sky, asking God to let herstop where she is. Nonno’s head drops and Hannahknows he has died. She hugs him.

COMMENTARY“Flight could be called Tennessee Williams’s natu-ral existence” (Leverich, 370), and the escapeWilliams made to Mexico in the summer of 1940was intended as an antidote to the difficult endingof his relationship with the Canadian dancer KipKiernan. Expecting, as did his character, thedefrocked minister, T. Lawrence Shannon, “to bedead before the summer was over” (Spoto, 82), hestayed at the Hotel Costa Verde—real-life modelfor the hotel in The Night of the Iguana—which wasinhabited by people “of two classes, those who arewaiting for something to happen or those whobelieve that everything has happened already”(Leverich, 377). During his stay there, Williamsbegan a creative process that extended over twodecades, took his subject matter through severalformal permutations (including letters, an essay, ashort story, and a one-act version), and at last cul-minated in a full-length play.

The Night of the Iguana which premiered in 1961was Williams’s last critical and commercial success.

With remarkable synchronicity, the play’s thematiclinks and the accolades it received appear to close acircle, back to his breakthrough play, THE GLASS

MENAGERIE, and “its breadth of spirit and [. . .]unangry, quiet voice about the great reach of smalllives” (Spoto, 116). Donald Spoto’s observationchimes uncannily with the closing remark ofHoward Taubman’s review, which attributes to TheNight of the Iguana “a vibrant eloquence in declar-ing its respect for those who have to fight for theirbit of decency” (Taubman, New York Times, 1961).

Though nearly 30 years apart, both plays share apreoccupation with the notion of escape and theconflict between reality and fantasy. Self-absorbedto the point of ignoring the world at large and itsevents—be they the bombings of Guernica or ofLondon—the characters in both plays seem to bekissing cousins in their garrulous speechlessness.The barely concealed casting of family members is aprominent feature of the autobiographical GlassMenagerie, and Williams does it again in Night of theIguana, when he bases Nonno (the Italian word forgrandfather) on his maternal grandfather, the Rev-erend Walter Edwin Dakin, who had been a surro-gate father to young Tom and his sister, Rose.Although Jonathan “Nonno” Coffin, grandfather ofHannah, “ninety-seven years young” and “the old-est living and practicing poet,” shares part of hisname with Tennessee’s father, CORNELIUS COFFIN

WILLIAMS, all of his spirit and frailties are those ofWALTER DAKIN. Other family members have madetheir way into Night of the Iguana via the Wingfieldfamily of The Glass Menagerie. The resemblance ismost conspicuous in the case of Hannah Jelkes,whose description echoes almost verbatim that ofLaura Wingfield: She is “ethereal, almost ghostly.She suggests a Gothic cathedral image of a medievalsaint, but animated” (Iguana, preface). WhereasLaura embodies Williams’s sister, Rose, on a near-realistic level, Hannah is “a projection of what mighthave become of Rose” (Leverich, 376)—or Laura.She is not the only one who has matured in thisfashion. Shannon, a latter-day Tom Wingfield,appears always to teeter on the brink of leaving—thechurch, Blake Tours, life. Forever on the move, heconsistently fails to move on, aware of and “spooked”by the impossibility of escape. Finally, Maxine


Faulks’s abrasiveness, pragmatism, and behavioralmalaprops call to mind Amanda Wingfield, as doesher tendency to smother people she cares about. Interms of setting, resemblances between The GlassMenagerie and Night of the Iguana are less readilyapparent, but their locales, too, share telltale ele-ments of mood and function. Atmospherically, theSaint Louis tenement is surprisingly close to thejungle-locked hotel on the Mexican coast and itsramshackle veranda: Heat and confinement renderboth places womblike, simultaneously both shelterand prison. Given these parallels, it is easy to seehow The Night of the Iguana could be perceived as“somewhat aimless and self-derivative . . . [lacking]an organizing principle, though it covers familiar ter-rain” (Brustein, 26). However, the play is a naturalprogression, a “grown up” Glass Menagerie and notmerely because its protagonists—and its author—are older and, in some cases, wiser.

In The Night of the Iguana, there is an overridingclash of the physical and spiritual. As far as Shannonis concerned, body and soul are as irreconcilable asmatter and antimatter, one necessarily annihilatingthe other. Early on, Williams offers a subtle hint atthis mutually destructive potential when Maxinecomments on Shannon’s letter of contrition to hisbishop, “If this is the letter, baby, you’ve sweatedthrough it, so the older bugger couldn’t read it evenif you mailed it to him this time.”

The physical—sweat, in this instance—has blot-ted out spiritual meaning. Shannon has beencaught in the middle of this explosive conflict, andit shows. The first metaphoric squalls of the “gath-ering storm” that is the mood throughout most ofacts 1 and 2 (Belden, 33) blow a “panting, sweat-ing, and wild-eyed” Shannon before them, and hecertainly appears to have been subjected to thismode of travel over a long distance and for a longtime. In fact, the defrocked priest, locked out of hischurch in (the suggestively named) Pleasant Valleyfor committing statutory rape and heresy, is aboutto lost his secular flock of tourists for the sameoffenses. The description of his Gladstone bag—“beat-up [and] covered with travel stickers from allover the world”—seems equally suited to the manhimself, “who has cracked up before and is going tocrack up again—perhaps repeatedly.”

Shannon has fled to the Costa Verde Hotel, fullyexpecting to find Maxine’s husband, Fred, who“knew when [Shannon] was spooked” and wasprivy to “how [his] problems first started.” Ironi-cally, the hotel and its owners have since beenencroached upon by the presumptive safety barrier.The jungle is, of course, the very epitome of naturaleros and its rampant cycle of life, and as such it isboth fertile and destructive. Its climate has madethe cabin roofs leak, and “old Freddie the Fisher-man is feeding the fish—fishes’ revenge on old Fred-die.” Gifted, as is the jungle itself, with an earthlysensuality that cannot be satisfied by her youngMexican men alone, the widowed Maxine is lookingfor someone literally to fill Fred’s shoes—and bed.Shannon, by his very presence, has won and resistsher advances in the way he invariably weathersevents that leave him unsettled: by resorting tosocially unacceptable behavior. Lindy Levin con-cisely diagnoses this as a result of the “anarchy ofthe unconscious and the emotional costs of denyingthe tension of opposites that one is asked to endure”(Levin, 88).

A different but equally threatening realityintrudes in the shape of the women of the BaptistFemale College—and the not-quite-17-year-oldCharlotte Goodall, and her chaperone, Judith Fel-lowes. The intrusion is one Shannon has precipi-tated himself, by withholding the bus keys in an actof tourism “heresy” that mimics his agnostic out-burst on the chancel of Pleasant Valley church.Both instances were preceded by sexual transgres-sion, and if the latter was a refusal of spiritual guid-ance, the first is a refusal of secular guidance. Theresults are the same: Shannon will be ousted fromBlake Tours just as he has been ousted from hischurch. Williams reinforces the parallel throughJudith Fellowes’s constant reminders of Shannon’sdisgrace and, somewhat more obscurely, by Shan-non’s reference to the two women as “the teen-ageMedea and the older Medea.” According to Greekmythology, the sorceress Medea, wife of Jason theArgonaut, had a penchant for killing in rather unsa-vory ways people who offended her. The murderthat stands out is that of Glauce, Jason’s secondwife, whom Medea gave a wedding robe of poisonedcloth. Unable to remove the robe once she had put


it on, Glauce was burned alive by the poison. Shan-non, professing to be wedded to the cloth, also can-not take off his figurative robes, burning—withdespair and fever—as both “Medeas” make a pointof driving home his sexual and social offenses.

With the arrival of Hannah Jelkes and Nonno,yet another ingredient is thrown into the alreadyvolatile mix. Shannon immediately warms to the oldpoet. One can hardly avoid suspecting that Nonno isintended to be a much older, future version of Shan-non, who still refuses to take his charges where theyexpect to be taken, who still has visions of impend-ing death (albeit with reason now), and who still—as a result of actual rather than psychologicalblindness—refuses to recognize the people aroundhim as who and what they are. This parallel is sup-ported by the remarkably similar, if more antagonis-tic, relationship between the Narrator and theplaywright Williams sets up in his 1975 novel, MOISE

AND THE WORLD OF REASON. Almost inevitably,Hannah, who is Nonno’s guardian angel, becomesthat of Shannon as well, and her spirituality consti-tutes a counterpoise to Maxine’s sensuality. WithShannon a—quite literally—captive audience in thehammock and Nonno giving a George Burns–typeimpersonation of the Almighty in this not-so-medieval morality play, the allegorical fight betweenthe two opposing forces unfolds on the veranda, andit is, in the truest sense, a fight for Shannon’s soul.

The rivalry between the two women is apparentfrom the beginning, but what is equally obvious isthat it is one-sided in terms of claims of ownership.Unlike Maxine, who—squatter-fashion—affirms herright of possession by physically sitting on Shannon,Hannah, the “New England spinster who is pushingforty,” has no sexual designs on Shannon. She wantsto help, but “ethereal, almost ghostly” as she is, phys-ical touch is not for her. Her and Shannon’s kinshipis of a different type, grounded in a familiarity withdemons that each recognizes in the other. What “thespook” is to Shannon, “the blue devil” is to Hannah,and in both cases the conflict is the same, namely,that of reality and fantasy. In order to straddle thegap, they both play their part—Shannon that of theascetic, Hannah that of the artist—and their dress-ing-up for dinner in act 2 offers a foreshadowing ofthe predictable outcome of their shared drama:

For a moment they both face front, adjustingtheir two outfits. They are like two actors in aplay which is about to fold on the road, prepar-ing gravely for a performance which may be thelast one.

The fundamental difference between them isthat Hannah has learned to endure the conflictbetween what is and what ought to be, whereasShannon persists in fighting it. “Endurance is some-thing that spooks and blue devils respect,” she says.The truth of this remains doubtful. As Shannonflings coco shells into the bushes to drive away thespook, she takes a few deep breaths. Neither actionis likely to bring about change. All that has trulychanged is that their respective performances areabout to end: Shannon will lose his job and be leftwith nowhere to go, and Hannah’s hard-sellingartist act will become unnecessary with the death ofNonno, irrespective of whether she decides to go onas before. Spooks and blue devils remain, however.

See? The iguana? At the end of its rope? Tryingto go on past the end of its goddamn rope. Likeyou! Like me! Like Grampa with his last poem!

The iguana remains trapped at the end of itstether. As it is tied, it would indeed have to chewoff its head to get away. The only one who—figura-tively speaking—masters that trick is Nonno. Foreveryone else a higher power is required to effectthe escape.

The central symbol of the captured iguana, onlyunraveled at the end of the play, serves as a pro-foundly evocative illustration of Shannon’s plight,as everything that happens to him finds its echo inthe fate of the lizard. Pursuit, capture, escape, andrecapture are mirrored, and as the iguana is tied toa post underneath the veranda to be poked andprodded by the Mexican boys, so Shannon is tiedinto the hammock to be poked and prodded by theFahrenkopfs. When Shannon, playing God, freesthe iguana, the message clearly seems to be that heis, after all, the “god” capable of freeing himself.Though obvious and blunt on the surface, theimage has another, less apparent but highly sugges-tive layer, and it casts into doubt the play’s quali-fied happy ending.


When Shannon at last accepts Maxine’s offer,he appears to have reached a compromise withhimself, some form of a bearable modus vivendi.What remains unanswered, however, is the ques-tion of whether this iguana has been set free orwhether he has merely found some more rope tostretch. The purpose of capturing an iguana is tofatten and eat it. And, as Shannon observes, “Mrs.Faulks wants to eat it. I’ve got to please Mrs.Faulks. I am at her mercy. I am at her disposal.”With this perspective, escape truly is impossible.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Night of the Iguana was Williams’s last majortheatrical success. The play, produced by CharlesBowden and Viola Rubber and designed by OliverSmith, made it to Broadway and opened at theRoyale Theatre on December 28, 1961. Critics,possibly expecting a sequel to SWEET BIRD OF

YOUTH, were somewhat bewildered by what Timemagazine called “much the best new American playof the season [and] the wisest play he has everwritten” (Spoto, 248). But “leashed violence” and“sensitive, restrained writing” were by no meansunwelcome, and the reception was relatively friendly.

As with The Glass Menagerie, the main accoladesfollowed the muted initial reception in New York.On April 10, 1962, the The Night of the Iguana wonthe New York Drama Critics Circle Award—oneweek after Bette Davis had left the production ofher own choice and was replaced by Shelley Win-ters. Margaret Leighton won a Tony for her por-trayal of Hannah Jelkes. The Night of the Iguana alsowas nominated in the Best Play category, as wasViola Rubber as Best Producer of a Play.

Almost inevitably after a sell-out Broadwayproduction, the motion picture followed in 1964. Itis considered to be the best film version of any ofTennessee Williams’s works. Directed by John Hus-ton, its cast list reads as a Who’s Who of early six-ties cinema: Richard Burton (Shannon), AvaGardner (Maxine), Deborah Kerr (Hannah), andSue Lyons, of Lolita fame, as Charlotte Goodall. Thestar-studded cast undoubtedly helped to secure thefilm’s virtually instant (and lasting) popular and crit-ical success. The Night of the Iguana garnered fiveGolden Globe nominations (including Best Picture

and Best Director) and four Academy Award nomi-nations. In 2001 another screen version was pro-duced by Ray Stark. Directed by the Bosnianfilmmaker Predrag “Gaga” Antonijevic, it starredJeremy Irons, Thora Birch, and Kirk Douglas, whoplayed the Gentleman Caller in the 1950 film ver-sion of The Glass Menagerie.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Night of the Iguana was first published in 1962by New Directions, New York.

CHARACTERSFaulk, Maxine The owner and proprietor of theCosta Verde Hotel, Maxine loves Shannon and isjealous of his acquaintance with Hannah Jelkes.Maxine wages war against Hannah for Shannon’sattention. In the end, she is permitted to keepShannon at the Costa Verde Hotel.

Fellowes, Miss Judith She is a beastly Baptistmatron from Texas. The chaperone of CharlotteGoodall, Miss Fellowes wages a campaign againstShannon, whom she accuses of seducing and rob-bing the young woman.

Goodall, Charlotte She is a young tourist who isseduced by the defrocked Reverend T. LawrenceShannon, who is now a tour guide in Mexico. Shethinks she is in love with Shannon and professesher love publicly, causing a major upset within thetouring party of prudish Baptist women.

Jelkes, Hannah She is an ageless vagabond artistwho travels the world with her grandfather, Nonno,selling her paintings and Nonno’s oral recitations ofhis famed poems. She is Shannon’s saving grace.Deeply sensitive and wholly dedicated to those inneed, Hannah has courage and strength that areguideposts in her own life. Hannah has a peacefulmelancholy that is not present in many Williamscharacters. She is a paragon of spiritual harmonydespite the difficulties she has faced during her life.

Nonno Jonathan Coffin is Hannah Jelkes’s aginggrandfather. At 97 years, Nonno is composing a newpoem, which is presenting some difficulty, given his


failing memory. However, the recitations Nonnogives throughout the play provide a metaphoricbackground for Shannon’s psychological problems.

Shannon, the Reverend T. Lawrence In hismid-30s, Shannon is a “black Irish” Episcopal min-ister who denies that he has been defrocked andnow leads tropical tours for Blake Tours. On theverge of a nervous breakdown, Shannon seeksrefuge from his problems at the Costa Verde Hotel.When he becomes involved with a young touristnamed Charlotte Goodall, he is fired from BlakeTours and harassed by the group of Baptist womenwith whom Charlotte travels. Shannon meetsHannah Jelkes at the Costa Verde Hotel, during atime when he is questioning his existence andplace in the universe. Having struggled andendured many disappointments, Shannon learnsto accept his life as a defrocked minister, and withHannah’s help, he finds answers to questions thathave plagued his life.

FURTHER READINGAdler, Jacob H. “Night of the Iguana: A New Tennessee

Williams?” Ramparts 1, no. 3 (1962): 59–68.Brustein, Robert. “Revisited Plays, Revised Opinions.”

New Republic, June 17, 1996.Leverich, Lyle, Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.

New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.Levin, Lindy. “Shadow into Light: A Jungian Analysis

of The Night of the Iguana,” The Tennessee WilliamsAnnual Review 2 (1999): 87–98.

Parker, Brian. “Introduction to a One-Act Version ofThe Night of the Iguana,” Tennessee Williams AnnualReview 4 (2001): URL: www.tennesseewilliamsstudies.org/archives/2001/index.htm

Spoto, Donald, The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: DaCapo, 1997.

Taubman, Howard. “Theatre: Night of the IguanaOpens,” New York Times, December 29, 1961. p. 10.

Thompson, Judith J. Tennessee Williams’s Plays: Mem-ory, Myth, and Symbol. New York: Lang, 1987.

Not About NightingalesFull-length play written in 1938.

SYNOPSISThe action takes place in a large U.S. prison in thesummer of 1938. The Lorelei, a sightseeing cruiseship, circles around the prison island. A loud-speaker announces the city’s skyline, the prison, itsinmate statistics, and the evening’s entertainmenton the upper deck.

Act 1, Episode 1An Announcer broadcasts the title of each episode,or scene.

Announcer: “Miss Crane Applies for a Job.”Eva Crane nervously arrives at the prison’s office,

hoping to secure a secretarial position. She waits forMr. Whalen, the Warden, along with Mrs. Bristol(also known as Mrs. B.), an inmate’s mother. Mrs. B.has traveled from Wisconsin to check on her son.Mrs. B.’s concern has been prompted by her son’sprogressively more hysterical letters, which tell ofthe “Klondike,” where it is “hot as hell.” Mrs. B. issurprised to learn that Eva is interviewing at suchan atrocious place, but Eva assures her that this is “amodel institution,” where psychology and sociologyare used to rehabilitate prisoners.

Jim Canary walks by the two women, and Evajumps up to ask to see the Warden. Mrs. B. asksabout her son, a sailor named Jack. Jim says the War-den has not returned from “inspections,” or his dailyjaunt to the bar. Eva makes her way into the office,where Jim is filing papers. In idle conversation, Jimreveals that he is a reformed prisoner, a model for theinstitution, who is allowed to work in the office andperform clerical duties for the Warden. Mrs. B.enters the office to ask again about her son. Jim isnot at liberty to divulge information, but when sheexits, he tells Eva that Jack has recently becomeinsane. Eva is stunned to learn that the articles shehas read about the prison have been just propagandaand that the conditions are actually unbearable. TheWarden finally enters. He is coarse and large, and hegreets Eva warmly. Eva discusses her qualificationsfor the job. The Warden points to the window in theoffice and tells Eva that it is called “the quick wayout,” because it is the only window without bars.Jumping out of it would lead to a violent death onthe rocks and ocean far below. The Warden hiresEva and gloats about her curvaceous figure.

Not About Nightingales 177

Act 1, Episode 2Announcer: “Sailor Jack.”

In a prison cell, Jack mumbles quietly to himself.The guard, Schultz, announces lights out whileButch, Queen, and Joe complain and converse.Queen finds out that he has syphilis. Jack does notstop talking after the lights are out, and Butchcomplains to Schultz about him. Butch informs theother inmates that Jack became insane in theKlondike. The inmates grumble about the terriblefood. Butch requests that Jack be moved elsewhere.Mac, another one of the guards, puts Jack in isola-tion while Jim is escorted back to a cell. Theinmates harass Jim because they think he is a trai-tor and a spy for working in the Warden’s. The menhear The Lorelei steamer and its band playing onthe deck. It reminds Butch of a former girlfriendnamed Goldie. He reminisces about life beforeprison. Queen searches for his manicure set, whichhas been stolen, and Joe starts a conversation aboutescaping through the “quick way out” window.Queen says that he has always been persecuted(because his manicure set is missing), while Butchdiscusses Jack’s letters from his mother, which hehas read.

Act 1, Episode 3Announcer: “The Prognosis.”

As Eva arrives for her first day of work, Mr.Whalen studies a racing form. Mrs. B. enters theoffice to ask about Jack. The Warden makes Jimlook for Jack’s file. It is revealed that Jack was sen-tenced to three years for larceny, slacked on hiswork, and was sent to the Klondike, the torturoussteam room, for three days. The Warden becomesangry when Jim offers too much information. Jimreads that Jack was transferred to the psychopathicward for violence and delusions. Mrs B. grows hys-terical with disbelief. Jim escorts her out of theoffice.

Act 1, Episode 4Announcer: “Conversations at Midnight.”

Ollie and Butch talk between their two prisoncells. Ollie kneels praying for his six children andpregnant wife. He is an African-American man whohas been sentenced for stealing a case of canned veg-etables for his starving family. Relaxing and smoking,

Butch chastises Ollie for believing in prayer. Jimcomforts Ollie. Butch cruelly taunts Jim about beinga canary and “singing” to the Warden. Jim defendshimself.

Another cruise ship circles around the island, dis-rupting the conversation with its lights and music.Joe has become ill from the spoiled meatballs he hadfor dinner. Butch decides the inmates should go on ahunger strike for better food. Joe warns that theywould be put in the Klondike. Butch has suffered theKlondike and persuades everyone that it can be sur-vived. Butch recalls that it is like “breathin’ fire inyer lungs . . . the floor is so hot you can’t stand on it,but there’s no place else to stand.”

Act 1, Episode 5Announcer: “Band Music!”

Jim sits in the office as Eva enters. Jim explainsthat the woman who previously had her job hadintimate relations with the Warden and died during“an operation” a few months afterward. The War-den bought his wife a mink coat as a result. Evabecomes worried by this information, but she is des-perate to keep her job. Jim confides in her that theinmates are actually being starved because the foodis terrible and spoiled. The prison band is heardpracticing in the distance. Eva does not want tobelieve the horrible realities of the place. Jim spon-taneously embraces Eva, and she pushes him away.

Act 1, Episode 6Announcer: “Mister Olympics.”

A new inmate is admitted to Hall C, where Joe,Butch, and Queen reside. Swifty, an Olympic run-ner who “likes to kill distance,” is the newest mem-ber of the cell, convicted of stealing money. Swiftyclaims that he did not receive a fair trial, and hislawyers are appealing the verdict. Joe predicts thatSwifty will end up like Jack. Butch explains toSwifty that inmates are not considered human, andguards have “god complexes.”

Act 1, Episode 7Announcer: “A Rubber Duck for the Baby!”

The Warden shows Eva a rubber duck, which hehas purchased for his baby daughter. Jim informsthe Warden of the inmates’ escalating complaintsabout the food. Jim relates the seven recent cases offood poisoning. The Warden accuses Jim of exag-

178 Not About Nightingales

gerating the truth because Eva is present. The War-den reminisces about beating Jim and he recalls Jimhaving a high threshold for pain. The Wardenproudly laughs about Jim’s stamina and the scars onhis back. This act was an initiation into the clericalposition Jim now holds. Eva starts to faint. Jimcatches her and the Warden instructs him to leave.The Warden tries to explain away his brutality,assuring Eva that running a prison requires suchextreme actions. Eva is not convinced.

Act 1, Episode 8Announcer: “Explosion!”

Joe, Butch, Swifty, and Queen sit in their cell.They debate the hunger strike. Butch thinks it willwork; the other men fear the Klondike. Jim stepsinside the cell to warn Butch not to go through withthe strike. Jim informs the others that he will have aparole hearing next month and if he gets parole, hewill tell the public about the terrible conditions ofthe prison. Jim’s goal is to have the Warden strippedof his position. Butch is not interested in waiting amonth or relying on Jim. Joe is engrossed with Jim’splan; however, Butch squelches his hope.

Act 1, Episode 9Announcer: “Hunger Strike!”

Eva enters the office. The Warden offers herdinner and apologizes for making her work over-time. He fears the strike will attract public atten-tion and expects Eva to organize the files in casethere is an investigation. Eva inquires about the“bad discrepancies” in the financial records. Hequickly advises her to manipulate the books andcalls for Jim to help her. The Warden complimentsEva on her figure, particularly her breasts. He lickshis lips as he moves closer to her. The Warden asksher to go into an inner office with him, but sherefuses. He grabs her roughly as he exits the office.Jim interrupts them and asks the Warden to recon-sider improving the quality of the food. He warnsthat the hunger strike may happen tonight. TheWarden talks of the Klondike and says the pipes arebeing prepared.

Jim notices that Eva is pale and upset. She showshim a bruise on her arm the Warden caused. Jimpleads with Eva to quit the job and to tell the worldhow the prisoners are suffering. Eva refuses to leave

because jobs are scarce. They discuss the romanticfeelings they have for each other. Eva urges Jim tothink about his parole. The Warden enters, preparedto inspect the prisoners. A group of inmates enter.They are bloody and delirious because they havebeen severely beaten. The Warden gloats about theway the men look, and he is excited to send themback to the others who are thinking about striking.Swifty is one of them. He has been in a straitjacketfor five days. Ollie pleads with the Warden not tomake them go to the Klondike another night.

Eva witnesses the whole scene, and she sinksinto a chair in shock. The men are escorted back tothe Klondike. Several minutes later, outcries ofprotest are heard. Jim rushes into the office withthe news that Ollie has died. The Warden ordersEva to complete a death certificate for Ollie. She isinstructed to list the cause of death as stomachulcers and severe hemorrhage. Jim reminds himthat that is the information he supplied for the manwho died the previous week. The Warden changesthe cause to complications of a bad cold.

In the cells, the men rebel because Ollie hasbeen killed. Shouts of “Ollie’s dead! They killedOllie!” are heard. Butch announces that the hungerstrike is in effect. The scene shifts to a Newsboy onthe street, who is shouting the headlines about thehunger strike. Several voices from the AssociatedPress announce the strike.

Act 2, Episode 1Announcer: “Not about Nightingales!”

Eva answers phone calls from several newspa-pers about the recent hunger strike. The Chaplainnervously pleads with the Warden to agree to theprisoners’ demands. Jim enters with a bloody arm,caused by walking too closely to the cells. Evabandages his arm while he urges her to leave theprison. She returns to typing while Jim angrily grabsa book of poetry, rips out pages, and denouncesJohn Keats’s “Ode to a Nightingale.” Eva says thatKeats was like Jim, because he had a lot to say butnot enough time to say it. She turns to the poem“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” andreads aloud. Eva tells Jim that Keats wrote aboutbeauty as a means of escaping reality. Jim repliesthat his form of escape is destruction.


Eva and Jim converse about love and sex. Jimconfesses that being without women for so manyyears has forced him to imagine them, and he can-not believe Eva is real. He embraces her as the War-den enters the office. The Chaplain enters, but theWarden is not happy to see him. The Chaplain asksabout the Ollie’s death, as he believes it could havebeen prevented. The Warden is affronted by thisstatement, and he accuses the Chaplain of leakinginformation to the press that instigated the currentuprising. The Chaplain states that he is a “conscien-tious steward of Christ,” and the Warden fires him.The Chaplain is not fazed; he claims that he willtake memories of the torture with him. He also sayshe will make sure the prison is shut down. TheChaplain exits, as the Warden calls another chaplainto replace him.

Act 2, Episode 2Announcer: “Sunday Morning in Hall C!”

In the cell Joe, Queen, and Swifty read the soci-ety section in the Sunday paper.

Act 2, Episode 3Announcer: “Mr. Whalen Interviews the NewChaplain!”

The Warden interviews a Chaplain. He asks theChaplain to deliver a sermon to the prisoners thatwill incorporate the three words food, heat, andKlondike. The Chaplain is puzzled, but he cre-atively includes the words. The inmates respondby stomping their feet and shouting.

Act 2, Episode 4Announcer: “Zero Hour!”

Back at the Warden’s office, Eva frantically wel-comes Jim’s return from the cell. Jim again begs Evato leave the prison and tell the world what is hap-pening on the island. The Klondike is prepared forthe inmates in Hall C. The Warden enters theroom with the expectation that the strike will bebroken tonight when the inmates learn of theKlondike. The Warden tells Eva that she will haveto return to the prison after dinner. Jim asks abouthis parole. The Warden is so offended that Jimwould be thinking about his parole at a time suchas this that he threatens to put him in the Klondikeas well.

Act 2, Episode 5Announcer: “Hall C!”

In the cell Butch sings and tells Joe about hisformer girlfriend, Goldie. Queen is disturbed thathis fingernails are in such terrible condition. Themen talk about the Klondike, and Butch details hisexperience there. Schultz returns the tortured mento their cells. A chorus of men ask for Ollie. Butchinstigates a ruckus while Queen comforts Swifty.The prisoners are told that if they do not eat theirdinner tonight, they will be put in Klondike.Another prisoner, Mex, begins to pray fervently.Schultz exits, and Butch rallies the prisoners tostand firm on the strike.

Act 2, Episode 6Announcer: “Definition of Life!”

Jim is depressed. He believes that his parole willbe refused. He is angry with himself for mentioning itto the Warden. Eva tells Jim that she loves him, butJim’s mind is dominated by the thought that he willnever escape. Eva kisses him. Eva says that she isgoing to the newspaper offices at City Hall the nextmorning, because she has realized that saving the lifeof the inmates in the Klondike is more importantthan keeping her job. The Warden enters to tell Jimto deliver the order to start the Klondike. When heexits, the Warden informs Eva that she will not bepermitted to leave the prison until the following day.Eva refuses, grabbing the phone to call for help. Shelearns that the phone line has been disconnected forthe night. The Warden triumphantly offers her ashot of whiskey. Eva panics because her plan for sav-ing the inmates has been sabotaged, as she cannotleave the island. She admits she is afraid as the War-den makes advances toward her. She becomesaroused by his groping and upset by her own reac-tion when he is called out of the office. She screamsfor Jim, who runs to her. She begs to leave theprison. Jim refers to The Lorelei’s music, and thissoothes her nerves. Eva tells Jim that she too is aprisoner now. She confesses that the Warden’stouches mesmerized her to the point of immobility.Jim vows to escape with her. They devise a plan tomeet in the dark southwest corner of the yard.

Act 3, Episode 1Announcer: “Morning of August 15!”


The Warden asks for an update on the Klondikeand instructs Schultz to set the temperature at 130degrees Fahrenheit. The scene shifts to the meninside the Klondike. They are breathing heavily andare shiny with sweat. Butch tries to talk to Joe andSwifty through the ordeal, but Swifty can only begfor water. They have been in the boiler room foreight hours. Queen becomes faint with heat exhaus-tion. They talk to make the time pass more quickly,but tension builds as they fight to survive. Butchinitiates a sing-along, but none of the men is wellenough to join him. Queen hysterically prays to bereleased as he falls on the floor. They fight over thesmall air vent that keeps them alive. Butch tries tomaintain order as the men lift Swifty’s unconsciousbody to the vent. It is too late; Swifty is dead.

Act 3, Episode 2Announcer: “Evening of August 15!”

The Warden receives the puzzling report thatthe men in the Klondike are singing. He orders theguards to increase the temperature. The sceneshifts to the men in the Klondike. The men’s voicesare hoarse and they are becoming dehydrated.Queen sobs while another inmate, Shapiro, mum-bles in Yiddish. Butch extracts a razor from his beltand shows it to Joe. Butch plans to kill the Wardenwhen he visits them. They hear the bell that indi-cates they have now been locked up for 24 hours.Queen staggers into the steam and scalds himself.He screams and falls to the floor. Butch grabs hishead and slams it on the floor, killing him. Joe isshocked, but Butch responds that he was only put-ting him out of his misery.

The scene shifts back to the office, where theWarden calls on Schultz for a Klondike update. Heorders him to increase the temperature to 150degrees. The scene shifts to the Klondike, whereJoe pleads with Butch to use the razor on him.Butch tries to convince Joe that they are going tosurvive the torture. Butch angrily shouts to turn offthe steam. He staggers and rages toward the radia-tors, where he scalds his hands.

Act 3, Episode 3Announcer: “The Southwest Corner of the Yards!”

In the darkness of the prison yard, Eva whispersfor Jim, who has been waiting for her there. Eva

explains that she will be alone with the Warden ifshe goes back to the office. Jim quiets her for fearof being caught. The searchlight moves around theyard and over them. There is a pause and Eva andJim sigh with relief. Eva asks Jim to tell her that heloves her. Jim does, and the light scans the yardagain. This time it circles lower and closer tothem. They quickly try to crawl away from thelight, but it suddenly stops on Eva’s face. Thesirens sound.

The scene shifts to the office, where the Wardenberates Jim and Eva. The Warden grabs the rubberhose and demands Jim take off his coat. Evaimplores him to refrain from beating Jim. Sheclaims that the incident is her fault. She threatensto tell the public about the Klondike. The Wardenorders the guard to remove Eva. Jim fights to freeher, and the Warden orders Jim to the Klondike.

The Warden and Eva are alone in the office.The Warden tries to explain his behavior and com-forts her by pouring drinks. He implies that he willnot record the incident in Jim’s files if she has sexwith him. Eva says she will do whatever he wants ifhe will approve Jim’s parole. The Warden signs theparole form and calls the guard to put it in themailbox. He ushers Eva into the inner room.

Act 3, Episode 4Announcer: “The Showdown.”

In the Klondike Butch lies near the air vent asthe bodies of the deceased inmates are heaped inthe center of the room. Schultz and another guardenter with Jim. Butch hides, and when Schultzenters, he attacks him. Jim attacks the other guard,steals his gun, and holds the guards at gunpoint.Butch steals Schultz’s keys and they lock the guardsin the Klondike.

The screaming sirens lure the Warden out of theinner room. Jim enters the office. He is wild-eyedand his clothes are bloodied from the Warden’sbeating. Jim announces that the inmates have bro-ken out of the Klondike. The Warden tries to soundanother alarm for help, but the prison has becomechaotic with revolt. Holding the gun, Jim asks forEva. The Warden claims she left the prison. Evaappears and pleads with Jim not to harm the War-den because he has sent the parole approval. The


Warden agrees that he did send the letter becauseEva agreed to have sex with him.

Jim opens the door to the eager inmates, whoare waiting to attack the Warden. The Wardentries to negotiate with Butch. The sound of boatswith sirens approaching the island is heard. Theinmates douse the prison with gasoline. Butch killsthe Warden by throwing him out the window. Jimdecides to jump out the window instead of fightingthe police. Eva cries when Jim tells her that he hasto risk everything to escape. He hopes to swim toThe Lorelei. They say good-bye. Jim leaps out thewindow as several men enter the office and findEva holding Jim’s shoes. Over the loudspeaker,someone announces statistics about the prison.

COMMENTARYWilliams was inspired to write Not About Nightin-gales when he read of the Holmesburg Prison Strikeof 1938. Four men were steamed to death in the“klondike,” or a large furnace room, for their par-ticipation in a strike for better food rations. As inCandles to the Sun, Williams addresses the socialevils of the Great Depression before World War II.

Not About Nightingales was a play strongly influ-enced by the Federal Theatre Project, a grassrootsdepression-era program that supported the writing ofnew plays and their regional performances in theUnited States. Williams was a young playwriting stu-dent at the University of Iowa when he wrote thisplay as a class assignment. Using the project’s empha-sis on the “living newspaper” form (socially poignantplays based on factual information), Williams’s earlydramaturgy focuses on the social injustices experi-enced by impoverished and disenfranchised people.As is Candles to the Sun (about a miner’s strike), NotAbout Nightingales is Williams’s bitter expression ofthe inequalities throughout American society.

A dominant feature of the living newspaperstyle of playwriting is the use of announcements,which seam together the scenes and acts. NotAbout Nightingales functions in this manner. Williamspushes the boundaries of traditional staging to incor-porate expressionistic moments in sudden andnumerous scene shifts from the inmates’ cells to theWarden’s office, choral responses at the death ofOllie and the strike itself, and “Announcements . . .

extended to offstage reporting: shouted newspaperheadlines, voices of broadcasters, sirens” (Hale, xvii).

Not About Nightingales was never performed orpublished in Williams’s lifetime. Williams makes asingle reference to its existence in the essay that hepublished during the 1957 Broadway premiere ofORPHEUS DESCENDING. He states in the essay ThePast, the Present, and Perhaps, “I have never writtenanything since then that could compete with it inviolence and horror.” Williams attributed the dra-matic heft of the play to the fact that the hungerstrikes and torture of the Klondike, a large room ofradiators heated to their maximum levels, actuallyhappened. The Pennsylvania hunger strike and theliteral roasting of several convicts exposed the hor-rific conditions in the U.S. prison system.

Williams followed the story to its unjust resolu-tion as the police tried to say that the victims hadkilled each other. When the coroner rejected thisexplanation, the men involved in the case refusedto talk, and the coroner called their action “a con-spiracy of silence.” According to VANESSA REDGRAVE,who discovered the manuscript, Williams originallyentitled this play The Rest Is Silence and dedicated itto the memory of those victims.

Williams changed the title to Not About Nightin-gales in reference to the Keats poem (that Jim men-tions in act 2, episode 1). This title juxtaposes theromantic notions that Eva has about the prison as aconscientious environment of rehabilitation withthe hellish realities of torture. Canary Jim emphati-cally rejects Keats’s poetry, ripping pages out of thebook in frustration at its sentimentality: the unreal-istic propaganda that allows one to escape life. Evareads the sonnet “When I Have Fears That I MayCease to Be” to prove to Jim that Keats was dealingwith strong emotions related to death as well aslove. This notion causes Jim to reach a breakingpoint. His form of escape involves “blowing thingswide open!” Jim embraces destruction in the midstof the prison nightmare as a last resort for copingwith the physical torture and confinement.

Canary Jim is caught between two worlds, him-self rejecting—and simultaneously being rejectedby—both versions of reality. He is despised byButch, the cell boss, and he despises the Warden,with whom he spends most of his time. In his more


philosophical moments, Jim clearly becomes theplaywright’s mouthpiece. When he ponders thecages in which all human beings reside, he becomesthe young Williams, who was forced to work at theINTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY and Ben Murphyin STAIRS TO THE ROOF, who responds to factory lifeby escaping to the rooftop to write. Jim is also likeKilroy of CAMINO REAL, who wants only to find away out of the maze. The “real way” for Jim can benothing but destruction and revenge after years ofphysical abuse and oppression.

Eva is representative of the Great Depression ofthe 1930s. Her moral values are sacrificed as shewaits too long to reveal the truth about theKlondike because the threat of losing her jobmeans losing the survival game. She has, as theinmates have, been suffering from hunger and thebitter economic climate. With no one to dependon, Eva accepts a nightmarish job, as hunger isworse than what she witnesses at the prison. TheGreat Depression heavily influenced this play aswell as Williams’s other major dramatic works, suchas THE GLASS MENAGERIE. “The Depression was acontrolling factor in Tom Williams’s life. It forcedhim to quit the University of Missouri, where hehad already won notice in a literary contest, to workin a St. Louis shoe factory” (Hale, xiii). Similarly Evais forced to work in a less than amiable environmentto meet her financial needs. Eva is forced to sufferthe conditions of the prison and exist as a prisoner,although she is not a criminal. Eva has a change ofheart and decides to forfeit the job for the sake ofhumanity, but she unfortunately makes her decisiontoo late. Because she loves Jim, she chooses themoral high road. In the end, however, she loses Jim(who, it may be assumed, dies after jumping out ofthe window) and maintains her position in theprison system, although much of it has crumbledaround her.

The violence of the Klondike story clearly res-onated with the young Williams. Ironically, theprincipal resonance can be found in his own work.The severity of the Klondike is reminiscent ofWilliams’s earliest published short story, “THE

VENGEANCE OF NITOCRIS” (1928), in which a ban-quet hall serves as an inescapable vault or massgrave. The claustrophobic atmosphere surrounding

the entrapment parallels the Klondike’s misery.Both devices give their victims time to be cognizantof the horror that awaits them.

PRODUCTION HISTORYIn his essays, interviews, and autobiography,Williams fondly recalls a semiprofessional theatertroupe called THE MUMMERS. While at the Univer-sity of Iowa, Williams befriended this socially activegroup of theater radicals, who staged his early playsCandles to the Sun and Headlines. The Mummersanticipated producing Not About Nightingales, as itwas appropriate for their mission of performingplays that had strong social commentary. Unfortu-nately, the troupe was forced to disband becausethey could not survive the depression years. Theplay was abandoned (although Williams reworkedit for the next 30 years).

In 1991, renowned British actor and activistVanessa Redgrave discovered the script of NotAbout Nightingales in the Williams archives at theUniversity of Texas at Austin. On March 5, 1998,the play premiered at the Royal National Theatre,London, England, coproduced by Moving Theatreand in association with the Alley Theatre of Hous-ton, Texas. Directed by Trevor Nunn, the castincluded Corin Redgrave (Boss Whalen or TheWarden), Finbar Lynch (Canary Jim), James Black(Butch O’Fallon), and Sherri Parker Lee (EvaCrane). The performance was met with stellarreviews. Some critics went so far as to hail the playas the most poignant in the Williams canon. Bene-dict Nightingale in the New York Times wrote, “Isn’tit ungrateful to admonish a bolt of lightning . . . fornot being subtle and measured enough?” (AR3).

PUBLICATION HISTORYNot About Nightingales was published by NewDirections in 1998.

CHARACTERSBoss Whalen The sadistic warden of a prison,Boss Whalen embezzles the government-issuedfunds to the run the prison, and the inmates sufferfrom spoiled food and beatings. Boss Whalen hiresEva Crane, a curvaceous young woman, as a secre-tary. Canary Jim, an inmate, falls in love with Eva


and tries to escape with her during a prison revolt.When the plot fails, Boss Whalen beats him with arubber hose. As his name suggests, Boss Whalenenjoys administering pain to the inmates. BossWhalen shoves Jim into the Klondike, a humanoven. Jim and another prisoner, Butch O’Fallon,escape the Klondike and kill the guards. Butch killsBoss Whalen.

Bristol, Mrs. The concerned mother of SailorJack, a young inmate. Mrs. Bristol travels from Wis-consin to the prison to inquire about the status ofher son’s health. After receiving strange and non-sensical letters from him, she learns throughCanary Jim that Jack has been placed in theKlondike and has lost his mind as a result.

Canary Jim He is a prisoner who has suffered atthe hands of Boss Whalen, or the Warden. Jim hasspent many years in the prison and has graduated tothe position of an office secretary for the Warden.He is despised by his fellow inmates because it isbelieved that, as his name suggests, he spies on themto “sing” to Boss Whalen. Jim writes a prison news-paper and becomes the model prisoner in an attemptto gain parole. He is at his wit’s end when Eva Cranejoins the prison staff. Jim falls in love with Eva but istragically aware that he cannot be with her. Jim playsan intricate role in an inmate revolt after men areplaced in a furnace called the Klondike. This revoltleads to the death of the Warden and several guards.Jim bids Eva farewell and jumps out the window tothe ocean below to avoid being incarcerated forthese additional crimes. As does Kilroy in CAMINO

REAL, Jim constantly thinks of escape and philoso-phizes on the caged human condition while search-ing for a way out of the roughness of his life.

Chaplain The Chaplain disapproves of BossWhalen’s torturous punishments, and during ahunger strike, he sides with the prisoners and coop-erates with the newspaper to make the abuse publicknowledge. Boss Whalen fires him when he protestsand pleads with him to stop the use of the Klondike.

Crane, Eva She is a destitute, though educatedyoung woman who is forced to take a job as a prisonsecretary. Eva is extremely naive about her new posi-

tion; she believes the propaganda that the prison is astate-of-the-art center for rehabilitation. Eva soonwitnesses the torture that occurs in the domain ofBoss Whalen, or the Warden. She falls in love withan inmate, Canary Jim, who works in the office withher. Although she loves Jim, she admits that shebecomes excited when the Warden makes sexualadvances to her. Eventually she does have sex withthe Warden so that he will grant Jim his parole. Theconditions worsen when the Klondike is reinstituted,and inmates are literally baked alive. Eva could haveprevented the atrocity by making the authoritiespublicly aware of the plan if she had been willing tosacrifice her job. Eva decides to reveal the informa-tion too late: She is trapped at the prison. Eva subse-quently loses Jim when he commits suicide to avoidanother prison sentence after an inmate revolt.

Joe He is an inmate who suffers the wrath of theprison warden, Boss Whalen. Joe dies in theKlondike during punishment administered tosquelch a hunger strike.

O’Fallon, Butch A prison inmate, Butchdespises the Warden for his beatings and theKlondike. He is driven to survive these episodes sothat he may seek revenge and kill Boss Whalen.Butch’s archenemy is Canary Jim, who, he believes,spies on the inmates for the Warden. Butch dreamsabout his former days of freedom and his girlfriend,Goldie. He initiates a hunger strike, which leads toa prison revolt. Butch finally gets his wish when,ironically with the help of Canary Jim and afterserving days in the Klondike, he kills Boss Whalen.

Ollie He is an African-American man who hasbeen incarcerated for stealing a crate of cannedfood for his starving family. His sole hope is to getout of prison to help his wife and children. Ollie isplaced in the Klondike as an example to the otherinmates; he does not survive.

Queen He is a gay inmate who was incarceratedfor selling marijuana. The Queen spends his time inprison giving himself manicures. He suffers thewrath of Boss Whalen during a prison strike, whenhe is placed in the torturous Klondike, a humanoven and dies there.


Reverend He replaces the Chaplain, who quitshis job at the prison because Boss Whalen adminis-ters unjust torturous punishments to the inmates.The Reverend agrees to ignore what goes on in theprison. When he gives a speech to the prison body,he is met by a frightening mob of inmates, whothrow hymnals at him.

Sailor Jack He is a young inmate at the prisonrun by Boss Whalen. Sailor Jack suffers the Klon-dike, a human oven, and becomes insane.

Schultz He is a prison guard who follows theorders of Boss Whalen, the Warden. As does hisboss, Schultz enjoys terrorizing the inmates. He isforcibly locked in the Klondike, a human oven,when he tries to place Canary Jim, another inmate,in the oven.

Swifty He is a marathon runner and Olympichopeful who is imprisoned for stealing money.Swifty suffers the Klondike, or the human oven, asan example to the other inmates who are on strike.Swifty dies in the Klondike at the orders of BossWhalen.

Warden See Boss Whalen.

FURTHER READINGHale, Allean. “Introduction: A Call for Justice.” In

Not About Nightingales. New York: New Directions,1998.

Nightingale, Benedict. “The Redgraves’ ‘Nightingales’Sings Grandly.” New York Times, April 5, 1998, p.AR3, 30.

The Notebook of TrigorinA free adaptation of ANTON CHEKHOV’s The Seagullwritten between 1981 and 1983.

SYNOPSISThe play is set on the estate of Sorin in the Russiancountryside.

Act 1A platform stage obscures the otherwise beautifulview of the lake. It is sunset and several servantsare completing the stage for an evening perform-ance of a play written by Constantine.

Masha and Medvedenko take a walk by the lake.They discuss Masha’s life, their relationship, andMasha’s unrequited love for Constantine. Mashaadmits that she sympathizes with Constantinebecause his mother, Arkadina, a famous and agingactress, mistreats him. Medvedenko proposes mar-riage, and Masha rejects the proposal with contempt.

Constantine appears on the makeshift stage,and Masha is captivated by his presence. Sorinjoins Constantine on stage. Sorin expresses hisdesire to live in the city. Masha and Medvedenkodiscuss Arkadina’s relationship with Trigorin, herfamous playwright companion. With childlikeexcitement, Constantine anticipates his mother’sreaction to his play, as it is an experimental form oftheater. Constantine informs Sorin that his motherdoes not support him because she is a miser andbecause he is a depressing reminder that she is nolonger young.

Sorin and Constantine discuss the importanceof theater, and Constantine describes his vision of anew theatrical aesthetic. Trigorin interrupts theirconversation and invites Constantine to join himfor a swim. Constantine declines as he is waiting forNina to arrive. From a distance, Arkadina calls forTrigorin; he leaves to join her.

Sorin advises Constantine to love his motherdespite her faults. Nina arrives. She is distressed, asshe fears that she is late for the performance. Sheaccepted a carriage ride from a stranger, whoalarmed her so much that she jumped from themoving carriage and ruined her dress. Sorin tellsNina that Constantine is in love with her. Embar-rassed and unable to reciprocate the sentiment,Nina makes light of the moment while Constantinecowers in humiliation.

Constantine quickly calls his audience to theirseats. For a moment, Nina and Constantine arealone. Nina reports that her father has forbiddenher to come to the estate because he believes Con-stantine’s family is too bohemian. Constantinedeclares his love to her, but she silences him.

The Notebook of Trigorin 185

Constantine’s play is a disaster. Nina forgets herlines and suffers a sneezing fit. She is embarrassedto be performing such an esoteric and unusualscript. Constantine helps her through the perfor-mance, whispering directions to her. Arkadinagrows impatient, interrupting the experimentalplay to recite her own favorite monologues. Con-stantine rages at his mother’s behavior.

Trigorin and Arkadina debate new forms of the-ater as Nina joins them. She is awestruck to be intheir presence. Arkadina quickly orders a carriageto take Nina home. Sorin demands that Arkadinamake peace with her son. She concedes but retortsthat she will always be truthful about his lack of tal-ent as a writer. Trigorin leaves to find Nina. Dorn,Sorin’s doctor and an old family friend, attempts tocomfort Constantine. Trigorin tries to reassureConstantine that he is a promising writer. Mashainforms Constantine that his mother would like tosee him. Trigorin acknowledges that Masha is inlove with Constantine.

Act 2In the garden of Sorin’s estate, Arkadina and Mashapicnic while Dorn reads aloud to them. Arkadinabecomes bored and orders Masha to stand beside her,so that they may compare their figures. She ordersDorn to decide which appears to be the elder. Dornwinks at Masha and asks Arkadina her age. Dornflirts with Masha while he criticizes Arkadina for herattempts to fight inevitable aging. Masha scolds Dornfor his flirtations because her mother, Polina, is inlove with him. Arkadina becomes angry and seizesDorn’s book and begins to read aloud. Sorin andNina join them in the garden. Sorin announces Ninawill be staying at the estate for three days while herparents are on holiday. He complains about his achesand pains. Arkadina begs Dorn to write a prescrip-tion that will help Sorin, but Dorn coldly respondsthat nothing can be done about old age. Masha’s par-ents, Shamrayev, the estate manager, and his wife,Polina, hurry into the garden. He and Arkadinaargue about the horses she requires for a trip intotown. Shamrayev refuses to provide her with horses.Arkadina decides to end her stay in the country.

Dorn and Polina are left alone in the garden.Polina begs Dorn to run away with her. Dorn is not

interested in settling down with one woman. Ninareturns to the garden and gives Dorn a bouquet offlowers she has picked. Polina destroys the flowers.Constantine enters the garden and asks to be leftalone with Nina.

Constantine killed a seagull and brings it toNina. Constantine leaves as he sees Trigorinapproaching. Trigorin informs Nina he is leaving theestate today. Nina begs him to stay. Trigorin asksNina to take care of Constantine, and she declaresthat she does not love Constantine. Trigorin con-fesses that he would trade his success to be trulyloved by Nina. He notices the dead seagull on theground. When Nina tells him that Constantinekilled it, Trigorin writes this information in hiswriter’s notebook. Arkadina calls out to Trigorinand announces that they are not leaving. Nina talksto Trigorin about her dream of becoming an actress.

Act 3In the dining room of Sorin’s estate, Trigorin andMasha sit drinking vodka together. Masha confessesshe could not have gone on living if Constantinehad fatally wounded himself. Masha announcesthat she is going to stop loving Constantine andmarry Medvedenko. Masha bids Trigorin farewelland requests a signed copy of his latest book.

Nina seeks Trigorin’s advice about whether sheshould pursue an acting career. Trigorin has reserva-tions about helping her with such a huge decision.Nina gives him a medallion by which to rememberher. Arkadina calls for Trigorin. Nina requests a fewminutes alone with him before he departs.

Arkadina becomes jealous when she realizesthat Nina has been alone with Trigorin. Sorin andArkadina argue and discuss how Arkadina could bea better mother. During their argument, Sorinbecomes dizzy and staggers. Arkadina calls out forhelp; Constantine runs in to assist his uncle. Con-stantine pleads with his mother to take better careof her brother. Arkadina suggests that Constantinegive up writing and become an actor. Constantineasks his mother to put fresh bandages on his gun-shot wound. Arkadina lectures him about hurtinghimself and makes him promise never to do itagain. Constantine questions her about Trigorin’spromiscuous behavior. Constantine informs Arkad-

186 The Notebook of Trigorin

ina that Trigorin has been engaging in sexual activ-ities with various male servants.

Trigorin returns to the dining room, expressing awish to stay in the country longer. Arkadina refuses.Trigorin pleads with her that an affair with Ninacould be the most important thing in his life and forhis writing. He asks Arkadina to release him. Shereminds him that she launched his literary careerand has taken care of him his entire adult life. Theyexchange insults. Arkadina kneels and begs him tostay with her. Arkadina blackmails him, explainingthat she possesses a photograph of a young Italianman with an intimate inscription on the back. Trig-orin proudly confesses he has had many male andfemale lovers before and during his relationshipwith Arkadina. She threatens to make this photo-graph public if he does not continue his life withher. Trigorin concedes and the two embrace. Trig-orin runs to meet Nina by the lake.

Constantine eavesdrops in a nearby bush asTrigorin and Nina make plans to meet in Moscow.Trigorin stuffs extra money into the front of Nina’sbodice. The two lovers kiss passionately.

Act 4Two years have passed. The drawing room of theestate is now Constantine’s study. A violent thun-derstorm brews in the distance.

Masha and Medvedenko are in search of Con-stantine. Masha prepares a bed for Sorin on thesofa. Medvedenko urges Masha to have intimaterelations with Constantine. He advises her toundress and reveal her beautiful white skin to him.Masha is offended by Medvedenko’s plan.

Medvedenko announces that it is time for themto go home and take care of their baby, but Masharefuses to leave Sorin’s estate. Medvedenko tellsPolina of Masha’s insolence, but Polina ignores hiswhimpering. Constantine enters the study andMedvedenko exits. Polina congratulates him on hisliterary success. Masha steps out onto the veranda,and Polina asks him to be more cordial to herdaughter. When Masha returns, Constantinestorms out of the study. Polina holds Masha whileshe cries about her life with Medvedenko.

Medvedenko wheels Sorin into the study, andDorn follows them. Masha is frustrated that her

husband has not gone home. Sorin is awaiting thearrival of Arkadina. Dorn broadcasts the latestgossip regarding Nina: She chased Trigorin, shehad a child by him, and then Trigorin cast her outof his life. Now Nina is back in the area, but herfather has disowned her. Constantine challengesDorn to a duel in the garden for spreading suchvicious lies. Masha and Polina try to calm him.

Dorn also shares details of Arkadina’s latest the-atrical failure. Constantine demands that Dorn bethrown off the estate. Arkadina arrives and Dornasks her about her latest performance. She hidesthe truth, declaring that it was a spectacular suc-cess. Trigorin greets Constantine with news ofadmirers. Polina sets up a card table and they playlotto. Everyone leaves Constantine in the studywhen supper is served. Nina peers in through theFrench doors.

Constantine quickly takes her inside. They con-verse about his recent fame, and Nina expresses adesire to go on living even though life has beencruel. She entreats Constantine to do the same.Nina begins to cry. Constantine asks about herchild. Nina confides that an American familyadopted her baby. Nina admits she still loves Trig-orin, more than ever. Nina leaves. Constantinedestroys his manuscripts and goes into the garden.

The dinner party reconvenes in the study. AsTrigorin and Arkadina bicker, a gunshot is heard inthe distance. Arkadina panics and Dorn comfortsher by explaining that the sound must have been abottle of ether exploding in his medicine bag. Hegoes to investigate. Polina and Masha rush to thegarden, the direction from which the shot rang,while Arkadina sits frozen with fear. Dorn asks herabout the bows she took at her most recent per-formance, urging her to demonstrate. As she does,Constantine’s lifeless body is carried into the study.

COMMENTARYAs an adaptation of Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull(1896), The Notebook of Trigorin is the successfulblending of two master voices. Notebook was Wil-liams’s last dramatic work; to date little scholarshipabout this work exists. Scholars have extensivelyexplored Williams’s affinity with Chekhov. Most ofthe scholarship in this area is focused on Chekhov


as a primary literary influence for Williams and therelationship between THE GLASS MENAGERIE andThe Seagull and A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE andThe Cherry Orchard (1904). Only a handful ofscholars have focused their studies on Notebookand Williams’s adaptation process.

Throughout his life, Tennessee Williams studiedand admired the works of Chekhov. Williamsaspired to create plays in the vein of Chekhov’s nat-uralistic dramatic mode. Chekhov’s genius lay in hisextraordinary ability to depict human beings withall of their flaws, foibles, and bad behavior. Williamswas enamored of this focus in Chekhov’s work, par-ticularly in The Seagull. He embraced this Chekhovmasterwork, pushed it beyond its subtle sphere, andrecast it in a new “PLASTIC THEATRE” aesthetic. Asdoes the young playwright at the center of The Seag-ull, Williams believed that “all unconventionaltechniques in drama have only one valid aim, andthat is a closer approach to truth” (The GlassMenagerie, xix).

Under Williams’s pen, Chekhov’s text becomesa different, though familiar, story. The characterschange, the action is rerouted, the culture shifts,and the end product is reminiscent of Chekhov, yetsimultaneously and stunningly Williams. In TheNotebook of Trigorin, Williams fleshes out Chekhov’stextual subtleties to create more dramatic conflictand direct action, as well as heightening the empha-sis on the morose and tangled existence of Che-khov’s characters.

One of the most intriguing shifts is that of thecharacter Trigorin, the famous writer. In Williams’sversion he is defiantly bisexual and succumbs toArkadina when she threatens to expose his sexual-ity. Love, in this new version of Chekhov’s story,has a hefty price. Here, as in so many of Williams’sworks, intimate relationships become tainted com-mercial exchanges, and those who refuse to barteror who seek something more ethereal are leftbehind, abandoned or betrayed.

Williams has quite appropriately been called the“American Chekhov.” As did his favorite writer,Williams repeatedly explored issues of loss andlonging, social stagnation, deterioration of genteelsociety, and social revolution. These concerns per-meate Williams’s dramaturgy. Both playwrights

advocated a new theater form to speak to a pro-gressive society as it reinvented itself.

There is little doubt that the young Tom Williamseagerly and immediately identified with Chekhov’syoung playwright protagonist, Constantine, and hismany artistic and personal battles. Returning tothis work toward the end of his life took Williamsback to his starting point. The Notebook of Trigorinwas an appropriate finale for America’s greatestdramatist.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Notebook of Trigorin premiered at the Cincin-nati Playhouse in the Park, in Cincinnati, Ohio, onSeptember 11, 1996—commemorating the 100thanniversary of The Seagull’s first performance inSaint Petersburg, Russia, in 1896. The production,directed by Stephen Hollis, featured Lynn Red-grave as Arkadina.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Notebook of Trigorin was published by NewDirections in 1997.

CHARACTERSArkadina Based on the principal female charac-ter in Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull, Arkadina(whose full name is Irina Nikolayevna Arkadina) isa famous aging actress who fears growing old andgoes to great lengths to remain youthful. Arkadinais extremely manipulative, very insecure, and self-deceiving. She has spent her life focusing on hercareer instead of her family, particularly her son,Constantine. Arkadina brutally opposes her son’sdesire to become a writer. Constantine feels over-shadowed by his mother’s career. Arkadina’s lover,Trigorin, a famous writer, is repeatedly unfaithfulto her. His affairs with women and men are publicknowledge and aggravate her extreme jealousy andcodependence. Arkadina’s steady deterioration isapparent as the play progresses. By the end, evenher most devoted admirer, Dorn, is making fun ofher increasingly disastrous performances. Arkadinahas traits similar to those of other Williamswomen, particularly Amanda Wingfield of THE

GLASS MENAGERIE. The two women suffer thesame unhealthy need to be the center of attention,


to be admired and adored for their legendary beautyand exquisite presence. Their self-centerednessblinds them to the reality of their life and those oftheir children. Both women dismiss the writing tal-ent of their son and his need for freedom and cre-ative expression. Arkadina is as oblivious toConstantine’s discontent as Amanda is to TomWingfield’s restless unhappiness; as a result bothwomen ultimately lose their son.

Constantine Based on a character of the samename in Anton Chekhov’s play The Seagull, Con-stantine, whose full name is Constantine GavrilovichTreplev, is the son of Arkadina and the nephew ofSorin. Constantine is an aspiring young playwrightwith dreams of creating new forms of theater. Hisdesires are fueled by his mother’s negative criticismand his uncle’s faith that he will someday be recog-nized for his talent. He lives a simple and poor lifealthough his mother is the most famous actress inRussia. Constantine is content to spend his dayswriting by the lake. He is not obsessed with fame ashis mother is, but he does become frustrated whenhis beloved Nina falls in love with Trigorin, a famouswriter who is also Arkadina’s lover. Constantinebecomes extremely depressed because Trigorin ismaking his mother look foolish and has taken Ninaaway from him. Although he does become anaccomplished writer, he laments the loss of Nina, asshe has moved to the city to be an actress and to fol-low Trigorin. Constantine is reunited with Ninaeventually, but her feelings for Trigorin have notchanged. This pain is more than Constantine cantake and he commits suicide.

Dorn Based on the character in Anton Che-khov’s The Seagull, Dorn, who is also known asYevgeny, is a country doctor. He is a friend of Sorinand his family, who visits the family estate everyday. Although he is aging, Dorn prides himself onbeing a bachelor. He loves women and does notwant to have only one. Dorn can be cruel, and hissense of humor is quite dry. Sorin’s nephew, Con-stantine, loathes the doctor because he is so mat-ter-of-fact and rude. Because of his failing health,Sorin likes having the doctor around. Dorn alwaysassures Sorin that he is incurable and there is

nothing to do to help him. Polina, the wife ofSorin’s estate manager, is deeply in love with Dorn.Their encounters are always histrionic becausePolina wants to run away with him. Dorn nolonger wants Polina because he can have youngerwomen. He is quick to remind Polina that he willnever be hers.

Masha Based on the character Masha in AntonChekhov’s play The Seagull, Masha is the daughterof Polina and Shamrayev. As the daughter of anestate manager, Masha has been raised aroundwealthy and famous people although she is of thelower classes. Masha is bored and discontentedwith her life. She has a very melancholic natureand always wears black as an expression of her dis-content. Masha is in love with Constantine, theestate owner’s nephew. Masha is very intelligent,and she is trapped in a society that does not affordmany options to women. She finds solace in vodkaand takes pleasure in her conversations with thewriter, Trigorin. After many years of being pres-sured by his requests, Masha relents and marriesMedvedenko, a simple schoolteacher. She does notlove him, but she knows she will never have Con-stantine. Even after she is married and has a child,Masha remains devoted to Constantine. She oftenstays away from her husband and child as sheresents being someone’s wife and mother. Masharelies on her mother, Polina, for emotional support.The two women share the same fate.

Medvedenko Based on the character in AntonChekhov’s The Seagull, Medvedenko (whose fullname is Semyon Semyonovich Medvedenko) is animpoverished schoolteacher who lives near theestate of Sorin. Williams’s Medevedenko is a manhopelessly in love with the idea of marriage andfamily; he is much more aggressive than Chekhov’scharacter. He demonstrates frustration with hisimpoverished life by being condescending andpatronizing to Masha, the woman whom he wishesto marry. Medvedenko’s aggressive declarations oflove to Masha serve only to alienate him furtherfrom his gentrified peers. He does wear Mashadown, and she marries him; however, she despiseshim. Medvedenko sees his dream of marriage reach


fruition, but Masha refuses to cooperate and be hisloving, dutiful wife. When she decides to devoteher time to Constantine, the man she loves,Medvedenko is left to take care of their infant.Medvedenko worries about finances and about sup-porting his unmarried sister, widowed mother, andunloving wife.

Nina Based on the character in Anton Chekhov’sThe Seagull (also known as Nina MikhailovnaZarechnaya), she is the daughter of an estate owner.Nina lives in the Russian countryside and dreams ofbecoming a famous stage actress. Her family’s estateis adjacent to the family homestead of Russia’s mostfamous actress, Arkadina. Nina’s childhood friend,Constantine, is Arkadina’s son, and through thisassociation, she meets and begins a clandestinecourtship with Arkadina’s longtime lover, Trigorin.She crushes Constantine’s relentless declarations oflove by following Trigorin to Moscow to become hismistress and an actress. When Nina becomes preg-nant with Trigorin’s child, she gives it to an Ameri-can couple for adoption. She returns to the provinceonly to be shunned by her family. While she hasbeen gone, Constantine has become a literary suc-cess; however, he still desperately pines for her. Ninaurges him to forget her and to persevere. Deter-mined to succeed, she returns to Moscow.

Williams’s Nina searches for a way to become asuccessful actress. Her affair with Trigorin seemsto be fueled more by this need than by the lovethat Chekhov creates between the characters. InWilliams’s version, Nina is willing to do whatever ittakes to become famous. She cruelly criticizes Con-stantine’s play, an action that Chekhov’s Nina doesnot take. When she first appears in The Notebook ofTrigorin, Nina is recovering from being accosted bya man who offered her a carriage ride to the estate.As do so many female characters Williams created,Nina becomes a victim from her first appearance;however, Williams also imbues Nina with strengththat propels her to action. In The Seagull, Ninadoes love Constantine; however, she falls head overheels in love with Trigorin because he is charming,powerful, and famous. She gladly accepts this affair,whereas Williams creates a Nina who does not loveConstantine and only reluctantly loves Trigorin.

Polina Based on the character in Anton Che-khov’s The Seagull, Polina (also known as PolinaAndreyevna) is the wife of an estate manager,Shamrayev, and the mother of Masha. Polina is anolder woman who has suffered the wrath of a crueland indifferent husband. Polina has always been inlove with the bachelor doctor Dorn. She had anaffair with him when she was younger but refusedto leave her husband and young daughter to bewith him. This has been her life’s regret. Now thatMasha is an adult, Polina is ready to leave Sham-rayev, but Dorn does not want her. Polina contin-ues to pursue Dorn. She is miserable and consumedby jealousy of the women who enjoy Dorn. Polinawitnesses her life’s mistakes repeated when Mashasuffers unrequited love and marries Medvedenko, aman she detests.

Shamrayev Based on the character in AntonChekhov’s The Seagull, Shamrayev (whose fullname is Ilya Afanasyevich Shamrayev) runs Sorin’sestate with harsh authority. He is unhappily mar-ried to Polina. While she seeks the attentions ofDorn, Shamrayev seeks the favor of Arkadina,Sorin’s sister, a famous actress. He cares for hisdaughter, Masha, but he cannot understand hermelancholy disposition.

Sorin Based on the character in Anton Che-khov’s The Seagull, Sorin (who is also known asPytor Nikolayevich Sorin) is an elderly estateowner. Williams’s creation is a willful man who ismore assertive, less feeble and fumbling thanChekhov’s. Sorin is the brother of Arkadina, afamous Russian actress. He regrets the simple bach-elor life he has led. He mourns that he has nevermarried and has never had a family of his own.Sorin’s nephew, Constantine, lives with him in thelarge house on the lake. Sorin hates the bucolic set-ting and longs to be in the city, where the atmo-sphere is buzzing with life. He begs to be taken tothe city. As Sorin’s health declines during thecourse of the play, he becomes less and less respon-sive to the action, often sleeping through difficultconversations. By the end of the play, it is clear thatSorin is going to die. The family calls Arkadinahome during a critical point in Sorin’s illness.


Trigorin Based on the character in AntonChekhov’s play The Seagull, Trigorin (whose fullname is Boris Alekseyevich Trigorin) is a famouswriter and the companion of Arkadina. In TheNotebook of Trigorin, as in Chekhov’s The Seagull,Trigorin is a writer who is absorbed by his need towrite. He carries a notebook and jots down histhoughts about interesting moments that occur inhis life. He is middle-aged and has many lovers. InWilliams’s adaptation, Trigorin is bisexual, althoughhe is emotionally devoted to Arkadina. Trigorintakes a fancy to Nina, a young girl from a neighbor-ing estate. His conquest of Nina is tumultuousbecause Arkadina’s son, Constantine, is in lovewith Nina as well. The two men become rivals, andTrigorin wins Nina. Trigorin says he despisesArkadina’s petty games; however, he cannot livewithout her. He refuses to leave because he cannothandle the thought that another man will take hisplace. At one point in the play, Trigorin wants to befree of his obligations to Arkadina so that he maylive with Nina. Arkadina threatens to blackmailhim with a licentious photograph she found of ayoung Italian man. Trigorin buckles under thispressure; he gives up his plan and wholeheartedlyaccepts his fate of being Arkadina’s possession.

Yakov Yakov is a servant on the estate of Sorin.Yakov is also the clandestine lover of Trigorin, afamous writer who accompanies Arkadina whenshe visits her brother and the family estate.

Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws

A one-act play written in 1981.

SYNOPSISThe play takes place in a restaurant in New YorkCity.

Scene 1Madge sits at a table awaiting the arrival of herluncheon companion, Bea. Bea arrives after a fran-tic shopping trip to Guffel’s, a department store

near the restaurant. She carries a large costumerabbit head. Finishing each other’s sentences, Beaand Madge discuss the chaos during Guffel’s after-Christmas sale. A pregnant Waitress with a black-ened eye takes their order. The restaurant Manager,“an aging queen,” who wears a white carnation inhis lapel, teases the Waitress about being unwed.

A hunched figure dressed in black appears out-side the restaurant window wearing a sandwichboard on which is written “Trivialities.” Bea andMadge try to ignore the man outside the window.They perform a dance as the Manager sings a beauti-ful, doleful tune of love found too late. Bea andMadge discuss their respective vacation plans, andin anticipation of the warm Florida weather, Bea liftsher skirts and reveals her thighs. The Manager chas-tises her for her indecent behavior and is promptedto perform an outlandish “Dionysian and vulgar”dance around their table. Bea and Madge respond byperforming a dance of their own in the style of “acidrock.” They return to their table and discuss trafficand Madge’s night class at New York University.

A handsome young couple, the First Young Manand the Second Young Man, enter the restaurantwearing pink leather jackets that bear the insignia“The Mystic Rose.” The lights fade on Madge andBea as a table and chairs are taken out andarranged for the young men. As they wait to beserved, the First Young Man shares his sense of iso-lation with his lover. He is estranged from his fam-ily and resents the Second Young Man’s repeatedinfidelity. He tries to make his partner understandthat only he can truly love him. As he pleads withthe Second Young Man (“I love you and I’m scared.You’re my life. I’m scared.”), the hunched figureagain appears outside the window, this time with aplacard reading “Mr. Black.” The First Young Manrises from his seat and begins to panic. He ordersBea, Madge, the Waitress, and the Manager toacknowledge the “Mr. Black” outside the window,but they all deny that they can see him. The Sec-ond Young Man tries to calm his boyfriend, but hetoo becomes frightened by the mysterious presence.

The Second Young Man sends a note to theManager, inviting him for a tryst in the lavatory.The First Young Man pleads with The SecondYoung man to be faithful. Left alone as his

Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws 191

boyfriend goes to meet the Manager in the rest-room, the First Young Man performs a lonelydance. He resumes his place at their table as theSecond Young Man returns from the restroom.Aroused by his encounter with the Manager, theSecond Young Man is eager to leave the restaurantand go home with the First Young Man. The Wait-ress arrives with their order, and the Second YoungMan instructs her to give their bill to the Manager,who complies.

Scene 2The Waitress delivers Bea and Madge’s lunches. Asshe serves them, the two women converse with oneanother. Their dialogue is sung in the style of aGregorian chant. Bea confesses that her husband,Phillip, is impotent. She inquires whether she cantake legal action against him because of his dys-function. Madge advises her that Phillip’s conditionis the result of repeated infidelity or Bea’s failing inthe “art of seduction.” Bea becomes outraged at thesuggestion that Phillip is having an affair. Madgeinsists that she is right and orders Bea to hire a pri-vate detective to follow her husband. Madge haslearned from experience with her husband, Hugh,the importance of hiring a “professional shadow” to“provide an account of all of his activities.” Thetwo women then criticize the Waitress for herblackened eye.

The shattering sounds of a traffic accident areheard outside the restaurant. Madge and Bea rush tothe window and discover that the handsome youngcouple in the restaurant earlier have been involvedin a horrific crash. One of the young men has beenmortally wounded in the accident, and Madgedescribes in graphic detail what she can see outsidethe window. The First Young Man staggers back intothe restaurant. A table and chair are taken out forhim. Madge and Bea confusedly pick up theirbelongings and abruptly leave the restaurant. TheWaitress informs the Manager that she is quittingher job and walks out of the restaurant. The FirstYoung Man becomes nauseous and rushes into thelavatory. The Manager faces the audience and sharesa brief, tender song. The Waitress, Bea, and Madgesing along with him as they stand outside the restau-rant window. The Manager knocks on the lavatory

door and the First Young Man tentatively steps outof it. The First Young Man closes his eyes as theManager leads him out of the restaurant.

COMMENTARYNow the Cats with Jewelled Claws is an extraordinar-ily complex work. It is another enigmatic exampleof Williams’s engagement with the conventions ofthe THEATER OF THE ABSURD. Jewelled Claws, as dosuch works as THE REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE

OF MME. LE MONDE, depicts exaggerated, satiri-cal, and nearly puppetlike characters, “bewilderedbeings in an incomprehensible universe” (Harmonand Holman, 2), who barely communicate withone another through often irrational and illogicaldialogue. Within this surreal reflection on the fleet-ing nature of life and love and the uncertaininevitability of human fate, Williams juxtaposes thesocial isolation that can result from personalchoices or individual circumstances (by the preg-nant waitress) and old age (embodied by Madgeand Bea), which are often experienced by gays andlesbians (personified by the nameless First YoungMan and his beloved, the Second Young Man).

Notably, the play also contains two of Williams’smost dimensional and poignantly drawn gay char-acters. Although they initially seem to be merelycliché caricatures of gay men (they enter in scene 2wearing bright pink leather jackets), The FirstYoung Man and his partner, the Second YoungMan, are fully developed, multifaceted characters.They are confident, open, and vocal about theirsexuality and their relationship. As Madge andBea’s does, their conversation hinges on the ques-tion of fidelity. The First Young Man wants his rela-tionship with the Second Young Man to becentered on love, security, and permanence. AsBea does, he believes that infidelity is a crimeagainst love. For him, love is the only source ofmeaning in a senseless universe underpinned andoverwhelmed by “Instant. Oblivion.” For his part-ner it is merely a game that human beings play asthey attempt to outdistance or ignore “Mr. Black,”the apparition symbolizing death who hovers out-side the restaurant window.

In many ways these young lovers mirror an ear-lier Williams couple, Alma Winemiller and John

192 Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws

Buchanan of SUMMER AND SMOKE. Alma Wine-miller and the First Young Man share the view thatthe human quest for love is for something greaterthan carnal gratification. The Second Young Manand John Buchanan are passion-filled creatureswho strive to live in the moment, and seize fromlife what they can, as long as they can. The FirstYoung Man’s fate also mirrors Alma’s, as they bothmust face the future alone and without the objectof their affection. Ultimately, they both seek solace,however fleeting, in the arms of strangers.

PRODUCTION HISTORYNo professional productions of Now the Cats withJewelled Claws have been recorded to date.

PUBLICATION HISTORYNow the Cats with Jewelled Claws was first publishedby New Directions in The Theatre of TennesseeWilliams, volume 7, in 1981.

CHARACTERSBea She is a nearly middle-aged woman who isjoining her friend, Madge, at a restaurant nearGuffel’s department store in New York City. Beaarrives for lunch with a giant costume rabbit headthat she has just purchased at Guffel’s to entertainanother friend’s “mongoloid child.” Bea and Madgeexchange “trivialities” about after-Christmas shop-ping at Guffel’s and their winter vacation plans.The two women also make sport of harassing thelethargic pregnant Waitress. Bea confesses that herhusband, Phillip, is impotent and is scandalizedwhen Madge suggests that Phillip’s condition is theresult of repeated infidelity or Bea’s failure in the“art of seduction.” Madge encourages Bea to hire aprivate detective to follow her husband.

First Young Man He is the partner of the Sec-ond Young Man and accompanies him to a restau-rant near Guffel’s department store in New YorkCity. A young man in his 20s, he describes himselfas a “social alien.” He and his partner are membersof a motorcycle group, the Mystic Roses. The FirstYoung Man loves the Second Young Man deeplyand pleads with him to be faithful. When the Sec-ond Young Man has a romantic tryst with the

restaurant Manager in the men’s lavatory, the FirstYoung Man performs a lonely dance to express hissorrow. Upon leaving the restaurant the young cou-ple are involved in a traffic accident on theirmotorcycle. The Second Young Man is killed in thecollision. The First Young Man returns to therestaurant and is consoled by the Manager.

Madge A nearly middle-aged woman who is hav-ing lunch with her friend, Bea, at a restaurant nearGuffel’s department store in New York City. Madgeand Bea exchange “trivialities” about after-Christmasshopping at Guffel’s and their winter vacation plans.They also make sport of harassing the lethargicpregnant Waitress. When Bea confesses that herhusband, Phillip, is impotent, Madge advises herthat his condition is probably the result of hisrepeated infidelity or Bea’s failure in the “art ofseduction.” Madge encourages her to hire a privatedetective to follow her husband. She has learnedfrom experience with her own husband, Hugh, theimportance of hiring a “professional shadow” to“provide an account of all of his activities.”

Manager He is the manager of a restaurant nearGuffel’s department store in New York City. TheManager, described as “an aging queen,” wears awhite carnation in the lapel of his elegant suit.During lunch he patronizes Bea and Madge, teasesthe Waitress for being unwed and pregnant, andflirts with the young gay couple who come in. TheManager has a romantic tryst with the SecondYoung Man in the men’s lavatory. Upon leaving therestaurant, the young couple is involved in a trafficaccident on their motorcycle. The Second YoungMan is killed in the collision. The First Young Manreturns to the restaurant and the Manager consoleshim.

Second Young Man He is the handsome tem-peramental lover of the First Young Man. The menare members of a motorcycle group called “the Mys-tic Roses.” They stop for lunch at a restaurant nearGuffel’s department store in New York City. Whilewaiting to be served by the Waitress, the First YoungMan professes his love and pleads with the SecondYoung Man to honor their love and remain faithful.

Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws 193

The Second Young Man dismisses his lover’s senti-mentality and proceeds to have a romantic tryst withthe restaurant Manager in the men’s lavatory. Onleaving the restaurant the couple is involved in atraffic accident on their motorcycle. The SecondYoung Man is killed in the collision.

Waitress The Waitress works at a restaurantnear Guffel’s department store in New York City.She is in the last trimester of her pregnancy and hasa severely blackened eye. She suffers the ridicule ofher boss, the Manager, and the restaurant cus-tomers Bea and Madge, because she is a battered,unwed mother.

FURTHER READINGHarmon, William, and C. Hugh Holman, eds. A

Handbook to Literature. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1996.

“One Arm”Short story written between the years 1942 and 1945.

SYNOPSISA handsome blond farm boy named Oliver Wine-miller joins the navy and becomes the light heavy-weight champion boxer of the Pacific Fleet.Oliver’s dreams of being a champion boxer aredestroyed when he loses an arm in a car accident.He becomes a male prostitute. One night, in a fit ofrage, he murders a man who paid him to perform ina pornographic film.

Oliver is arrested, tried, and sentenced to die inthe electric chair. During his time on death row, heis bombarded with letters of appreciation from for-mer clients. Oliver is transformed by these letters,which prompt him to forge a connection with aMinister who talks with him before his execution.Oliver reaches out to him the only way he knows,sexually, but his advance is rejected. Oliver is exe-cuted the following day.

COMMENTARYCompared to “a broken statue of Apollo,” Oliveris a prime example of the mutilated characters

found in the Williams canon. As Trinket has inTHE MUTILATED, Oliver has locked himself out-side love because he has suffered dismemberment.Trinket alienates herself from sexual intimacy toavoid revealing that she has had a mastectomy.She confesses, “Oh, but not daring to expose themutilation has made me go without love for threeyears now, and it’s the lack of what I need mostthat makes me speak to myself with the bitter-old,winter-cold voice.” Her static response to dis-memberment creates the same self-loathing thatspurs Oliver to sell his body. His frenetic self-destruction fuels his anger and rage, and ulti-mately it drives him to commit murder.

Oliver is an ANTIHERO, who becomes a completehuman being after he has killed and is awaiting hisdeath. His redemption is brought about by hisclients’ letters, and their words of thanks and love.Oliver awakens to the human connections he hasmade and the positive impact he has had on thesemen’s lives. He begins to understand his own emo-tional strength, and personal worth exclusive of his“mutilation.”

PUBLICATION HISTORY“One Arm” was first published in the short storycollections One Arm (1948) and later in CollectedStories (1985).

CHARACTERSMinister While trying to comfort and counselOliver Winemiller, a murderer on death row, theMinister fends off Oliver’s sexual advances.

Winemiller, Oliver He is a champion boxerwho loses his arm in a car accident. He becomes amale prostitute and, manifesting his repressedanger about the car accident, commits murder. Hebecomes a celebrity on death row, and through hisfan mail, he realizes that he actually made a differ-ence in the lives of his clients.

FURTHER READINGSummers, Claude J. Gay Fictions: Wilde to Stonewall:

Studies in a Male Homosexual Literary Tradition.New York: Continuum, 1990.

194 “One Arm”

One ArmScreenplay written in the 1960s.

SYNOPSISThe setting is New Orleans.

Ollie is a male hustler who was once a championboxer. After a car crash left him without one arm,he is forced into a life of selling his still-beautifulbody, likened to an ancient statue of Apollo with abroken arm. Ollie now lives his life on the streets,advising other hustlers. Incredibly lonely, with hisdreams of being an athlete gone, Ollie disregardshuman connections and focuses only on survival.

It is revealed during a flashback that he killed awealthy client who refused to allow him to leaveduring the filming of a sex video. Unwilling to “per-form” with a young woman on camera, Ollieexploded in pent-up anger and murderous rage. Hethen ran away from the scene. A few years pass,and Ollie is finally arrested. He pleads guilty to themurder charge and is sentenced to death. His caseis publicized in the national press. Ollie’s formerclients, some of whom are prominent men, writehim letters of gratitude for the fleeting pleasure hegranted them. Ollie enjoys the letters, pleased thathe would even be remembered.

A Young Divinity Student follows Ollie’s storyin the press, and he is drawn to visit him. When hedoes meet Ollie, he is taken aback by his beautyand spends the visit listening to him. When theYoung Divinity Student becomes sexually temptedby Ollie, he calls for the guard to release him.

The next morning Ollie is escorted to the elec-tric chair. He carries his letters with him, holdingsome of them between his legs and placing the oth-ers where he can see them. When he dies, his bodyis released to a medical college. The students thereadmire his sculpted body and remark that he resem-bles a broken ancient statue.

COMMENTARYWilliams prefaced this screenplay with the explana-tion that the work is a “dark poem whose theme isthe prevalence of mutilations among us all, andtheir possible transcendence.” Although Ollie con-

siders his life ruined, he remains beautiful, tran-scending his mutilation. His anger and deep self-hatred fuel him to ultimate violence. He tells theYoung Divinity Student,

I seemed to go through a change which I can’taccount for except I stopped caring what hap-pened to me. That is to say I lost my self-respect. I went all over the country without anyplans except to keep on moving. I picked upstrangers in every city I went to. I had experi-ences with them that only meant money to meand a place to shack up for the night—liquor,liquor—food.

It is through the act of murder that Ollie isredeemed. During his imprisonment, Ollie awakensto the real human connections he has made andthe incredible impact he has had on the men andwomen he encountered as a hustler. This is his spir-itual conversion. He realizes and accepts his ownhumanity and worth. To him his encounters werefleeting moments for survival’s sake after his boxingcareer ended. To others they were acts of charity,beauty, and love. The change in Ollie’s character isgreat; although he never fully sheds his roughedges, he transcends his mutilation.

PRODUCTION HISTORYOne Arm has not been produced.

CHARACTEROllie He is a beautiful young man who loses hisarm in a car accident. Ollie becomes a hustler anddreams of his days as a champion boxer. Because ofhis beauty, he is compared to a broken statue ofApollo. While entertaining a client, Ollie becomesviolently angry when his wishes are ignored, and hekills the wealthy man. Ollie is arrested a few yearslater, and sentenced to death row. He is executed inprison gripping a collection of letters he receivedfrom former clients.

“Oriflamme”Short story written in 1944.

“Oriflamme” 195

SYNOPSISAnna Kimball is dying of tuberculosis. She inter-prets her illness as “a natural anarchy of the heart.”On this particular day, Anna cannot decide what towear. When she takes off her nightgown, she isforced to acknowledge the sickly image of her frail,nearly transparent body in a nearby mirror.

The reflection prompts Anna to buy a flowing redsilk dress. She imagines that she is a flag; her legs arethe two trailing points billowing in the wind. Shefeels she is leaving the world behind, rising and mov-ing without direction. As Anna glides over thestreets of Saint Louis, she thinks back on her life.She recalls two men: Mr. Mason, a coworker shedated once, and a young boy in high school withwhom she danced and kissed. Anna becomes disori-ented. She enters a park and walks toward a statueof a soldier on a horse, deliriously avoiding the path.Acknowledging the green park and the vivid bluesky, Anna rests to regain her breath and pause toallow the pain to subside. Blood seeps across her lips,and a flag of the colors green, blue, and red forms inher final dying moments.

COMMENTARYAnna Kimball provides an intriguing example ofWilliams’s solitary strangers. Her life has not beenfulfilled, and she will die at a very young age with-out the experience of romantic relationships orhuman connection. During her suffering, Annareminisces about her fleeting encounters. Anna’ssimplistic approach to her own illness becomes asublime experience of bittersweet tragedy. Intellec-tually, Anna understands she is dying a violentdeath, but emotionally, she still sees her world interms of poetic wonder.

Williams’s vivid imagery is masterfully woventhrough the poetic language of this short story.Although considered a largely marginal work, thisdelicate tale possesses beauty that is reminiscent of“Baudelaire, Rimbaud, and their colleagues” (Van-natta, 38) and an aesthetic that is rooted in thetheater. The narrative reads as a scene for thestage. Williams devotes much attention to the mar-riage between Anna Kimball and her surroundings.The vibrant colors and images detail the psycholog-

ical state of this dying woman. As she is presentedin a near-spirit form, her ethereal existence com-munes with the setting, evoking a sense of beautyand a blending with nature.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Oriflamme” was published in the short story col-lections EIGHT MORTAL LADIES POSSESSED (1974)and in Collected Stories (1985).

FURTHER READINGVannatta, Dennis. Tennessee Williams: A Study of the

Short Fiction. Boston: Twayne, 1988.

Orpheus DescendingA play in three acts written in 1957. It is a revisionof the play BATTLE OF ANGELS.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in Two Rivers County, Mississippi.The action takes place in the Torrance MercantileStore, owned and run by Jabe and Lady Torrance. Itis a two-story building with the store in the lowerportion and the Torrance living quarters upstairs.

PrologueThe time is late afternoon in late winter or earlyspring. Dog Hamma and Pee Wee Binnings are inthe confectionery, playing pinball. Their wives,Dolly Hamma and Beulah Binnings, set up a buffettable in the store. Dolly and Beulah discuss theseverity of Jabe Torrance’s illness. Beulah gossips(and directly addresses the audience) about Lady’sfather, Papa Romano, who was a bootlegger duringProhibition. He owned a clandestine wine gardenwhere lovers drank and made love during the darksummer nights. Beulah nostalgically recalls fre-quenting the wine garden, but she also remembersthe night the Ku Klux Klan burned it down becausePapa Romano also served African-American clien-tele. After the Klan set fire to the garden, the firedepartment refused to put out the flames. PapaRomano burned to death trying to fight the firesingle-handedly. Beulah also relates the story of

196 Orpheus Descending

Lady’s wild courtship with David Cutrere. She wasdevastated when he left her to marry a “societygirl,” and that is when she married Jabe, neverknowing that he helped start the fire that destroyedthe wine garden and killed her father.

Act 1, Scene 1Carol Cutrere enters the store through the confec-tionery. She carries a gun and a pint of bourbon.Dolly and Beulah and two townswomen, Eva andSister Temple, are scandalized by Carol’s presence.Carol’s brother, David, has paid her to stay awayfrom Two Rivers County, and Carol is preparing forher departure. She helps herself to the store’s cashbox and several bullet cartridges for her gun. TheConjure Man (Uncle Pleasant) enters. Carol asks tohear his Choctaw cry, and when the loud soundsubsides, Valentine Xavier, a handsome youngstranger, enters with Vee Talbot. Val is a musicianwho was passing through town when his car brokedown, and Vee is a townsperson who paints her reli-gious “visions.” Carol is immediately drawn to Val;she asks him for a date, but he ignores her offer.Carol recognizes Val from a nightclub in NewOrleans; however, he adamantly denies that theywere previously introduced.

Lady enters with Jabe, who has just been releasedfrom the hospital. He has undergone experimentalsurgery to remedy cancer. The townswomen con-verge on him with feigned joy and mock tears. Jabeimmediately goes to bed. The women flock aroundLady seeking details of Jabe’s impending death. Ladyescapes upstairs while the women gossip about the“death sweat” on Jabe. Vee attacks Dolly and Beulahfor being corrupt, hosting drinking parties, and play-ing cards on Sundays. Dolly responds by calling Veea “professional hypocrite.” Carol tells Val about howshe acquired a bad reputation by using her inheri-tance money on projects for the African-Americanpopulation. She is forced to leave the store when thegossipers turn their attention to her.

Act 1, Scene 2A few hours pass, and Val returns to the store inthe hope of securing a job. Lady descends the stairsto find him in her store. She asks about his back-ground, and Val asks her nationality. She tells himthe story of her immigrant father and the wine gar-

den. Val says that his most prized possession is hisguitar. Signed by many famous people, it is the onlything important to him. Lady entertains the idea ofhiring Val by quizzing him about shoe sales. Val andLady have a lengthy exchange about the humancondition: People are bought and sold as are cattle,and one is either the buyer or the bought. Ladygives Val money to have dinner at the diner andtells him to report to work the next morning.

Act 2, Scene 1Several weeks later Lady receives a complaint froma female customer, who claims that Val “got famil-iar” with her. Lady confronts him, and he decidesto quit. She begs him to stay because she has notyet had the chance to get to know him. Val believesno one ever truly knows another person. He talksabout his severe loneliness, growing up in the soli-tary world of Witches Bayou. He was abandonedand forced to care of himself. When he finallymade contact with another human being, a youngbeautiful woman, he thought he had found themeaning of life; however, after he made love to her,he became bored and ran away.

Beulah, Dolly, and a Woman rush into the storeto telephone David. Carol is causing a scene afterbeing denied service at the Red Crown Service Sta-tion. Beulah urges Lady to refuse to serve Carol ifshe enters the store. Dolly phones Mr. Dubinsky atthe pharmacy, advising him to refuse to serve her aswell. In the meantime, Carol has entered the store,and she overhears Dolly’s instructions. Wild-eyedand feverish, Carol sits down while Lady tries tohelp her. Beulah, Dolly, and the Woman whisper inthe background. When Lady realizes that David ison his way to collect his sister, she angrilyannounces that she will not allow him in her store.Beulah happily gossips that David was Lady’s lover.Lady forces Dolly, Beulah, and the Woman toleave. Carol says she has arrived to deliver a privatemessage to Val. Lady obliges her request for privacy,but she warns Carol that she will have to leave“like a shot from a pistol” when David arrives.

Carol expresses her need for affection to Val. Sheis wild with passion to touch him. Val responds byexclaiming that she is too fragile: She could not with-stand a man’s body on top of her. Carol recognizes

Orpheus Descending 197

the Rolex watch Val is wearing as her cousin’s. Valconfesses that he stole the watch, and that at thatmoment he decided to stop running with the wildnightclub crowd. He advises her to clean up her lifeas well. Carol warns Val that he is in danger if heremains in Two Rivers County. Carol’s brotherarrives in his blue Cadillac, and Lady shouts forCarol, who has collapsed in tears at the table insidethe confectionery. David enters, grabs his sister,and walks toward the door. Sharply, Lady ordersDavid to wait. She asks Val for privacy while Davidtells Carol to wait in the car.

Lady reminds David that he is not welcome inthe store. For the first time, she bitterly confessesthat she was pregnant with his child the summer heleft her to marry a rich, well-established youngwoman. She admits she had an abortion, and herheart was removed as well. This was also the sum-mer Lady’s father died in a raging fire that consumedthe wine garden. She says that they have both beenbought and sold in marriage, and he is to blame fortheir mutually unhappy lives. Lady proudly declaresthat she was the best thing that ever happened tohim. Stunned, David walks toward the door, admit-ting that she is right. Lady reiterates that under nocircumstance is he to enter her store again.

Act 2, Scene 2Several hours later and at sunset, Vee Talbot takesa painting to the store for Jabe. She discusses herart and her visions with Val. Her husband, SheriffTalbot, catches Val kissing Vee’s hand, and hebecomes suspicious.

Act 2, Scene 3Val plays his guitar while he and Lady converseabout the day’s explosive events: his encounterwith Carol and her encounter with David. Thesound of chain-gang dogs chasing a convict isheard, and one gunshot is fired. Lady does not wantVal to leave, so she offers to let him use the store’sback room as living quarters. While she fetcheslinens from upstairs, Val takes money from the cashbox and leaves with his guitar.

Act 2, Scene 4Later that night, Val returns to the store andreplaces the money from a large wad of cash. Lady

walks down the stairs, accusing him of stealing. Heexplains that he took less than the amount sheowes him and he was very lucky at blackjack. Ladysays she left the money in the cash box to test Val’sintegrity. Val accuses her of wanting him as her“stud.” Lady vehemently denies any sexual interestin Val but pleads, “No, no, don’t go . . . I needyou!!! To live. . . . To go on living!!!” Val exits tothe back room, and Lady follows.

Act 3, Scene 1It is early morning, the Saturday before Easter andthe opening of the Torrance confectionery. Ladyrushes down the stairs to warn Val that Jabe isabout to inspect the inventory. Val franticallydresses as Jabe does not know that Val lives withthem. Accompanied by Nurse Porter, Jabe meetsVal and peruses the new confectionery. With itstrees, arbors, and lights, it reminds Jabe of the“Wop’s” wine garden he burned down. Lady is trau-matized by the information that she married theman who killed her father. A Clown enters announc-ing the gala opening. The Nurse rushes to call Dr.Buchanan as Jabe has started to hemorrhage.

Act 3, Scene 2At sunset, Vee Talbott enters the store dazed andfumbling. She has experienced a vision of her “Sav-ior” and has been struck blind by the brilliance ofhis blazing eyes. Val places a compress to soothe hereyes, but at his touch, she is struck again with theeyes of Christ. Violently she falls to her knees,wrapping her arms around his legs. Sheriff Talbottrushes in to apprehend Vee, but she clings to Val.The Sheriff and his posse attack Val for accostingVee. He demands that Val leave Two Rivers Countyby sunrise the following morning.

Act 3, Scene 3Half an hour later, Dolly, Beulah, Eva, and Sistergather in the store to discuss Jabe’s sudden turn forthe worse and Lady’s indifferent absence. Ladyreturns from the beauty salon ready for the galaopening of the confectionery. Carol Cutrere enterslooking for Val, followed by the Conjure Man.Dolly and Beulah run out of the store in fear. Dogand Pee Wee remove the Conjure Man from thestore. When Val enters, Lady asks him to wear a


white waiter’s jacket for the opening, as a means ofreinventing the wine garden while Jabe is alive. Valputs on his snakeskin jacket. He has returned totell Lady that he loves her and will wait for her atthe edge of the county. She does not want to leaveuntil Jabe dies, but he has to escape Sheriff Talbot.Nurse Porter argues with Lady, and Lady admitsthat she is pregnant with Val’s baby. The Nurseleaves to report this news. Fearing for Val’s life,Lady urges him to leave; she will follow him. Nowthat he knows she is carrying his child, Val refusesto leave her behind.

Jabe descends the stairs with a revolver. Ladyshields Val as Jabe fires the gun and shoots hertwice. Jabe then runs out of the store calling forhelp and claiming that Val shot Lady and robbedthe store. Lady dies in the confectionery. As Val

tries to escape through the confectionery, SheriffTalbott’s posse rushes into the store. Val is caught(the action happens offstage), and grabbing a blow-torch from the store’s shelf, the posse directs itsflames toward Val and the confectionery. Screamsare heard, and finally Carol and the Conjure Manenter from the confectionery. The Conjure Manfinds Val’s snakeskin jacket and gives it to Carol.Sheriff Talbot tries to prevent Carol from leavingthe store. She brushes past him triumphantly, wear-ing Val’s snakeskin jacket.

COMMENTARYOrpheus Descending is a revision of Williams’s ear-lier, first professionally produced work, Battle ofAngels. Over a period of 17 years Williams revisedthis tale of sexual liberation and repression in a


Williams and Anna Magnani. Williams wrote the role of Lady Torrance in Orpheus Descending for Magnani.(Photograph courtesy of the Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

bigoted rural Southern town. Although much ofthe play remains the same, this version of theevents in Two Rivers County is significantly pareddown and the drama is more focused. The most sig-nificant alteration is the shift in the principalfemale character. Myra Torrance transforms from a“retiring Southern housewife” (Brustein, 25) intoLady Torrance, passionate daughter of an Italianimmigrant. This change adds dimension to Lady’sisolation and otherness and heightens the sensethat she is caught between the “bright angels ofsexual freedom and the dark angels of Southernrepression” (Brustein, 25). As is Val, she is an out-cast in a strange land. She is here more clearly aEurydicean figure in need of a liberating Orpheus.

In Battle, there is no wine garden, and Myraallows herself to be taken advantage of by thetownswomen. Carol Cutrere was Cassandra White-side in Battle of Angels, where Williams focuses onher wealth and her mythological namesake. Carolretains Cassandra-like qualities: She prophesies dis-aster to Val, who ignores her warnings.

Williams cleverly uses the Orpheus myth todepict the South of the 1950s. He changes Val froma poet to a musician, following the story of theancient lyre player who could charm the gods withhis performance. Orpheus’s beloved Eurydice diesof a snakebite soon after their wedding. He is sobrokenhearted that he pursues her in the under-world. His lyre playing is so entrancing that Hadesand Persephone release Eurydice on the conditionthat Orpheus not look back at Eurydice until theyhave left the underworld. Nearing the end of theirjourney back to the world above, Orpheus acciden-tally turns and faces his wife. In that moment, shedies a second time. Orpheus withdraws to themountains, where he lives as a recluse for threeyears. He shuns the love of women. Bacchicwomen discover Orpheus in the woods. Enraged byhis rejection of women, they tear his body to shredsin their trance.

As does Orpheus, Val encounters death in thecharacter of Jabe, as he holds the key to releaseLady from her death/marriage. Orpheus journeysthrough the underworld for the chance to regainEurydice, and he makes a simple mistake that costshim everything. Val’s descent is his entrance into

the world of this volatile town, which ostracizesprophets and ridicules mystics. Nurse Porter servesas a catalyst similar to the serpent that bit Eurydice:Without her, Lady and Val could have escapedwithout harm. Lady is ultimately lost in the under-world of the Torrance Mercantile Store, and Val suf-fers a hideous, violent death in the name of love. Heis destroyed by the mob of townspeople who func-tion as the Bacchic women in the Orpheus myth.

PRODUCTION HISTORYHAROLD CLURMAN directed the first New York pro-duction of Orpheus Descending in March 1957 atthe Martin Beck Theatre. MAUREEN STAPLETON

played Lady Torrance and Cliff Robertson playedValentine Xavier. Critics generally dismissed theplay on the premise that Williams had overex-tended himself. The consensus was that Orpheuswas overwrought with symbols and biblical andmythological references. Critics felt that Orpheussignaled a decline in Williams’s playwriting; how-ever, it was a huge success in Russia, where it had asolid seven-year run.

Williams was shattered by the poor criticalreception of Orpheus. The negative reactions andrejection pushed him into psychoanalysis.Williams believed Orpheus contained some of hisbest writing, but he acknowledged that for somethe play might seem “overloaded” (Brown, 108).Williams felt that a part of the negative reactiontoward the play was the direct result of an inabil-ity of audiences and critics of the time to acceptthe levels of violence presented in the play.Williams believed that this was a testament to hisvisionary writing.

The play was subsequently adapted for thescreen and retitled THE FUGITIVE KIND. It was pro-duced as a feature film in 1960 starring ANNA

MAGNANI as Lady and MARLON BRANDO as Val.The film The Fugitive Kind was the most successfulincarnation of both Orpheus Descending and Battleof Angels. Over the years, the film has garnered thestatus of a cult classic.

PUBLICATION HISTORYOrpheus Descending was published by New Direc-tions in 1958.


CHARACTERSBinnings, Beulah Beulah is one of a collection ofgossiping, spiteful townswomen who frequent Jabeand Lady Torrance’s store. She is married to PeeWee Binnings and is Dolly Hamma’s best friend.

Binnings, Pee Wee Pee Wee is a local townsmanin Two Rivers County, Mississippi. He is married toBeulah Binnings and is a member of Sheriff Talbot’sposse.

Clown He is hired by Lady Torrance to announcethe gala opening of her confectionery.

Conjure Man He is an old African-Americanman who sells magic charms and serves as a super-natural force in the play. Also known as UnclePleasant, the Conjure Man is a reworking of thecharacter the Conjure Man in the play BATTLE OF

ANGELS.

Cutrere, Carol She is the daughter of the oldest,wealthiest, and most distinguished family in theDelta. Described as “an odd, fugitive beauty,” Carolis a reckless, eccentric aristocrat. Although she hasbeen banned from the town of Two Rivers County,she returns to warn Valentine Xavier that he is indanger. She is a reworking of the character Cassan-dra Whiteside in the play BATTLE OF ANGELS.

Cutrere, David He is Carol Cutrere’s brotherand Lady Torrance’s former lover. David aban-doned Lady to marry a wealthy socialite. Heencounters Lady for the first time in several yearswhen he arrives to collect Carol at the TorranceMercantile Store. David learns that Lady was preg-nant with his child the summer he abandoned her.

Dubinsky, Mr. Mr. Dubinsky is the pharmacist inTwo Rivers County. He takes Lady Torrance sleepingpills in the middle of the night after she phones him.

Hamma, Dolly Dolly is Dog Hamma’s wife. Sheis one of the gossiping, spiteful townswomen in TwoRivers County. This gaggle of women includes VeeTalbot, Eva, Sister Temple, and her best friend,Beulah Binnings.

Hamma, Dog Dog is a member of Sheriff Tal-bot’s posse and is married to Dolly Hamma. He is areworking of the character Pee Wee Bland in theplay BATTLE OF ANGELS.

Nurse Porter Nurse Porter cares for the dyingJabe Torrance in his convalescence after unsuccess-ful surgery. She is shocked by what she perceives ascold indifference from Jabe’s wife, Lady Torrance.Nurse Porter suspects that Lady is having an affairwith the Torrances’ handsome shop clerk, Valen-tine Xavier. She confirms that Lady has becomepregnant, informs Jabe, and serves as the catalystfor the violent ending of the play.

Talbot, Sheriff Sheriff Talbot is married to VeeTalbot and is a close associate of Jabe Torrance’s.He attacks the Torrances’ shop clerk ValentineXavier and accuses him of accosting his wife. He isa revision of the character Sheriff Talbot in the playBATTLE OF ANGELS.

Talbot, Vee Vee is the tormented wife of SheriffTalbot. She is a member of a group of gossipingtownswomen who frequent Jabe and Lady Tor-rance’s store. Vee is quite unlike the other womenin her circle as she is a passionate painter of somelocal renown. Vee Talbot is a reworking of the char-acter Vee Talbot in the play BATTLE OF ANGELS.

Temple, Eva Eva is Jabe Torrance’s cousin andSister Temple’s sister. Eva and Sister are two of agroup of gossiping, spiteful townswomen who fre-quent Jabe and Lady Torrance’s store.

Temple, Sister Sister is Jabe Torrance’s cousinand Eva Temple’s sister. Sister and Eva are two of acollection of gossiping, spiteful townswomen whofrequent Jabe and Lady Torrance’s store.

Torrance, Jabe Jabe is married to Lady and isthe owner of the Torrance Mercantile Store in TwoRivers County, Mississippi. A mean and spitefulman, Jabe led the Klu Klux Klan on a raid of Lady’sfather’s wine garden. Lady’s father died in the firesthey set that night. Jabe is dying of cancer.


Torrance, Lady An elegant Italian woman, Ladyis a troubled beauty who has suffered tragic events inher past. She witnessed the death of her father dur-ing a Ku Klux Klan raid when she was a teenager.Unknowingly, she marries the wretched man, JabeTorrance, who instigated the raid. Lady finds life,passion, and release with her lover, Valentine Xavier.Her character is a reworking of the character MyraTorrance in the play BATTLE OF ANGELS.

Uncle Pleasant Uncle Pleasant is an elderlyAfrican-American man who sells magic charms andtokens. He is also known as the Conjure Man.

Woman She is one of a collection of gossiping,spiteful townswomen in Two Rivers County. Sheheads the crusade to ostracize Carol Cutrere.

Xavier, Valentine Val is a handsome young gui-tar player who drifts into Two Rivers County, Mis-sissippi. Vee Talbot helps him find a job in theTorrance Mercantile Store, which is owned byJabe and Lady Torrance. The presence of this sexyyoung stranger creates an uproar in the smallrepressed community. Val has an affair with Lady,who becomes pregnant. Val is a reworking of thecharacter Valentine Xavier in the play BATTLE OF

ANGELS.


and Film with Twelve Writers, One Producer—andTennessee Williams’s Mother. New York: NewmarketPress, 1992.

Brustein, Robert. “Robert Brustein on Theatre:Orpheus Condescending.” The New Republic, 30October 1998, 25–27.

Wallace, Jack E. “The Image of Theatre in TennesseeWilliams’s Orpheus Descending.” Modern Drama 27,no. 3 (September 1984): 324–353.

Out CryA play in two parts was produced in 1973.

SYNOPSISThe actual play is set in an unspecified locale, in atheater during the evening of the performance.Within the play, the actors set the scene for NewBethesda (in the South) on a warm summerafternoon.

Part 1The curtain opens on Felice, an actor in a troupewhose company, except his fellow actor, his sister,Clare, has deserted him. A colossal dark statueoverpowers the stage. Felice wrestles with how toget rid of it when Clare enters, seemingly indiffer-ent. Felice explains their predicament: The theatercompany has left them, their manager has desertedthem, taken their money, and a large statueobstructs their performance space. Clare argueswith him about how they are supposed to performunder the circumstances. She insists they cancel theshow; however, Felice begs her to persevere. He tellsher that their production of “The Two CharacterPlay” will be performed with never-before-seen flair.As the play commences, the “Two Character Play”plot unfolds: Clare and Felice are trapped in a housein which their parents were killed. (Their mentallyunstable father shot their mother and immediatelykilled himself.) Clare witnessed the event, whichdrove her mad. The brother and sister have not leftthe house since the accident. Throughout theirlines, they strike piano keys to emphasize certainstatements.

Felice comments on the large sunflower thatgrows in the front yard, and Clare suddenly hearsan insistent rapping on the door; when it ceases,she finds a flyer for help from “Citizen’s Relief.”(Because their father’s life insurance was revoked,Clare and Felice have been living on a line of creditgraciously set aside through Grossman’s Grocery.)Announcing that she would like to look into Citi-zen’s Relief, Clare argues with Felice about leavingthe house. Felice refuses to leave, and Clare callsthe Reverend Wiley and manically talks about thepredicament of her life. Felice quickly hangs up thephone, instructing whoever is on the other endplease to forget what Clare has mentioned. Fearingthat the Reverend Wiley will call someone to havethem institutionalized, Felice warns Clare to keep

202 Out Cry

her mouth shut, and especially not to use the wordconfined. Taunting him, Clare romps about callingout, “Confined! Confined!” and Felice tries to muf-fle her with a pillow.

Clare points out to the audience and proclaimsthat there is a gunman among them. Felice quicklycalls for a 10-minute intermission as he drags Clareoffstage, apologizing for her sickness, and the houselights go up.

Part 2After the 10-minute interval, Clare and Felicereenter, arguing about their financial difficulties.Felice says they must visit the grocer’s to convincehim that the life insurance will be paid in full tohim in September. Felice is prepared to lie andClare is appalled. Clare reveals that both Felice andher dead father have been institutionalized in“State Haven” for a period and she fears that Felicehas been psychologically damaged by his stay. Feliceshoves Clare out the door and they stand, gather-ing courage to go to talk to the grocer, who is ablock away from their house. Clare stalls, insists hernerves are shot, and rushes back into the house.Felice angrily attempts to go to the grocer’s, but heis equally afraid. He retreats back inside, and theydo not look at each other for some time.

Both realize that the house has become a prisonand they embrace each other in defeat. The embracecarries a hint of sexual desire, which is quickly dis-pelled when Felice abruptly pulls away. Clare pro-ceeds to call for welfare relief, but the phone is dead.Felice reveals that he is going to insert some newlines into the play, and he pulls a hidden revolver outof the piano and loads the bullets. As he sits withClare, reminiscing about their life, she abruptly“drops character” and informs Felice that the audi-ence has left the theater. Clare surmises that theirperformance has become too personal and regretsthat their lives are indistinguishable from those oftheir characters.

Clare inquires about the ending of their play andFelice informs her that it is unconventionalbecause it ends when they deem it to be over. Heleaves the stage to procure hotel reservations forthe evening but quickly returns, having discoveredthat they are locked in the theater. Clare becomes

hysterical, and frantically searches for an escape. Itquickly becomes apparent that she and Felice aretrapped. Recognizing a chill spreading throughouttheir bodies, Felice suggests that they return to theworld of the play and re-create the summeryatmosphere. Losing themselves again within theirdialogue, Clare and Felice discover a way to endtheir play: As Felice gazes at the tall sunflower intheir yard, Clare finds the gun hidden behind a sofapillow. She joins Felice by the “window,” and bothwatch the house lights dim as Felice explains,“Magic is the habit of [their] existence.”

COMMENTARYOut Cry is a revised version of THE TWO CHARAC-TER PLAY, which Williams began writing in 1966. Itwas first published by New Directions in 1969. AsOut Cry, the play was published by New Directionsin 1973. Williams extensively revised the workagain, under the original title The Two CharacterPlay. This version, considered definitive, was pub-lished by New Directions in 1975.

Similar to Luigi Pirandello’s existential drama,Six Characters in Search of an Author, Williams’sOut Cry is a play about the theater and the theaterof life, or rather the performative nature of humanexistence. It reveals a vision of the human condi-tion whereby “the real and [the] role overlap”(Cohn, 338). Felice and Clare, a brother and sisteracting duo, perform for an unresponsive audienceand wrestle with philosophical questions of life anddeath, family estrangement, abandonment, andprotracted endings. A feeling of parallelism perme-ates the performances, as both actors become lostin a play-within-a-play that has become too per-sonal for either of them to handle sanely. Ironi-cally, their distressing circumstances are of theirown making. Felice and Clare are locked in theirlives and in their roles in a play that has been cre-ated by Felice.

Notably, Felice is the first of only three play-wright characters in the Williams canon. (The oth-ers are August in SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING

CLEAR) and Constantine in THE NOTEBOOK OF

TRIGORIN. As do his fellow dramatists, Felice wres-tles the ghosts of the past while struggling to envi-sion an appropriate “ending” of future. Out Cry,

Out Cry 203

and its predecessor, The Two Character Play, arealso instances of Williams’s making use of the play-within-a-play convention.

PRODUCTION HISTORYOut Cry premiered in Chicago at the Ivanhoe The-atre in July 1971. The production was directed byGeorge Keathley and featured Donald Madden andEileen Herlie as Felice and Clare.

PUBLICATION HISTORYOut Cry was published by New Directions in 1973.

CHARACTERSDevoto, Clare She is Felice Devoto’s sister andfellow actor. Clare struggles alongside her brotherto find meaning and purpose in the bleak landscapethat is at once the empty theater they inhabit andtheir broken lives.

Devoto, Felice Felice is Clare Devoto’s brotherand fellow actor. He is the young playwright whohas created “The Two Character Play,” a play thathe and Clare are trying to perform. Although heand Clare have been orphaned and subsequentlyabandoned by their theater company, they struggleto continue their lives and their performance.

FURTHER READINGCohn, Ruby. “Late Tennessee Williams.” Modern

Drama 27, no. 3 (September 1984): 336–344.

A Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot


SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in a seedy SaintLouis tavern. The period is unspecified but seemsto be roughly 1939–40. Two middle-aged touristsfrom Memphis, Flora Merriweather and Bessie Hig-ginbotham, are barhopping while following a Sons

of Mars convention in Saint Louis. Having losttheir party, Flora and Bessie have ventured out ontheir own.

Their money is running low and they are morethan a little frazzled. Both women are garishlydressed in outlandish hats and excessive costumejewelry. The Waiter provides them with two beersserved in large fishbowls. The Waiter informs themthat they have just missed their fellow convention-eers, who had been drinking there earlier.

Flora and Bessie reminisce about previous con-ventions and all the fun they had during them.Flora says that earlier in the day she had her for-tune told by a parrot. The parrot informed Florathat she has a “sensitive nature” and that she is“frequently misunderstood” by her close compan-ions. Flora deems the parrot’s analysis perfect.

Bessie admonishes Flora for not keeping up withher “beauty treatments.” Flora retaliates by criticiz-ing Bessie’s weight. Bessie counters by advisingFlora that men prefer “rockers” to “straight-backchairs.” The two bicker and Bessie decides thatthey should part ways. She then drinks too muchbeer in one gulp and belches it onto the table. Thetwo try to make amends, suggesting that they haveboth equally “let themselves go.” Just as they seemon the brink of literally crying in their beers, TwoSons of Mars burst in through the tavern door.Bearing toy bugles, these two strapping young menleapfrog over one another until they reach Floraand Bessie’s table. Once they arrive at the tablethey blow their bugles and offer each woman anelbow. The Two Sons of Mars escort Flora andBessie from the tavern.

COMMENTARYFor all the festivities and frivolity present in A Per-fect Analysis Given by a Parrot, fear is the play’soverriding emotion and theme. Bessie and Flora areterrified of leaving their youth, losing their looks,and ultimately being left alone. Although theseconcerns are not openly discussed, they are hintedat in the desperate conversation of two womenclinging to remnants of the past. Adorned with anexcessive amount of faux jewelry and heavily ladenwith enormous hats and other accessories, Bessie

204 A Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot

and Flora are “parodies of human beings, grotesquepuppets” (Grecco, 586).

They are reminiscent of other reluctantly agingcharacters in the Williams canon who have becomedismal portraits of once-beautiful people now wellpast their physical and emotional prime. Ironically,when the Two Sons of Mars arrive at the bar towhisk Bessie and Flora away, these gallant youngmen serenade them with an off-color World War IIditty (“Mademoiselle de Armentières”) about ayoung French prostitute who had “four chins, herknees would knock, / And her face would stop acuckoo clock.”

Flora Merriweather and Bessie Higginbotham—or rather a younger and slightly less outlandish ver-sion of them—appear in act 1, scene 5, of THE ROSE

TATTOO. They are featured only briefly in that full-length play, in which they are up to their sametricks. In The Rose Tattoo, Flora and Bessie are chas-ing men and are in a hurry to catch a train that willtake them to another convention party town. PerfectAnalysis is a continuation of their story. This half oftheir story suggests that they have perhaps gained abetter understanding of Serafina Delle Rose—whom they ridiculed—and the fate she suffered asthe wife of an unfaithful husband. Bessie states thatshe has had “rotten luck with men. Not once, butalways!” She reminds Flora that she too has had her“disappointments.” Older, but none the wiser, thetwo continue in their search for the next soirée.

PRODUCTION HISTORYA Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot was first pro-duced at the Waterfront Playhouse, in Key West,Florida, in May 1970. Williams himself directed thispremiere production. The first New York productionwas at the Quaigh Lunchtime Theatre in June 1976.

PUBLICATION HISTORYA Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot was first pub-lished in Esquire magazine, October 1958. It alsoappears in DRAGON COUNTRY and in The Theatre ofTennessee Williams, volume 7.

CHARACTERSHigginbotham, Bessie She is a middle-agedtourist attending the Sons of Mars convention in

Saint Louis, Missouri. She is following the Sonsconvention with her best friend, Flora Merri-weather. Bessie and Flora have lost their conven-tion group and are in search of fun on their own.Flora is near the “point of emaciation.” Bessie, whois full-figured, taunts the sickly, thin Flora abouther appearance, stating that men prefer a “rocker”to a “straight-back chair.”

Merriweather, Flora She is a middle-aged touristattending the Sons of Mars convention in SaintLouis. She is following this convention with her bestfriend, Bessie Higginbotham. Bessie and Flora havelost track of their convention group and are insearch of fun on their own. Flora is sickly thin “tothe point of emaciation.” Bessie, who is full-figured,taunts Flora about her appearance, stating that menprefer a “rocker” to a “straight-back chair.”

Two Sons of Mars These two young men aremembers of a fraternity, the Sons of Mars. The nameis that of an actual Southern fraternity, also knownas the Sons of Confederate Veterans. They are thedescendants of men who fought for the Confederacyduring the U.S. Civil War. The Sons of ConfederateVeterans was established in 1896 for the purpose of“preserving and defending the history, heritage, andprinciples of the Old South.” While attending aSons of Mars convention in Saint Louis, these twoSouthern gentlemen engage in some rather puerileand ungentlemanly behavior. They are said to havethrown water balloons from their hotel windows,and when they arrive to whisk Bessie and Flora fromthe tavern they serenade them with an off-colorWorld War II ditty (“Mademoiselle de Armen-tieres”) about a young French prostitute who had“four chins, her knees would knock, / And her facewould stop a cuckoo clock.” Flora describes this fun-loving duo as “Just great—big—overgrown Boys!”

Waiter He is a waiter at a shabby tavern in SaintLouis, who serves Flora Merriwether and BessieHigginbotham beer in large fish bowls.

FURTHER READINGGrecco, Stephen. “World Literature in Review: En-

glish,” World Literature Today 69, no. 3 (summer1995): 586–591.

A Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot 205

Period of Adjustment; or High Point over a Cavern,

A Serious ComedyFull-length play written in 1957.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in Memphis, Tennessee, on Christ-mas Eve at Ralph Bates’s home. His house in HighPoint is built over a subterranean cavern into whichthe house is slowly sinking a few inches per year.

Act 1George and Isabel Haverstick arrive at the house ofRalph Bates on Christmas Eve. Welcoming thenewlyweds, Ralph invites Isabel in while Georgeunpacks the car. Leaving one of Isabel’s bags in thecar, George hastily speeds away without telling any-one where he is going. Isabel assumes that Georgehas gone to the drugstore and accepts Ralph’s invi-tation to go inside.

As they wait for George’s return and subsequentexplanation, Ralph and Isabel chat about their mar-riages. Isabel reveals that she and George are not onspeaking terms. Ralph, who is a war hero and fighterpilot, has become disenchanted with his “grounded”life with his wife, Dorothy Bates. Their maritalproblems peaked when Ralph sent a discourteouspostcard of resignation to Dorothy’s father at thefamily’s dairy chain. Ralph is now unemployed butrelieved to be out of a dead-end job.

Dorothy’s parents’ servant, Susie, arrives withinstructions to collect the Christmas presents fromunder the tree. Ralph refuses to let her take them,and he gives his present for Dorothy, a $700 furcoat, to Isabel as a wedding present. Isabel isdelighted, albeit cautious about receiving the coat.

Feeling more comfortable with Ralph, Isabelexplains that she is a virgin, even after her wedding,which was the previous day. George became drunkon their honeymoon night and tried to force him-self on her. Ralph comforts Isabel with the assur-ance that this is simply a “period of adjustment.”Sensing her distress, Ralph advises Isabel to rest inhis wife’s bed until George returns. Ralph tucks herin bed and returns to the living room cursing theChristmas holiday.

Act 2George returns with a bottle of champagne, claim-ing that he forgot to get a gift for Ralph. Isabel joinsthem in the living room, and George ignores herpresence. Wounded by this treatment, Isabel insiststhat she will check into a downtown hotel to bealone. She then decides to take Ralph’s dog for awalk. In her absence, George seeks advice fromRalph about his marital problems. George invitesRalph to escape with him to West Texas where theycan raise longhorn cattle for use in motion pictures.Ralph thinks George’s plan is preposterous andGeorge sulks. In the meantime, Isabel becomeslost; finally finding the house where a Lady Carolleris singing, she calls for a cab. Isabel cannot remem-ber Ralph’s address, so she cancels the cab andprays for divine help out of her misery.

Act 3Ralph and George drink champagne while they dis-cuss sex and women. George nervously admits thathe knows nothing about sex. Ralph advises Georgeto be “tender,” a term that seems foreign to him.

From the bedroom, Isabel overhears their con-versation. She appears in the living room and againinsists that she check into a hotel. Dorothy’s par-ents, Mr. and Mrs. McGillicuddy, a Police Officer,and Susie enter to collect Dorothy’s belongings.Ralph argues with them about what they can andcannot take. Ralph accuses Mr. McGillicuddy,who is also his employer, of forcing his daughteron him. Ralph says that Mr. McGillicuddy pres-sured him to marry Dorothy with the promise ofinheriting his empire.

Ralph confesses that he has grown to loveDorothy but feels that the McGillicuddys need tostay out of their marriage and out of Dorothy’s life.Dorothy suddenly arrives. She and Ralph argueuntil she learns that he has spent a considerableamount of money on her Christmas gift—she takesit as a sign that he really loves her. Forgiving him,Dorothy orders her parents out and invites theHaversticks (who still harbor animosity towardeach other) to stay with them Christmas Eve. Sheand Ralph go to their bedroom as Isabel andGeorge are left to discuss their problems. Encour-aged by Dorothy and Ralph’s reunion, George and

206 Period of Adjustment; or High Point over a Cavern, A Serious Comedy

Isabel slowly attempt to reconcile and each beginsto understand what the other needs. As both cou-ples retire for the night, snow falls softly outside.

COMMENTARYPeriod of Adjustment has been dismissed by somecritics and scholars as a shallow, trite comedy. How-ever, the play’s “shallowness” is a dramatic devicethat serves as a critical commentary on modernAmerican society.

Centering on the marital adjustments of two quin-tessentially American couples, Williams explores sex-ual prowess and virginal encounters that escalateinto failure, frustration, and dissolution. Unlike theinfamous characters Williams creates in his bestknown works, the characters of Period of Adjustmentare flat representations of a younger generation ofmen and women:

There is an almost intolerable neatness aboutPeriod of Adjustment which never quite allows theaudience to enter into the situation Williams hascreated. Rather, we seem to be watching a chessgame with characters being manipulated care-fully and precisely . . . but too often the hand ofthe mover obtrudes. (Nelson, 280)

The play’s subtitle, High Point over a Cavern, sug-gests a ubiquitous suburb made up of identicalhomes, such as in development communitiesthroughout the United States. It conjures an overtsymbol of these communities as destined for failure.Like a home sinking into a natural pit, Ralph andDorothy’s marriage has no solid foundation. Theirmarriage—and their reconciliation—is a businesstransaction. Dorothy’s father feared that his daugh-ter would never marry; therefore, he devises a solu-tion. Mr. McGillicuddy promises Ralph that he willinherit the McGillicuddy dairy empire if he marriesDorothy. In the same way, Ralph wins back Dorothyafter their argument by giving her an expensivemink coat. A low point in High Point is that “love”is a commodity that can be bought, sold, bartered,and traded. The high point of the play, the reconcil-iation between Ralph and Dorothy, rings false.

The other marriage explored in the play, that ofGeorge and Isabel, also lacks a firm grounding. Asdo Ralph and Dorothy, George and Isabel do not

have a real emotional connection to one another.As a result, their attempts at physical intimacy areanxious, brutish, disastrous, and disappointing.Ironically, it is the friendship of the two men thatserves as a point of reference for real human con-nection. Theirs is the most fulfilling relationship inthe play. The two embrace and speak openly andhonestly to one another about their fears and anxi-eties. Theirs is a “marriage” of likeness—a mutuallyrespectful and gratifying interdependence.

Although the play is considered a comedy, thesubtext and social commentary are sharp. In itsexploration of the mercenary aspect of human inter-actions, the play is thematically aligned with otherWilliams dramas such as SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOME-THING CLEAR. Williams believed this play to be“about as dark as ORPHEUS DESCENDING, except thatthere [is] more tenderness, less physical violence”(Funke, 72).

PRODUCTION HISTORYPeriod of Adjustment was first produced at theCoconut Grove Playhouse, Miami, Florida, onDecember 29, 1958. It was codirected by Williamsand Owen Phillips. The first New York productionwas at the Helen Hayes Theatre on November 10,1960. Directed by George Roy Hill, this produc-tion starred James Daly (Ralph Bates), BarbaraBaxley (Isabel Haverstick), and Robert Webber(George Haverstick).

The MGM film version was produced in 1962.Directed by George Roy Hill, the cast includedTony Franciosa (Ralph Bates), Jane Fonda (IsabelHaverstick), Jim Hutton (George Haverstick), andLois Nettleton (Dorothy Bates).

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis play was first published in Esquire, December1960. It was also published by New Directions in1960.

CHARACTERSBates, Dorothy She is the wife of Ralph Bates.Dorothy deserts her husband on Christmas Eve,when he informs her that he has left his job at herfather’s office. Leaving with their child, Dorothy

Period of Adjustment; or High Point over a Cavern, A Serious Comedy 207

sends her parents, Mr. and Mrs. McGillicuddy, apolice officer, and their servant Susie to collect theChristmas presents. When Ralph accuses her par-ents of meddling and standing in the way of theirmarriage, Dorothy has a change of heart and theyreconcile and resolve their differences.

Bates, Ralph The husband of Dorothy Bates.Ralph is employed by Dorothy’s father, Mr.McGillicuddy, and their marriage falls apart whenRalph announces that he no longer wants to workfor his father-in-law. Dorothy and Ralph reconcileafter Ralph defends his wife to her father.

Haverstick, George He is recently married toIsabel Haverstick. After becoming drunk and forcinghimself on his wife during their honeymoon, Georgefinds that his marriage is already disintegrating. Hestruggles to find a way to be gentle with Isabel, as heknows nothing about women. He seeks the advice ofhis longtime friend, Ralph Bates. George and Isabelbegin to reconcile their differences with the encour-agement of Ralph and Dorothy (Bates).

Haverstick, Isabel She is the newlywed wife ofGeorge Haverstick. When George tries to forcehimself on her during their honeymoon, Isabelstops speaking to him. On a visit to their friends,Ralph and Dorothy Bates, Isabel decides to forgiveGeorge and the two reconcile their marriage.

McGillicuddy, Mr. He is the father of DorothyBates and employer of Dorothy’s husband, RalphBates. Mr. McGillicuddy faces Ralph when he arrivesto collect his daughter’s Christmas gifts. He isaccused of meddling in their failed marriage.

McGillicuddy, Mrs. She is the mother ofDorothy Bates. Mrs. McGillicuddy, accompanied byMr. McGillicuddy, and Susie, collected Dorothy’sbelongings during Dorothy’s estrangement from herhusband, Ralph Bates.

Susie She is the African-American servant whois sent to collect Christmas presents from DorothyBates’s estranged husband, Ralph Bates. Susie isforced into the middle of the Bates’s marital battle.

FURTHER READINGFunke, Lewis, and John E. Booth. “Williams on

Williams.” Theatre Arts, January 1962, 72.Nelson, Benjamin. Tennessee Williams: The Man and

His Work. New York: Ivan Obolensky, 1961.

“The Poet”Short story written before 1948.

SYNOPSISThe Poet is a beautiful tall blond man who choosesto be homeless, drink his homemade liquor, and torecite his poetry on the streets. He routinely drinksuntil he passes out. He is often sexually accosted indark alleyways and awakens to ripped clothes,bruises, and a coin by his side. He always brusheshimself off and continues his travels.

The Poet discovers a makeshift shack on thebeach. He stays there for 10 months, keeping all ofhis poems stored in his memory. He cultivates asmall following of young people who enjoy hisrecitals by the sea. He becomes sick with fever;blood spurts out of his nose and mouth. The Poetknows he is going to die so he builds a fire to callhis followers together. They are instantly inspiredby the poet’s life story, jumping wildly among thewaves of the sea, frolicking around him all day andall night. When parents find their children by ThePoet’s side, they drive him out of their village. Ini-tially he accedes to their demands, but as he saysgood-bye to the sea, he changes his mind andremains. The children find his body later, his skele-ton riding the waves in perpetual motion. Theyfind his liquor, drink it, and are warmed by a trans-forming poetic vision. In the meantime, two shipsbattle in the distance. One ship is sunk, and deadsoldiers wash up on the beach.

COMMENTARY“The Poet” is a visionary tale in which Williamseulogizes the figure of the solitary poet often dis-dained by others. As with other poets in Williams’sworks, such as Valentine Xavier (BATTLE OF

208 “The Poet”

ANGELS), Ben Murphy (STAIRS TO THE ROOF), Flora(“THE IMPORTANT THING”), Homer Stallcup (“THE

FIELD OF BLUE CHILDREN”), and Tom Wingfield(THE GLASS MENAGERIE), The Poet is marginalizedand ostracized. All of Williams’s poets feel the strainof uncertainty and the pressure of being an artist inan urbanized world. They share a need for passion,love, and acceptance and search ceaselessly formeaningful human connections and transcendentrelationships. The Poet, more than any other inWilliams’s work, most severely lacks family, home,and security. Williams underscores his isolation bymaking him a nameless artisan and placing him intemporary lodgings by the sea, literally on the mar-gin of the earth.

His namelessness, or being identified only by hisvocation, endows The Poet with an epic quality.Like the “Everyman” of medieval drama, the Poetbecomes every-poet, the definitive poet or the per-sonification of the poetic spirit. As such, the “beau-tiful, tall, blonde” poet is clearly a tribute toWilliams’s favorite poet, and one of his chief artis-tic influences, Hart Crane, who appears as a char-acter in STEPS MUST BE GENTLE. A major theme inCrane’s works was the concept of the artist as anoutcast from the landscape of the modern, industri-alized city. This thematic concern greatly inspiredWilliams, as did Crane’s vocation to create a pow-erful, symbolic literature by which to uncover thespiritual meaning of human existence andendeavor. Williams’s primal poet shares Crane’sconcern, encouraging his young followers to leavetheir material world and join him by the sea.There The Poet and his disciples return to natureand an elemental existence amid fire, water,earth, and air. The Poet’s demise at sea is alsosimilar to that of Crane, who leaped to his deathfrom a ship off the coast of Florida. (In death,Crane became one with his principal poetic sym-bol.) Here, in Williams’s reimagining of Crane, helives on; his essence and poetic spirit are eternaland ever-present, riding the waves in perpetualmotion.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Poet” was published in the collections OneArm (1948) and Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERPoet He is a very handsome young drifter, ananarchist who needs nothing but his poetry. ThePoet chooses to be homeless and wanders from townto town, an evangelist of his poetry. This youngwriter always has a following of young people whoreceive his message and are inspired by his views.

“Portrait of a Girl in Glass”Short story written in 1942.

SYNOPSISTom Wingfield is a young poet who is forced towork in a warehouse to support his Mother and hissister, Laura. Mother enrolls Laura in businessschool; however, Laura secretly hides in the parkevery weekday instead of attending. When shebecomes bedridden with a cold, Mother calls theschool to explain Laura’s absence. She is informedthat Laura stopped attending school some timeago. Laura sits in her room and plays with her glassfigurines, listening to her estranged father’s oldphonograph records.

Mother suggests Tom invite a friend to dinner tomeet Laura. Nervously, he invites Jim Delaney.Laura is very shy and awkward around this newacquaintance. After dinner, Jim persuades her todance with him. Laura enjoys his attention verymuch, but Jim mentions his fiancée, Betty. Motheris upset that Tom has introduced his sister to anunavailable young man. Not long after this inci-dent, Tom is fired from the warehouse. He leavesSaint Louis, forgetting home, but never his sister’ssweet face.

COMMENTARY“Portrait of a Girl in Glass” is the basis for the full-length play THE GLASS MENAGERIE. It is consideredone of Williams’s best short stories, and the plot isvirtually unchanged in the play version. Tom Wing-field is a poet whose fate as the breadwinner issealed when his father leaves the family. Tom isforced to take care of his mother and sister, and he

“Portrait of a Girl in Glass” 209

can either be destroyed by this pressure or escape.Just as Tom lives for the few hours after work whenhe can write, Laura escapes into the phonographrecords that had belonged to her father and herglass menagerie. Mother forces adulthood on Lauraby briefly introducing a young man into her life, butLaura is too vulnerable and is pathologically shy. InThe Glass Menagerie, she has a disability that forcesher to walk with a severe limp. In both versions ofthis story, Mother (who becomes Amanda Wing-field in Glass) lives in a bygone fantasy world inwhich it is vital for a young woman to marry ayoung man of good social standing. Tom feels theneed to protect and preserve the spirit of his sister.He does not want the world to change or hurt her.He is her protector; Laura is his emotional support.She calms his nerves after a long day at thewretched factory. As is “THE RESEMBLANCE

BETWEEN A VIOLIN CASE AND A COFFIN,” “Portraitof a Girl in Glass” is a short story that chroniclesbiographical aspects of ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS’s life.Williams writes of his sister in the guise of Laura. “Ithink the petals of her mind had simply closedthrough fear.” Rose’s life is also reflected in “COM-PLETED” and The Glass Menagerie.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis short story was published in the collections OneArm (1948), Porträtt Av En Glasflicka (1955), Mod-erne Amerikanische Prosa (1967), Collected Stories(1985), and The Art of the Story: An InternationalAnthology of Contemporary Short Stories (1999).

CHARACTERSDelaney, Jim Jim is a friend of Tom Wingfield’swho is invited to the Wingfield home for dinner.He is an ambitious young man, who dreams of abright future beyond the factory job he presentlyholds.

Mother An overbearing woman, who wants herdaughter, Laura, to be married. An earlier versionof Amanda Wingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE,she is very talkative and controlling.

Wingfield, Laura She is a young woman whoenjoys contemplating her glass figurines and listen-

ing to records on her father’s old Victrola. She hasdifficulty becoming assimilated in social circles, andher reclusive nature prohibits her from attendingbusiness college. When her mother, Amanda Wing-field, forces her to entertain a suitor, Jim Delaney,Laura is infatuated with Jim and enjoys his com-pany. However, she is devastated to learn that hehas a fiancée. Laura resorts to her glass menagerieand life in the world of her imagination. Williamsbased this character on his emotionally unstable sis-ter, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS.

Wingfield, Tom Tom is an aspiring poet trappedin a mundane life of factory work. He is forced towork to support his mother and his sister, LauraWingfield. Tom protects his sister from the world,but he also depends on her for emotional support.

Portrait of a MadonnaOne-act play written before 1946.

SYNOPSISThe setting is the living room of a nice, yet neg-lected city apartment.

A middle-aged unmarried woman, Miss LucretiaCollins, enters wearing an old negligee and ShirleyTemple curls in her hair. She rushes to phone themanager, Mr. Abrams, to inform him that there is aman in her apartment. She tells him that this manenters night after night and “indulg[es] his senseswith her.” She orders Mr. Abrams to remove him,as he refuses to leave her bedroom. She describesthe intruder as someone from a prominent familywhose character has been ruined by a woman.

The Porter enters her apartment accompaniedby the Elevator Boy. The Porter calls for MissCollins, who has fled back into her bedroom. Theycan hear her talking to the intruder. Surveying theapartment, they agree that it has not been cleanedin 20 years. The Porter says Miss Collins never per-mits anyone to visit her; nor does she ever leavethe apartment. They overhear Miss Collins apolo-gizing for calling the police. The Porter says a doc-tor is on his way to take her to the state asylum.

210 Portrait of a Madonna

The Porter sympathizes with Miss Collins. He pitiesher condition.

Miss Collins enters, referring to her deceasedmother as if she were still living. She does notremember calling for help, and she does not recog-nize the men. The Porter explains that he has beensent to check on her by Mr. Abrams. Miss Collinssays the man is gone now; he escaped through thebedroom window. Miss Collins refers to a photo-graph of a young man on her mantle. She recountsthe memory of a young woman who stole the atten-tion of this man. The Elevator Boy makes fun ofMiss Collins, and the Porter reprimands him, as heconsiders Miss Collins a lady, who should berespected. Miss Collins is concerned that the dis-turbance will create scandal at the church. Shedoes not want the intrusion to be made public forfear that people will talk. Miss Collins says that shegrew up in the shadows of the Episcopal church;her father was a rector in Mississippi.

Miss Collins recalls another painful memory ofpassing by the young man’s home when she walkedhome from church on Sundays. She felt self-conscious when walking by the young man sittingon the porch with the woman (now his wife) whostole him. Miss Collins felt suffocated and ranwhen the couple called out to her. The Porter sug-gests she forget about the humiliating encounter.Miss Collins recalls the pain she felt when she sawthe woman’s pregnant belly. She announces thatshe too is pregnant with this man’s child. The Doc-tor and a Nurse arrive to take Miss Collins to theasylum. She is willing to go with them, but sheinsists on writing a letter to Richard, the intruder,in case he returns before she does.

COMMENTARYLucretia Collins has led a desperate single life,deprived of sexual fulfillment and companionship.She is often compared to and viewed as a precursorof Blanche DuBois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.Although both characters experience mental deteri-oration and fall victim to harsh realities in their lives,Lucretia’s repressed sexuality is very different fromBlanche’s history of numerous beaus and subsequentprostitution for survival’s sake. Miss Collins pales incomparison to Blanche, as Blanche has a wealth of

sexual experience. Miss Collins possesses an extremeinnocence, whereas Blanche has a crushed maturityabout her. However, both characters share the painand regret of lost love. Again, the difference is inphysical reality. While Blanche did in fact marry hersweetheart, Allen Gray, and enjoyed him for a time,Lucretia’s prior claim to Richard seems whollyunfounded and artifical. In addition, Blanche’s men-tal condition deteriorates throughout A StreetcarNamed Desire, while Miss Collins seems to have beenmentally ill for quite some time; it is only because of“the kindness of strangers” that she can still reside inher own environment.

Furthermore, Blanche’s struggle is a consciousendeavor, and when she is raped, she shuts downmentally. In Miss Collins’s delusions, rape is equatedwith love and desire. She is content with Richard’s“intrusions” and the fact that he “indulg[es] hissenses” with her and leaves. Miss Collins becomessomewhat afraid, and she calls Mr. Abrams for help,but she does not blame these episodes on a “danger-ous” man. Her acceptance of rape and her defenseof Richard are in stark contrast to Blanche’s reac-tion to Stanley Kowalski’s sexual violence.

Miss Collins explains that she’s “literally grownup right in the very shadow of the Episcopalchurch.” This conditioning has placed Lucretia in avery lonely predicament. She lost Richard to ayoung woman who welcomed sexual pleasure, anact that Miss Collins can only imagine as an aggres-sive situation now. Resigning herself to the role ofrecluse after her mother’s death, Miss Collinsrefuses to accept that her sole familial connectionis gone. Blanche witnessed the protracted sufferingand death of her parents. Miss Collins was not asstrong as Blanche: She could not persevere beyondthe loss of her mother. This may have been themoment she lost touch with reality. Miss Collins’ssavior and oppressor has been the Episcopalchurch. These “shadows” have kept her desiringand dreaming of Richard, and yet it is now thechurch that pays her rent and protects her fromhomelessness and further ruin. Although MissCollins has not left her apartment in 15 years, shebelieves that she attends Sunday church services: asign of the powerful psychological connection shehas with the church.

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Miss Collins associates herself with the HolyMadonna, the Virgin Mother, in her announcementthat she is pregnant. In a skewing of her religiousand delusional beliefs, Lucretia imagines that shetoo has been impregnated by miraculous means. Tojustify her claim, she endows her supposed lover,Richard, with godlike qualities. As does the godCupid, in the myth of Cupid and Psyche, Richardvisits Lucretia under cover of darkness, unseen andundetected by others. After seducing Lucretia, heescapes her room by flying from her window. Lucre-tia’s sad delusions lead to the play’s dramatic climaxand her removal to an asylum.

PRODUCTION HISTORYPortrait of a Madonna premiered at the Actors’ Labo-ratory Theatre, Los Angeles, California, in 1946–47.It was directed by Hume Cronyn and starred JESSICA

TANDY as Lucretia Collins. (Tandy’s portrayal ofLucretia Collins led to her selection for the role ofBlanche DuBois in the premiere production of AStreetcar Named Desire.) The play was produced inNew York at the Playhouse Theatre, April 15, 1959.It was again directed by Hume Cronyn and starredJessica Tandy. The New York production was metwith warm reviews but was largely overshadowed byLucretia’s likeness to Blanche DuBois.

PUBLICATION HISTORYPortrait of a Madonna was first published in 27WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT

PLAYS in 1966 by New Directions.

CHARACTERSCollins, Miss Lucretia A reclusive spinster whohas become insane. Miss Collins lives in an apart-ment financially supported by the EpiscopalChurch, of which she is a long-standing member.Miss Collins believes she is visited by Richard, aboy she fell in love with as a young woman. In thisepisode, Richard enters her room and rapes her.She calls the front desk for help, but when theyarrive she defends this invisible aggressor. MissCollins is taken to an asylum at the end of the play,when she announces that she is pregnant withRichard’s baby.

Elevator Boy He is a young man who dealsunsympathetically with a tenant, Miss LucretiaCollins, when she calls for help against an intruder.The Elevator Boy accompanies The Porter and dis-respectfully comments on the disheveled conditionof Miss Collins’s apartment as well as the mentalcondition of this distressed woman.

Porter He is a sympathetic ally of Miss LucretiaCollins. The Porter systematically answers MissCollins’s distress calls. He sits with her and respect-fully allows her to talk and act as though there wasa real intruder in her apartment, although theintruder is a figment of her imagination.


Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.

The PurificationA one-act play written in 1940.

SYNOPSISThe action takes place in a sparse courtroom in asmall American town in the Southwest.

Scene 1The Judge addresses the courtroom with the detailsof the case concerning Elena. He mentions that therains have long been absent, fueling the rage of thetwo parties involved—the Casa Blanca family andthe Rancher from Casa Roja. Rosalio (also calledthe Son) tells the court about his sister, Elena.While he talks, Luisa murmurs repeatedly, “Thetainted spring is bubbling.” The Father tries tosilence the Son, but the Judge presses him to con-tinue. The Son is startled by the ghost of Elena inher guise of “Elena of the Springs.” She is dressed inwhite, carries white flowers, and stands in the arch-way. Luisa declares that Elena is the tainted waterof which she speaks. Elena disappears from thedoorway and the Son lunges furiously at Luisa.

Luisa reveals the Casa Blanca family’s dark secret:Elena and the Son were incestuous lovers. The Son

212 The Purification

blames the hot August nights, the rancheros’ guitarplaying, and the drought for their actions. The Judgecalls for a recess and leaves the courtroom. The Gui-tar Player strums melodically.

Scene 2The Judge informs the courtroom that rain cloudsare gathering. The trial proceeds, and the Son tellsthe court that the Rancher longed for Elena andkilled her with an ax. Luisa mumbles again aboutthe tainted spring, and the Son accuses her ofbeing involved in the murder. The Rancher tellshis side of the story. The Chorus repeats the wordsboth men say. Their words recount events of themurder: The Rancher discovered Elena and herbrother having sex in the barn and he struck Elenawith an ax. At the word struck, thunder rumbles inthe distance.

The Rancher says Elena drove him mad byrejecting his marriage proposal. He “burned” forher, but she was “water sealed under the rock.” TheGuitar Player strikes a chord, and the ghost ofElena appears as “Desert Elena,” covered in dry,coarse material and carrying a wreath of dry flowersand a wooden cross. Desert Elena tells the Rancherthat he must let her go; he will never possess her.Lightning flashes and the Guitar Player strikesanother chord. The Rancher covers his face withhis hands, and the Judge orders the Guitar Playerto play a song that will produce rain. He instructsthe Chorus to perform a rain dance. The Rancherbegs Elena for forgiveness.

Scene 3The Rancher confesses he tore the lovers apartwith the ax. The Son rises to defend Elena’s name.Clouds gather again and lightning flashes. Elena ofthe Springs reappears. In this moment, the Sonpulls a knife from his pocket and stabs himself. Hedemands that the court witness his act of purifica-tion. A voice in the distance calls out, “Rain!” AnIndian youth rushes in, joyfully flinging water fromhis sombrero. He stops when he sees the Son’s deadbody. The Mother, kneeling by her Son, orders thatthe knife be handed to the Rancher. The Ranchergoes outside to taste the rain and stabs himself.Luisa screams, and the Guitar Player tosses his hatinto the middle of the floor.

COMMENTARYWritten in verse form, The Purification was inspired bythe works of FEDRICO GARCÍA LORCA. With its rhyth-mical language, ritualized actions, chorus of women,and music, Williams effectively utilizes devices Gar-cía Lorca mastered in such works as Blood Wedding.The symbols that are used throughout the play, suchas water, blood, and earth, are also heavily reminis-cent of elements of García Lorca’s works.

Inspiration for this poetic tragedy also came fromWilliams’s own life, particularly his early travels inthe American Southwest and the tragedy that befellhis beloved sister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS. Towardthe play’s conclusion, the overwrought Son declares:“Weave back my sister’s image . . . She’s lost, snaredas she rose . . . irretrievably lost . . . too far to pur-sue . . . For nothing contains you now, no, nothingcontains you, lost little girl, my sister.” While criticalattention has primarily focused on sibling incest asthe play’s central interest, the true concern of thiswork is Williams’s thinly veiled anguish at thedemise of his sister. As Donald Spoto notes, the playis “a shout of outrage about the Williams familymadness, a cry of hatred against his parents for whatthey had done to Rose” (Spoto, 83).

In the late 1930s, following accusations that herfather, CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS had sexuallyabused her, Rose had been admitted to a state asy-lum in Farmington, Missouri, and diagnosed as suf-fering from schizophrenia. Rose remained atFarmington, where, with her parents’ consent, shereceived a prefrontal lobotomy in November 1937.The controversial procedure, which left her practi-cally autistic and in need of permanent institution-alization, was performed without her brother’sknowledge. Williams was only made aware of thesituation when he returned home from the UNIVER-SITY OF IOWA for the Christmas holidays. He foundhis beloved sister permanently changed, resigned toa life that proved to be little more than a “livingdeath” (Londré, 7). The surgery had left Rosebereft of her personality and any sense of identity.Williams alternately blamed his mother and himselffor not having prevented the surgery. His protestagainst his father’s boorish behavior and possibleassault of Rose is clearly depicted in the Son’sattack on the Rancher: “You shall not defame her,

The Purification 213

nor shall you defile her, this quicksilver girl . . . Ithink she always knew that she would be lost . . .”

Williams carried the guilt of not averting his sis-ter’s fate for the rest of his life. Through the charac-ter of the Son, who wields a large knife andperforms an irreversible surgery upon himself, onecan see a self-martyring Williams uniting himselfwith his sister. The Son views his own death andsacrifice of himself as an act of purification or atone-ment. As does Eloi Duvenet in AUTO-DA-FÉ, theSon sees himself as a redeemer. He is a Christ-figure;his death, an act of ultimate love, cleanses the deso-late village of sin. Eloi purifies his world with fire;the Son’s self-sacrifice renders life-giving rain.

PRODUCTION HISTORYMARGO JONES directed the premiere of The Purifi-cation in 1944.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Purification was published in 27 WAGONS FULL

OF COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSElena Elena is also called “Elena of the Springs”and “Elena of the Desert.” She is the daughter ofthe Casa Blanca family. The Rancher from CasaRoja murders her with an ax. Her ghost appears inthe beginning of the trial (as Elena of the Springs),and near the end of the trial (as Elena of theDesert). Elena of the Springs is silent, whereasElena of the Desert converses briefly with theRancher. Elena of the Springs is visible only to theSon and to the Guitar Player.

Father He is the owner of Casa Blanca ranch andElena’s father. The Father seeks justice and revengefor his daughter’s murder. He also considers itimportant to keep his family’s secrets hidden.

Guitar Player He plays his guitar at pivotalmoments throughout the play. His presence is par-allel to that of the Guitar Player in TEN BLOCKS ON

THE CAMINO REAL.

Judge The Judge is a wealthy and well-respectedrancher. He is nominated by the townspeople to

preside over a court case pertaining to the murderof Elena.

Luisa Luisa is a servant to the Casa Blanca fam-ily. She is an Indian with what is described as “sav-age blood.” She condemns Rosalio by calling him a“tainted spring,” because she knows he had a sexualrelationship with his sister, Elena. Luisa seeks thetruth and aids the court in uncovering the secretsof the family.

Mother She is the mother of Elena. A proudpure-blooded Castilian woman, she has a regalpresence. She appears richly clad in her mourningclothes for her daughter.

Rancher from Casa Roja He is a lonely, digni-fied, powerful, and violent man. The Rancher mur-ders his true love, Elena, when he discovers herhaving sex with her brother. When he is tried forkilling Elena, he commits suicide outside the court-room in an act of atonement.

Rosalio See Son.

Son Also known as Rosalio, the Son is a ruggedlyhandsome 20-year-old man. He speaks emotivelyabout his deceased sister, Elena, during the trial ofher murder. In the trial, he confesses that he had anincestuous relationship with Elena and commitssuicide in an act of contrition.

FURTHER READINGLondré, Felicia. Tennessee Williams. Fredericton,

Canada: York Press, 1989.Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of

Tennessee Williams. New York: Ballantine Books,1985.

“A Recluse and His Guest”Short story written during the early 1970s.

SYNOPSISA tall, ghostly woman named Nevrika walks intothe town of Staad. She has traveled from Vladnikthrough the icy Midnight Forest in search of food

214 “A Recluse and His Guest”

and shelter. Nevrika approaches a Baker, who givesher bread and tells her that there is an old recluse,Klaus, who would have extra room for a guest.Nevrika goes to Klaus’s home, and Klaus allows herto stay with him. The local men gossip in the pubabout this newcomer. They are very surprised therecluse has let her stay with him.

The townspeople notice changes made toKlaus’s home. Nevrika removes the boards fromthe windows, washes them, and hangs a clotheslinefor Klaus. Nevrika receives an invitation to returnto her former dwelling place, but she is content tostay with him.

Under Nevrika’s influence, Klaus becomessociable. They attend a carnival; however, on theway home, Klaus is struck on the head by a fallingroof tile. He demands to return to his former way ofliving. He blames her for his recent injury. Klausorders Nevrika to float out to sea on a piece of ice,and she obeys him.

COMMENTARYThe recluse, or individual living in willful isolation,is a recurring character in the Williams canon. Ashave the Spinster and the Old Woman in LORD

BYRON’S LOVE LETTER and Rosemary McCool andAunt Ella in “COMPLETED,” the protagonist of thisshort story has found living in the world too muchto bear and has cut himself off from it. Klaus is,however, the most reclusive of Williams’s recluses.

As Dorothy Simple does in THE CASE OF THE

CRUSHED PETUNIAS, Klaus shields himself behind atangible barrier. For Dorothy it is her double row ofprim petunias. For Klaus it is a doubly protectivelayer of snow and wooden boards that surround hishouse. Nevrika, as the Young Man in The Case of theCrushed Petunias and Amada in “RUBIO Y MORENA,”enters Klaus’s life to liberate and revive him.Whereas the isolated figures in “Rubio y Morena”(Kamrowski) and The Case of the Crushed Petuniasend their narratives with a reawakened awareness oflife and love, this mystical tale ends with the rein-statement of the protagonist’s self-imposed exile.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“A Recluse and His Guest” was originally publishedin Playboy magazine (1970) and Weird Show (1971).It was included in Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSBaker He is a baker in the fictional town ofStaat. The Baker leads a traveler, Nevrika, to therecluse Klaus.

Klaus Klaus is an old recluse who accepts awoman, Nevrika, into his home. He enjoys hercompany and cooking but then grows tired of herpresence. Klaus subsequently tells Nevrika she hasto leave and orders her to drift out to sea on a pieceof ice.

Nevrika She is a weary traveler who stays in thehome of Klaus. Nevrika becomes very fond of Klausand wants to live with him for the rest of her life;however, when he chooses to resume his reclusiveexistence, he insists that she drift out to sea. Nevrikahas nothing left in the world, so she submits to hisforceful suggestion of suicide.

The Red Devil Battery SignFull-length play written in 1975–76.

SYNOPSIS

Act 1, Scene 1The settings is the lounge of a downtown Dallashotel called the Yellow Rose, littered with drunks,businessmen, hookers, and a traditional mariachiband called the King’s Men in full regalia.

A woman enters the lounge unescorted. She isdistinctively dressed in an iridescent gown of gold.She is the Woman Downtown. Mr. Griffin quicklynotices her and is surprised by her presence. Sheseems disoriented as to which hotel she is in andwhen she checked in. Mr. Griffin rushes over tothe Woman Downtown and assures her that she isto have total anonymity while at the Yellow Rose,as specified in the instructions of her guardian,Judge Collister.

The Woman Downtown coyly accuses the man-ager of interfering with her anonymity and demandsto check out immediately. She becomes visibly dis-traught when a young man known as Crewcut

The Red Devil Battery Sign 215

enters the room. She demands to know why he hasbeen following her every move. His response is thathe is trying to keep away certain persons related tothe highly suspicious Paradise Meadows NursingHome, those who held the Woman Downtown cap-tive and administered electric shock therapy. Mr.Griffin also informs the Woman Downtown that theJudge has been in the hospital since the night hedeposited her at the hotel. She responds by immedi-ately summoning a car.

There is a break from this main action as theWoman Downtown overhears a conversation be-tween two drunks who discuss the Vietnam Warand the countless draft dodgers who are plaguingthe country. The Woman Downtown becomes infu-riated, and she bitingly refers to the irony that thesegentlemen, so nobly preaching on their barstools,are above draft age and would never have the obli-gation forced on them. Her entry into the talk ofwar spurs some sexual innuendos by the two drunks.

Just then King Del Rey, a Mexican man, bull-dozes his way into the lounge. He is surrounded bythe mariachis, who welcome him with a song. Heis drawn to the Woman Downtown, they strike upa conversation, and it is established that shespeaks Spanish. This revelation leads the drunkinto another sexual comment, and King Del Reyknocks him off his barstool. This act of chivalryinduces the Woman Downtown to flirt with KingDel Rey. She playfully sprays her perfume Vol deNuit (Night Flight) on his shirt.

King is cajoled by the mariachis to sing a songwith them. As he begins to leave his barstool, theWoman Downtown dramatically clutches his armand begs him not to leave her side. She is desperateto keep him nearby, as she has eyed Crewcut mak-ing his way to her. King is unable to understand heragitation and decides now more than ever that asong is in order, any song that she would like. It ishis first performance since San Antone and with-out La Niña.

Crewcut reaches the Woman Downtown andannounces that the car has arrived. She stumblesto the door and King catches her delicate body,which is overcome by dizziness and excitement.She breaks free and asks King not to leave thehotel until she returns. She exits to the car and

within seconds returns wild with tales of possessedtaxi drivers wanting to take her away.

She falls to the ground and is comforted byKing, who is angered by her hysterics. Charlie, thebarman, warns him to stay away and begins to dialfor the “doctor.” Charlie then confesses that theWoman Downtown is under surveillance becauseof her mental state. As the Woman Downtown isbeing carried off the stage, Mr. Griffin returns toestablish order in the lounge.

Scene 2The Woman Downtown asks King whether hethinks she is crazy. She explains to him that she isbeing held captive. The Woman Downtown claimsCrewcut is still outside, an ever-present mysteryhaunting her doorway. King investigates and returnswith the news that he has left.

The Woman Downtown is very grateful for hertemporary freedom, but she is again troubled aboutKing’s opinion of her. He talks about his Mexicanheritage and insists that he is not like the ridiculousstereotype that so many have attributed to his peo-ple. She agrees and decides to test his intentions.She requests that her suitcases be taken off her bedso that she may relax. As King picks up the suitcaseit slips from his hands and the contents explodeonto the floor. Papers swirl in the air. The WomanDowntown frantically protects them by hurlingherself onto the floor to hide them. She laughs atthe scene. King thinks she is laughing at him. Toshow her appreciation for his company she kisseshim. The Woman Downtown tells him stories fromher past. She was hospitalized and sentenced to aneternity of electric shock therapy treatments untilthe Judge saved her.

They order room service. The so-called doctortries to enter the room to “treat” the woman. Kingassures all that she is in good hands and calmersince the episode downstairs. The Woman Down-town sprawls on the bed in a sensuous pose. Kingcautiously recommends that she remove her beau-tiful dress so that it will not be ruined. She is morethan happy to oblige and slips out of her dress. Shetakes a step and collapses in his arms. As he beginsto caress her, she pulls away screaming, “Human!”She speaks about her inhumanity and tells him that

216 The Red Devil Battery Sign

she was a hostage of the Red Devil Battery mon-sters. She is so agitated that King embraces her todevour her fear: “Calmate. We’re human together.”

Scene 3The Woman Downtown and King become sexuallyintimate. King is disturbed by her behavior in bed:her screams of pain and cat scratches. The WomanDowntown insists they were cries of rebirth, of com-ing to life. King is worried about what his wife, Perla,will say about these scratches on his body. He isindebted to Perla since they found a brain tumor oras he calls it, “an accident in his head.” The WomanDowntown simply replies that the she-wolf gavethem to him.

Scene 4The setting is the outskirts of the city in what isknown as the Wasteland.

King hesitates outside his small home. Perla is inthe house talking on the phone to her daughter, LaNiña (who is partially lit upstage naked with a manin bed). Perla accuses her daughter of being awhore. She hangs up and refuses to call her backwhen King asks to speak to La Niña. He confessesthat he knows his daughter and Perla have beensecretly corresponding since the accident. She con-curs and reasons that women, mothers and daugh-ters, need different channels of communicationthan men. She stops abruptly and smells the air.Perla interrogates King as to why he smells of per-fume. He tells her that she is a brave woman. Retir-ing to the bedroom, King catches a whiff of hisshirt: “Night Flight.”

Act 2, Scene 1The setting is the lounge about a month later.

There is a group of conventioneers at the barwearing the Red Devil insignia. The WomanDowntown enters cautiously. She is agitated by thepresence of these battery men and asks the barmanwhether any messages from Mr. Del Rey have beendelivered.

King Del Rey enters to the same adulation hereceived before. The Woman Downtown desperatelyvies for his company and draws him near whileeveryone watches. He pushes her away, explainingthat Perla is on to them. She tries to change the sub-

ject by ordering him a beer. King cracks under thepressure of the affair and his unhealthy state. Justthen a new mariachi enters the lounge and takes hisplace onstage. King seethes as a new song begins. Heis doubly offended that he has been replaced in hisown band, which includes his daughter.

King climbs onto the stage and throws thedrummer off, reclaiming control of his men. Hisanger irritates his brain tumor. King rubs his eyesand sways from side to side. In order to cover hisbehavior, he announces that La Niña is returningto his home tomorrow. This good news also coin-cides with the doctor’s approving that he performagain. King staggers out of the bar as Mr. Griffinenters with the drummer, demanding that he beplaced onstage at once.

Scene 2The Woman Downtown enters the penthouse car-rying a vase full of yellow roses with King trailingbehind her at a significantly slower pace. By remind-ing King of their “human” connection, she hopes tocalm him. She takes off her clothing and lies on thebed. When King asks her name, the Woman Down-town senses that this is their last night together.Instead of answering the question, she says that shewas born into a rich Texan family, to a life of politi-cal and economic secrets. She breaks down andadmits that she does not have enough breath. Kingthrows himself onto the floor and clutches herknees, imploring her to open up to him. She tellshim about the ranch where she lived, her father’smistress, and the illegitimate child who followed.The Woman Downtown admits that she was con-stantly told she was a “disturbed” child. She wastherefore sent to special schools her whole life, run-ning from the secrets. She believed she was afflicteduntil she became human with King. Her secrets dealwith a conspiracy surrounding the Vietnam War.She explains that genocide was practiced to protectinvestments. She was privy to these plans when shelived with her husband.

King pulls away from her to leave. He says thathis daughter is returning home and he must stoptheir affair. The woman confesses that she mustalso leave for a secret trip to Washington for a spe-cial session of Congress. The papers have been


decoded, and she is going to testify against all thesecret bearers who have plagued her life.

The noise of the convention downstairs infil-trates the scene. The Woman Downtown goes tothe window, and we can see the Red Devil Batterysign blinking red in the distance. He closes theblinds and she begins to evolve into the she-wolf.King initially refuses to have sex with her but can-not resist her advances. (Lights dim momentarilyand then we return to the scene.) King opens theshade, and glaring red light envelops the room. Hemakes a vulgar gesture at the sign.

Act 3, Scene 1The setting is the Wasteland with the Dallas sky-line in the background. The only visible change isthe large blinking sign atop the tallest skyscraper.The Red Devil Battery sign pulses through thedarkness of the night.

King secretly speaks on the phone to theWoman Downtown while he waits for Perla toreturn home. The woman says that Judge Collisteris dead and her life is in danger. Perla enters and hehangs up the phone. Perla tells him that La Niñahas been away so long because she is ashamed toshow her face. La Niña met a married man and hasbeen living with him for several months. He hascome with her today to receive King’s blessing, andhe intends to get what he wants even it if meansusing his gun.

La Niña enters with her boyfriend, TerranceMcCabe. He extends his hands to King and affec-tionately calls him “Pop.” King furiously grabs akitchen knife and points it at McCabe’s groin. Hemust surrender his gun or leave his house. La Niñabegins to sing to them, hoping to defuse the dan-gerous situation. Her song is magical and enchantsboth men, who put down their weapons momentar-ily. Perla interrupts her beautiful song and sum-mons her to the kitchen to help prepare dinner.

McCabe talks to King about La Niña’s depres-sion since she lost the child they were expecting.King strikes McCabe in response to this news, butMcCabe is unmoved. The men step outside, andKing begs McCabe to get him some Demerol fromthe medicine chest. Inside La Niña is upset to learnthat her father is very ill.

McCabe returns to King with the pills and a six-pack of beer. McCabe begins the conversation bydescribing the first moment he saw La Niña on-stage. His life was empty before La Niña. He wasnothing more than a computer programmed not tobe human. That first night they spent together shejust held him so tenderly that he never wanted tolet go of her and now she is pregnant again. Kingaccuses McCabe of stealing La Niña’s glory for hisown comfort: so his seed will live on. King acceptsMcCabe and his weapon and stumbles out of theyard toward downtown. McCabe runs into thehouse with excitement as he announces that Kinghas accepted him. Perla nervously asks him wherethe gun is and McCabe admits that he gave it toKing. They run after him.

Scene 2At the lounge the sleazy Drummer speaks to theWoman Downtown. The phone rings at the barand it is King calling to say good-bye. She imploreshim to come downtown. She tells him that she haschanged rooms at the Yellow Rose so that no RedDevils can come grinning into their sanctuary. Hehangs up, and the Woman Downtown staggers outof the bar. As she exits, the Drummer grabs her andbrutally gropes her. He snaps an incriminatingphoto of the woman in her disheveled state. TheWoman Downtown frees herself by scratching hisface as she hails a cab.

Scene 3The setting is the local pharmacy, where King hascollapsed. The Woman Downtown enters, as theKing’s Men appear to King one last time. Heplaces the Woman Downtown in a chair and sitsopposite her. With his eyes fixed on hers, he liftsthe gun toward his head just as the Drummerenters, flashing another photo. The Drummerdashes with his prize toward the door and Kingshoots and kills him. The Woman Downtownscreams and King falls to the floor. She tries tocomfort the dying King.

The delinquents of the hollowed-out Wastelandenter, and there is a break from reality. They invadethe scene with their barbaric appearance. Theleader has the word Wolf on his shirt and has cir-cled around his prey: the Woman Downtown. She


joins their ranks and becomes the mother of all thedemented outcasts. They call her “Sister of Wolf.”

COMMENTARYIn The Red Devil Battery Sign, every character istrapped by a societal, political, physical, or emotionalconstruct. The Woman Downtown’s raw nature hasbeen constantly suppressed by “civilities” that haveheld her captive. King is trapped by his physical ill-ness and therefore by his wife, Perla, who has beenforced to support him. Their daughter, La Niña, istrapped in her father’s expectations for fame. Thisvicious cycle has drawn her to men very much likeher father. Her lover, Terrence McCabe, is emotion-ally withdrawn from the world because he has beenforced to join the humdrum technological computerworld. The theme of entrapment even carries overas a metaphor for the entire nation, which aftermany political fallouts has been trapped in the “newworld order.” The characters are emotionally devoidand search for feeling: to be human again.

The Woman Downtown was born into the quin-tessential political family. Her tyrannical father andeverything that he represented suppressed her pas-sionate nature from a young age; she was even toldthat her spirit had killed her mother at birth. Shegrew up as a socialite attending all of the requiredevents while dying on the inside. She tried to findfreedom through marriage; however, she fell into asimilar trap: Not only had she been entangled withthe political suppressors, now she was caught upwith the corporate suppressors, the new enemies ofstate. The Woman Downtown becomes the soleowner of official documents containing conspiracysecrets. The knowledge of these documents trapsher in a moral dilemma: to reveal the truth. Shehas felt the wrath of her world too many times andnow more than ever needs to share with the worldthe horrors of political machination.

The Woman Downtown finds peace only whenshe is allowed to be her animalistic self. She findssolace with King del Rey, who has a human andbase quality to which the Woman Downtown isattracted. But even with King she is not totallyhonest until the end, when she confesses to himabout her life of lies and deception. Her propername is never revealed because she is so far

removed from life that she verges on the absurd;the culmination is her induction into the Waste-land gang at the end of the play. She needs noname because she has let go of all societal trappingsand become the she-wolf.

King del Rey is also trapped by his wife, Perla.She is a strong oppressive force in his life thatevokes disgust and respect simultaneously in him.Since his accident the traditional roles of husbandand wife have been reversed and Perla has beenforced to join the workforce and support King. Shealso orchestrated sending their daughter, La Niña,on tour to make money for the family. Perla is sucha strong force that throughout her life she has grav-itated to the weak in order to “fix” them. This is aquality shared by La Niña, who hopes to fix Ter-rence McCabe.

La Niña is trapped in her father’s dream of star-dom; in the lounge scene she nomadically travelsfrom city to city. Her father pressures her to main-tain this lifestyle, which he considers the only way aMexican can “make it” in the United States. LaNiña is drawn to men like her father and findscomfort in Terrence McCabe. She is furthertrapped by pregnancy and is therefore stuck in thisrelationship. McCabe is a married man who hadbeen ensnared by the burgeoning technologicalworld. McCabe feels that La Niña restored himthrough her zest for life and through her music. LaNiña and her father have been broken, but theyintoxicate others with their music.

Scholars have treated The Red Devil Battery Signwith severe criticism. Some have implied thatWilliams’s chemical dependencies were transcribedonto this play as the name ‘Red Devil’ is actuallyslang for a powerful prescriptive sedative at thetime, and they point out that the play ends with thedeath of King in a drugstore. Others have concen-trated on the political implications of the play andcalled its topics of conspiracies and wars outdated.However, the play’s significance and contemporaryrelevance is undeniable. It deals with materialistmilitary–industrial culture, which seems now morethan ever to turn the wheels of the modern world.Williams was visionary in his understanding thatthese forces can be paralyzing to human expressive-ness. Williams also stated that the play was an artistic


response to the assassination of U.S. president JohnF. Kennedy. Williams believed The Red Devil BatterySign was comparable to any of his major works.Contemporary criticism and reevaluation may bearthis out.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Red Devil Battery Sign premiered at the Schu-bert Theatre, Boston, Massachusetts, on June 18,1976. Directed by Edwin Sherin, the productionstarred Anthony Quinn as King del Rey and ClaireBloom as the Woman Downtown.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Red Devil Battery Sign was first published in1988 by New Directions.

CHARACTERSCrewcut He stalks the Woman Downtown in anattempt to protect her from being abducted andreturned to Paradise Meadows Nursing Home,where she has been an electric shock treatmentpatient. The Crewcut has been hired by the woman’sguardian, Judge Collister.

Griffin, Mr. He is the manager of the exclusiveDallas, Texas, hotel the Yellow Rose. Mr. Griffintries to appease a guest, the Woman Downtown,who demands anonymity, despite the memorablescenes she creates in the lobby and hotel bar.

Judge Collister He is the guardian of theWoman Downtown. He rescued her from electricshock therapy treatments at Paradise MeadowsNursing Home. After Judge Collister becomes hos-pitalized, his hired man, the Crewcut, protects TheWoman Downtown.

King del Rey He is a Mexican leader of a Mari-achi band called the King’s Men. He is a confidentLatino whose chivalrous, intoxicating spirit cap-tures the attention of the Woman Downtown.Diagnosed with a brain tumor, King is forced toquit his profession. Through the course of the play,he mentally deteriorates. He is self-conscious abouthis ethnicity and tries hard to break free of stereo-types that bind him in life. He is married to Perla,who financially supports him.

La Niña She is the daughter of King del Rey andPerla. Gifted with a beautiful singing voice, she hasalso found a gift to heal. No one can relieve KingDel Rey’s pain as his daughter can. La Niña hasfallen in love with a man whose love feels more likeentrapment. She becomes pregnant and returns toher parents’ home in order to see her father. LaNiña is amazed at the extent of his deteriorationand realizes that he is beyond help.

McCabe, Terrence He is a married man whowins La Niña’s heart. He recalls the first time he metLa Niña and cried in her arms. He had lived a life ofcomputers and technology and had lost all sensationuntil he met her. She has given him new life and nowhis life is going to live on through their child.

Perla She is a strong Latina who has been forcedto return to the workforce now that her husband,King del Rey, is incapacitated. She is like her name-sake, strong and indestructible. She has also senther daughter on the lounge circuit across the coun-try to make money as well. She is aware of King’saffair with the Woman Downtown but forces her-self to ignore it and hope that he will return to her.When Perla becomes the breadwinner, the rolereversal becomes too much for King to handle.

Woman Downtown She is a nameless womanwho is being held captive at the Yellow Rose Hotelon the instructions of her friend Judge Collister. TheWoman Downtown grew up in a political householdand was forced to live a high-society life; however,her spirit has always tried to break free of these con-straints. Running from the political world, she mar-ries into the corporate world and finds herself evenmore suppressed. She is the keeper of certain obscuredocuments, which have information about a hugeAmerican political-military conspiracy. The WomanDowntown finds solace in the arms of King del Rey,who through his primal energy restores her life andallows her to be her animalistic self. In the end theanimal within wins and she destroys all trappings ofsociety to live the life she desires.

FURTHER READINGGross, Robert F. “The Gnostic Politics of The Red

Devil Battery Sign,” in The Undiscovered Country:


The Later Plays of Tennessee Williams, edited byPhilip C. Kolin. New York: Peter Lang, 2002.

The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Monde

A one-act play published in 1984. The date ofcomposition is uncertain.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in London, En-gland, in a boardinghouse owned by Madame LeMonde. One of her tenants, Mint, lives alone in anattic room that is “a rectangle with hooks.” Mint,who is paralyzed from the waist down, hangs sus-pended on the hooks. His only means of mobility isto make his way about the room by clinging to thehooks and swinging from them.

As Mint hangs in midair on his hooks, MadameLe Monde’s son, the Boy, appears in Mint’s doorway.He seizes Mint from his hooks and carries him intoan adjacent alcove in the room and sexually assaultshim. When the Boy has finished, Mint begs him toreturn him to his place on the hooks, but the Boyrefuses and leaves Mint on the floor. Mint’s formerschool friend, Hall, arrives for tea. Mint greets Hallby singing an old school song and pleads with himto assist him back onto his hooks. Hall does notassist Mint; instead he insults him for his “suscepti-bility” to “afflictions and accidents.” Hall eventuallylifts Mint from the floor and places him on the hookfarthest from the tea table. Hall commences teawithout Mint and devours all of Mint’s biscuits.Mint struggles to swing to the tea table and tries todiscuss his financial troubles with Hall: He has beenthreatened with eviction and needs financial assis-tance. Mint suddenly slips from his hooks and triesto crawl to the tea table to join Hall. Hall callsdown to Madame Le Monde for more tea and bis-cuits. Madame Le Monde answers Hall, but with noindication that she will fulfill his request.

Hall replaces Mint on his hooks, again as far aspossible from the tea table. Hall then gives explicitdetails of a recent sexual encounter with a prosti-tute named Rosie O’Toole. Mint again explains his

financial needs to Hall, who ignores him and stampshis feet on the floor to demand more tea fromMadame Le Monde. Hall leaves the attic in pursuitof Madame Le Monde and more tea. In his absence,the Boy returns to assault Mint again in the alcove.Hall returns to the attic with Madame Le Monde.Mint crawls out of the alcove to defend himself andhis actions with the Boy to Madame Le Monde.Hall and Madame Le Monde announce that theyhave struck a beneficial financial deal betweenthemselves. Madame Le Monde’s son walks out ofthe alcove adjusting his clothing. Madame LeMonde seizes Mint and throws him across the room.Realizing that Mint has been killed as a result of theblow, Hall congratulates Madame Le Monde on hersuccessful “removal of the redundant.” Hall quicklytries to escape the attic. As he rushes down thestairs, Madame Le Monde pulls a lever rigged to thestairway. The stairs are flattened and Hall can beheard screaming as he slides to his death. In a finalact of vengeance, Madame Le Monde kills her inso-lent son with a fatal karate chop.

COMMENTARYThe Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Mondecan best be understood as an example of absurdistdrama. The plays of the THEATER OF THE ABSURD

strive to expose the absurdity of the human condi-tion. Dramas of this kind present a view of humanperplexity and spiritual anguish through a series ofconnected incidents and patterns of images thatpresent human beings as “bewildered beings in anincomprehensible universe” (Harmon and Holman,2). Although Williams is not acknowledged as a prin-cipal writer within this literary genre, many of theworks in his dramatic canon—particularly those ofhis late period—feature absurdist qualities. Similarto the more established absurdist plays of SAMUEL

BECKETT, Eugene Ionesco, and HAROLD PINTER,The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Monde isan exploration of human creatures living in “mean-ingless isolation in an alien environment” (Harmonand Holman, 2). As does Pinter’s The Birthday Party,Williams’s play “speaks plainly of the Individual’spathetic search for security” (Esslin, 241).

Pinter’s works notably depict characters alone intheir rooms “confronted with the basic problem of

The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Monde 221

being.” In this context the “room” for Pinter, as wellas for Williams, becomes a symbol of the characters’individual place in the world and therefore becomesa “territory to be conquered and defended” (Esslin,247, 258). Mint, as do many absurdist antiheroes,literally and metaphorically clings onto the tenter-hooks of his precarious position in the world.Through the character of Mint, who lives sus-pended in midair in a room full of hooks, Williamsphysically substantiates the absurdist theory thathuman beings exist in a state of suspense (or sus-pension) and strain caused by uncertainty.

The principal source of Mint’s discomfiture anduncertainty is his landlady, Madame Le Monde; thename Le Monde literally means “the world.” This“large and rather globular” woman is an embodi-ment of the brutal, hostile world. A fiery, vengeful,and devouring mother goddess, she also representslife itself as she reigns over her domain and dis-penses life and death on a whim—or the flick of aswitch. Hall, whose name contains the word all, isthe personification of greed, avarice, and gluttony.A completely sensuous creature, he is driven byappetite, and his conversation centers on food, sex,and money. Mint’s name is also connected to all-consuming appetites. In ancient herbal folklore,mint (Mentha species) was known for its aphro-disiac quality and was said to arouse lust, which thecharacter clearly does, as witnessed by the Boy’sinsatiable ardor for Mint. “Mint” is also a modern-day slang term for money.

In many ways Rooming-House can be seen as anabsurdist revision of THE GLASS MENAGERIE. Mme.Le Monde can be seen as a literal and figurativelarger-than-life version of the character AmandaWingfield. Mme. Le Monde is a perversely domi-neering mother figure, who must be the center ofattention and who is violently suspicious of her son’sbehavior and interactions with others. Her son, theBoy, is a Tom Wingfield of sorts, eager to escape hismother’s control. Mint consequently becomes amore fully physically disabled Laura Wingfield. He is,however, far more proactive in relieving his isolationthan his Glass Menagerie counterpart. Mint invitesHall, “an emissary from another world,” to tea in thehope that he will provide him with much neededsecurity and protection. But as is Laura’s Gentleman

Caller, Jim O’Connor, who is engaged to another girl,Hall is “not in the position to do the right thing” byMint. He cannot rescue Mint because he is homo-phobic and financially unstable. Hall’s insensitivityalso parallels Jim O’Connor’s charming oafishness.As Jim shatters Laura’s quietude by breaking herfavorite glass ornament and kissing her, Hall tor-ments Mint by thoughtlessly ignoring his cries forhelp, absentmindedly eating and drinking all ofMint’s provisions and recounting disturbing detailsof his sordid sexual encounters. Hall’s extended andfantastical monologue about his lascivious dealingswith a prostitute serves as a distancing technique tosolidify Hall’s claim to a heterosexual orientation, aswell as to alienate, isolate, and oppress Mint further.Ironically, Hall’s escapade, which takes place in theback of a London taxi cab, also calls to mind anotherPinter play, The Homecoming, with its shockinglycasual talk of prostitution and Old Sam’s dying reve-lation that his nephew’s mother committed adulterywith another man in the back of his cab.

The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Mondeis a fascinating work that has been largely ignored orflatly rejected by scholars who have attempted tojudge the play by standards of conventional, realisticdrama or who have been put off by the play’s sexualcontext. This work is, however, one of Williams’smost remarkable, and it encapsulates his engage-ment with the theater of the absurd.

PRODUCTION HISTORYNo professional productions of The RemarkableRooming-House of Mme. Le Monde have beenrecorded to date.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Mondewas published in a limited edition by AlboncaniPress in 1984.

CHARACTERSBoy He is the son of Madame Le Monde. As doeshis mother, the Boy takes great pleasure in havingsex and tormenting others. The subject of his violentabuse is Mint, his mother’s frail and disabled tenant.The Boy secretly and repeatedly assaults Mint in thealcove of his attic room. His actions are discovered

222 The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Monde

by his jealous mother, who kills him with a singlekarate chop.

Hall Hall visits the rooming house owned byMadame Le Monde to have tea with his formerschool chum, Mint. Although Mint considers him afriend, Hall is very cruel to Mint. He regularlyinsults Mint, refuses to help him physically orfinancially, and greedily eats all of his food. Halluses his visit to Mint’s room to his own advantage:He receives a free meal, has sex with Madame LeMonde, and strikes a major financial deal with her.His great scheme backfires when he ends up on thewrong side of Madame Le Monde and suffers herwrath.

Le Monde, Madame Madame Le Monde is theowner of a boardinghouse in London, England. Inmany ways she is a larger-than-life caricature ofWilliams’s ruthless landlady figure. As are several ofthe other landlady characters in the Williams canon(in such works as “THE ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” THE

LADY OF LARKSPUR LOTION, and VIEUX CARRÉ),Madame Le Monde is money-hungry, homophobic,spiteful, and cruel. She repeatedly threatens her dis-abled tenant, Mint, with eviction. Madame LeMonde cares little about Mint’s basic needs andbecomes jealous of his interactions with her son, TheBoy. When Mint’s former school friend, Hall, visits,Madame Le Monde seduces him, and the two strikean important financial deal. However, in the end,Madame Le Monde’s rage gets the better of her andshe kills Mint, Hall, and her son.

Mint He is a tenant living in the attic of aboardinghouse owned by Madame Le Monde.Mint is a fragile childlike man who is paralyzedfrom the waist down. The walls of his attic roomare covered with hooks, and Mint’s only means ofmobility is swinging from one hook to another.Mint quite literally and metaphorically clings onthe tenterhooks of his precarious position in theworld. Through the character of Mint, Williamsphysically substantiates the theory that humanbeings exist in a state of suspense (or suspension)and strain because of uncertainty, a primary tenetof the THEATER OF THE ABSURD.

FURTHER READINGEsslin, Martin. Theater of the Absurd. London: Pen-

guin Books, 1961.Harmon, William, and C. Hugh Holman, eds. A


“The Resemblance Between aViolin Case and a Coffin”


SYNOPSISThe Narrator, a young boy, does not understandthe changes Sister undergoes during puberty. He isconfused by her loss of interest in him and in child-hood games. Her only interest is in practicing forher piano recital. Their grandmother, who is calledGrand, pampers the Sister, showing her more atten-tion than usual. The neighborhood children teaseand harass him, so the Narrator stays inside andmopes.

Miss Aehle, Sister’s piano teacher, assigns her toa duet with a handsome young violin student,Richard Miles, as part of a recital. The Sister isexcited and nervous about the prospect, as she hasdeveloped a crush on Richard. Her brother also hasa crush on the young man. The Sister struggleswith the assigned music. She plays flawlessly whenshe is alone, but in Richard’s presence she makesmistakes and succumbs to nervous fits of crying.Despite these problems, Miss Aehle assures herthat her nervousness will subside with practice.The piano teacher decides to cut several of the Sis-ter’s solos from the recital and fears that the younggirl will not be able to play the duet with Richard.

The evening of performance the Sister is dis-traught. When she arrives at the concert hall, shepleads not to perform, but she is pressured to do so.The duet is a disaster. Richard plays wonderfully,and he patiently tries to mask all of her mistakes.At one point, the Sister simply stops playing, butRichard patiently helps to get her back on track.When the catastrophic duet is over, Richard holds

“The Resemblance Between a Violin Case and a Coffin” 223

the Sister near him, and they bow together, receiv-ing a standing ovation.

After that night, the Sister refuses to play pianoever again. The family is forced to move north whenthe father is transferred to a job. They learn throughmutual friends that Richard died of pneumonia. TheNarrator recalls the similarity in Richard’s violincase and a coffin.

COMMENTARY“The Resemblance Between a Violin Case and aCoffin” is the second narrative in a trilogy of shortstories centered on autobiographical material relatedto Williams’s sister, ROSE WILLIAMS. The Sister inthis story has very deep feelings and love interests,but she is never capable of having an intimate rela-tionship with a man. Rose suffers many humiliatingexperiences such as the recital, and she becomesincreasingly withdrawn from the world. As the Sisterhas in this story, Rose has a severe nervous conditionthat impedes social grace in the company of theopposite sex. A similar story, “PORTRAIT OF A GIRL IN

GLASS,” gives another impression of Rose, as awoman caught in a childlike state of existence. Amore fully developed Rose is manifested in LauraWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis short story was published in Flair magazine(1950), Best American Short Stories of 1951 (1952),Hard Candy (1954), Collected Stories (1985), andThe Best American Short Stories of the Century(1999).

CHARACTERSAehle, Miss The enthusiastic music teacher whoteaches Rose to play the piano, Miss Aehle hasconfidence in Rose’s musical ability and encouragesher to perform at a recital.

Grand Grand is the grandmother of Rose and theNarrator. She is compassionate and supportive ofRose as she encounters emotional difficulties duringpuberty. Grand is reminiscent of Williams’s maternalgrandmother, ROSINA OTTE DAKIN, who was affec-tionately called “Grand.”

Miles, Richard Richard is a handsome young vio-linist with whom Rose performs a disastrous duet.Richard remains patient and loving toward Rose.

Narrator He is a young boy whose best friend ishis older sister, Rose. The Narrator feels abandonedwhen Rose reaches puberty and is no longer inter-ested in childhood games. When his sister’s loveinterest, Richard Miles, is introduced, the Narratordiscovers his own sexual urges.

Sister The sister of the Narrator, this youngwoman struggles with puberty. She is nervous andawkward and suffers from low self-esteem. Sheexperiences an embarrassing piano recital with theyoung, handsome Richard Miles. She fanciesRichard because he is gentle and patient with her,but the humiliation of the traumatic duet leavesher devastated and emotionally wounded.

The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone

A novel written around 1950.

SYNOPSISPart 1: “Cold Sun”

Chapter 1On an early evening in March in Rome, Italy,unemployed people loiter on the Spanish Steps,shifting up toward the top, step by step, as the Sunsinks. Street vendors and urchins have moved tothe Via Veneto to prey on American tourists.Among the people remaining on the stairs is anameless attractive Young Man in tattered cloth-ing. He has been standing there, watching andwaiting, for a considerable amount of time. His gazeis fixed on a terrace, five stories up from the piazza,where two women in fur coats appear. He is alsoaware of an American tourist near an obelisk onthe piazza. The tourist reaches into his pocket tooffer a cigarette to the Young Man, who recognizesthe gesture as an invitation for a tryst, which wouldprovide him with food and money for a while.

224 The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone

Assessing the tourist’s camera, jewelry, and clothes,the Young Man declines the offer and returns towatching the women on the terrace, who seem tohold out a more lucrative opportunity.

Chapter 2The two women on the terrace are Karen Stone, aretired actress in her early 50s recently widowedand living in Rome, and her childhood friend, MegBishop, an author and journalist. They have metaccidentally in the banking department of Ameri-can Express that morning, and Mrs. Stone hasinvited Miss Bishop to her home for the afternoon.As their relationship has been strained since afleeting lesbian encounter at college, Karen hasalso invited a number of Italian friends, to avoidany confidential exchanges with Meg. Miss Bishophas, however, forced a private conversation on theterrace. The conversation is centered on Karen’sretirement from the stage, which was due to herfailure in the part of Juliet, for which she was tooold. Mrs. Stone tries to evade further discussion ofthe subject by calling one of her Italian guests, theConte Paolo Di Leo, out onto the terrace. He staysonly briefly, observing that he does not like “a coldsun.” Meg picks up on the connotations of theremark and upbraids Karen for the company shekeeps and her various liaisons with vastly youngermen, which have sparked vicious gossip. Unwillingto continue the conversation, Karen returnsindoors. She ignores her other party guests andretreats into her bathroom. She washes her faceand then retires to her bedroom to reflect on hersituation. Once her guests have left, she goes backout onto the terrace; looking down on the piazza,she spots the waiting Young Man, who made anobscene sign at her the previous day.

Chapter 3The story returns to Meg Bishop’s point of view,from the moment Mrs. Stone has fled the terrace.Meg admits to herself that she has sought—andachieved—revenge for Karen’s rejection of her incollege, although she finds that the scene has dis-turbed her. Pacing on the terrace, she ends up out-side Karen’s bedroom and watches her through theFrench windows. When she finds the windowslocked, Meg returns to the terrace, where she

observes the Young Man in the piazza relievinghimself against the wall below the balustrade.Shocked and repelled, Miss Bishop decides toreturn inside. Meg tries to find Karen, without suc-cess. Left alone in the living room, Meg discovers aglass-covered French clock on the mantel. Beneaththe clock she finds a photograph of a woman with amessage on the back stating, “This is how I looknow!” Before Meg can read the accompanying noteand determine the meaning of the picture, she isnotified that the elevator has arrived.

Chapter 4On an afternoon late in April, Paolo is attendinghis daily appointment at Renato’s barber’s shop.For Paolo’s visits, Renato turns his barber’s chairtoward the window, so that they both can watchand discuss the people going by in the Via Veneto.The virtually exclusive topic of their conversationis Paolo’s sexual exploits with wealthy tourists. Herecalls his previous conquests: Signora Coogan, theBaron Waldheim, and Mrs. Jamison Walker. Heexplains that he has been attempting to make Mrs.Stone his “protector.” So far, Karen Stone hasproved impervious to his attentions.

At this juncture, the point of view shifts to thatof Karen Stone and an explanation of her ostensi-ble reluctance to become involved with Paolo. Hehas been introduced to her by the Contessa, and inthe early stages of their acquaintance Karen hasidentified Paolo with one of the weak, young actorsshe was able to control and manipulate on- and off-stage. Although she has gradually recognized herattraction to him and accepted his attentions, shestill is unwilling to reciprocate, as her idea ofcourtship tactics requires that she display reserve.

This state of affairs is confusing and economi-cally challenging for Paolo, who relies on his “pro-tectors’” financial support. He has complainedabout this to the Contessa, who has advisedpatience and pointed out that the prize is worththe effort.

While sitting in Renato’s barber shop that after-noon, Paolo sees Mrs. Stone get out of her car andfor a moment is disturbed by the possibility of herentering the shop. Renato remarks that the lady isnot one of the shop’s patrons, goading Paolo to

The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone 225

reveal her name. The revelation causes a stir inthe shop, and the attention of Renato, the cus-tomers, and the shop attendants is riveted on Mrs.Stone, who is passing outside. Everyone appears tobe impressed by her poise, until Paolo makes abawdy remark that implies that he is her lover. Atthat moment he determines that he will turn thelie into truth.

Mrs. Stone hears the laughter from the barber’sshop and realizes that it is aimed at her. Flustered bythis derision, she sets off in the direction oppositefrom her intended path. The nameless Young Manfollows her. The spectacle of the pursuit amusesRenato, but Paolo finds it embarrassingly similar towhat he intends and reacts with annoyance.

Chapter 5Confused by the situation and the bright sunlight,Mrs. Stone drifts along the street aimlessly. Shereflects on how this present action resembles theaimlessness of her life in general and her relation-ship with Paolo in particular. She rummages in herhandbag for a pair of sunglasses but cannot findthem. Eager for shade, she turns off the main thor-oughfare and into a dim side street. She still cannotexplain where she is going or what she is doing andeventually pauses in front of the window of aleather goods shop to compose herself. Gazing intothe window, she notices the reflection of the YoungMan and initially confuses him with Paolo. Shedoes not turn to look at him but hears that he isurinating against the shop window. Mrs. Stonewalks away hastily and seeks refuge in a small hotel,troubled by the fact that the Young Man has triedto catch her attention on several occasions.

Chapter 6This chapter begins by providing a portion of KarenStone’s background history. In the course of threeyears she has retired from the stage, lost her hus-band, and begun menopause. This sequence ofevents initially caused her to cut herself off from oldacquaintances and lead a solitary existence inRome. After two years, she has resumed socializing.The first social contact she initiates is with the Con-tessa, whom she and her late husband met beforethe war. Karen maintains this association, althoughshe quickly realizes that the Contessa is, for all

intents and purposes, a madam. The Contessa hasintroduced Mrs. Stone to three boys, none of whombecomes more than a casual companion. All threerelationships end when the boys request loans ofconsiderable amounts of money from her. AlthoughMrs. Stone grants the financial requests, she subse-quently breaks off her association with each ofthem. (The money the young men have obtainedfrom her is divided with the Contessa.) Paolo is thefourth such suitor, and the Contessa is not pleasedwith his current progress. She suspects that he hasbecome Karen Stone’s lover and is cheating her ofher share. Paolo assures her that it is only a matterof time and points out that Mrs. Stone, a great lady,requires circumspect handling. Unimpressed withPaolo’s excuses, the Contessa accuses him of behav-ing as a common prostitute does. When Paolo fightsback, she literally hits him below the belt.

Chapter 7The Contessa encounters Mrs. Stone at a luncheongiven by a Hollywood producer working in Rome.She uses the occasion to take revenge on Paolo bywarning Mrs. Stone against him. She informsKaren that Paolo is a marchetta—a male prosti-tute—and tells her about Signora Coogan, one ofPaolo’s former clients, who was so disgraced by hisrefusal to become physically intimate with her thatshe contracted eczema and fled to Africa. Mrs.Stone finds the story disturbing. The Contessa alsoinforms Karen that Paolo is going to ask her for alarge sum of money under the pretext of helpingout a dear friend whom a dishonest priest has swin-dled. Mrs. Stone shrugs off the Contessa’s warningand explains that she is too savvy for this ploy.

Chapter 8Later that afternoon, Mrs. Stone and Paolo are onthe terrace of her apartment. Paolo is moody andfeigns a headache. He launches into a tale abouthis friend Fabio, who has been speculating on theblack market and has been cheated of 10 millionlire by a dishonest priest. Paolo explains that he istroubled because he fears that Fabio will commitsuicide. Mrs. Stone, who has barely been listening,points out that it is “usually more than friendship”when such a sum is involved. She also mentionsSignora Coogan and, by implication, reveals that


she is aware of Paolo’s agenda. Leaving him to pon-der the situation, she retreats to her bedroom, anx-iously listening for whether or not Paolo will joinher. She finally acknowledges to herself her desirefor Paolo. She believes that sex with Paolo willrelieve her restlessness and loss of direction. Karentakes a belladonna tablet, undresses and lies downon her bed. She hears Paolo approach the bedroomdoor and warns him not to enter because she isnaked. Paolo enters the room, sits down on thebed, and asks why she wanted to know when“Fabio” needed the money. Mrs. Stone’s reply indi-cates that she is afraid of running out of time. Paoloconsents, and they kiss.

Chapter 9It is late spring, and Mrs. Stone and Paolo havebeen romantically involved for some time. Theweather is warm enough for her to sunbathe onthe terrace in the mornings, shielded by a rooflesscanvas tent. Occasionally Paolo joins her in thetent, and Mrs. Stone cannot bear to look at him,dreading the comparison between his youthful andher aging body. On one of those occasions theyhave an argument, sparked by Mrs. Stone’s com-plaint about the clouds and the chilly shadowsthey cast. Paolo accuses her of thinking that she—as do all the rich Americans—owns Rome. Karenasks Paolo whether he was a fascist. Instead ofanswering the question, Paolo skirts it by pointingout that he is an aristocrat and, at age 15, was apilot in the war and commander of a flying clubcalled the Doves. By now familiar with his heroicdaydreams, Mrs. Stone does not believe him, butPaolo carries on describing the fate of one of theDoves who was caught streetwalking. He was puton trial by the other Doves and was given thechoice of various methods of suicide, of which hechose the leap from a tower. Paolo, engrossed inhis story, jumps up to illustrate the action, stum-bles, and falls, pulling down the tent with him.Although she knows that Paolo hates being madefun of, Mrs. Stone laughs at him. He counters thatshe is ridiculous herself, imagining that he lovesher. He explains that the only person he has everloved is his cousin, who was raped by U.S. soldiersand placed in a convent. Mrs. Stone tries to

change the topic, asking whether it is true that theswifts stay in the air all the time because they donot have legs. Paolo explains that the birds do notwant to mix with American tourists.

He continues to be hostile to her until, laterthat afternoon when they have gone for cocktailsat the Hotel Excelsior, Mrs. Stone proposes a visitto an expensive tailor’s shop to buy him some newclothes. Paolo feigns resistance to the idea and tellsKaren that he rejected the gift of a car from SignoraCoogan. He felt unable to accept it because he didnot love her. Mrs. Stone reminds Paolo that earlierhe has told her he does not love her either. Heclaims only to have said that in anger. Mrs. Stonestarts to cry, with relief and happiness, although sheis secretly unsure of her own feelings.

Part 2

Chapter 1Karen is unable to determine whether what sheoccasionally experiences with Paolo is in fact happi-ness, because she has had nothing comparable inher previous life. A further flashback to her historyexplains this. Elation is measured by professionalsuccess and, beyond that, by the professional failureof colleagues. She is jealous of other actors and notabove using her influence to have them fired if theythreaten her position. She never has the time toexamine herself and her motives because she iscompletely wrapped up in her career and social life.Her failure as Juliet has been a grave shock, forcingher, for the first time, to admit that age and time areworking against her. Her reaction is to announceher retirement from the stage, supposedly on thegrounds of her husband’s ill health and her need toaccompany him to Europe.

Tom Stone has been suffering from attacks offaintness, which they both have disregarded inorder to pursue their social schedule. Her husband’sillness is only taken seriously when it becomes aconvenient excuse for her retirement. When thedoctor informs her, a week before their departure forEurope, that Mr. Stone’s heart disease is so severethat he would not survive the journey, she is out-raged and refuses to face facts, claiming that rest isall her husband needs. However, when they board


the Queen Mary, Karen has a feeling that death hasboarded the ocean liner with them. Mr. Stoneshares this feeling, although he will not admit to it.The sense of impending doom drives home herattachment to and dependence on her husband,who has been her only real companion and confi-dant. Their marriage almost failed in its initialstages because of her sexual coldness and his virtualimpotence but was saved by Mr. Stone’s breakdownone night, which, in her eyes, turned him into anadult child for her. When, 10 years later, she had afleeting affair with another actor, Tom forgave herwithout question, thus turning dependency intocodependency. By virtue of being based on a surro-gate and interchangeable mother-child relationship,the marriage is lonely, however, and the voyage toEurope unmasks that loneliness. The doctor’s pre-dictions were correct, and Tom suffers a heartattack in Paris, which requires him to stay in a clinicfor several days. After this, Mr. and Mrs. Stonedecide to settle down in Rome for some time, andthere his condition improves. During their stay theyvisit an expensive tailor’s shop and have new suitsmade for Tom.

Chapter 2Mrs. Stone now returns to this same tailor withPaolo. The tailor selects a bolt of dove-gray flannel toshow to his customers, and Mrs. Stone recalls thather husband had had a suit made from this samematerial and wore it when he died. Another flash-back relates how Mr. Stone was taken ill on the flightto Athens, three hours before landing. Mrs. Stonelooks out of her window and spots a small islandbeneath them. She pleads with the flight attendantand demands that the pilot land on the island. Tomtries to speak to Karen, but she cannot hear him. Theflight attendant stands between Mrs. Stone and herhusband. He dies during these moments, unheardand unseen by Karen. Mrs. Stone attacks the flightattendant and tries to fight her way to the cockpit. Ayoung man in a gray uniform explains to Karen thatthe plane is unable to land on the island.

Chapter 3Paolo orders a dove-gray flannel suit, a bluetuxedo, and a silk suit. Mrs. Stone watches hischildlike excitement for a while and then retreats

to a dark, quiet corner of the room to reflect onwhat has brought her to this point. She believesthat there should be some traceable developmentthat has led her from her Virginia girlhood to thestage, marriage, and finally Paolo. She feels that sheis slipping into emotional anarchy.

Chapter 4Mrs. Stone looks up from her gloves and noticesthat Paolo and the tailor have moved into anotherdisplay room. At this moment she spots the YoungMan, who has been stalking her, standing outsidethe shop window and rapping against the pane witha metal object. Although she cannot see his faceproperly, she recognizes him by his posture. Sud-denly he parts his coat and reveals that he is nudeunderneath. Mrs. Stone immediately rises from herchair and faces some glass cabinets at the back ofthe room. The rapping stops, and in the reflectionof the glass cabinets, she sees the Young Mandepart. Then she calls Paolo and the other men inthe shop, but when they arrive, she is too ashamedto admit what has happened.

Part 3

Chapter 1This chapter opens with further exploration ofKaren Stone’s background. Her parents separatedwhen she was 10, and she was sent to a boardingschool. A quiet, observant girl, she was bullied thereand in reaction became a tomboy. She becamechampion at a winter game called “King on theMountain,” which involved reaching the top of asteep, iced-over slope and defending the positionagainst all others. In retrospect she realizes that shehas played this game throughout her career, not bit-ing and scratching anymore, but manipulating andoccasionally backstabbing. Everything she did, everybirthday card she sent, and every hospital visit shemade was calculated to secure her position and fur-ther her career and lacked emotional engagement.She even went as far as pretending not to rememberher lines in rehearsal, so that she could study otheractors and pinpoint potential threats. However,these mechanisms only worked efficiently as long asher youth and beauty could disguise them.


As she remembers names and faces of peopleshe has mentally filed away as being potentiallyuseful, they strike her as objects lined up on shelvesaround an empty room. She recognizes this empti-ness as an inevitable ingredient of her lifestyle andthat of many of her acquaintances. The only reasonshe has not been sucked into this void is that shehas kept constantly busy and on the move. Thejourney to Europe put an end to the activity, andMrs. Stone knows that she has begun to slidetoward the center of emptiness.

One afternoon late in spring, she realizes thatthose names and faces are all but forgotten. Gettingout of her car on the Via Veneto, she is greeted by awoman whose name and face she does not recall.Finally, Mrs. Stone remembers the woman as a friendof hers and her late husband’s. The woman, JuliaMcIlhenny, is with a Companion, whom Mrs. Stonealso does not recall. She is unnerved by this lapse ofmemory, takes Julia aside, and tells her that she issuffering from cancer. The lie yields a sense of libera-tion that reminds Mrs. Stone of some of her moresuccessful moments on stage. After this exchange,Karen has her driver take her around the streets ofthe Villa Borghese, and she understands that she hasat last reached the center of the void.

Chapter 2Because she possessed such remarkable beauty,Karen Stone had always expected to die early. Atthis point in her life, she has accepted the realitythat she will not die early, and she has not madeproper provisions for her future. She is feeling rest-less and her days are occupied mostly with waitingfor Paolo.

She attempts to conceal her age by applyingmakeup, dyeing her hair, and wearing wide-brimmedhats and elaborate designer clothes. One of these is agolden taffeta gown, which she is trying on in herbedroom when Paolo storms in, dressed in the newlycompleted dove-gray flannel suit. Preoccupied withhis own appearance, he takes no notice of her newdress and shoves her aside, so he can admire himselfin the mirror. Mrs. Stone starts laughing, and heinstantly becomes angry, says that he is not accus-tomed to wearing such fine clothes, and retreats tothe bathroom, where there is another mirror.

Regretting her behavior, Mrs. Stone mixes drinksfor them and waits for him on the terrace. When hereturns, Paolo ignores the drink and instead staresdown at the piazza, where he spots the Young Man.Paolo asks Mrs. Stone about the Young Man andaccuses her of making a spectacle of herself. Shedeflects his accusation by pointing out that peoplehave been staring at him. Paolo claims that the pre-vious week he had to challenge a man to a duelbecause of a disgusting remark he made about them.When Mrs. Stone shows her disbelief, he tells herthat women like her are often found murdered intheir bed and cites the case of a middle-aged ladywho was killed on the French Riviera. She askswhether he means that he is going to kill her andthen tries to smooth over the disagreement by offer-ing him the drink. Still annoyed, he swipes her handaway, and the drink spills down the front of her newgown. Mrs. Stone bursts into tears and flees to thebedroom. Paolo follows her to apologize. They kiss,but before matters can go further, he claims he hasto take off his grandmother’s locket; Mrs Stonerefrains from asking why.

The mood does not improve when they meetsome of his friends for cocktails later that evening.Mrs. Stone does not know any of them and feelstheir laughter is partly directed at her. She does notparticipate in the conversation. Nor does Paolo,until a girl at the table finally draws him out withpersistent flirting. The girl puts a cocktail cherry inhis mouth, and Paolo bites her finger, which sheleaves in his mouth. Unable to take any more, Mrs.Stone gets up from the table and leaves the barunnoticed. Trying to compose herself outside, sheonce more remembers her failure in the role ofJuliet, a part for which she was far too old. Shehears a metallic tapping sound and notices the per-sistent Young Man. She confronts him withoutlooking at him and demands he look at her face.The Young Man retreats, murmurs something,walks away, and stops a little farther on, expectingher to follow.

Paolo comes out of the bar. They take Mrs.Stone’s car to drive through the Villa Borghese toAlfredo’s Restaurant, and she calms somewhat andtakes a belladonna tablet. Paolo remains cold butallows her to touch him without reciprocating. At


the restaurant they have hardly begun to eat whenPaolo breaks his silence to tell her that the Con-tessa and some friends will be at the apartmentshortly. He has invited them to watch some homemovies, and he and Mrs. Stone have to leavestraightaway to get back in time. She starts toprotest, but Paolo gets up from the table, leavingher to pay the bill. On the way to her apartment,Mrs. Stone remembers the undignified fate of theSignora Coogan. She also recalls a recent occasionwhen she had taken out a collection of newspaperclippings, theater programs, and stage photographsher husband had compiled and set them on thetable in the living room, where Paolo would havebeen bound to notice them. However, the momentthe doorbell rang, she returned the collection tothe storeroom. A few pictures were dropped andremained on the floor, directly in the path of Paolo,who picked them up and tossed them on the tablewith barely a glance. The memory affirms her reso-lution not to lose her dignity.

Paolo brushes a kiss on her cheek, and she claspshis face in both hands and tells him that she is notlike Signora Coogan. Unsettled by the outburst,Paolo pretends not to know what she is talkingabout. Karen claims that she is still sought after inthe fashionable world. By way of proof, she offers toshow him her collection of theatrical mementos.As soon as the words are out, she realizes that shehas lost her dignity. Paolo points out that he hasbeen photographed and painted. He also acknowl-edges that one of his former American associates,Mrs. Jamison Walker, has also appeared in variousfashion magazines.

When they arrive at the apartment, the Con-tessa, who on the previous day has managed to set-tle her disagreement with Paolo, is already waitingin the sitting room. With her are three youngerwomen, among them Miss Thompson, a youngHollywood starlet. The Contessa has invited MissThompson as bait for Paolo. The Contessa feels shehas been driven to this by Mrs. Stone’s refusal tolend her $1,000.

While waiting for Mrs. Stone and Paolo toarrive, the Contessa has had some brandy and hasbecome inebriated. She begins gossiping aboutKaren’s scandalous conduct. She does not realize

that Mrs. Stone and Paolo have gone to the bed-room immediately after their arrival. Standingsilently before separate mirrors, they both freshenup, hearing the conversation in the living roomwithout intending to listen. Eventually, Karenstarts paying attention and is shocked at what isbeing said. Paolo, too, has started to overhear thegossip, and once his consternation wears off, hedeclares that he does not approve of eavesdrop-ping. He brushes past Karen and enters the livingroom. He greets the Contessa and her friends.Karen remains standing in the doorway in full viewof everyone. The Contessa tries to cover her dis-comfiture by having another sip of brandy but findsher glass empty. This prompts Karen to enter,arrange for a refill, and greet her guests. Finally sheinvites the Contessa to continue her story.

The Contessa remarks that she was only tellingthe others about “the Signora Coogan’s spectacularseason at Capri,” and Paolo uses this as an opportu-nity to ask Miss Thompson to accompany him tothe terrace. Mrs. Stone stays behind with the otherladies. After her butler has set up the movie projec-tor and screen (for the gathered assembly to watchsome home movies of Paolo and Karen), she goesoutside to the terrace to fetch him and MissThompson. Karen finds Paolo on the terrace alone.When asked where the young actress has gone,Paolo replies that he advised her to leave. The cou-ple fall into a violent argument. Paolo accuses Karenof denying him the 10 million lire she promised togive him for his friend Fabio. As a final blow, Paolomakes Karen admit her age. Their argument con-tinues as they return to the living room, producingan ugly public scene, which is prolonged by theContessa’s alcohol-induced inability to rise fromher seat.

Chapter 3Mrs. Stone is alone in her apartment. She wandersaimlessly through the rooms and eventually goesout onto the terrace. She notices that the YoungMan is still standing on the piazza, her attentionattracted by the observation that he is not movingwhile everything else, her included, seems to bedrifting. Returning to the living room, she retrievesa letter, a call card, and a photograph from under


the clock on the mantel. The photograph and letterare from an old friend of hers; the call card containsthe name and address of a plastic surgeon who hascreated the masklike face on the photograph. Thestriking of the clock on the mantel recalls the pass-ing of time, and she continues to wander throughthe apartment, attempting to escape from the noth-ingness Paolo has left behind. At last she returns tothe terrace and signals to the Young Man. Then shewraps the keys to the apartment into the handker-chief and tosses them down to him. He picks themup, nods, and disappears toward the front door. Mrs.Stone knows that something will shortly fill thenothingness that surrounds her.

COMMENTARYWhen The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone, Williams’sfirst novel, was published in 1950, it was met with abarrage of negative criticism. A large portion of itscritical rejection was due to the level of pruderyendemic in a decade that glorified middle-class val-ues. Representative of many reviewers, the NewYork Times critic Orville Prescott complained thatthe novel was nothing but “an erotic and depress-ing study of the crack-up of a brittle and shallowcharacter. The subject is distasteful; its atmosphereis drenched from beginning to end in sexual deca-dence” (Prescott, 25). However, this reaction is notconfined exclusively to contemporary voices of thatera. Even current discussions of the novel, whichclaim to address openly previously ignored issuessuch as gender and sexuality, seem to shy awayfrom certain topics, such as the failed romanticrelationship between Karen Stone and Meg Bishop.Prudery, however, cannot account for all unfavor-able reactions to the work; nor can it explain thelack of serious attention accorded to the novel byliterary critics. Part of the difficulty Williams facedwas a recurring reluctance by critics to accept anyliterary experimentation or departure from his pre-vious literary standard and form. (This critical viewdogged much of Williams’s dramatic work andplagued him greatly toward the end of his career.)

The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone was chiefly anexperiment for Williams. He was not enamored ofthe form. For him, novels seemed “purely esthetic,not living as plays are,” but he conceded that “the

temptation to wallow in words may some day com-pel [him] to write one” (Leverich, 313). When hefinally did so, his need to infuse the “esthetic” withthe “living” induced him to create a work that, for-mally, occupies something of an obscure area. Onthe surface the plot is unassuming, a very simpleand straightforward tale of a woman in her 50s whomakes a belated—and disastrous—bid at passion.However, this is coupled with considerable struc-tural and narrative complexity.

Divided into three books (or acts), “Cold Sun,”“Island, Island!,” and “The Drift”—each title illus-trative of a particular stage in the heroine’s journey,each book subdivided into several chapters (orscenes)—The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone is a novelthat shows the structural dynamics of a three-actplay. Conversely, it abounds with literary devices—such as flashbacks, sudden shifts in the narrativepoint of view, and extensive descriptive passagesand interior monologues—that are typical of thenovel form. The couching of character develop-ment in travel, physical, mental, and emotional,places The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone in the vicin-ity of the picaresque novel. The chronologicalsequence of events is frequently broken up, reflect-ing the bewildering mirror cabinet of experiences towhich the heroine finds herself subjected. Needlessto say, none of this contributes to making the workeasily accessible. In fact, its complexity, coupledwith sometimes clichéd but extremely compleximagery, conceals much of the psychological andmetaphoric depth, thus fostering a critical ten-dency to fasten on the obvious, as in the comment“Mrs. Stone is followed around by an exhibitionistwith a penchant for urinating on walls” (Johns,333) and to neglect the novel’s meaning.

DONALD WINDHAM described the work asWilliams’s “first fictionalized self-portrait after hissuccess,” which “displays a hair-raising degree of self-knowledge” (Spoto, 167). Born of that self-knowl-edge, Mrs. Stone is the incarnation of her creator’s“enduring reservation and hope that beyond promis-cuity there must be something or someone beyondshame whom he could love unreservedly” (Leverich,371). Or, as Williams himself stated, “I shall have togo through the world giving myself to people untilsomebody will take me” (Leverich, 366).


The quest for love is the central theme of thenovel. Of course the quest for love through promis-cuity is destined to fail, and Karen Stone, singularlyill equipped to identify love even if she can find it,becomes a case in point. Not through talent butthrough political maneuvering and relentless ambi-tion, she has carved out for herself a stellar actingcareer that ends dismally with her failure in the roleof Juliet. Without doubt, Juliet—epitome of truelove—is everything Karen Stone is not, and KarenStone, by her own admission, is too mediocre a tal-ent to compensate for her personal deficiencies.

Meg Bishop observes that it was also an obviousmistake for Karen “to play Juliet at the age of Mrs.Alving.” The comparison with Mrs. Alving is tellingaside from its inference of middle age. The tragicflaw of Mrs. Alving (a principal character in HenrikIbsen’s play Ghosts) lies in her inability to place per-sonal happiness above her need to be approved bysociety and in the web of lies she sustains to safe-guard that approval. Similarly, Karen Stone admitsthat she has represented “Various parts! But neverever myself!” Since girlhood, when she transformedherself from a little Southern princess into a tomboyto become “King on the Mountain”—the winner ina violent game—and throughout her professionalcareer, Karen Stone has made choices designed tocourt adulation and success, to the exclusion ofeverything else. Significantly, this exclusion includeschildren. Karen perceives fertility as a threat in her-self and in others; this is illustrated most dramati-cally when she attacks the flight attendant, who istrying to assist the dying Mr. Stone. Mrs. Stonephysically assaults precisely those parts of the youngwoman’s body that manifest fertility: her breasts andbelly. Determined not to bear children, Karen Stonehas “married in order to avoid copulation.” Herhusband, the millionaire Tom Stone, “a plump littleman that looked like an Easter bunny,” admiredKaren from afar for a great deal of time. These traitsmarked him as a suitable groom. Conveniently forKaren, he also is impotent, and his disability savestheir marriage by allowing “them both to discoverwhat they both really wanted, she an adult childand he a living and young and adorable mother.”

The Stones’ relationship evolves into compan-ionship, close and fond, but passionless. The libido,

however, does not remain suppressed, as KarenStone discovers when she engages in a one-nightdressing room affair. For this occasion, too, Williamshas cast her in a theatrical role that illustrates theevents. At the time of her affair, Karen was portray-ing Rosalind (As You Like It), one of Shakespeare’sbest-known gender-switching heroines. Appropri-ately, Karen adopts a stereotypically male role in hertryst with the young actor playing Orlando: She ini-tiates aggressive sex with him, rejects him, and ulti-mately humiliates him personally and professionally.It all contributes not so much to a sense of blurredgender divides, but to the image of a woman who—for the sake of pursuing her ambition with the hunt-ing instincts of a raptor—assumes more businesslikerigidity (or masculinity, in the eyes of her contempo-raries) than even the strident Meg Bishop, memo-rably described as “the burly commander of agunboat . . . presented . . . in the disguise of awealthy clubwoman.”

At the point of attack of the novel, all this haschanged. Karen Stone has left the acting profes-sion, lost her husband, and begun menopause.Once the initial grief has worn off, these events areperceived as liberating: She no longer has “tobother with pretension and effort of any kind,” sheis her own agent, the dread of fertility is withdrawn,and what is left is “desire without the old, implicitdistraction of danger.” This liberation may wellhave been nursed by the sultry atmosphere of aRome that Williams imbues with all the languidsensuality Karen Stone has been lacking for most ofher life. Roma Aeterna, in Williams’s terms,becomes the eternal woman: “Domes of ancientchurches, swelling above the angular roofs like thebreasts of recumbent giant women.” Rome’s buoy-ancy and youthfulness are dangerously seductive,and, after two years of mourning in seclusion forcareer, husband, and youth, Karen Stone is ready atlast to encounter a passion not readily available toher. What also has become evident, however, is asense of aimlessness and emptiness—an absence ofidentity—that she calls “the drift” and from whichshe desperately tries to escape.

Passion—and with it escape—appears in theguise of the Conte Paolo Di Leo, the fourth in aseries of gigolos the Contessa, “stately witch” and


purveyor of “epicene dandies,” parades past KarenStone. He is the male counterpart to Rome itself:languid, attractive, predatory, and sensuous. Thatthe indiscriminate center of his being is his groin isfortuitous, as it allows him to service an array ofwealthy tourists profitably and, for his personalpleasure, to enjoy “the ministrations of the long,cool fingers” of his friend and barber Renato.Although she knows what Paolo is—a rondino, aswift, who will fly perpetually and never land withher—Karen Stone feels increasingly attracted tohim, and this is a clear indicator of the magnitudeof the change she has undergone. In her previouslife, everything she did “was directed by the head asdistinguished from the heart.” Now, and in reactionto decades of emotional drought, she is slippinginto what she calls “emotional anarchy,” but for awhile it remains tempered by an intellect that willnot allow her to fool herself completely. “Americansaren’t as romantic as their motion pictures,” shesays when the Contessa vengefully informs her ofPaolo’s profession and agenda.

But rationality and the determination to holdon to her dignity only last long enough for KarenStone to denounce Paolo’s subterfuge of the friendin desperate need of 10 million lire. She denies hisrequest for money and retreats to her bedroom, lis-tening for Paolo, hoping against reason that he willstay. While she is waiting, she takes a tablet of bel-ladonna—a natural herbal sedative also known as“nightshade.” The choice of this drug is deliberateand has a twofold significance. First, the herbderives its name from the Italian bella donna (beau-tiful woman) because, according to superstition,nightshade sometimes takes the shape of anenchantress of supreme beauty. Second, the activecomponent in belladonna—atropine—has theeffect of dilating the pupils, thereby impairing theeyes’ ability to focus and see clearly. Karen’s regularuse of this potentially lethal relaxant signals a blur-ring of her inhibitions and a conscious denial of thefacts of age and fading beauty and desirability—ofmissed opportunity. She does not want to see whatshe knows to be the truth, and as she looks at her-self, “Her face in the mirror . . . [becomes] continu-ally more indistinct and lovely,” distorted by themagic of belladonna. Lying naked on her bed, she

finally hears Paolo approach, and her warning“Don’t come inside, I’m not dressed” is not a warn-ing as much as it is a poorly disguised invitation.Paolo accepts, too experienced not to realize thatpayment has merely been deferred.

This peculiar dialectic of acuity of vision and self-deceit, rationality and need, permeates the entirenovel, its characters, and its locale. The metaphori-cal voluptuous woman Rome serves as a giant mirrorfor Karen Stone. Highly polished windows and anabundance of water throw back bright sunlight, andthey throw back unsettling truths. Karen Stoneshuns brightness as she shuns her true mirror image,terrified one day to discover the face of the SignoraCoogan, “a wretched old fool of a woman with fivehairs and two teeth in her head and nothing butmoney to give [Paolo].” Selective blindness becomesan obsession, inducing her to sunbathe in a tent andto hide behind makeup, wide-brimmed hats, anddesigner clothes. However, the signs are there, notonly in Paolo’s sullenness and hostility. When shetries to rekindle his affections by buying him newclothes, he chooses to have a suit made of dove-grayflannel: The same suit and the same material thatMr. Stone was wearing when he died. The color grayis associated inextricably with death. In this context,death is equated with the end of a relationship.Paolo wears this suit on the evening when he calls inKaren’s outstanding debt (the money for Fabio) anddrops her for Miss Thompson, a young Hollywoodstar. The confrontation, a painfully ugly scene, pre-cipitated by the Contessa, finally holds up aninescapable mirror that is beyond even the powers ofbelladonna to mitigate: “Rome is three thousandyears old, and how old are you? Fifty?”

It is at this point that reality and distortedimages merge at last. Alone in her apartment afterPaolo, the Contessa, and their entourage havedeserted her, Karen Stone turns to the one reflec-tion that has remained curiously constant through-out: the nameless Young Man who has beenstalking her. Repeatedly glimpsed in or throughshop windows, ever-present on the piazza, besidethe unsubtly phallic obelisk, he has been watchingher every step, his posture suggesting that he is“continually upon the verge of raising his voice orarm in some kind of urgent call or salutation.” He is


the coarse Romeo who urinates under a deficientJuliet’s balcony instead of climbing it, as a dogmarks his territory, staking his claim. There is astrange complementarity between the handsome,impoverished stranger and Karen Stone. Watchfuland tense as she is, he seems to be the “token, how-ever cryptic, some inconspicuous signpost” that sheis looking for and that will explain how she hasended up in her predicament. He has his ownagenda: His body is for sale, but unlike Paolo, he isdiscriminate, and in his philosophy he resemblesKaren Stone (and Mrs. Alving): “When a man [ora woman] has an appointment with grandeur, he[or she] dares not stoop for comfort.” Her one“solid” and immediate encounter with him indi-cates that she at least suspects the kinship. Shechallenges him to look at her face, without lookingat him: “Why do you follow me, can’t you see myface?” It almost appears she cannot even glance athim without seeing herself, and at the same timeshe tries to point out the consequences of followingin her footsteps.

Desolate and restless after the scene with Paolo,Karen summons him to her bed—to stop “thedrift.” The invitation is mechanical and all butinvoluntary, a subconscious admission that this willnot be the human contact she wants. Watching thisenigmatic Romeo, whom she has referred to as “it”throughout the novel, pick up the keys and makehis way to the balcony, she is relieved that “theawful vacancy would be entered by something.”What exactly the something is remains unclear: thefleeting purchase of passion or perhaps, if Paolo’svicious cautionary tale of the murdered middle-aged woman is to be believed, death. At best it willbe a collision of two voids, and with this the questfor love has hopelessly foundered.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone was first publishedby New Directions in 1950.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone was first adapted forfilm in 1961. Jose Quintero directed the film, whichfeatured VIVIEN LEIGH as Karen Stone and WarrenBeatty as Paolo. Both Leigh’s and Beatty’s perform-

ances in the film were highly commended, althoughthe film overall received “a barrage of obtuselyunfair reviews” (Quirk, 181). Beatty’s portrayal ofPaolo is considered by many to be his best work onfilm. Equally, critics found Mrs. Stone one of VivienLeigh’s finest performances.

The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone was mostrecently adapted for film in 2003. Robert AllanAckerman directed this version for the U.S. cabletelevision network Showtime. The renowned Britishactress Helen Mirren assayed the role of KarenStone. The most notable alteration in Ackerman’sversion was the inventive addition of a charactercalled “Christopher,” a gregarious Southern play-wright-socialite who is clearly a fictional treatmentof the novel’s creator.

CHARACTERSBishop, Meg Meg Bishop is an American jour-nalist and old college friend of Karen Stone’s. Karenand Meg’s friendship was strained after the two hadan awkward romantic encounter in college. Meghas been following Karen’s career and life over theyears. The two women meet accidentally in Rome,many years later, and Karen invites Meg to herapartment. During her visit Meg questions Karenabout the rumors she has heard regarding Karen’srecent liaisons with various young Italian men.

Meg Bishop, the savvy and strident Americanjournalist living abroad, is reminiscent of therenowned American journalist and essayist JanetFlanner. Internationally known by her pen nameGenet, Flanner described her experiences living inEurope with U.S. readers in her column “Letterfrom Paris” in the New Yorker magazine. Williamsmet Flanner and her partner, Solita Salerno, inRome in 1945.

Companion He is a male friend of Julia McIl-henny’s. The Companion was also a former finan-cial backer of Karen Stone’s theatricalproductions.

Contessa The Contessa is an impoverished Ital-ian countess living in Rome. She survives and earnsher living by supplying marchetta—young Italianmale prostitutes—to wealthy tourists. She had met


Karen and Tom Stone before World War II andtheir association has continued since. After Tom’sdeath, the Contessa comforts Karen by introducingher to a variety of attractive young Italian men.Her most successful marchetta is Conte Paolo diLeo. The Contessa introduces Paolo to Mrs. Stoneand encourages their relationship.

Di Leo, Conte Paolo An impoverished Italianaristocrat, Paolo is one of the Contessa’s best andmost dashing marchettas (attractive young Italianmen who make themselves sexually available towealthy tourists). At the prompting of the Con-tessa, Paolo becomes Karen Stone’s lover. His rela-tionship with Karen is completely mercenary, andMrs. Stone proves to be a willing victim. True toform, he drops Mrs. Stone for Miss Thompson, anup-and-coming Hollywood starlet, who appears tobe a better financial prospect.

McIlhenny, Julia One of Karen Stone’s formerfriends. Julia, along with her Companion, encoun-ters Karen in Rome late one spring afternoon.Karen is so embarrassed that she cannot recallJulia’s or the Companion’s name that she panicsand lies to Julia, telling her that she has cancer.

Renato Renato is an Italian barber in Rome. Hesavors the exploits of his favorite regular cus-tomer, Comte Paolo Di Leo, a handsome Italiangigolo. Renato is Paolo’s confidant and admirer.There is a homoerotic undercurrent to theirattachment.

Stone, Karen Mrs. Stone is a retired actress inher 50s, who settles in Rome after the death of herhusband, Tom Stone. Wealthy and vulnerable, sheis singled out as a potential victim by the Contessa,who introduces her to a series of marchetta (attrac-tive young Italian men who make themselves avail-able to wealthy tourists). Because her husband hada heart condition, the Stones’ marriage was sexu-ally unfulfilling for Karen. Freed by Tom’s death,she explores her suppressed sexuality with youngermen in Rome. She enjoys the passion she discoverswith Conte Paolo Di Leo and falls in love with him.Paolo enters into a relationship with Karen for

entirely mercenary reasons. Karen takes care of himfinancially and socially. She takes him to the mostexpensive tailor in Rome and purchases elegantclothing for him. His true motives surface when hepleads with Karen to give him 10 million lire for afriend of his who has been swindled by a corruptpriest. Paolo eventually ends their relationship andabandons Karen in favor of Miss Thompson, an up-and-coming Hollywood starlet. Miss Thompson,who represents everything that Karen is not (ayoung, glamorous, wealthy film star), is a muchmore lucrative prospect for Paolo.

Karen Stone is a kindred spirit of SabbathaVeyne Duff-Collick, the aging poetess-protagonistof the short story “SABBATHA AND SOLITUDE.” Sab-batha and Karen share a love of Rome and the Ital-ian landscape, but more importantly they both tryto ease their fading beauty, celebrity, and socialstanding in the arms of dashing young Italian men.Although both women suffer from the infidelity andcruelty of their lovers, Sabbatha’s “kept man,” Gio-vanni, returns to her, repents, and remains; Karen iscompletely abandoned by Paolo. Reminiscent ofBlanche DuBois in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE,Karen Stone is haunted by the specter of old ageand death and wishes to live in the illusion of herformer youth, beauty, and glory. Karen and Blancheboth dislike being viewed in direct harsh lighting,The two characters also share the same cruel fate oftrusting the hoped-for kindness of strangers.

Stone, Tom A former millionaire wax papermanufacturer, he is the deceased husband of KarenStone. Before they married, Tom was a longtimeadmirer of Karen’s work as a theater actress. Suffer-ing from chronic heart disease, he died on theEuropean journey they took together after herretirement from the stage.

Thompson, Miss She is a glamorous up-and-coming Hollywood starlet. Miss Thompson is“between marriages” and visiting Rome alone. Sheencounters the Contessa, who takes her to KarenStone’s apartment and introduces her to ContePaolo Di Leo. Miss Thompson becomes Paolo’s nextvictim. Miss Thompson represents everything thatKaren Stone no longer has, is, or can be. She is


young and vivacious; Karen no longer is. She is apopular performer; Karen is a retired performer.Miss Thompson also represents the future, as she isa film starlet, performing in a dazzling new medium,whereas Karen acted only on the stage.

Young Man Nameless and mute, this poor andhomeless Young Man spends his days watching andfollowing Karen Stone. He stalks her through thestreets of Rome for reasons that are implied butnever completely explained. After her lover, ContePaolo Di Leo, leaves her for Miss Thompson, ayounger, wealthier woman, Karen invites the YoungMan into her apartment to become her new lover.

FURTHER READINGFisher, James. “An Almost Posthumous Existence: Per-

formance, Gender and Sexuality in The RomanSpring of Mrs. Stone,” Southern Quarterly 38, no. 1(fall 1999): 46–51.


Quirk, Lawrence J. The Great Romantic Films. Secau-cus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1974.


The Rose TattooA play in three acts written in 1950.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in the Italian com-munity of a small Gulf Coast town. The setting is thehome of Rosario and Serafina Delle Rose. As Sera-fina is a seamstress, the set includes mannequins,fabric, and various types of sewing equipment.

Act 1, Scene 1The play begins at prima sera, or the beginning ofdusk. With a rose in her hair, Serafina Delle Rosepatiently awaits the arrival of her beloved husband,Rosario, a truck driver. Assunta, a fattuchiere, orherbal medicine doctor, visits Serafina to sell herpotions. Serafina confirms Assunta’s premonitionthat she is pregnant with her second child. She knew

the night she became pregnant, as a rose tattoo iden-tical to that of her husband appeared on her breast.Assunta teases Serafina about being so proud of herhusband, a Sicilian baron turned fruit truck driver.Serafina defends her husband, explaining that hehauls more important things for the Romano Broth-ers. Serafina daydreams about her husband’s rose-oiled hair, whose scent permeates their bedroom atnight, and rejoices in her pregnancy.

Estelle Hohengarten visits the Delle Rose home.As she waits in the parlor, she rummages about theroom until she discovers a photograph of Rosario.Serafina informs her that the man in the photo isher husband. Estelle commissions Serafina to makea rose-colored silk shirt for her lover. Serafina isamused that the fabric is so effeminate, but Estelleclarifies that her man is “wild like a gypsy.” There isa commotion as the Strega’s (witch’s) black goat isloose in the neighborhood. Serafina’s daughter,Rosa, yells for her, and Serafina runs out anddirects the chase. Left alone in the house, Estellesteals the photo of Rosario. The goat is captured,and a boy leads it out of the yard.

Act 1, Scene 2It is just before dawn the next day; Serafina is worriedsick because Rosario has not returned home. FatherDe Leo and several women stand outside her house.She hears them murmuring and realizes that Rosariois dead. Serafina stands motionless and facing thecrowd through a window. She gasps for air, stumblingamid her sewing mannequins. She yells, “Don’tspeak!” as Assunta enters the house, catches her asshe falls to the floor, and wraps her in her gray shawl.

Act 1, Scene 3The doctor and Father De Leo argue about Sera-fina’s plans to have Rosario’s body cremated. Sera-fina has miscarried her baby. Estelle Hohengartenenters the house bearing flowers. The neighbor-hood women recognize her as Rosario’s mistressand force her to leave.

Act 1, Scene 4Three years have passed, and it is the day of highschool graduation. The neighborhood women con-vene in Serafina’s yard, angrily demanding the grad-uation dresses she was commissioned to make. Onewoman begins to gossip about Rosa’s sailor boy-

236 The Rose Tattoo

friend, Jack Hunter. Serafina has forbidden Rosa tosee him, and to ensure that, she has locked up all ofRosa’s clothes. Because Rosa cannot leave herhouse, she missed her high school exit examinations.

Serafina stumbles out onto the porch wearing adirty pink slip. She yells for help and rushes backinto the house. Miss Yorke, a high school teacher,notices the chaos. Serafina screams that Rosa hascut her wrists. Miss Yorke runs into the house to dis-cover a naked Rosa with a tiny, insignificant cut onher wrist. Miss Yorke persuades Serafina to unlockRosa’s closet. Serafina blames Miss Yorke for allow-ing sailors to attend school dances. Miss Yorke saysshe knows Jack and believes he is a respectableyoung man. Rosa dresses for graduation, and sheleaves with Miss Yorke for the commencement exer-cises. Serafina follows them, shouting at Miss Yorke.The neighborhood women irately surround Sera-fina. Assunta enters and begs her to give them thedresses. Serafina finally accedes.

Act 1, Scene 5Serafina hastily dresses for Rosa’s graduationbecause she can hear the band playing in the dis-tance. Flora and Bessie enter to collect an order.Flora spies the unfinished blouse on the sewingmachine and demands Serafina finish it immedi-ately. She threatens to report Serafina to the Cham-ber of Commerce if she does not comply. Serafinatells Flora and Bessie that if she is late for Rosa’sgraduation, they will regret it. Flora whispers thatSerafina used to be pretty, but she now has big hips.

Maliciously, Flora tells Serafina about Rosario’smistress. Serafina is stunned by this information.Flora divulges intimate details about Rosario andEstelle’s relationship, explaining that Estelle has thesame rose tattoo as Rosario. Bessie knows Serafinacan be dangerously violent so she pleads with Florato leave. Serafina grabs a broom and chases themout of her house. Serafina bolts the front door, fas-tens the shutters, and paces around the room like awild animal. She realizes she was commissioned tomake a rose silk shirt for her own husband as a giftfrom his lover. Serafina grieves and desperately begsfor a sign from the Virgin Mary.

Act 1, Scene 6Two hours later, Serafina’s house is dark except forthe candle glowing on her shrine to the Virgin

Mary. Rosa returns home from graduation, excitedto introduce Jack to her mother. When they enterthe dark house, they find Serafina in a catatonicstate. Emerging from her delirium, Serafina interro-gates Jack. She questions his motives regardingRosa and makes him kneel in front of the shrine ofthe Virgin Mary. She forces him to vow to preserveRosa’s innocence.

Act 2, Scene 1Two hours later, Serafina drinks to ease herheartache. Father De Leo pays a visit and scoldsSerafina for her wild behavior and appearance.The priest’s presence has created a stir in theneighborhood, and two women stand near thehouse to eavesdrop. When she sees them, Serafinaquickly stands, ready to fight them. Father De Leoreminds her that she has no friends because she isso hostile. She is stubbornly indifferent to hisopinions. Father De Leo asks her to becomerespectable for Rosa’s sake.

Serafina asks Father De Leo whether her hus-band ever confessed to having a mistress, and heremains silent. She grabs his arm and refuses to letgo until he answers. Serafina threatens to smashRosario’s urn if he does not tell her the truth. Theneighborhood women rescue Father De Leo, whoquickly exits.

Serafina collapses on the porch steps, crying androcking, begging for a sign from the Virgin Mary. Afat and sweaty Salesman enters, followed by AlvaroMangiacavallo, a handsome truck driver. The menfight outside Serafina’s house. The Salesman threat-ens to report Alvaro to his boss at the fruit com-pany. Serafina notices Alvaro’s jacket is ripped, andshe insists on mending it. All at once, she is struckby Alvaro’s resemblance to Rosario. The two con-verse about family and the old country while theydrink wine to ease their awkwardness. Serafina tellshim about the rose tattoo on her husband’s chestand mentions the lies that are circulating about herlate husband.

Alvaro calls his boss at the Southern FruitCompany. He learns that the Salesman did reporthim, and he has been fired. Serafina instructsAlvaro to put on the rose-colored silk shirt whileshe mends his own shirt. Serafina apologizes for

The Rose Tattoo 237

her appearance and tells Alvaro she has had a badday. Alvaro asks when he may return the shirt.

Act 3, Scene 1Later in the evening, Serafina waits for Alvaro. Sheis beautifully dressed and has a rose in her hair.Alvaro admires her. She immediately notices thathe is wearing rose oil in his curly black hair. Alvaroreveals his new rose tattoo on his chest.

Serafina asks Alvaro to take her to see Estelle.He refuses but agrees to call her. Estelle confirmsher affair with Rosario. Serafina throws the urn ofRosario’s ashes across the room. She invites Alvaroto spend the night with her.

Act 3, Scene 2Just before sunrise, Rosa returns home with Jack.They overhear Serafina moaning from inside thehouse. Jack is startled by the sounds, but Rosaexplains that it is just her mother’s dreaming aboutmaking love to her father. Jack expresses guilt forbreaking his promise to the Virgin Mary and Sera-fina. Rosa suggests that she and Jack marry.

Act 3, Scene 3Three hours later, Rosa is asleep on the couch.Alvaro stumbles from the bedroom and leaps ontoRosa. She screams, jumping to her feet and knock-ing him to the floor. Serafina rushes in, grabs abroom, and beats Alvaro. He explains that he wasdreaming and mistook Rosa for Serafina. Serafinatreats Alvaro as an intruder. Rosa mocks her flimsydenial, calling her a liar and hypocrite. Serafinabends under these accusations and urges herdaughter to go to Jack. Rosa excitedly gathers herbelongings and leaves for New Orleans.

Assunta enters, and Serafina says Rosario’s asheshave been swept away by the wind. Alvaro’s voice isheard outside as he has returned to her. Serafinafinds the rose-colored silk shirt and runs out to meethim. She feels another burning rose on her breast.

COMMENTARYThe Rose Tattoo is saturated with religious moresand superstitious overtones. Serafina prays andbegs for signs from the Holy Virgin, and shebelieves that on the night she conceived she felt arose tattoo form on her left breast. This stigma is

the same rose as Rosario’s tattoo. The burning sen-sation of the tattoo awakened her and made herrealize she was blessed. The Strega, or witch, isanother character who evokes religious and super-stitious symbols. Serafina responds to her by gestur-ing devil’s horns and forces her out of her yardbecause she is a bearer of bad omens. Assunta, Ser-afina’s friend, dabbles in love potions and aphro-disiacs and can prophesy the future. When Serafinalearns of her husband’s infidelity, she attacks herreligion, blaming the Madonna for ignoring her andforcing her to wait so long for a sign. Serafinarejects her connection with the Virgin Mary andcasts off her obligations as a mourning widow whenshe takes Alvaro into her bed. Serafina has beenmiserable without sexual fulfillment. When she isfinally able to release herself from her duties aswidow, she becomes closer to being whole.

Symbolism also abounds in The Rose Tattoo. Therose is used repeatedly to express love, desire, andperfection. Serafina wears a rose in her hair andRosario, her mate, has a rose tattoo on his breast.Serafina creates a rose-colored silk shirt for Rosario.Alvaro has a rose tattooed on his chest, hoping thatSerafina will perceive it as the sign for which she hasbeen waiting. The rose becomes a signifier of passionand female sexuality. Images of fire and heat perme-ate the play: The scorching summer heat forcesblood to boil, and the women of the town argue andfight with Serafina. The nights are long and exhaust-ing because of the heat. Desire and dreams overtakeSerafina as she remembers making love to Rosario.Sensual red candlelight flickers on the shrine of theMadonna, and in this instance, love and religioncombine as Serafina searches for a sign. She desper-ately prays for someone to love or for something toend her depression. The Strega’s goat appears in theplay as a symbol of lust. Its appearance flags thedesires and sexual energy of the protagonist. AliceGriffin sees a direct link between The Rose Tattooand FEDERICO GARCÍA LORCA’s play Yerma. Serafina’sall-consuming love for her husband and the barren-ness after his death resemble the isolation and exis-tential tone of Yerma. The Rose Tattoo also possessesechoes of the influences of D. H. Lawrence, whoappears as a character in I RISE IN FLAME, CRIED THE

PHOENIX. The power of passion and sex prevails in

238 The Rose Tattoo

Serafina’s life. Without sexual release, Serafinabehaves irrationally. She talks incessantly about thetimes she made love with Rosario.

This play is considered Williams’s most positivecreation, and in Memoirs, Williams calls it his“love-play to the world.” While writing The RoseTattoo, Williams was at the happiest point in hislife. He had begun his long-term relationship withhis partner, FRANK MERLO, who was Sicilian. In TheRose Tattoo Williams celebrates Sicilian culture,and with remarkable ease the play flows in and outof English and Italian. Set in the South, somewherebetween New Orleans and Montgomery, Alabama,the play focuses on a small hamlet inhabited bySicilian immigrants. This community has a strongneed to maintain their Sicilian identity within thesetting of the American South. The Rose Tattoo is atribute to Frank Merlo’s culture, and Williams ded-icated it to his lover.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Rose Tattoo opened at the Erlanger Theatre inChicago in 1950, and at the Martin Beck Theatre inNew York City the following year. Williams was wellknown as a playwright of dark and serious drama,famous for THE GLASS MENAGERIE (1944–45), ASTREETCAR NAMED DESIRE (1947), and SUMMER

AND SMOKE (1948). Audiences were not preparedfor the positive, lighter side of Williams. Hence, theproductions received mixed reviews. Serafina DelleRose seems to have been a far too complex charac-ter for audiences to appreciate in the moral and cul-tural context of American society of the 1950s.Some considered her emotion exaggerated andcompared her neurotic behavior with that of previ-ous Williams women such as Maggie the Cat Pollittand Amanda Wingfield. Some critics, for example,Brooks Atkinson, were delighted to see Williamsshift in tone and break out of his “formula” (Atkin-son, 19). Williams received the Antoinette Perry(Tony) Award for best play for The Rose Tattoo.

It was public knowledge Williams intended thatthe famous Italian actress ANNA MAGNANI play therole of Serafina Delle Rose; however, MAUREEN

STAPLETON played the role in the Broadway pro-duction. Knowing she was not the first choice, crit-ics often judged Stapleton’s performance by the one

Magnani might have given had she played the part.Regardless of the critical comparisons, Stapletonwon a Tony for her performance as Serafina. AnnaMagnani fulfilled Williams’s wish by playing Sera-fina in the film version (1955). Her performancewas also an award-winning one, garnering an Acad-emy Award (Oscar). The film as a whole, however,received mixed reviews. The sexuality in the playwas scaled down and heavily censored. Significantchanges were made in the plot and dialogue tomake the story line adhere more closely to conven-tional morality. When the film version ends, Sera-fina is not pregnant with Alvaro’s child. The filmdoes not suggest that Serafina and Alvaro everconsummate their relationship. Such extensiverevision drastically changed the dramatic tone ofthe play and substantially diminished Serafina’sextreme change of heart, her reversal of fortuneand rejuvenation.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Rose Tattoo was first published by New Direc-tions in 1951.

The Rose Tattoo 239

Anna Magnani, who starred as Serafina Delle Rose inthe film version of The Rose Tattoo, 1955 (Don Pinder)

CHARACTERSAssunta Assunta is the friend of Serafina DelleRose. She is a fattuchiere (an herbal medicine doc-tor), who peddles her remedies and potions aroundthe neighborhood. She is the solitary voice of reasonin the play. Assunta has maternal affection for Sera-fina and maintains respect for her, despite her con-temptuous behavior. Assunta is also a highlysuperstitious woman and retains a strong sense ofcosmic culture. Her spirituality is based on nature,signs, and miracles. She accurately predicts that Ser-afina will wear a black veil. However, Assunta is acalming force in Serafina’s life, and she enters theplay in moments of despair to comfort and pull Sera-fina back from the brink of insanity.

Bessie Bessie is a young woman who goes to thehome of Serafina Delle Rose with her friend, Flora.Serafina has been commissioned to make a blousefor Flora. Bessie and Flora are on their way to aparty in New Orleans when they stop by to collectthe blouse. Bessie enrages Serafina by being disre-spectful in the presence of Serafina’s late hus-band’s ashes. As a result, Serafina chases Bessieand Flora out of her house with a broom, but theyoung women have their revenge when they pub-licly humiliate her by announcing that her latehusband, Rosario Delle Rose, had a mistress,Estelle Hohengarten.

De Leo, Father Father De Leo is an agingRoman Catholic priest serving an Italian commu-nity in a small Gulf Coast town. He is growingweary of one of his particularly needy parishioners,Serafina Delle Rose. He is meek and tries to be thevoice of reason and comfort for Serafina, but he isintimidated by her energy, womanliness, and pas-sion. Father De Leo visits Serafina and her daugh-ter, Rosa, from time to time, solely out of duty. Hefinds Serafina foul, sinful, and indulgent in herexcessive grief. He considers her to be a badCatholic because she never attends confession. Hereaches out to her when she calls for him, but he isoverwhelmed by her misery and stubbornness.

Delle Rose, Rosa Rosa is the teenage daughterof Rosario and Serafina Delle Rose. She is deter-

mined to escape her mother’s madness and theoppressive memory of her deceased father. Rosa isvery intelligent and is a good student, although shehas had to fight her mother to attend high school.Rosa has been her mother’s caretaker since herfather’s death, but the task has become over-whelming and too difficult for her to continue. Sheis enraged by her mother’s selfish decision toremain in mourning for three years. Serafina isunpredictable and willful and her decisions are rashand inflexible. Rosa has suffered the consequencesof her mother’s extreme behavior and her anxietiesabout living without Rosario. She is often remindedshe is like her father when she behaves passion-ately. Ironically, Serafina never sees herself asresponsible for this particular character trait. Rosasearches for a way out of her mother’s house andfinds it at age 15 when she meets a sailor, JackHunter, at a high school dance. Contrary to hermother’s commands, Rosa falls in love with Jackand secretly dates him. In the end, she runs away toNew Orleans to be with him.

Delle Rose, Rosario He is a Sicilian immigrantwho lives somewhere on the Gulf Coast betweenNew Orleans, Louisiana, and Mobile, Alabama,with his wife, Serafina Delle Rose, and daughter,Rosa Delle Rose. To earn his living, he hauls illegalgoods for the Mafia disguised as truckloads ofbananas. Driving goods for the Mafia proves adeadly game and Rosario is killed. When she hearsthe news of Rosario’s death, Serafina miscarries achild, Rosario’s son. The Rose Tattoo is the story ofSerafina and Rosa’s lives after Rosario has died.The memory of Rosario looms darkly over the playand its characters.

Delle Rose, Serafina Serafina is an Italianimmigrant in her 30s, living in the Italian section ofa small Gulf Coast town. Upon hearing that herhusband, Rosario Delle Rose, has died in an acci-dent, Serafina miscarries her unborn son. Thedeath of her beloved husband and the loss of herbaby propel Serafina to become a bitter, angry, andgrief-stricken harpy. Once a pristine, elegant Italianwoman, she has allowed her appearance to becomeslovenly and unkempt. Serafina lived to love

240 The Rose Tattoo

Rosario, and now that he is dead, she perpetuallymourns and honors his memory. She constantlyprays for signs from the Holy Mother, seeking relieffrom the pain in which she resides.

Serafina is a complex character who functionsthrough extreme moods of passion and panic. She isspiteful and lyrical, violent and meek, physicallystrong and emotionally crippled. Serafina is anothermember of Williams’s fugitive kind. She is ostra-cized by her society because she is emotionallyexplosive and dedicated to a marriage that was afraud and a husband who is deceased. As a working-class Italian immigrant, she faces racial and socialdiscrimination. However, she is also misunderstoodby her peers and cannot find solace even among herown people. Searching for a way to proceed in life,Serafina confines herself to her home, where thememories of her once-perfect life and love permeatein the candlelight of her shrine to the Virgin Mary.

Serafina is a prime example of Williams’s dynamicand enthralling female characters: women who existin a world of strict moral codes but who cannotadhere to such artificial concepts. They are passion-ate, relying upon sex and their sexuality to help themmaneuver through life and to enable them to feelalive in an otherwise dreary, mundane world. As doStella Kowalski, Cassandra Whiteside, Rosa Gonza-les, Maggie Pollitt, and Myra Torrance, Serafina findsfulfillment through romance, passion, and sex. Thephysical need to engage with the opposite sex over-rides any puritanical code that could ever exist, how-ever strong or strictly enforced. Serafina challengesthis chaste code wholeheartedly. She retains the wildand burning desire to love and be loved completely.

Flora Flora is a young townswoman who com-missions Serafina Delle Rose to make a blouse forher. She becomes irritated when she and her friendBessie go to collect the blouse and it is not ready.Flora and Bessie are in a hurry to catch a train toNew Orleans. The two are rude and disrespectfulto Serafina. Although they harass her, they areshocked by her violent reaction to them. As the sit-uation escalates, Serafina chases them out of herhouse with a broom. They retaliate by informingSerafina that her deceased husband, Rosario DelleRose, had a mistress, Estelle Hohengarten.

Hohengarten, Estelle She is Rosario Delle Rose’smistress. She works at the Square Roof bar, whereshe met Rosario one year before the action of theplay. To prove her devotion to Rosario, Estelle has ared rose tattooed in the center of her chest, an exactreplica of Rosario’s tattoo. She also commissionsRosario’s wife, Serafina Delle Rose, to make a rose-colored silk shirt for him. While placing her orderwith Serafina in the Delle Roses’ home, Estelle stealsa framed portrait of Rosario. Serafina has no way ofknowing that Estelle is her husband’s lover, so sheconstructs the shirt. Three years later, Serafina con-fronts Estelle when she hears rumors of their affair.Estelle proudly tells Serafina that she did love this“wild” man and that the shirt was indeed for him.Serafina is emotionally crushed by this information.Serafina struggles to reconcile her extremely roman-ticized memories of her husband with the harsh real-ity that Rosario was less than perfect.

Hunter, Jack Jack is a young sailor who is onleave and visiting his family in a Gulf Coast town.Jack attends a high school dance with his sister andmeets Rosa Delle Rose. He is immediately smittenwith her, but realizing she is only 15 years old, he ishesitant to act on his feelings. Rosa, however, pas-sionately pursues him. When Rosa’s mother, Sera-fina Delle Rose, finds out that Rosa is dating asailor, she forbids the relationship. Serafina blamesthe high school for corrupting her daughter. Shebelieves that the school has alienated Rosa fromher reserved Sicilian upbringing and turned herinto a loose American girl. Serafina confronts Jackand interrogates him. She forces him to swearbefore her shrine of the Virgin Mary that he willnot have intercourse with Rosa. Rosa desperatelywants to be physically intimate with Jack, but hehas sworn before God and Serafina that he willresist. Before Jack goes back to the navy, Rosaannounces she wants to be his wife and the twoyoung lovers meet in a hotel in New Orleans toconsummate their engagement before he sets sail.Jack is an innocent and genuine young man remi-niscent of Jim O’Connor in THE GLASS MENAGERIE.

Mangiacavallo, Alvaro He is a truck driverand the lover of Serafina Delle Rose. Alvaro is a

The Rose Tattoo 241

clownish-looking man, a Sicilian immigrant livingsomewhere between New Orleans and Mobile,Alabama. Alvaro works to support his mother,father, and unmarried sister. He is dedicated to theirwell-being, but frustrated by their gambling anddrinking habits. He is stout in appearance with blackcurls all over his head. Serafina is attracted to Alvaroas he resembles her deceased husband, Rosario DelleRose. Alvaro meets Serafina when a traveling Sales-man on the highway harasses him. The Salesmanhappens to stop at Serafina’s home and Alvaro arguesand fights with him in her yard. Alvaro has had hisfill of derogatory names such as “spaghetti” and“Wop” and confronts the salesman about his namecalling. Alvaro is extremely emotional and cries afterhe has fought the Salesman. He is passionate aboutlove and desperately searches for an older, wiser, andfertile woman with whom he can share his life. Hefinds such a mate in Serafina. Alvaro pursues her, buthe is troubled by her devotion to a husband who hasbeen dead for three years. To prove his love for her,he has a red rose tattooed on his chest, an exactreplica of Rosario’s. Serafina does not trust men, andshe accuses Alvaro of wanting only to have sex withher. As the plot unfolds, Serafina accepts this newlover and he finds happiness in her arms.

Salesman He is a traveling salesman, whoapproaches Serafina Delle Rose. The Salesman issweaty and overweight, and he has been shoutingethnic slurs at Alvaro Mangiacavallo. They have afistfight in Serafina’s yard. The Salesman memo-rizes Alvaro’s license plate number and files a com-plaint with Alvaro’s boss. Alvaro loses his job as aresult of this incident.

Yorke, Miss She is a teacher at the local highschool and Rosa Delle Rose’s mentor. Miss Yorkevisits the Delle Rose home when Rosa stops attend-ing school. She begs Serafina Delle Rose to allowher daughter, Rosa, to attend graduation. Unlikethe other characters in the play, Miss Yorke is notafraid of Serafina’s rage.

FURTHER READINGAtkinson, Brooks. “At the Theatre,” New York Times,

February 5, 1951, p. 19.

Griffin, Alice. Understanding Tennessee Williams. Colum-bia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995.

Kolin, Philip C., ed. American Playwrights since 1945:A Guide to Scholarship, Criticism, and Performance.New York: Greenwood, 1989.

———, ed. Tennessee Williams: A Guide to Researchand Performance. Westport, Conn.: GreenwoodPress, 1998.

“Rubio y Morena”Short story written before 1948.

SYNOPSISA lonely but famous writer named Kamrowski isreturning from a trip to Mexico when he is detainedat the border. He is forced to stay in Laredo until heis permitted into the United States. He checks into asecond-rate hotel. Just as he falls asleep, a youngwoman, Amada, enters his bed. She climbs on top ofhim, but he initially objects as he is not attracted towomen. Amada ignores his apprehension andseduces Kamrowski. He is so happy that he hasfound the one woman who excites him that he takesher as his companion. The next day they leaveLaredo together.

Several months pass, and the couple travelthrough the southern states. Amada rarely speaks,but she is satisfied to be with the writer. Kamrowskifalls in love with Amada because he feels comfort-able around her. When they make love, Amadacalls him Rubio, or “blond one,” and he calls herMorena, or “dark.” When Kamrowski eventuallygrows restless in this monogamous relationship andhas sex with other women, he falls in love with afellow writer named Ida. Amada is frustrated by hisindifference; many times she packs her bags butnever has the heart to leave.

Kamrowski discovers Amada has been stealingmoney from him. When the writer finally confrontsAmada, she sobs with guilt. He forgives her. Amadaresists the temptation to take his money for a fewweeks then resorts to stealing again. Kamrowskiaccepts her dishonesty because he feels guilty abouthis sexual infidelities. Amada contracts a kidney

242 “Rubio y Morena”

disease that keeps her in constant agony. At thesame time, Kamrowski begins to treat her as his ser-vant. When Amada leaves him, Kamrowski pinesfor her. He realizes that he does not love anyoneelse in the world. He travels back to Laredo andfinds her in her family’s shack in the desert. Amadais weak and dying. Kamrowski tries to force her totake more money, but she refuses. The next morn-ing when he arrives at the house he finds thatAmada died in the night. As he holds her hand andcries, the women in the house demand Amada’smoney. He does not understand them. One womanhands him old telegrams from Amada, promisingthe money that she stole from him. He is chasedaway by the women.

COMMENTARY“Rubio y Morena” is autobiographical, as it detailsthe frustrations of a young male writer trying tocome to terms with his lack of interest in women(as the story begins). The fictional writer gains lit-erary notoriety, falls for another writer, and recon-ciles the severe unhappiness in his life. These areall aspects of Williams’s life. Other examples ofWilliams’s semiautobiographical fiction include“RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN A VIOLIN CASE AND A

COFFIN,” “THE ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” “PORTRAIT

OF A GIRL IN GLASS,” and THE GLASS MENAGERIE.The biography by Donald Spoto also suggests that“Rubio y Morena” is a “heterosexualized and muchsentimentalized account of Williams’s travels andrelationship with” his first long-term love, PanchoRodriguez Gonzalez.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Rubio y Morena” was published in Partisan Review(1948), New Directions in Prose and Poetry 11 (1949),Hard Candy (1954), and Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSAmada She is a young Mexican woman whomeets Kamrowski, a successful American writer, ina hotel in Laredo, Texas. She slips into his dark-ened hotel room one evening and seduces him.The two become companions and travel togetherfor several months. Amada, whose name means

“loved one” in Spanish. Amada’s love for Kam-rowski bolsters his self-confidence and enables himto overcome his shyness with women. His revivedself-esteem prompts him to be unfaithful, therebyruining their relationship. Amada contracts kidneydisease, leaves Kamrowski, and returns to her fam-ily in Laredo. Kamrowski pursues her and findsAmada on her deathbed.

Ida Ida is a young writer and an intellectualsocialite. Her affair with Kamrowski, a fellowwriter, brings about the demise of his relationshipwith Amada.

Kamrowski Kamrowski is a successful youngwriter who struggles to form lasting relationshipswith women. He is uncomfortable and somewhatfrightened around women and has difficulty beingphysically intimate with them, as he is intimidatedby female passion. He finds more fulfillment in hiswriting. On a trip through Mexico, he is detained inLaredo, Texas, and spends the night at the TexasStar Hotel. Amada, a sultry Mexican woman, sneaksinto his hotel room one evening and seduces him.The two fall in love and travel the American Southtogether. Amada affectionately calls KamrowskiRubio, which means “blond,” and he calls AmadaMorena (“dark”). Kamrowski’s romantic successwith Amada bolsters his sexual confidence andprompts him to have multiple affairs with otherwomen. He grows especially fond of Ida, a beautifulblonde writer and urban socialite. Amada contractskidney disease and leaves him. Only then does hediscover that he truly loves her. Kamrowski searchesfor her and finds her back in Laredo on her deathbed.

“Sabbatha and Solitude”A short story written in 1973.

SYNOPSISThis story chronicles the midlife crisis of SabbathaVeyne Duff-Collick, a reclusive middle-aged poetwho in her prime was considered a renegade andhailed as “the most profligate artist since Isadora

“Sabbatha and Solitude” 243

Duncan.” A passionate and sensual writer, Sab-batha garnered more press and attention from herextensive international travels than from herpoetry. This interest was due to her often out-landish behavior and her entourage of youngattractive men, with whom she engaged in verypublic and passionate affairs.

Seeking refuge from the spotlight, Sabbatharetreats to a small village in Maine. In this localeshe has become a legend, and whenever she entersher favorite French restaurant, L’Escargot Fou, “afew moments of hush would descend” on the place.In her heyday the restaurant proudly placed abronze nameplate on her favorite chair, at herfavorite corner table.

Sabbatha encounters a group of young poets onwhat proves to be her final visit to L’Escargot Fou.When she arrives with her entourage, she isshocked to find her table occupied by a “scrubbyand bearded” young man and two other poets. Shecomplains to the Maitre, who warns her that theyoung men will make a scene if they are asked togive up the table. Sabbatha is outraged by the“obscene barbarians” who have usurped her place.She then demands that she be given the chair withthe bronze plate bearing her name, only to be toldthat it “collapsed and couldn’t be repaired.” Thechair and its “old piece of metal on the back” hasbeen sent to the junkyard. Sabbatha launches intoa dramatic tirade to which the young poets respondwith “howls of derision.”

Sabbatha is immediately ushered out of therestaurant by her companions, but the scene hasbeen too much for her and she faints once she isoutside. When she revives, only one of her youngmale companions remains by her side. The twobegin to cry together as the young man says to her,“Oh Sabbatha, didn’t God tell you that things turnout this way?”

Sabbatha finds similar distress in her personallife. For comfort, amusement, and physical pleas-ure, Sabbatha establishes a relationship with Gio-vanni, a dark young Italian. Maintaining Giovannias a “kept boy” makes Sabbatha appear and feelyouthful and vibrant for a time. However, the rela-tionship deteriorates, as it has clearly been basedon illusion and pretense: Sabbatha is not youthful,

and Giovanni is not heterosexual. They fight fre-quently, as Sabbatha battles her ongoing depres-sion. Giovanni has become weary of the routineand of living in isolation with Sabbatha in their“birdhouse” in rural Maine.

Giovanni eagerly escapes and disappears to findmale companionship in the nearby town of Bangor.Sabbatha does not hear from him until she receivesa phone call informing her that he has been bru-tally raped and hospitalized. Giovanni returns toher, weak and broken, and finds her in the samestate. The story concludes with the two troubledsouls comforting each other.

COMMENTARYSabbatha and her fate have often been viewed as anautobiographical sketch of Williams’s own later life.Sabbatha’s story is filled with the anguish of anaging writer facing lack of appreciation for her laterworks and the loss of her poetic skills, her lovers,and ultimately her life. Sabbatha’s latest collectionof sonnets is trashed by her editor; her youthfullover yearns to be unfaithful; her table is usurped bya younger, ascendant poet; she suffers from arthritis;and her future obituary, shown to her by a journalistfriend, is scant and inaccurate. Many of the painfulcircumstances that she faces were surely faced, or atleast feared, by Williams. The complexity of thecharacters and themes invites a contemplation ofSabbatha and her fate—and ultimately Williams’s.In both cases, one hopes that despite the desolatecircumstances, the author has a sense of accept-ance, survival, and endurance at the conclusion.

This beautifully crafted story has many compan-ion pieces throughout the Williams canon. Sab-batha is a kindred spirit of many aging artists, tryingin vain to retain their youthful vigor and youthfullovers, such as Karen Stone in the novel THE

ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE and Vieux in theshort play THE TRAVELLING COMPANION. Eachwork ends with a compromise: Sabbatha, Karen,and Vieux strike a bargain with the young men theylove and settle for relationships that are establishedon mercenary terms.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Sabbatha and Solitude” was first published in Play-girl magazine in 1973. It was subsequently published

244 “Sabbatha and Solitude”

in the short story collection EIGHT MORTAL LADIES

POSSESSED (1974) and in Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSDuff-Collick, Sabbatha Veyne Sabbatha is areclusive middle-aged poet. In her prime she wasconsidered a rebel and was known for her romanticliaisons as for her poetry. Settling into middle agehas not been easy for Sabbatha. Her popularity as apoet has waned, as have her looks. She tries desper-ately to hold on to her young Italian lover, Gio-vanni, who only remains with Sabbatha becauseshe provides a luxurious lifestyle.

Giovanni He is Sabbatha Veyne Duff-Collick’sItalian lover. Giovanni is younger than Sabbatha,and although he enjoys being kept by her, he is boredliving with her in a rural area of Maine. This is notonly because Sabbatha is regularly depressed andtemperamental, but also because Giovanni actuallyprefers intimate relations with men. He often does soand has clandestine affairs. On one occasion he slipsaway to a bar in Bangor, Maine. There, events take asour turn and he is hospitalized after being brutallyraped. He returns to Sabbatha, and they comfortand console each other.

Maitre He is the head waiter at a posh restaurantcalled L’Escargot Fou. When the temperamentalwriter Sabbatha Veyne Duff-Collick finds her tableusurped by younger poets, she demands that theMaitre eject them. He explains to her that the poetsare very important people and refuses to movethem. Sabbatha informs the young man that therestaurant dedicated a chair with a bronze name-plate to her. The Maitre coldly remarks that an oldchair with a bit of metal has recently been thrownout. His words are blunt and harsh reminders toSabbatha that her time in the spotlight has passed.

“Sand”Short story written in 1936.

SYNOPSISEmiel and Rose are an elderly couple. Emiel hassuffered a stroke and is no longer able to care for

himself. He depends on Rose for his well-being,and she in return is terrified that he will die. Roselies in bed at night and reminisces about theiryouthful love.

While working in the kitchen, Rose hears a loudcrash in the nearby room. Fearing the worst, shepanics and runs in to find that Emiel has merelydropped their old photo album on the floor.

COMMENTARYAccording to biographer Lyle Leverich, “Sand” isbased on the grandparents of Williams’s girlfriendHazel Kramer. Concerned with nostalgia and for-mer dreams, Williams wrote, “a poignant characterstudy of the plight of an elderly couple who canlook in only one direction: back to their early yearstogether” (Leverich, 166).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Sand” was published in Collected Stories by NewDirections in 1985.

CHARACTERSEmiel An elderly man who, after suffering astroke, must rely on the care of his wife, Rose.Emiel reminisces about their youthful love byperusing their earliest photo album.

Rose An elderly woman who cares for herbeloved husband, Emiel, after he suffers a stroke.Rose dreams about the days when their love wasyoung and carefree.


New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1995.

Senso, or The Wanton Countess

A screenplay written in 1953. Williams drafted thescreenplay for this film directed by Luchino Vis-conti. Set in 1855, during the Austrian occupationof Italy, the film tells the story of an Italian countess

Senso, or The Wanton Countess 245

(Livia Serpieri), who falls in love with an Austrianlieutenant (Franz Mahler). Livia betrays her coun-try by stealing funds collected to aid the resistanceand giving them to Franz so that he can bribe hisway out of military service. She later discovers thatthe man she has helped is actually a drunken,ungrateful rogue who has used her for her money.Her revenge is swift, decisive, and severe. Williamsdid not publish the screenplay manuscript, andafter viewing Visconti’s film, he stated that onlyone scene had truly retained what he had written.

The Seven Descents of MyrtleThe title given to the full-length play THE KINGDOM

OF EARTH, OR THE SEVEN DESCENTS OF MYRTLE

before its Broadway premiere in 1968.

Slapstick TragedyName under which the two short plays THE GNÄDI-GES FRÄULEIN and THE MUTILATED appearedtogether on stage in New York in 1966.

Small Craft WarningsA play in two acts written around 1971.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in a seaside bar in Southern Califor-nia. The idea of the characters’ entering a confes-sional is suggested by a designated area of the stageisolated by light. Each of the characters takes aturn entering the confessional to speak directly tothe audience. The time is late evening.

Act 1Leona, Violet, and Bill McCorkle are having aheated argument because Leona caught Violetfondling Bill’s genitals. Monk and Steve try to calmLeona. Quentin and Bobby enter the bar, and Monk

refuses to serve them as they appear to be a gay cou-ple. Bill observes the two newcomers, goes to theconfessional area of the stage, and expresses hishatred of gay men. Steve takes his place in the con-fessional area. He offers details of his relationshipwith Violet, referring to her as the scraps that life hasthrown him. Leona reminisces about her youngerbrother, Haley, who died of anemia. Doc enters theconfessional before leaving the bar to deliver a babyat a trailer park. Violet goes to the confessional areaand expresses her thoughts about her life. Quentinexplains that he is no longer interested in Bobbybecause he prefers relationships with heterosexualmen. Quentin enters the confessional and describeshis thoughts about being a gay man. When he leavesthe bar, Bobby begins his confession. He is travelingby bicycle from Iowa to Mexico in search of freedomand tolerance. When he finishes his confession, heleaves the bar without saying good-bye. Leonachases him; she finds a kinship with him as hereminds her of Haley. Monk enters the confessionalarea to detail his life as a bar owner. When Leonareturns, she finds Violet again engaged in lewd activ-ities with Bill and Steve. As the scene concludes, adim light is shone on Violet’s weepy and dazed face.

Act 2One hour later in the bar, Leona chastises Bill andthreatens to leave town. When Doc returns to thebar, Leona makes him confess that he no longer hasa license to practice medicine. Violet, Steve, andBill leave together. Leona chases them, and Violetreturns with a bloody nose. During his nightcap,Doc reveals that the baby he delivered was still-born, and the mother hemorrhaged to death. Docsays he has to leave town. Sirens are heard in thedistance, and Leona rushes in to hide. Tony, thepoliceman, enters and has a drink. Leona, Monk,and Violet share a nightcap while Violet fondlesMonk below the table. Leona addresses the audi-ence and leaves $20 for Monk. He sends Violetupstairs to shower and picks up one of her tatteredslippers. Contemplating it, he says the slipper willbe worn until there is nothing left.

COMMENTARYSmall Craft Warnings is an expanded version of theone-act play CONFESSIONAL. Williams was prompted

246 The Seven Descents of Myrtle

to develop Confessional into a longer play by a highlyregarded production of it at the Maine Theatre ArtsFestival in 1971. As is its predecessor, Small CraftWarnings is a series of self-reflections rendered by thepatrons of Monk’s bar, who are navigating lifethrough the fog of loneliness, alcohol, and despair.Williams feared that Small Craft Warnings would bemisunderstood as “a sordid piece of writing” or “aplay about groping.” The play does deal explicitlywith sex and sexuality, but through this stark exami-nation of the human condition, Williams probesissues of loneliness, longing, and the need for humanconnection. Small Craft Warnings holds a uniqueplace in the Williams canon, as Williams believed hehad much at stake in this play: He feared that itwould be his last work to be staged in New York andwas striving to write another play as successful asTHE GLASS MENAGERIE or A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE. Although the production received onlylukewarm responses from critics, it had a lengthyperformance run (200 performances in total) andwas considered a commercial success.

PRODUCTION HISTORYSmall Craft Warnings premiered in New York at theTruck and Warehouse Theatre, April 2, 1972. Thisproduction then transferred to the New Theatre onJune 1972, when Williams made his acting debut inthe role of Doc. He played the part for the first fiveperformances. It was his first and only professionalappearance in a production.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSmall Craft Warnings was published by New Direc-tions in 1972.

CHARACTERSBobby Bobby is a young gay man from Iowa whois traveling the California coast on his bicycle. He ispicked up by Quentin and accompanies him to abeachside bar owned by Monk. Quentin makes apass at Bobby but becomes uninterested in himwhen he discovers he is gay because he prefers sex-ual encounters with heterosexual men. LeonaDawson offers Bobby a place to stay when Quentinleaves him at the bar. Bobby decides to keep travel-ing alone.

Dawson, Leona Leona is a regular patron of thecheap seaside bar owned by Monk. She is a beauti-cian who lives in a trailer, which she shares with hersometime boyfriend, Bill McCorkle. Leona visitsMonk’s bar to commemorate the anniversary of heryounger brother’s death. She becomes drunk andfights with her friend, Violet, whom she catches per-forming lewd acts with Bill in the bar. Leona is a car-ing person who tries to help others as much as shecan. She befriends Bobby and Quentin, two gay menwho are not regulars at Monk’s bar. She tries to stopDoc from delivering a baby at her trailer park, as heis intoxicated and has lost his medical license. Shetries to phone the trailer park and warn them ofDoc’s condition. Unlike the other characters in theplay, Leona refuses merely to survive on whateverscraps life has to offer. She leaves the bar and her cir-cle of friends for good, in search of a better life.

Doc Doc is a regular patron of the dingy seasidebar owned by Monk. Although he lost his medicallicense for operating on a patient while under theinfluence of alcohol, he continues to practice medi-cine illegally. During his “confession” Doc philoso-phizes about the close proximity of life and death.Leona Dawson tries unsuccessfully to prevent himfrom delivering a baby at her trailer park. Monkphones the trailer park and urges them to allow Docto perform the delivery. Doc delivers the baby, butthere are numerous complications. The baby is still-born and the mother hemorrhages to death. Docplaces the baby into a shoebox, drops the shoeboxinto the ocean, and pays the woman’s husband $50 toforget his face and name. Monk advises Doc to leavetown as quickly as he can. Doc is the one role thatWilliams actually performed on stage, in the first fiveperformances of the 1972 production of Small CraftWarnings at the New Theatre in New York.

McCorkle, Bill Bill is a male prostitute who fre-quents the cheap seaside bar owned by Monk. Atthe bar he fights with Leona Dawson and plays sex-ual games with Violet.

Monk Monk is the owner and bartender of adingy beachside bar in Southern California. Hecares for his regular customers and thinks of them

Small Craft Warnings 247

as his family. As his name suggests, he listens to theconfessions of his patrons in a priestlike fashion.

Quentin Quentin is a lonely young scriptwriterwho gives Bobby a ride. He makes a pass at Bobbybut then rejects him when he discovers that Bobbyis gay.

Steve Steve is a middle-aged short-order cookwho frequents the dingy beachside bar owned byMonk. As are Bill McCorkle and Monk, he is hav-ing an affair with Violet.

Tony Tony is the police officer who is called toMonk’s bar to break up a fight. Monk offers Tony adrink, which he accepts although he is on duty.

Violet Violet is a mentally unstable nymphoma-niac who frequents the cheap seaside bar owned byMonk. Leona Dawson befriends Violet; the otherbar regulars, Monk, Steve, and Bill McCorkle, takeadvantage of her sexually.

“Something About Him”Short story written before 1946.

SYNOPSISHaskell is an overzealous grocery store clerk. Thepeople of his Mississippi community regard himwith suspicion, as they believe he is too eager toplease. Every Saturday Haskell goes to the publiclibrary, where he routinely finds an out-of-the-waychair, cleans his glasses well, and reads modernpoetry all day. Miss Rose, the assistant librarian, isfascinated by him.

On one particular Saturday, Haskell suffers froma terrible cold. When Miss Rose inquires about hishealth, he blames his sickness on the drafty roomhe rents. Miss Rose excitedly tells him of an avail-able room in her apartment building. She gives himthe phone number of the landlady, and he callsright away.

Haskell moves into the same building as MissRose. They often see each other in the hallway.They meet to discuss poetry, and Haskell walks her

to work every day. They enjoy their newfound com-panionship. As Haskell’s happiness increases, thegrocery store customers become more wary of him.They tell his manager that there “is somethingabout him” they do not like. Although he is a hardworker, Haskell is fired because of the customers’complaints. He goes to the library to return a bookand to say good-bye to Miss Rose before leavingtown. She is devastated by her loss and she returnsto her previous mundane life.

COMMENTARYWilliams explores themes of alienation, lonelinessand acceptance in “Something About Him.” Al-though Miss Rose is an accepted member of thisMississippi community, she leads a miserable lifebecause of her emotional seclusion. Haskell is heropposite as he is outgoing, but this trait leads tosocial discrimination. Miss Rose finally has aglimpse of happiness and the prospect of mar-riage, but because Haskell is different, he isforced out of the town, punished for his kindnessand generosity.

The Rose character in this short story, as are theother “Rose characters” in the Williams canon(“COMPLETED,” THE GLASS MENAGERIE, “RESEM-BLANCE BETWEEN A VIOLIN CASE AND A COFFIN,”and THE LONG STAY CUT SHORT), is a tribute to hissister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Something About Him” was originally publishedin 1946 in Mademoiselle magazine. It was notreprinted until 1985, when it was included in Col-lected Stories.

CHARACTERSHaskell Haskell is a young clerk in a grocerystore. In his attempts to assist the store’s cus-tomers, Haskell comes under suspicion for beingtoo nice. Although he sincerely tries to be helpful,he is regularly perceived to be an impostor. He ispunished for his goodwill when he is fired from hisjob at the store. His manager explains that he isbeing dismissed because he is generally perceivedas untrustworthy.

248 “Something About Him”

Rose, Miss Miss Rose is a librarian at a publiclibrary. She leads a mundane life until a love inter-est, Haskell, inspires her to dress prettily and enjoylife. Miss Rose’s happiness is cut short whenHaskell is fired from his job and leaves townbecause people find him suspicious, as he is “toonice.” Haskell, who is always helpful and happy, ispunished for his disposition. Miss Rose has oneglimpse of contentment, which quickly disappearswith the departure of Haskell.

“Something by Tolstoi”A short story written in the years 1930–31.

SYNOPSISA young man searching for a job stumbles upon abookstore with a “clerk wanted” sign in the win-dow. He goes in to inquire about the position and ishired. The young man assists the owner, Mr.Brodzky, an aging Russian Jew, with the daily workof running the bookshop and also witnesses the lifeof the Brodzky family.

Mr. Brodzky has a son, called Jacob. Jacobattends college to avoid the obligation of runningthe family business. Jacob is also in love with hischildhood friend, Lila, but Mr. Brodzky does notwant his son to marry a “Gentile,” so he is relievedto send Jacob away.

Lila is Jacob’s opposite. Whereas he is quiet andcontemplative, Lila is boisterous and outgoing.Jacob is very attracted to her because she has anunrestrained spirit. Theirs is an endearing relation-ship. Only two months after Jacob leaves, Mr.Brodzky becomes ill and dies. Jacob returns hometo the bookstore, and in less than one month, Jacoband Lila are married. Lila quickly grows restlesswith their life as shopkeepers. She dreams ofbecoming a rich and famous vaudeville star. Lilabegs Jacob to sell the shop, but he is very happy andcannot relate to her restlessness.

Lila encounters a vaudeville agent and sings forhim. The agent loves her voice and hires her totour in his show. Jacob loves Lila more than any-thing—she is “the core of his life”—but she leaves

him for her pursuit of fame. When she tries to givehim her key to the bookshop, he tells her to keepthe key because she will return someday and he willbe waiting for her.

Months go by and the Narrator tries to help Jacobout of his depression. Jacob does not sleep; instead,he reads and clumsily stumbles through his days. Fif-teen years pass and Jacob remains in this state. Lilareturns to the small bookshop one dark Decemberevening. The shop is closed, but Jacob is in the back,sitting at his desk reading. Lila unlocks the door withher key and confronts Jacob. She is shocked whenshe realizes that he does not recognize her. She pre-tends to be searching for a book whose title she can-not remember; she knows only that it is a familiartragic love story. Jacob unwittingly remarks that thework must be something by Tolstoi.

COMMENTARYIn this story, as in the short story “IN MEMORY OF AN

ARISTOCRAT,” Williams experiments with a second-person narrator. A young shop assistant witnesses theaction of the story and relates these happenings. Thenarrator is not omniscient, and he is not involved inthe action. He is simply a witness to the plot.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Something by Tolstoi” was published in CollectedStories by New Directions in 1985.

CHARACTERSBrodzky, Jacob Jacob is an intelligent and well-educated young man who marries Lila Brodzky andtakes over his father’s, Mr. Brodzky’s, bookshopwhen he dies. Jacob enjoys the solemn life of read-ing and living among the dusty shelves of books;however, Lila dreams of becoming a vaudeville starand touring the world. When she is offered a role ina touring show, she leaves Jacob to his books. Jacobbecomes depressed and suffers a mental breakdownfrom which he does not recover. After 15 years, Lilareturns to him a star. She is saddened by his mentalstate and shocked that he does not recognize her.

Brodzky, Lila Lila is a young, beautiful womanwho dreams of a life as a vaudeville star. She mar-ries a bookshop owner, Jacob Brodzky, and very

“Something by Tolstoi” 249

quickly grows restless in that slow-paced environ-ment. Lila leaves Jacob to be a star, and when shereturns to visit him 15 years later, she is astonishedthat he does not remember her nor recognize theirtragic love story as she relates it.

Brodzky, Mr. Mr. Brodzky is an elderly shop-keeper who sends his son, Jacob Brodzky, away tocollege to prevent him from marrying Lila. Mr.Brodzky dies, and Jacob takes over the shop andmarries his beloved Lila.

Something Cloudy, Something Clear

A play in two parts written in 1979.

SYNOPSISThe action takes place on a beach near Province-town, Massachusetts.

Part 1Clare and Kip visit August, a young aspiring writerwho inhabits a weathered shack on the beach. Clareteases August for his staring at Kip during the previ-ous evening’s party, “like a bird dog at a—quail”while Kip dances outside. Clare is dying of diabetesand wants August to support Kip, who is dying of abrain tumor. August plays Ravel’s Pavane on his Vic-trola, while he and Clare slip into a 1980-presentdialogue recollecting their time spent together in1940. After an extended pause, Clare and Augustreturn to the 1940 present. Clare calls Kip into theshack and reintroduces him to August. Kip respondsindifferently and exits for a swim. Ghostly figures of aNurse with Frank Merlo in a wheelchair, from the1980 present, appear on a sand dune. August reliveshis last days with Frank as he lay dying in a hospital.

When Frank and the Nurse disappear, Augustreturns to the 1940 present. Hazel, a figure from anearlier time in August’s life, appears on the dunes.They converse about their ill-fated relationship.August confesses his attraction to boys, and sheadmits her love for girls. Hazel leaves and Augustreturns to the 1940 present. Clare begs August to

take care of Kip for the winter. August is thrilled,but apprehensive. When Clare suddenly leaves,Kip and August awkwardly talk about the impend-ing arrangement. A drunken Merchant Seamaninterrupts the men to collect payment from Augustfor a sexual encounter. August pays him five dol-lars. Meanwhile, a telegram arrives, informingAugust that his producers, Maurice and CelesteFiddler, are planning to visit him.

The Fiddlers appear on the dunes with anactress, Caroline Wales. They criticize August’spoverty, his play, and his ego. Celeste pursuesAugust about his revisions, and he counters with aplea for more funding. While Maurice and Augustrenegotiate the terms of their agreement, Clarereturns, followed by Bugsy Brodsky, her former bossand lover. August retreats to his shack becauseBugsy is violently homophobic. During a fight onthe dunes, Bugsy knocks Clare to the ground. Afterhe stalks away, August rushes out of the shack tohelp her. The drunken Merchant Seaman appearsagain to procure money for sex from August.

Part 2, Scene 1The setting is the same as in part 1, on the follow-ing day. Tallulah Bankhead appears on the dunes.She angrily calls for August, who exits his shack toargue with her. Kip appears to discuss the parame-ters of their impending relationship. He is shyabout the issue of intimacy with August, butAugust lovingly comforts him.

Part 2, Scene 2The next evening Clare returns with food and pic-nic supplies. Although she brought Kip and Augusttogether, she is outraged when she finds out theyhave consummated their relationship. As she cor-ners Kip, she berates August by explaining the factsof Kip’s illness. She delivers a telegram to Augustfrom the Fiddlers, who have accepted his script andhave guaranteed a production. Kip has a smallseizure. Clare orders August to swim while shenurses Kip to health. Later that evening duringdinner, Clare expresses her fear of being unattrac-tive and unloved. August and Kip kiss her repeat-edly. August writes himself a note to capture theevents of this summer, as Kip traces the trajectoryof a falling star with his finger.

250 Something Cloudy, Something Clear

COMMENTARYAt the center of Something Cloudy, Something Clear isWilliams: “the artist and his art, the man and histheatrical persona, immediacy and retrospect, timestopped and time flowing” (Adamson, vii). August isthe young Williams, who spent a summer living andwriting on a beach near Provincetown, Massachu-setts, in 1940. Williams has described that summerof 1940 as “a summer of discovery” (“Williams,Where I Live, 137). This period was a coming of agefor Williams, when he came to terms with his voca-tion as an artist and explored his sexuality. However,the play does not present only a recollection of thatpivotal summer; that time coexists with the perspec-tive of the mature artist of 1980. In this, his mostautobiographical work after THE GLASS MENAGERIE,Williams incorporates a dual perspective to under-score the idea of double exposure in the play:August, as Tom Wingfield does in The GlassMenagerie, stands inside and outside the drama,commenting on the action while taking part. Hereis the mature playwright self, from a vantage pointof 40 years, seeing distinctly all that was cloudy andvague to the naive, younger self.

The influence of August Strindberg is clearly evi-dent in Something Cloudy, Something Clear, the mostobvious reference to which is the name of Williams’sprotagonist. In his expressionistic A Dream Play(1901), Strindberg created a fantastical drama inwhich chronological time is inconsequential. In hisforeword to that play, Strindberg explains that he“attempted to imitate . . . the logical shape of adream . . . the imagination spins, weaving new pat-terns; a mixture of memories, experiences, free fan-cies, incongruities and improvisations. Thecharacters split, double, multiply, evaporate, con-dense, disperse, assemble” (1). In a similar fashion,Something Cloudy, Something Clear is an autobio-graphical meshing of people from different momentsof Williams’s life, and his characters weave in and outof the drama, without entrances and exits. Simply“appearing” to August, they form a plot that rejectsthe traditional conventions of realism. The charac-ters possess an ethereal existence, literally material-izing on the sand dunes, which become essentiallythe landscape of Williams’s memories or dreams.

Williams notes that Clare is “apparitionally beautiful”(Williams, 1), while the Nurse and Frank Merloappear as ghostly figures, reminiscent of characters inStrindberg’s Ghost Sonata. In 1907 Strindberg createda haunted play which featured a “ghost dinner.” InSomething Cloudy, Something Clear Williams createsanother ghost dinner in the last scene of the play:Clare is dying of diabetes, Kip is dying of a braintumor, and August (as does Strindberg’s Young Lady)communes with characters whose lives are escaping.

Williams, as did Strindberg, searched continuallyfor new modes of expression through his dramaturgy.Toward the end of their life and career, both play-wrights concentrated on death, apparitions, dreams,and reliving (or reimagining) the past. SomethingCloudy, Something Clear is a highly evocative exam-ple of Williams’s autobiographical contemplation ofhis past loves and experiences.

PRODUCTION HISTORYEve Adamson directed the premiere of SomethingCloudy, Something Clear for the Jean Cocteau Reper-tory at the Bouwerie Lane Theatre, August 24, 1981.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe play was withheld from publication by Williams’sexecutrix, MARIA ST. JUST. Lady St. Just feared thatthe play’s content would call attention to Williams’ssexuality and have a detrimental effect on his publicimage. As a result, Something Cloudy, Something Cleardid not appear in print until after Lady St. Just’sdeath. It was published by New Directions in 1995.

CHARACTERSAugust August is a young playwright living in ashack on a beach near Provincetown, Massachu-setts. He is spending the summer revising his firstwork to be optioned by a professional theater. He isunder pressure to appease his producers Mauriceand Celeste Fiddler and their star actress, CarolineWales. He is frequently interrupted by visits fromthe Merchant Seaman and his two newly acquiredcompanions, Kip and Clare. August is Williams’smost autobiographical portrait after Tom Wingfieldin THE GLASS MENAGERIE. As does Tom, Auguststands inside and outside the drama, commentingupon action and simultaneously taking part.

Something Cloudy, Something Clear 251

Brodsky, Bugsy He is Clare’s abusive, homopho-bic, and violent former boss and lover. Clare tries toend her relationship with him, and he pursues herat August’s beach house. He confronts Clare andwhen she refuses to leave with him knocks her tothe ground.

Clare She is Kip’s traveling companion, a young,destitute dancer who suffers from diabetes. Clareand Kip meet August one summer evening inProvincetown, Massachusetts. She pretends thatshe and Kip are siblings. August is immediatelysmitten with Kip and she encourages his infatua-tion. She forces the two men together in the hopethat August will provide shelter and solace for Kipduring the coming winter. However, she becomesirate when the two actually become lovers. Clare isthe only principal character in the play who is notbased on an actual historical figure in Williams’slife. August refers to Clare, whose name is an ana-gram of the word clear, as his conscience.

Fiddler, Celeste She is the curt and impatientwife of the New York producer Maurice Fiddler.Although she greatly dislikes August, she accompa-nies her husband to August’s beach house nearProvincetown, Massachusetts. Celeste is meant to bea representation of Armina Marshall of the TheatreGuild, who coproduced Williams’s first professionallystaged work, BATTLE OF ANGELS, in Boston in 1940.

Fiddler, Maurice He is an important New Yorkproducer who is interested in producing August’splay. He visits August at the beach accompanied byhis wife, Celeste Fiddler, and the actress CarolineWales. August withholds the revised script untilMaurice agrees to increase his monthly stipend andgives him a $100 cash advance. He is meant to be arepresentation of Lawrence Langner of the TheatreGuild, who coproduced Williams’s first profession-ally staged work, BATTLE OF ANGELS, in Boston in1940.

Frank He is August’s former lover and compan-ion. Frank is terminally ill and appears in a wheel-chair on the sand dunes near August’s beach house,accompanied by a Nurse. He and August relive the

last few days of his life. Frank is a portrait ofWilliams’s partner, FRANK MERLO, who died of can-cer in 1960.

Hazel She is August’s childhood sweetheart. Sheis described as a tall girl, with golden-red hair. Sheappears to August on the sand dunes near hisbeach house. He apologizes for hurting her andconfesses that during the time of their relationship,he was secretly enamored of boys. She admits thatshe was aware of his feelings and confides that sheloved girls. Hazel is a portrait of Williams’s child-hood sweetheart, Hazel Kramer.

Kip He is a poor young Canadian dancer who isliving in the United States illegally. He and his des-titute traveling companion, Clare, meet Augustone summer evening in Provincetown, Massachu-setts. August is immediately smitten with Kip andClare encourages his infatuation. She forces themen together in the hope that August will provideshelter and solace for Kip during the coming win-ter. Although initially hesitant to have a sexualencounter with August, Kip is drawn to the youngplaywright. Kip is a portrait of Kip Keirnan, a youngCanadian dancer whom Williams met and loved inProvincetown during the summer of 1940.

Merchant Seaman A drunken sailor who fre-quents the beach where August lives. He repeatedlytakes advantage of August’s loneliness by offering tohave sex with him for money. He also takes advan-tage of Clare’s extreme poverty by offering hermoney in exchange for sex.

Tallulah She is an arrogant actress who accostsAugust at his beachhouse for demeaning her per-formance in his play. Tallulah is a portrait of theactress TALLULAH BANKHEAD.

Wales, Caroline She is the Hollywood film starwhom Maurice and Celeste Fiddler have secured toperform in August’s play. She likes the young play-wright and accompanies the Fiddlers on their visitto his shack on the beach near Provincetown,Massachusetts. Caroline is a portrait of the film starMiriam Hopkins, who played Myra Torrance in

252 Something Cloudy, Something Clear

Williams’s first professional production, BATTLE OF

ANGELS, in Boston in 1940.

FURTHER READINGAdamson, Eve. “Introduction,” in Something Cloudy,

Something Clear. New York: New Directions, 1995.Isaac, Dan. “Tennessee Revisited.” Other Stages,

December 17, 1981, p. 8.Strindberg, August. A Dream Play, translated by

Michael Meyer. New York: Dial Press, 1973.Williams, Tennessee. Where I Live: Selected Essays,

edited by Christine R. Day and Bob Woods. NewYork: New Directions, 1978.

Something UnspokenA one-act play written before 1953.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in the livingroom of Cornelia Scott, a regal, elderly Southernwoman. There is a single rose in a vase beside Cor-nelia’s telephone.

Cornelia places a phone call to the ConfederateDaughters Society, announcing her consent to benominated for the head office of regent. Her secre-tary, Grace Lancaster, enters the room. Corneliaasks Grace whether she has noticed the rose onthe table, which, she explains, signifies an anniver-sary of their time together. She informs Grace thatthere are 14 more roses waiting for her in heroffice, one for each year that Grace has been hersecretary and companion.

Grace attempts to change the subject by playingsome phonograph records, and Cornelia choosesnot to expose the unspoken reason behind the ten-sion. Cornelia is distracted by a phone call from amember of the society, who informs Cornelia thatshe has been nominated for Vice Regent. Corneliarefuses the nomination and hangs up the phone.

Cornelia inquires why Grace has never expressedher feelings toward her. Grace admits that she hasbeen too frightened to address the issue. She proteststhat she is “not strong enough [or] bold enough” tobreak down the “wall” that has built up between

them. Cornelia receives another telephone call andbecomes infuriated on learning that another(younger) member of the Confederate DaughtersSociety has been elected to the head office. Corneliaorders Grace to draft a letter of resignation for her tosubmit to the society. Allowing their personal situa-tion to hang, Grace goes into her office to retrievepaper and pen. She calls out to Cornelia, comment-ing on the beautiful roses in her office.

COMMENTARYIn Something Unspoken Williams masterfully weavesa brief but poignant tale of unspoken, and seeminglyunspeakable, desire and the animosity that arisesfrom it. For Grace, a prim single Southern woman(and for so many of Williams’s heroines) appearanceand social standing—and particularly Cornelia’ssocial standing—are of the utmost importance. Forher, it is vital that their romantic feelings for eachother remain unspoken and unseen. For Cornelia,the forthright matron, this polite silence can onlybreed bitterness. Her feelings for Grace run deep, asshe acknowledges and commemorates the 15th yearof their relationship in a highly romantic fashion. Inthe end, Grace’s attempts to protect Cornelia’s rep-utation are unsuccessful. The outside world hasalready detected what she has attempted to con-ceal, and Cornelia is ostracized by her women’sgroup. Something Unspoken bears a striking resem-blance to the short story “HAPPY AUGUST THE

TENTH,” in which two younger women live in strifeuntil an acknowledgment of their love for eachother rises to the surface.

PRODUCTION HISTORYSomething Unspoken was first produced at the Lake-side Summer Theatre, in Lake Hopatcong, NewJersey, in June 1955. Herbert Machiz directed Patri-cia Ripley and Hortense Alden as Cornelia andGrace. Machiz also directed the first New York pro-duction of the play in February 1958 at the YorkTheatre, with Patricia Ripley and Hortense Aldenagain playing Cornelia and Grace.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSomething Unspoken was first published along withSUDDENLY LAST SUMMER under the title GardenDistrict in 1959.

Something Unspoken 253

CHARACTERSLancaster, Grace Grace is Cornelia Scott’s live-insecretary. She is in her late 40s and has been Cor-nelia’s personal assistant and companion for 15 years.There is a romantic dimension to their relationship,which Grace hopes to keep hidden, or unspoken.

Scott, Cornelia Cornelia is a wealthy unmarriedSouthern woman in her 60s. She has a regal pres-ence and belongs to a number of prestigious soci-eties within her community. She commemoratesher 15-year relationship with her secretary, GraceLancaster, by giving her two dozen roses.

Spring StormFull-length play written in the years 1937 and 1938.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in Port Tyler, a small Mississippitown, in 1937.

Act 1Dick Miles and his lover, Heavenly Critchfield,stand on Lover’s Leap, a mountain overlooking theMississippi River. Farther down the mountain achurch fete is going on. The couple have an argu-ment. As a storm begins to brew, Arthur Shannonand Hertha Neilson climb to the lookout.

Act 2, Scene 1In the interior of the Critchfield home several dayslater, a messenger delivers flowers to Heavenly.Mrs. Critchfield excitedly accepts them as shewants Heavenly to marry Arthur, but Lila, Heav-enly’s unmarried aunt, believes Heavenly shouldmarry someone she loves. Heavenly enters, soakingwet from the storm. Mrs. Critchfield confrontsHeavenly about her relationship with Dick. Shebegs Heavenly to consider Arthur. Heavenlyproudly admits that she belongs to Dick becauseshe has already consummated her relationship withhim. Her mother nearly faints, calling Heavenly“horrible, shameless, and ungrateful.” She demandsthat Heavenly apologize to the portrait of hergrandfather, Colonel Wayne. Heavenly refuses.

Act 2, Scene 2Later that evening at the dinner table, Mr. Critch-field talks of cotton prices and his day at work. Mrs.Critchfield interrupts to inform him that the wholetown is talking about Heavenly’s loose behavior.Arthur Shannon arrives to collect Heavenly for adate. Heavenly pretends to be less intelligent thanshe is in an attempt to repel Arthur.

Act 2, Scene 3Later that evening, Heavenly returns to the livingroom to apologize to the portrait of her grandfather.Her father joins her, and they have a whiskeytogether and discuss Heavenly’s interest in DickMiles. Mr. Critchfield believes she is being unrealis-tic because Dick will never settle down.

Act 3, Scene 1Several nights later at a friend’s lawn party, Arthurand Heavenly dance. Several women gossip aboutHeavenly’s intimate relations with Dick. Arthurproposes marriage to Heavenly. Before she canrespond, Dick arrives at the party uninvited. Hetells Heavenly that he has been offered a job withthe government levee project on the river. Dickalso proposes to Heavenly and urges her to leavewith him the next day. Heavenly does not want tolive on the river; she wants a proper home and life.Arthur and Dick fight.

Act 3, Scene 2The next day, Arthur drunkenly visits the libraryto see Hertha. Arthur confesses his unrequitedlove for Heavenly. He pulls Hertha to him andkisses her forcefully. Hertha rejects him initially,but she ultimately submits. She declares her lovefor him and begs him to take her to a place wherethey can be alone. He rejects Hertha, who falls toher knees in anguish.

Act 3, Scene 3The following morning, Heavenly is burdenedbecause she must choose between Arthur andDick. She is surrounded by flowers Arthur has sent,and more flowers keep arriving.

Arthur visits Heavenly. Tragic news that Herthawas killed in the freight yard the night beforecauses Lila to be suspicious of Arthur. Lila demandsthat Arthur leave the Critchfield home. Before he

254 Spring Storm

goes, Arthur confesses to Heavenly that in adrunken rage he did in fact kill Hertha. Heavenlypanics and makes him promise never to tell anyoneelse. She demands that he remain with her, butArthur says he must leave town. Dick has also leftPort Tyler. Heavenly is left suitorless, destined notto marry.

COMMENTARYThe fear of spinsterhood is at the center of SpringStorm. Heavenly Critchfield tries desperately tobecome someone’s wife. Her downfall is that she isdeeply in love with the free-spirited Dick Miles.Although she appreciates his wild and passionatelove for life and freedom, she does not want to livean unsettled life. Heavenly possesses Dick’s love,but she can never harness his spirit in order to livea respectable life together. Heavenly’s love for Dickviolates convention: She has premarital sex withhim because her desires overcome her properSouthern upbringing; however, in this act, she doesbecome Dick’s property. Heavenly’s mother, a char-acter similar to Amanda Wingfield, lives her life inthe pursuit of social mobility and financial reposeand dedicates herself to securing a proper mate forher daughter.

Although Heavenly is very beautiful and sociallywell placed, in her decision to be sexually intimatewith Dick, she has significantly reduced her chanceof becoming a respectable man’s wife. Virginity isvital in the culture of Port Tyler, Mississippi. Inadmitting that she lost her virginity, Heavenly devas-tates her morally rigid mother. Still, Heavenlychooses to love Dick wholly without religious ormoral constraints. She enjoys being the moral rebel,yet she wants a traditional family and home life onceshe is married. Unable to lower her standards to lifeon a river barge, she lets Dick go. She is now forcedto make her life work with Arthur. When she discov-ers that Arthur killed Hertha, she decides to claimhim and conceal his crime because in her mind it isbetter to be a murderer’s wife than a spinster.

As do Blanche DuBois and Alma Winemiller,Heavenly rationalizes her sexuality through mis-guided desire and love. When Dick and Arthurleave her, Heavenly has two options for her life:She can, as do Blanche and Alma, become a prosti-

tute, or she can repress her sexuality altogether, asAunt Lila has. The end of the play leaves this deci-sion open, but for the time being, Heavenly decidesto wait on the porch until one of her beaus returnsto claim her.

Spring Storm is one of Williams’s posthumousgifts to contemporary theater. Although this playwas written in 1937 and 1938, several years beforeWilliams’s first major success, THE GLASS MENAG-ERIE, it was never published or acknowledged in hislifetime. Williams wrote Spring Storm at the Univer-sity of Iowa when he was a theater student in thelate 1930s. The play was a homework assignmentfor a playwriting class he took with E. C. Mabie,and there are several different unpublished end-ings. Williams abandoned work on this script andbegan NOT ABOUT NIGHTINGALES, another collegehomework assignment. The “lost” script of SpringStorm was discovered in 1996 in Williams’s papersat the University of Texas.

PRODUCTION HISTORYSpring Storm was first staged as a reading at theEnsemble Studio Theatre in 1996. It was directedby Dona D. Vaughn.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSpring Storm was published by New Directions in1997.

CHARACTERSCritchfield, Esmerelda Esmerelda is the tire-some mother of Heavenly Critchfield. Esmerelda isobsessed with appearances and constantly advisesher daughter on how to behave and dress. It isimportant to her that Heavenly marry the town’smost eligible bachelor, Arthur Shannon. However,Heavenly has a lover, Dick Miles. Mrs. Critchfieldknows that Heavenly will be ruined if she stayswith Dick. This is a source of discord between thetwo women, who argue constantly.

Critchfield, Heavenly Heavenly is a beautifulyoung woman who desperately tries to tame herlover, Dick Miles. Heavenly is deeply in love withDick, and she focuses all of her attention on keep-ing him and marrying him. Dick is a free spirit who

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wants to spend his life working on the MississippiRiver. Heavenly is a respectable Southern gentle-woman with no patience for Dick’s desire to be avagabond on the river. Her relationship with Dickand her sexual relations with him have made her asubject of town gossip. Arthur Shannon, thewealthiest bachelor in Port Tyler, is also courtingHeavenly. Heavenly is faced with the difficult deci-sion of either living as a gypsy with Dick, the manshe truly loves, or marrying Arthur and learning toappreciate him and live in luxury. Her greatest fearis that she, like her aunt, Lila Critchfield, will nevermarry. Bad times befall Heavenly and she is ulti-mately left to become an aging unmarried woman.As a lover, Heavenly resembles Serafina Delle Rosebecause she is proud of her passionate love for herboyfriend. She does not believe she is being promis-cuous as she intends to marry Dick. She can also beviewed as a younger version of Amanda Wingfield,as she is a beautiful young woman who is courtedby many suitors. She has many options, but in theend loses and resigns herself to being alone.

Critchfield, Lila Lila is the maiden aunt ofHeavenly Critchfield. She is intelligent and has aclose relationship with her niece. As Heavenly has,Lila had many suitors when she was young. Her onetrue love, Mr. Shannon, married another womanand broke her heart. She lives out the fate thatAmanda Wingfield hopes to prevent for her daugh-ter, Laura, that of being dependent upon the char-ity of her brother’s wife and family. Lila finds solacein poetry and advises Heavenly to marry for loveinstead of status or money.

Critchfield, Oliver Oliver is the husband ofEsmerelda Critchfield and father of HeavenlyCritchfield. A cotton merchant, he is a tradi-tional Southern man who has a sense of humorabout gossip and protocol. He adores his daugh-ter, and they share a deep connection, unlike hiswife and daughter.

Miles, Dick Dick is a handsome young man andHeavenly Critchfield’s boyfriend. Dick is a free spiritand is constantly seeking adventure. Although heloves Heavenly, Dick is in love with his freedom and

the outdoors, and the Mississippi River in particular.Dick refuses to settle down and lead an ordinary lifewith a mundane office job. When he gets a job work-ing for the government levee project, he wants tomarry Heavenly and take her with him. Heavenly ishorrified by this suggestion, as she desires a tradi-tional Southern life: a husband with a stable job, anice home, and children. Dick leaves Port Tyler, Mis-sissippi, and Heavenly behind in order to pursue hisdreams. Dick, as is Val Xavier, is wild at heart andseeks out adventure and new experiences.

Neilson, Hertha She is an intellectual youngwoman living in the socially oppressive environ-ment of Port Tyler, Mississippi. Dreaming of adven-ture and of leaving her small hometown, Herthaidentifies with a fellow dreamer, Dick Miles. How-ever, unlike Dick, who does escape, Hertha is obli-gated to care for her alcoholic father. Hertha worksat the public library and fantasizes about the town’smost eligible bachelor, Arthur Shannon. One rainynight, Hertha encounters a drunken Arthur, whorapes and kills her in the freight yard.

Shannon, Arthur He is a wealthy young bachelorwho has fallen in love with Heavenly Critchfield.Arthur was ridiculed in elementary school, particu-larly by Heavenly. Forced into boarding school toavoid further harassment, Arthur has returned homewith romantic intentions toward his childhood foe.He becomes the second suitor for Heavenly andpressures her to choose him. Heavenly does not feelthe same passion for Arthur as she does for DickMiles, a free spirit who cannot stay in one place forlong. Heavenly thinks she could love Arthur and hismoney. When Arthur commits rape and murderduring a drunken rage, Heavenly advises him todeny his guilt and crime. He chooses to leave town.Heavenly loses both suitors and does not marry.

Stairs to the RoofFull-length play written between the years 1940and 1942. The subtitle is A Prayer for the Wild ofHeart That Are Kept in Cages.

256 Stairs to the Roof

SYNOPSISThe setting is expansive, ranging from the inside ofa shirt factory, where a gigantic clock rules theemployees, to street corners, office cubicles, a mazeof buildings, and Gothic towers that represent acollege campus. However, this expressionistic playremains minimal despite its varying settings.

Scene 1: “Shirts and the Universe”In a department of Continental Shirtmakers, alarge clock looms ominously over the workers.

In the office building of Consolidated Shirtmak-ers, Mr. Gum looks for Ben Murphy. Finding himreturning from the elevator, Gum inquires about hisdisappearance. Ben tells his boss that he needed toget away from the stifling atmosphere of the officeand found some “stairs to the roof.” He philosophizesabout the regimentation of the workplace and aboutthe need for freedom from a grueling job. Gum tellsBen that he is reviewing his work file, as he ques-tions whether Ben should continue to work at thefactory. As the lights fade, Mr. E. laughs offstage.

Scene 2: “No Fire Escape”The scene is the law office of Mr. Warren B.Thatcher, several floors down from the shirt factory.

In Thatcher’s office a fire has started. Warren ison the phone with a female friend, telling her thatthere are no extinguishers, fire escapes, or volun-teer firemen to be found. He arranges to meet herthat night and begins to complain about his secre-tary, who is “on the verge of declaring her passion”for him. Hanging up, Warren calls for the Girl, whobecomes flustered as he gives her instructions.Exasperated, he leaves for the rest of the day. TheGirl (who remains nameless throughout the play)drafts a love letter to Warren. As the lights blackout on the empty office, Mr. E. laughs offstage.

Scene 3: “The Scene of Celebration”Two tables and a jukebox serve as the setting of adowntown bar in Saint Louis.

In the bar, Ben meets his longtime buddy andcolleague, Jim. They converse about how differentthey dreamed their lives would be after college. AsBen pessimistically explains his job situation, hetheorizes about the “inordinate lust for disintegra-tion” of conscious life and predicts a rough night.

After bidding Jim farewell, Ben goes home. Jim asksBertha to dance and the lights go out.

Scene 4: “Blue Heaven”A double bed is center stage.

As Ben enters his home, he steps on the cat andwakes Alma, his pregnant wife. She chastises Benfor his drinking habits, reminding him of his prom-ise to save his beer money to buy a baby carriage.Ben begins to pontificate about the implications ofchild rearing and the moral responsibility entailed.He argues that a man should first better the worldif he is going to raise a child. Alma suspects thatBen has had trouble at work, and as Ben rants, shegrows hysterical, convinced that he has been fired.She threatens to leave him and Ben leaves, dis-gusted and frustrated. At the blackout, Mr. E.laughs offstage.

Scene 5: “An Accident of Atoms”The set features a university quadrangle projectedonto a screen and a large statue of an athlete withthe inscription youth.

On a bench of a university campus, Ben sits,whiskey in hand, reminiscing about his collegedays. (The scene that proceeds is a “memoryscene”—much like the motif used in THE GLASS

MENAGERIE.) Cheering voices are heard faintly off-stage, and from the dark steps Helen, Ben’s collegegirlfriend, appears. She reminds him of the passionthey once shared and quickly disappears. Jimappears as a ghost of his younger self and warns Bennot to marry Helen. A commencement speech isheard and Ben tells Jim that he has been offered ajob at Consolidated Shirtmakers by the presidenthimself, Mr. J. T. Faraway Jones. Jim urges Ben totake the job, proclaiming that he himself hasaccepted a job at the Olympic Light and Gas Com-pany. Enraged by the memory of this conversationand angered by the reality of their present life, Benhurls his whiskey into empty air and collapses intosobs. A Youth in military attire marches by, andBen asks him whether he is prepared to take on thebrutalities of real life. The Youth, careless and free,shrugs his shoulders and responds, “How do Iknow?” As the Youth exits, the music and lightsdim and Mr. E. is heard sighing offstage.

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Scene 6: “White Lace Curtains”A chair, radio, and record player, with a fishbowl ontop, are center stage.

Later in the night, Ben visits Jim at his houseand discusses his “caged” existence. Ben wants tostart anew and “refurnish” his life, but Jim urgeshim to stick to his middle-class lifestyle. Ben furi-ously rips down the white lace curtains hanging inJim’s kitchen, a stark symbol of their domesticated,repressed life. Jim only sighs and explains that hiswife, Edna, will rehang the curtains in the morning.As Ben charges out of the house, Edna calls fromthe bedroom and tells Jim that Alma is leavingBen. The lights fade and Mr. E. laughs offstage.

Scene 7: “The Letter”A bedroom in a rooming house.

The Girl sits at home dreaming of Warren asher roommate, Bertha, raves about Jim. The Girlconfesses to Bertha that she wrote a love letter toWarren and left it on his desk so that he wouldfind it in the morning. Bertha insists that the Girlgo to the office at once to retrieve the letter,regardless of her feelings. She warns the Girl thatshe is in danger of losing her job. At the blackout,Mr. E. laughs offstage.

Scene 8: “Did Somebody Call the NightWatchman?”The scene is a downtown corner near the shirt fac-tory at midnight.

The Girl appears at the doors of the ConsolidatedShirtmakers office building, desperately knocking forthe Night Watchman. An Officer appears, informingher that the Watchman is deaf and blind. Benappears and asks her to feed his pigeons on the roofif he loses his job. Both suddenly see golden lights inthe distance and travel off to investigate; Ben affec-tionately dubs the Girl “Alice,” and she in turn callshim “Rabbit.” They exit as the Watchman appears atthe doorway. Sad, slow music begins to play, and Mr.E. laughs softly offstage.

Scene 9: “Keys to the Cages”In a wooded section of the city park, a goldenwheel can be seen through the trees and brush.

In search of the golden lights, Ben and the Girlcome upon the park zoo, where the Zookeeper istending to a pregnant fox. Outraged that the fox

should have to give birth in captivity, Ben punchesthe Zookeeper and sets the fox free. He and theGirl run into the forest as the Zookeeper shouts forthe police. As the lights fade, Mr. E. laughs uncon-trollably offstage.

Scene 10: “Every Girl Is Alice”Across a wide black lake, a carnival is visible.

Reaching the edge of a lake, Ben and the Girlrest from the chase. As they talk, she tells himabout her love for her boss and about her feeling ofbeing caged by the desperation of her situation. Shewishes for love to be easy and “very white and cool-looking.” Embracing her, Ben agrees to be her“Warren” if she will be his “swan.” They lie downtogether in the grass as the lights dim and Mr. E. is“respectfully silent” offstage.

Scene 11: “The Carnival—Beauty and the Beast”A carnival, with a ferris wheel, is seen. Below thestage a placard reads, “PETIT THEATRE PRE-SENTS ‘BEAUTY AND THE BEAST.’ PERFOR-MANCE: MIDNIGHT.”

Proceeding toward the lights, Ben and the Girlarrive at a carnival, where “Beauty and the Beast”is being performed. As the play commences, adirect parallel between the stage action and therelationship between Ben and the Girl is evident.However, when it is time for the actors to bow, theBeast begins to choke Beauty. Ben intervenesquickly, speaking Russian to the foreign actor andcalming him. Suddenly, the Zookeeper appears, butthe Beast attacks him so that Ben can escape. TheGirl is left alone as the carnival disperses. As shebegins to sob, Ben returns to rescue her. Heembraces her as the curtain falls. Mr. E. chucklesoffstage.

Scene 12: “This Corner’s Where We Met”The street corner is the setting.

In the early morning light, Ben and the Girlapproach the Consolidated Shirtmakers building.They part, each realizing that it is time to face real-ity. Ben explains that he is married and on the brinkof losing his job. The Girl thanks him for a wonder-ful evening, and Ben kisses her before departing. Atthe blackout, Mr. E. chuckles offstage.


Scene 13: “I’m Worried about My Roommate”Scenes 13 through 16 are sidelines to the main-stage action. They are performed in swift succes-sion. Lighting separates each mise-en-scène fromthe next.

Bertha is alarmed by the Girl’s disappearanceand tells Mrs. Hotchkiss, who remarks that she hasprobably “gone to the dogs!”

Scene 14: “Come Home to Mother”Alma calls her Mother to tell her that she is leav-ing Ben. Her Mother is delighted and welcomesher home.

Scene 15: “Rise and Shine”Edna wakes Jim, repetitiously shrilling, “Rise andshine!” Jim groans and covers his face with a pillow.

Scene 16: “Hello Again”Bertha and Jim meet on the street and discoverthat both their friends have disappeared. Berthaproposes that she and Jim do the same.

Scene 17: “Which Came First?”The action occurs in Mr. Thatcher’s office.

The Girl charges into work and tells Warrenthat she is no longer in love with him. She imme-diately drops the wall clock into his wastebasketand tells him about the night she spent with Ben.Confidently, she goes about filing some papers,and then she tells an incredulous Mr. Thatcherthat she is going to the roof for lunch. As shelaughingly exits, Mr. E. is heard laughing “loudand close-by.”

Scene 18: “Up to the Roof”In the office of the Continental Branch of Consoli-dated Shirtmakers, the huge clock says it is nearlynoon.

The Consolidated Shirtmakers executives P, D,T, and Q rush into Gum’s office, searching for Ben.They explain that he is a threat to the companybecause of his knowledge of the stairs to the roof.Gum proposes that they offer Ben a position whichrequires travel in exchange for his silence about theroof stairs. The men agree and proceed to searchfor the roof stairs and Ben. Mr. E. laughs very closeby offstage.

Scene 19: “The Roof? What Roof?”Up on the roof, Ben is feeding the pigeons whenthe Girl arrives. She thanks him again for theirevening together, and Ben expresses his repressedneed to care for her. Suddenly, they hear greatlaughter and Mr. E. appears with thunder and light-ning at his heels. The day turns to dusk, and starsappear in the sky as Mr. E. (with long flowing robesand a magical sparkler) proposes that Ben inhabit anew star world, a second world that Mr. E. wants tocreate. Ben agrees to go only if the Girl can accom-pany him. Mr. E. sends them off with a wave of hissparkler. Mr. E.’s laughter turns to silent weeping ashe addresses the audience. He explains that he wasready to demolish the world until he saw Ben.Instead he decided to let Ben populate a newworld, on a faraway star, so that now Ben hasmetaphorically gone “beyond the roof.” P, D, Q, T,and Gum rush out onto the roof as Mr. E. disap-pears with a quick swish of his sparkler. Alarmed bythe employees who have followed them onto theroof, the executives pretend to be welcoming, butthe workers shout and cheer for Ben. From faraway, Ben calls good-bye and the workers murmuron the roof about the dawning of “the Millen-nium.” A band plays and the employees cheer asthe curtain falls.

COMMENTARYThe setting of Williams’s Stairs to the Roof is mini-malist at the start of the play; it grows more intri-cate as the protagonist himself travels further andfurther from reality. The lighting is complemen-tary, the sets effective. Most props are pantomimeduntil the carnival scene—which requires gaudytoys and trinkets.

Williams draws largely from his own experiencesworking at the INTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY inSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, in the summer of 1936.Williams wrote this play after a mental breakdowncaused by his monotonous existence at the factory.Thematically similar to The Glass Menagerie, Stairsto the Roof predates the Broadway hit that wouldmake Williams famous.

Stairs possesses elements of sensationalism thatmake it a less weighty script. Its subtitle, The Wildof Heart That Are Kept in Cages, reminds us that the

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work is a social and political play, whereas TheGlass Menagerie is more personal and has a less uni-versal plot. In Stairs to the Roof, he creates a “moralearnestness” (afterword, 101), in his characters—characters trapped in a lifestyle they did not dreamof, wishing for freedom from a caged existence.

As Ben Murphy is a slave to the factory and tothe omnipresent clock that looms over the set, TomWingfield in The Glass Menagerie also feels he is acaged animal with an impotent rage toward hismother and economic responsibilities to his family.Both characters are provoked to grab control oftheir individual destiny. Ben Murphy becomes asavior to a people who are oppressed; Tom Wing-field breaks out of Saint Louis to pursue his owndreams. Both characters become defenders of thehuman spirit, collectively or otherwise. Ben Mur-phy, as is Tom Wingfield, is a reflection of Williamsas a young man. As is Dick Miles in SPRING STORM,Ben Murphy is a dreamer who envisions a betterway of life devoid of bureaucracies and mundane,stagnating work.

Stairs to the Roof is a precursor to CAMINO REAL,another Williams play endowed with sharp socialand political commentary. Written in 1953 andbased on a one-act play called TEN BLOCKS ON THE

CAMINO REAL, Camino Real is sensational andabsurd. It too is an expressionistic play in whichWilliams visits similar themes of entrapment, con-formity, and cosmic magical realism that supersedesrational or literal happenings. Stairs is very similar toCamino Real, structurally, as Williams has writtenthe play as several short acts or scenes that proceedwithin a framework (i.e., Mr. E’s offstage laughter atthe end of most scenes). Stairs to the Roof is one ofWilliams’s apprentice plays, which, along with CAN-DLES TO THE SUN and NOT ABOUT NIGHTINGALES,illustrate his early talents and commitment to inno-vative and socially relevant drama.

PRODUCTION HISTORYStairs to the Roof premiered at the Pasadena Play-house on March 25, 1945, directed by MARGO

JONES. It was produced after the success of TheGlass Menagerie and received warm reviews, but itwas clearly overshadowed by Glass. Similar in plotand theme, The Glass Menagerie triumphed as a play

that could be more easily staged (Stairs would betechnically and economically difficult to produce).Stairs was revived at the Pasadena Playhouse in1947 but was then overshadowed by the huge suc-cess of the Broadway production of A STREETCAR

NAMED DESIRE. Williams considered Stairs a playwritten and staged before its time. Allean Halewrites, “Its science-fiction ending, predating theinter-galactic explorations of 2001: A Space Odysseyand Star Trek I, is on target today” (Hale, xviii).

PUBLICATION HISTORYStairs to the Roof was published by New Directionsin 2000.

CHARACTERSAlma The wife of Ben Murphy, an unhappy anddisillusioned man. Alma decides to leave Ben whenshe becomes pregnant with his child.

Bertha She is the friend of the Girl. Berthaurges the Girl to retract the love letter her friendleft for her employer, Mr. B. Warren Thatcher.Bertha accompanies her to the office in the middleof the night to retrieve the letter, and theyencounter Ben Murphy, who befriends them.

E, Mr. Mr. E appears near the end of the play,wearing a long flowing robe and carrying asparkling wand. He states that he was going todestroy the world until he met Ben Murphy.Because of Ben’s feelings of discontent regardinghis life as a factory worker, Mr. E. rescues Ben andhis girlfriend, The Girl. He bellows a powerfullaugh at the end of each scene of the play.

Girl She is the secretary of Mr. B. WarrenThatcher and madly in love with him. After shewrites a love letter and leaves it on his desk, she ispersuaded by her friend, Bertha, to retrieve the let-ter. The Girl and Bertha go to the office in the mid-dle of the night and find Ben Murphy there. TheGirl is chased by police for burglarizing the officebuilding, but she evades them by running to thewoods with Ben. There, she confesses that she issearching for a love that is “cool.” Ben promises tobe her Mr. Thatcher if she will in turn be his swan.


They consummate their relationship. The next dayThe Girl rushes to the roof of the factory building,where she finds Ben feeding pigeons. The magicalMr. E appears and rescues them from their desper-ate lives.

Gum, Mr. Gum is Ben Murphy’s boss at the Con-solidated Shirtmakers factory. He complains of Ben’snegative attitude toward the factory and he chastisesBen for escaping to the roof for long breaks.

Helen She is the former girlfriend of Ben Mur-phy. Helen appears to Ben while he drunkenly sitson a park bench, reminiscing about the glory of hiscollege days, when he nearly married Helen. Shereminds him of the passion they once shared.

Jim He is the friend of Ben Murphy. Jim remi-nisces about their college days when life was freeand they dreamed of being more than factory work-ers at Consolidated Shirtmakers.

Murphy, Ben Trapped in a factory job at Consol-idated Shirtmakers, Ben dreams of a time when hecan lead a more meaningful life. He escapes to theroof of the factory to breathe, write, and reminisceabout the good old days of college, when he wascarefree and the world was his. Ben leaves his preg-nant wife, Alma, and becomes romantically involvedwith the Girl. She happens to be in love with theboss, Mr. B. Warren Thatcher. Ben and the Girl arekindred spirits whose dreams are finally fulfilledwith the appearance of the godlike Mr. E. As doesTom Wingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE, BenMurphy aspires to a happier life, and he is literallyrescued from his mundane routine.

Thatcher, Mr. B. Warren The employer of theGirl, Mr. Thatcher is overwhelmed by his life andhis job. The Girl, who is his secretary, is also in lovewith him, although he treats her badly. The Girl’sattraction to him adds a bit of humor to his mun-dane existence.

FURTHER READINGHale, Allean. “Introduction: A Play for Tomorrow,” in

Stairs to the Roof. New York: New Directions, 2000.

Steps Must Be GentleA dramatic reading for two performers writtenaround 1980.

SYNOPSISTwo performers “representing” the American poetHart Crane and his mother, Grace Hart Crane,engage in a nonrealistic, after-death duologue.Each performer stands behind a lectern facing theaudience. Positioned behind the two performers is alarge cyclorama, which displays an abstract designevoking the sea and sky.

Hart and Grace revisit their past and their oftenturbulent relationship. Grace confronts Hart abouthis suicide and tells him about the misery of her lifeafter his death. She also seeks recognition from herson as the great “defender” of his poetry and repu-tation after his death. The two discuss the tensionthat developed between them because of Crane’ssexuality, and Crane’s absent father, who aban-doned them both. Crane confesses his overwhelm-ing, if unacknowledged, concern for his mother,and she painfully confesses that she ended her daysin poverty as a scrubwoman.

COMMENTARYIn Steps Must Be Gentle Williams pays tribute to HartCrane, his favorite poet and most pervasive influ-ence. (The play’s title was taken from Crane’s poem“My Grandmother’s Love Letters.”) For Williams,Crane served as a model, an inspiration, and inmany ways a mirror of his own life, vocation, andambition. Williams shared Crane’s deeply ingrainedloneliness, isolation, and detachment from a largelyintolerant world. Williams and Crane also sharedremarkable parallels in their background and familylife, particularly their callous, emotionally absent,and unsupportive fathers and their neurotic anddomineering mothers.

Crane’s overwrought relationship with his mother,Grace Hart Crane, is the central motif of Steps MustBe Gentle. Reminiscent of various themes and situa-tions that occur and are alluded to in THE GLASS

MENAGERIE and SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER, the playdepicts the rocky relationship between a sensitiveyoung poet and his overbearing, but fiercely loyal

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mother. (The significantly absent father, who careslittle for his sensitive poet-son, is also a recurringtheme in each of these plays.) In Steps Must be Gentle,Crane and his mother establish a connection in theafterlife. (Hart Crane died April 26, 1932, and GraceHart Crane died July 30, 1947.) The two charactersare given the opportunity finally and frankly to speaktheir mind to one another and attempt to reconcile.

In many ways, Hart and Grace’s relationshipmirrors that of Williams and his own mother,EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS. Their relationship isdepicted extensively in The Glass Menagerie, and inmany of her tirades with her son, Grace Crane isoften suggestive of Amanda Wingfield, particularlyin her claim “Over-indulgence was my one fault asyour mother.” Grace’s assertion that she “made itmy dedication, my vocation, to protect your name,your legend. . . . Despite my age and illness, I havecarried the stones to build your tower again” is atestament to her fierce loyalty and passionate beliefin her son’s greatness and creative genius. Herwords resonate with those of Edwina Williams, whoonce stated, “I’m just like any mother who thinksher son is of course a genius always” (Brown, 118).

The figure of Williams’s mother, possessed of adevotion to her children “to the point of oblitera-tion” (Brown, 107), at once fiercely loyal, yet simul-taneously hypercritical, is featured prominentlythroughout the Williams canon. She is a figurewho, as a result of “too much love,” reinforces herpoet-son’s sense of otherness and isolation and ulti-mately drives him away. This theme is vividly illus-trated in Steps Must Be Gentle, in which, althoughGrace reiterates that she is in Hart’s blood, and hein hers, and he confesses that Grace was the “cen-tral concern to my being as the heart of my body,”their words cannot compensate for the vast emo-tional and physical distance that has long existedand continues to exist between them. Mother andson remain strangers even in death.

Although Steps Must Be Gentle was published in1980, Gilbert Debusscher suggests that the playactually predates The Glass Menagerie. He makes astrong case that Steps served as an early templatefor Menagerie. However, the play’s expressionisticstyle and undeniable maturity of voice place itsquarely alongside the later works of Williams’s

dramatic canon. There are a finality and a feelingof coming full circle in the work, as if to reveal Tomand Amanda, Sebastian and Violet—and perhapsby extension Tennessee and Edwina—reunitedyears later.

The other important feature that makes StepsMust Be Gentle such an intriguing and significantwork is its uncompromising treatment of homosexu-ality. Hart and Grace openly discuss their conflictover his sexual orientation, a point of discord in theirlife together. Crane’s declaration and plea to hismother to acknowledge his sexual identity possess “aring of authentic feeling, coupled with a characteris-tically Williamsian will to endure” (Debusscher, 475).As Debusscher notes, at no other point in Williams’spublished work is homosexuality presented “morehonestly and simply.”

PRODUCTION HISTORYThere have been no professional production ofSteps Must Be Gentle.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSteps Must Be Gentle was published in a limited edi-tion by William Targ in 1980. Three hundred fiftycopies were printed and signed by Williams.

CHARACTERSCrane, Hart (1899–1932) Historical figure andone of two characters in Steps Must Be Gentle. HartCrane was one of Williams’s most important literaryinfluences. (Some scholars contend that Crane wasWilliams’s most central influence and principal artis-tic inspiration.) Williams admired Crane above allAmerican poets and believed Crane possessed one ofthe “purer voices in poetry” (Debusscher, 456).Williams ranked Crane’s poetry with that of Shake-speare, Keats, and Whitman (Where I Live, 2–3).

Crane’s poetry combined the influences of Euro-pean literature with a particularly American sensi-bility. His major book-length epic poem, The Bridge(1930), expresses a vision of the historical and spir-itual meaning of America. As did T. S. Eliot, Craneused the landscape of the modern industrializedcity to create a powerful new and symbolic litera-ture. Crane viewed himself as a marginalized figureas a result of his vocation as a poet within a capital-

262 Steps Must Be Gentle

ist economy and because of his sexual identity. As aresult, a major theme in Crane’s work is that of theartist as outcast in an urbanized world. In addition,he made a lifelong effort to find a means of express-ing his sexuality and making it meaningful for hisaudience. These ideals and ideas greatly inspiredWilliams and surfaced throughout his dramaticworks, such as BATTLE OF ANGELS, THE GLASS

MENAGERIE, CLOTHES FOR A SUMMER HOTEL,ORPHEUS DESCENDING, STAIRS TO THE ROOF, SUD-DENLY LAST SUMMER, and SOMETHING CLOUDY,SOMETHING CLEAR.

In Crane, Williams found a mirror of his own life,vocation, and ambition. He recognized their sharedpain—a deeply ingrained sense of loneliness and iso-lation. Their mutual sense of detachment sprangfrom being gay men living in a largely intolerantworld. Gilbert Debusscher is one of several scholarsto note the “truly stunning similarity of [Williams’s]and Crane’s formative years, family situations, andaspirations” (Debusscher, 460). These parallelsinclude similar small-town origins, families who con-sisted of a domineering mother and loving andsaintly grandmother, and a callous, emotionallyabsent, and unsupportive father. Williams and Cranewere plagued by the same professional and personaldemons: fear of failure, periods of self-doubt anddespair, and the continual fight for artistic legitimacy.Williams first had contact with Hart Crane’s poetrywhile he was a student at Washington University inSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI. He reportedly helped himselfto a volume of Crane’s collected poems that belongedto the university library. He took the book and kept itbecause it had not, in his opinion, received the read-ership it deserved (Debusscher, 456). Williams wouldlater declare that this one volume was his “onlylibrary and all of it” (ibid.).

Debusscher has also extensively outlined the“clear traces of [Crane’s] presence” in Williams’sworks, which include passing references in YOU

TOUCHED ME! (Mathilda Rockley claims that theromantic poetry she has written is dedicated to HartCrane) and NIGHT OF THE IGUANA (while painting aportrait of T. Lawrence Shannon, Hannah Jelkesrecalls a famous portrait of Hart Crane). The mottoof A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE is from the fifthstanza of Crane’s “The Broken Tower” (the poem

Crane finished a month before his death). Themotto for SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH was gleaned fromCrane’s poem “Legend.” The title of Williams’s playSUMMER AND SMOKE is from Crane’s poem“Emblems of Conduct”: “By that time summer andsmoke were past / Dolphins still played, arching thehorizons, / But only to build memories of spiritualgates” (Crane, 68). For Debusscher, Crane also“pervades the texture” of The Glass Menagerie with-out being explicitly mentioned or alluded to(Debusscher, 461). He also suggests that Williamsshaped the play’s title from Crane’s poem “TheWine Menagerie.” Both Debusscher and Nancy Tis-chler see Crane vividly represented in the dead poetson, Sebastian Venable, of Suddenly Last Summer.

Williams’s most overt dramatic treatment of, ortribute to, Hart Crane is the play Steps Must BeGentle, in which Crane appears as a characteralongside his mother, Grace Hart Crane. The play’stitle is taken from Crane’s poem “My Grand-mother’s Love Letters,” which includes the line“Over the greatness of such space / Steps must begentle” (Crane, 63). The play, which Williamscalled a dramatic reading for two performers, is animaginary afterlife duologue between the poet andhis mother. Hart Crane died on April 26, 1932,when he leapt from the stern of the ship Vera Cruzand plunged into the Caribbean Sea near theFlorida coastline while sailing back to the UnitedStates from Mexico. In his will, Williams requestedto be buried at sea near the location of Crane’s sui-cidal leap. In A Streetcar Named Desire the charac-ter Blanche Dubois echoes this request.

In 1965, Williams recorded selections of HartCrane’s poetry for Caedmon Records (TennesseeWilliams Reads Hart Crane). Williams also draftedthe liner notes for the album’s dust jacket. Many ofhis observations on the life and work of Hart Craneare strikingly appropriate for the playwright him-self: “Crane had lived and worked with such fearfulintensity—and without fearful intensity Crane wasunable to work at all. . . . He lived in a constantinner turmoil and storm that liquor, which hedrank recklessly, was no longer able to quieten, tohold in check.” Williams’s endearing closing linesof tribute to Crane are also equally appropriate forboth the playwright and his poet-hero: “Still there

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remains about him so much that escapes under-standing. But his poetry lives and burns and criesout with indestructible beauty.”

Crane, Grace Hart The mother of the Americanpoet Hart Crane, Grace conducts a fretful duologuewith her son in the afterlife, and the two reminis-cence about their troubled past together. Unable toconfront her son previously about his suicide or hissexuality, Grace now addresses these points withHart. She also declares herself his great defenderand informs her son that after his death, shedevoted her life to promoting his poetic genius andkeeping his legend alive. In many ways, this charac-ter bears striking similarities to Amanda Wingfield inTHE GLASS MENAGERIE, and by extension Williams’sown mother, EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS. Her mater-nal ferocity in protecting her son’s poetic legacy isalso mirrored in Violet Venable in SUDDENLY LAST

SUMMER. Williams became acquainted with GraceHart Crane before her death in 1947, and she gaveWilliams a scarf and a fan that once belonged to herpoet son.



Crane, Hart. The Complete Poems of Hart Crane,edited by Waldo Frank. Garden City, N.Y.: Double-day, 1958.

Debusscher, Gilbert. “Minting Their Separate Wills:Tennessee Williams and Hart Crane,” ModernDrama 26, no. 4 (December 1983): 455–476.

Williams, Tennessee. “Hart Crane,” Tennessee WilliamsReads Hart Crane, Caedmon Records, TC 1206,1965.

Williams, Tennessee. Where I Live: Selected Essays,edited by Christine R. Day and Bob Woods. NewYork: New Directions, 1978.

Stopped RockingA screenplay written in 1977.

SYNOPSISThe action of this screenplay takes places in 1975in Saint Carmine’s Sanatorium, a mental institu-tion near Saint Louis, and in various other localesin and around the city.

On Easter Sunday, Olaf Svenson arrives at SaintCarmine’s Sanatorium to visit his wife, Janet Sven-son. Olaf changes his mind and gives to SisterGrace the flowers he has for Janet. Sister Grimchastises Sister Grace for being very emotionallyinvolved with patients’ lives. Sister Grace deliversthe flowers to Janet, who is heartily disappointed.

In a classroom at the community college, AliciaTrout has just finished a class. She stands near awindow, wearing a sheer blouse. Stuart, one of herstudents, becomes so captivated by her beauty thathe attempts to place his hands on her breasts. Ali-cia reprimands Stuart as Olaf enters the room. Ali-cia chastises Olaf for visiting Janet and for refusingto divorce her.

In the dayroom at Saint Carmine’s, Janet playsbridge with Madge and Gloria. Janet and Madgenotice that Sophie has slowed the pace of her rock-ing in her rocking chair. Madge fears that Sophiehas “retired from life.” Gloria discovers a note onher door indicating that Gloria will be given a seriesof shock therapy treatments the following day.

The next day Janet is summoned to see the headphysician, Dr. J. Planter Cash. Dr. Cash makesJanet nervous and agitated. He observes her coldlyand takes copious notes during their conversation.Dr. Cash informs Janet that he is going to allow herhusband to take her for a weekend outing in theOzark Mountains. On the day of the scheduledouting, Olaf does not arrive, and Janet is severelydisappointed. Later, Dr. Cash informs Janet thatOlaf has requested that Janet be transferred toanother institution.

Alicia and Olaf sit watching television in theirapartment. As Olaf tries to watch baseball, Aliciastarts another argument about Janet. She wantsOlaf to divorce Janet so that they can marry. Olafdecides that he will take Janet to the Ozarks thenext weekend to break the news to her.

Olaf collects Janet from Saint Carmine’s in hiscamper. As they travel to the Ozarks, Janet canhardly contain her excitement. Olaf stops to call

264 Stopped Rocking

Alicia, who is in their apartment having an inti-mate dinner with her student, Stuart. As the jour-ney continues, Olaf is distracted by Janet’s behaviorand they are involved in several nearly serious traf-fic incidents. After being hit by another car frombehind, Olaf and Janet are so shaken that theyboth leave the camper and vomit in the bushes.Olaf calls Alicia; she and Stuart are slowly becom-ing more intimately involved.

Once they arrive at the Ozark campsite, Olafand Janet try to connect and manage one poignantembrace, but ultimately their dialogue is unsuccess-ful. Olaf tells Janet his plans for the future with Ali-cia. Janet takes one of her tablets, and she and Olaftry to sleep. Janet wakes during the night. Olaf isseverely irritated by Janet and her repeated requeststhat they drive higher into the mountains. When hereaches his wit’s end, he forces Janet to take anexcessive amount of her prescribed medication. Themedication alters her severely. She rushes out of thecamper and has a vision of the Apparition of FatherO’Donnell. Father O’Donnell speaks kindly to herand assures her that she has been “absolved.” Janetthanks Father O’Donnell but informs him that she“has to keep moving. Can’t stop rocking.” She runstoward the river and wades into the water. Olafwatches her from the trailer as she founders,splashes, and sinks in the water. Eventually he helpsher and carries her back to the trailer.

The next day Olaf returns Janet to SaintCarmine’s. Janet is now completely withdrawn. Shehas “stopped rocking” and has resigned herself tosilence. She is whisked away in a wheelchair, as Dr.Cash orders that she be placed on the ninth floor,“the vegetable garden.”

COMMENTARYIn Stopped Rocking, Williams vividly and poignantlydepicts the humiliation and indignities often sufferedby patients in mental institutions. Janet’s painfulstory is one of great loss, the loss of love, liberty,pride, and human dignity. Sister Grace is the onlysource of humanity and affection in Janet’s world.However, Sister Grace is significantly outnumberedby those with more authority at the asylum, such asSister Grim and Dr. Cash. Through this “dark work”Williams hoped to make audiences aware of the

indignities mental patients suffer, in an effort to shiftthe balance toward “the light of humanity” (Wil-liams, author’s note, 295). As Richard Gilman sug-gests, it is not at all far-fetched to assume thatWilliams’s loving sympathy for Janet and her fellowpatients was largely informed by his enduring love ofhis sister, ROSE WILLIAMS, who suffered from mentalillness.

PRODUCTION HISTORYStopped Rocking has not been filmed or producedprofessionally.

PUBLICATION HISTORYStopped Rocking was first published in Stopped Rock-ing and Other Screenplays (1984).

CHARACTERSApparition of Father O’Donnell FatherO’Donnell is the much-loved former head physi-cian at St. Carmine’s Sanatorium. All of his formerpatients, particularly Janet Svenson, remember himfondly. When her husband, Olaf Svenson, forcesher to take an overdose of her medication, Janethas a vision of Father O’Donnell.

Cash, Dr. J. Planter The insensitive residentphysician at St. Carmine’s Sanatorium. Unlike hispredecessor, Father O’Donnell, Dr. Cash is insensi-tive in his dealings with his mentally ill patients.His callousness frustrates and confuses his good-natured patient, Janet Svenson, and as a result, herefuses to believe that she is getting well.

Gloria She is a 72-year-old mental patient atSaint Carmine’s. She disrupts Madge’s bridge gamewhen she discovers a sign on a door indicating thatshe will be given a series of electrical shock therapytreatments the following day.

Madge An aggressive mental patient at SaintCarmine’s Sanatorium. Playing bridge is the onlyjoy in Madge’s life at Saint Carmine’s. She becomesseverely agitated when other inmates are too dazedor confused to play the game correctly or whenthey disrupt or halt her games.

Stopped Rocking 265

Sister Grace She is a caring attendant at SaintCarmine’s Sanatorium in Saint Louis. As her namesuggests, she approaches the women in her care withdelicacy and affection. She takes special care of oneof her favorite patients, Janet Svenson. In this shesharply contrasts with her counterpart, Sister Grim.

Sister Grim As her name suggests, Sister Grim isa sour and unpleasant nun who reluctantly caresfor patients at Saint Carmine’s Sanatorium nearSaint Louis. Unlike her counterpart, Sister Grace,Sister Grim badgers and antagonizes the mentallyill women in the asylum.

Sophie Sophie is an elderly mental patient inSaint Carmine’s Sanatorium. The title of the screen-play is a reference to her. When first admitted to theasylum Sophie sat in her rocking chair each day androcked ferociously. This action expressed her willand determination to live. As she lost that will, herrocking slowed, until she eventually stopped rockingaltogether. Madge declares that Sophie has “retiredfrom life.”

Stuart Stuart is a community college studentwho is having an affair with his physics teacher,Alicia Trout. He visits Alicia while her long-termlover, Olaf Svenson, is away visiting his wife, JanetSvenson, at Saint Carmine’s Sanatorium.

Svenson, Janet Janet is a mentally disturbedwoman who has been an inmate at Saint Carmine’sSanatorium for five years. Her husband, Olaf Sven-son, has moved on with his life and for the last fiveyears has had a relationship with Alicia Trout. Olaf,however, does not have the heart to divorce or aban-don Janet. Ultimately, he resorts to cowardly tacticsto rid himself of her by arranging that she be trans-ferred to an asylum away from Saint Louis. Beforeher transfer, Olaf takes Janet for a weekend outing inthe Ozarks, and during the trip he forces her to takemore medication than has been prescribed. Janet,who was formerly a speech therapist, met Olaf whilehelping him to overcome a speech impediment.

Svenson, Olaf Olaf is the tormented handsomehusband of Janet Svenson. Janet is a long-term

mental patient at Saint Carmine’s Sanatorium. Shehas been in treatment for nearly five years. Olaf hasestablished a long-term relationship with AliciaTrout, an attractive community college physicsteacher, and is searching for a guilt-free way to ter-minate his relationship with Janet. Ultimately, heresorts to cowardly tactics to rid himself of her byrequesting that she be transferred to an asylumaway from Saint Louis. Before her transfer, Olaftakes Janet for a weekend outing in the Ozarks, andduring the trip he forces her to take more medica-tion than has been prescribed for her.

Trout, Alicia Alicia is an attractive communitycollege physics teacher who has a complicated rela-tionship with Olaf Svenson. Olaf’s wife, Janet Sven-son, is mentally ill and has been confined to a mentalinstitution for five years. Olaf has moved on with hislife and has been in a relationship with Alicia for thelast five years. Much to Alicia’s dismay, he does nothave the heart to divorce or abandon Janet.Described as a “mathematical bombshell,” Alicia hasan unsentimental view of love. She delights in herown physical attractiveness and dallies with Stuart,one of her students, while Olaf is away visiting Janet.

FURTHER READINGGilman, Richard. “Introduction,” in Stopped Rocking

and Other Screenplays. New York: New Directions,1984, p. xi.

Williams, Tennessee. “Author’s Note,” in StoppedRocking and Other Screenplays. New York: NewDirections, 1984, p. 295.

The Strangest Kind of Romance


SYNOPSISThe setting is a boardinghouse in a factory town.

Scene 1The Landlady (Mrs. Gallaway) shows Musso theroom she has for rent. She warns him that the pre-vious tenant had a terrible strain of luck caused by

266 The Strangest Kind of Romance

Nitchevo, the stray cat that occupies the room.Musso takes a liking to the cat and, ignoring super-stition, rents the room. Mrs. Gallaway explains thatshe has an invalid husband who also lives on thepremises. She likes Musso so she decides to helphim get a job at the local plant. When an Old Manenters the room, Mrs. Gallaway introduces him asher father-in-law. She promises to visit Musso.

Scene 2In late winter, Musso grows unhappy with his life.He hates the exhausting work at the plant, and hisonly friend is Nitchevo. While dressing for bed, hehears a knock at his door. Mrs. Gallaway appearswearing a soiled negligee. She admits that her hus-band is of no use to her sexually and hopes thatMusso will have an affair with her, as had the manwho previously rented the room. Musso warns heragainst becoming involved with him, as he ismerely a “ghost of a man.” Mrs. Gallaway tellsMusso that “nature says—don’t be lonely” as shecaresses his shoulder.

Scene 3Late one winter night, Musso enters his room cov-ered with snow. He sets out cream for Nitchevo,and the Old Man enters his room. The Old Manwarns Musso not to become too devoted toNitchevo and complains that the plant will not hirehim because of his age. The Old Man becomes hys-terical and breaks a windowpane. Mrs. Gallawaybursts through the door with a police officer. Mussoseduces the woman in order to keep Nitchevo.

Scene 4Several months later, Musso has moved out of theboardinghouse. He returns in search of Nitchevo.There is a new lodger (the Boxer) in his old room.Musso explains to him that he was laid off at theplant and committed to a mental institution. Mrs.Gallaway informs Musso that his belongings havebeen stored for him. She proudly admits that she hasgotten rid of Nitchevo. Musso insults her, and sheslaps him. The Boxer intervenes by throwing Mussoout the door. Unexpectedly, Musso finds Nitchevo ina nearby alleyway. Watching from the upstairs win-dow, Mrs. Gallaway remarks that the “ghost of aman” and the cat are departing together—“the fun-niest pair of lovers!”

COMMENTARYIn The Strangest Kind of Romance Williams illus-trates the importance of love and trust in a ruth-less, cold world. Musso is extremely lonely, to thepoint that his life has become transparent. He iden-tifies himself as a ghost in the living world. Escap-ing the harshness of life is impossible for him. Thebitter winter air swirls around him during his crueldays of factory work. His only source of emotionalsecurity is the cat, and the only times he feels aliveare in the sexual encounters with his aggressivelandlady. Musso is consumed by the mendacity ofhis life, and his source of companionship isNitchevo, a stray animal.

The Old Man warns Musso of the fleeting natureof his relationship with Nitchevo, but Musso is solonely that he disregards the advice. Teetering onthe brink of insanity, Musso falls headlong into astate of mental frailty and is forced to leave withoutNitchevo. When he recovers and goes in search ofthe cat, he finds that he has been replaced at theboardinghouse; the discovery supports his beliefthat he is insignificant, merely a ghost.

The factory town of The Strangest Kind ofRomance resembles Saint Louis during Williams’s lifethere. In this autobiographical mirroring, Williamscreates a Musso who is lonely and emotionallyfraught as well as physically trapped in an industrialand depressing setting. Williams often wrote of hismiserable life in Saint Louis, where he was ridiculedand misunderstood. Musso is a drifter who landshimself in a city like Saint Louis of the 1930s and isnegatively affected by the dinginess and desperationof a life in the dank factory. Williams’s unhappyhome life contributed to his misery in the metropo-lis, and his isolation is made manifest in Musso.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Strangest Kind of Romance was first produced atTheatre de Champs Elysees, Paris, 1960.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis play was first published in 27 WAGONS FULL

OF COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).This one-act play is based on the short story, “THE

MALEDICTION.”

The Strangest Kind of Romance 267

CHARACTERSLandlady The Landlady, who is also referred toas Miss Gallaway, is a middle-aged woman whoruns a boardinghouse. Because her husband is aninvalid, she seeks out sexual relationships with hermale boarders. She plays the balalaika and hatesMusso’s cat, Nitchevo.

Musso A frail and weak man who is given thenickname “Musso” by his Landlady. When Mussomoves into Miss Gallaway’s boardinghouse hebefriends the cat Nitchevo, who also occupies hisroom.

Old Man He is the father-in-law of the Land-lady. An alcoholic, the Old Man is thrown out ofthe boardinghouse for fraternizing with the tenantslate one night.

A Streetcar Named DesireA full-length play written in 1947.

SYNOPSISThe setting is an old house that has been turnedinto two apartments. It is located in Elysian Fields,a section of the French Quarter of New Orleans.The action takes place in the downstairs two-roomapartment rented by the Kowalskis.

Scene 1Stella Kowalski relaxes in a shabby armchair inthe bedroom of the small apartment. She eatschocolates and reads a movie magazine. Stella’shusband, Stanley Kowalski, enters, carrying apackage of meat dripping with blood and yellingfor his wife. Stanley tosses the meat to Stella, whocatches it in a surprised reaction. Stanley leaves togo bowling with his friends, and Stella decides totag along. She hurriedly primps in the living roommirror, quickly closes the apartment door behindher, and says hello to Eunice Hubbell and a NegroWoman who are sitting on the landing. As sheexits, the two women laugh about Stanley’s lackof manners.

Blanche DuBois enters. She is carrying a smallsuitcase and a piece of paper. She is a fadingSouthern belle, whose appearance suggests she isgoing to a garden party, but her search for her sis-ter, Stella, has landed her in the slums of theFrench Quarter. Eunice notices the confusedBlanche, and she asks whether she is lost. Blancheexplains that she was instructed to take a streetcarnamed Desire to Elysian Fields via a streetcarcalled Cemetery. Eunice informs her that she isindeed in the right place. Eunice lets her into theKowalskis’ apartment to wait for Stella while theNegro Woman fetches Stella from the bowlingalley. Blanche has arrived unannounced, and sheis shocked to discover Stella living in such a dis-mal place.

Blanche searches for a drink, and Stella enters.The two sisters are ecstatic to be reunited. Blanchespeaks excitedly, overwhelming Stella with criti-cism of the apartment. Stella is speechless and hurtby these remarks, and she notices that Blanche isshaking and anxious. Stella is concerned by her sis-ter’s behavior, and she attempts to calm her nervesby offering her a drink. Blanche urges Stella toexplain why she is living in such depressing condi-tions. Blanche says she has taken a leave of absencefrom her high school teaching job. She says thatshe is having a difficult time and needed a break.Blanche mentions the weight Stella has gained,and she compliments her on her appearance; how-ever, Stella knows that her sister is being critical.Blanche demands that Stella stand so she can fullyanalyze the size of her hips, her less than perfecthaircut. She asks Stella about having a maid, butthe Kowalskis’ apartment only consists of tworooms. Blanche is horrified by this news. She poursanother drink to curb her intolerance of the place.Blanche has been lonely; she feels her sister aban-doned her when she left Mississippi and their fatherdied. Blanche admits that she is not well. Stellainsists that her sister stay at the apartment, and shedirects her to a folding bed. She insists that Stanleywill not mind the lack of privacy, as he is Polish.Stella advises her sister that Stanley is unlike theSouthern gentlemen they knew back in Laurel,Mississippi. She confesses he is ill mannered, butshe is madly in love with him.

268 A Streetcar Named Desire

Blanche confesses that she has lost Belle Reve,the family plantation. Blanche expresses her resent-ment of her sister because she was “in bed with[her] Polack” while Blanche scraped and clawed tohold on to Belle Reve. Stella is very upset to knowthat they have lost their homestead. Blanche bit-terly blames the foreclosure on the many deaths inthe family. Blanche is plagued with guilt, as well asbeing hopelessly adrift, and she projects her feelingsof loss onto Stella, who runs into the bathroom toescape her sister’s wrath.

Stanley returns home. He shouts to his friends,Steve Hubbell and Mitch (Harold Mitchell), fromthe stairwell. Blanche speaks to him before henotices her presence. Stanley is cordial to her andasks for Stella, who has locked herself away in thebathroom. He offers Blanche another shot ofwhiskey, noticing that the bottle has already beensampled. Blanche declines the offer, stating that sherarely drinks. Her obvious dishonesty spurs Stanleyto ask some very personal questions regarding herpast, namely, about her husband. He sheds hissweaty shirt to find relief in the summer heat andwelcomes her to stay with them. Upset by his med-dlesome inquiries, Blanche replies that her younghusband is dead. She grows nauseous discussing thissubject and has to sit down to regain her composure.

Scene 2Around six o’clock the following evening, Blancheand Stella plan to have dinner out and see a moviewhile Stanley and his friends have a poker night inthe apartment. While Blanche readies herself in thebathroom, Stella tells Stanley that Belle Reve hasbeen lost. She also warns him not to mention thatshe is pregnant because Blanche is already so unsta-ble. Stanley is most concerned with the loss of theestate. He suspects Blanche sold the plantation andkept all of the profits for herself. Referring to theNapoleonic Code, Stanley wants to know whether hehas been swindled. To find proof of the foreclosure herummages through Blanche’s trunk. Appraising thefurs and jewelry she has, he urges Stella to acknowl-edge that Blanche has deceived her. Stella fears thelooming confrontation, so she escapes to the porch.

When Blanche emerges from her hot bath andrealizes that Stella is not around, she flirts with

Stanley as a means of winning him over; however,he is interested only in the profits from Belle Reve.When Stanley accuses Blanche of selling the plan-tation and keeping all of the money, she insists thatshe has never cheated anyone in her life. She says,“I know I fib a good deal. After all, a woman’scharm is fifty percent illusion, but when a thing isimportant, I tell the truth.” Stanley rifles throughthe trunk again, searching for documents that willprove Blanche is lying. Stanley discovers yellowingletters held together by aging ribbons, and he with-holds these visibly precious items until she pulls twomanila envelopes from her belongings. Blanche saysthat his touch has contaminated her cherished loveletters. She tells Stanley that this paperwork is allthat is left of the plantation, and he continues berat-ing her by demanding to know how she could allowthe foreclosure to happen. Blanche recoils withanger and retorts that the plantation has been lostby generations of negligent men who “exchangedthe land for their epic fornications.” Stanley intendsto have the documents read by a lawyer friend, andBlanche invites him to do so. Now that Stanley hasbeen proved wrong, he justifies his concern with thefact that Stella is pregnant. This is a happy digres-sion for Blanche, who is genuinely excited by thisinformation. When Stella returns, Blanche expressesher joy about the baby. She brags that she handledStanley and even flirted with him. The two sistersleave as Stanley’s friends arrive for their poker night.

Scene 3Later that night in the Kowalski apartment, Stanleyand his friends are still drinking and playing cards.Stella and Blanche return at 2:30 A.M., and Stanleyasks them to visit Eunice until the game is over.When Stella does not comply, Stanley slaps herbackside as a means of countering her disobediencein front of his friends. Blanche is intrigued by Mitch,who is uninterested in the poker game because he isworried about his ailing mother. Blanche is immedi-ately attracted to his sensitivity. The two introducethemselves. Mitch offers her a cigarette, showing herthe inscription on his cigarette case. She immedi-ately recognizes it as the poetry of Elizabeth BarrettBrowning. Mitch explains the case is from a formergirlfriend who died. Mitch’s story of his former lover

A Streetcar Named Desire 269

resonates with Blanche’s own sense of loss of heryoung husband, Allan Grey. She tells Mitch, “Sor-row makes for sincerity,” and continues, “Show me aperson that hasn’t known sorrow and I’ll show you asuperficial person.” She asks Mitch to cover thenaked lightbulb with a Chinese lantern she recentlypurchased.

Stanley grows more inebriated and increasinglyirritated by the music Blanche is playing. He crossesthe room, rips the radio from the wall, and throws itout of the window. He hits Stella when she tries tostop him. Humiliated and stunned, Stella runs intothe kitchen area and orders Stanley’s friends to leave.Stanley chases and attacks Stella. Blanche begsMitch to stop him, and the men restrain Stanley onthe sofa. Blanche whisks Stella to Eunice’s apartmentupstairs while the men attempt to sober Stanley.After a cold shower, he stumbles out of the bath-room, goes out onto the porch, and yells up to Stella.He continues to shout for Stella, who descends thestairs and returns to him. Stanley falls to his knees,pressing his head against her legs. Kissing passion-ately, the couple retreat to their bedroom. Blancheruns down after Stella. When she discovers themmaking love, she is angered by her sister’s weakness.Mitch calls out to Blanche. They share another ciga-rette. Blanche is thankful for Mitch’s kindness.

Scene 4Early the next morning, Blanche returns to theKowalski apartment after spending the night atEunice and Steve’s apartment. When she realizesStella is alone, she hugs her with nervous con-cern. Stella, on the other hand, is cheerful andcontent. Stella blames liquor and poker for Stan-ley’s behavior. She explains to her sister that shegets a thrill from her husband’s extreme actions.Blanche is infuriated. She says Stella has married a“madman.” While Blanche devises an escape planfor them, Stella tidies the apartment. Stella saysshe is happy with Stanley. Blanche is still bewil-dered by Stella’s cool resignation.

Blanche remembers an old beau, Shep Huntleigh,whom she plans to call on for their escape, but Stelladoes not want to be rescued. Blanche comparesStanley to an ape. During this conversation, Stanleyhas returned unnoticed. He has heard everything

that has been said. All of Blanche’s persuading hasbeen in vain: When Stella sees Stanley, she runsover and jumps into his arms.

Scene 5Blanche has been living at the Kowalskis’ apart-ment for three months. While she finishes writing aletter to Shep about imaginary cocktail parties shehas been attending, Stanley enters. He slams draw-ers and creates noise to express his irritation byBlanche’s presence. To provoke Stanley, she askshim his astrological sign. He remarks that he is aCapricorn (the goat) and Blanche replies she isVirgo, the sign of the virgin. Stanley laughs andasks her about a man by the last name of Shaw whoclaims to have spent an evening with Blanche atthe Flamingo Hotel. Blanche adamantly denies thisaccusation, but her face registers panic and alarm.Stanley is victorious and exits to go bowling.

Blanche becomes hysterical. She asks Stellawhether she has heard rumors about her, but Stellagracefully denounces gossip. Blanche confesses thatshe did not maintain a good reputation when shewas losing Belle Reve. She admits her fears of beinga “soft” person, of needing people too much, and ofher fading beauty. Blanche fears she will not be ableto “turn the trick” much longer because she is visi-bly aging. She also confesses that she lied about herage to Mitch because she wants him to fall in lovewith her. Blanche has presented an illusion of her-self as a prim and proper woman to Mitch. Stella isaccustomed to Blanche’s nervous tirades, and shepays little attention to what her sister is actuallysaying. Stella comforts her by pouring her a drink.A young boy stops by the apartment selling news-papers. On his way out, Blanche calls him backinside and kisses him. Blanche chastises herself forputting “her hands” on the boy. He leaves andMitch arrives with a bouquet of roses for her.

Scene 6Later that night, Blanche and Mitch return from adisappointing date. Blanche blames herself for thedull evening. Mitch asks whether he may kiss hergood night, and she consents but says their actionscan go no further because she is a single woman.Stanley and Stella are not home, so Blanche invites


Mitch in for a nightcap. Blanche plays the coquettewhile Mitch perspires with desire for her. While shesearches for a bottle of whiskey, Blanche asks Mitchin French whether he would like to sleep with her.She comments that it is a good thing Mitch doesnot understand French. She encourages him to takeoff his coat, but he is embarrassed by his sweatiness.Blanche asserts that he is just a healthy man.

When Mitch suggests that the four of them goout together sometime, Blanche makes it clear thatStanley hates her. She asks whether Stanley hassaid anything derogatory about her. Mitch repliesthat he does not understand how Stanley couldbehave so rudely to her. Blanche says she plans toleave as soon as Stella has the baby.

Mitch asks Blanche her age, and Blanche refusesto answer. He explains that he asks because he has

been with his mother talking about her. Blanchepresumes Mitch will be very lonely when his motherdies. She explains that she knows this sort of loneli-ness firsthand because her one true love has passedaway. She tells Mitch about Allan’s tenderness andsensitivity and says that she never understood himuntil she discovered he was having an affair with anolder man. Blanche explains that Allan needed herto help him, but she could not see what was hap-pening until it was too late. She confronted himwhile they were drunk at a dance at Moon LakeCasino. Her words provoked him to run to the edgeof the lake and commit suicide. She can still hearthe polka music that was playing during the time.Blanche cannot forgive herself for condemningAllan’s desires and pushing him to such drasticmeasures. She compares her love for Allan to a


Production photograph for the Broadway production of A Streetcar Named Desire, starring Jessica Tandy as BlancheDu Bois, Marlon Brando as Stanley Kowalski, and Kim Hunter as Stella Kowalski. (Photographer: Eileen Darby.Photograph courtesy of The Billy Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

“blinding light.” Mitch answers that they are bothlonely, and they both need someone. The polkatune that continually plays in Blanche’s mindceases. Mitch and Blanche embrace with thoughtsof marriage.

Scene 7Several weeks later, Stanley arrives home after aday of work to find the apartment decorated forBlanche’s birthday party. He is disgruntled to knowthat Blanche is taking a hot bath, making theapartment even hotter and increasingly unbear-able. Stanley proudly announces to Stella that hehas found out the real story behind her sister’sextended visit. She was fired from her teaching jobbecause she had an indecent relationship with a17-year-old boy and set up residency at theFlamingo Hotel, which she was then forced toleave because of her sexual excesses. She hasbecome the laughingstock of Laurel, Mississippi.Stella is profoundly stunned by this information,and she tries to defend Blanche by explaining thetragic situation with Allan. Stanley informs Stellathat he felt it was his duty to warn his friend aboutBlanche. Blanche calls for a towel and notices astrained expression on Stella’s face, but Stellaassures her nothing is wrong. Stella is fraught withworry about what will happen to Blanche now thatMitch is likely to abandon her. Stanley implies thatMitch may not be through with Blanche, but hecertainly will not marry her. He remarks that hebought Blanche a bus ticket back to Laurel. Stanleyyells for Blanche to get out of the bathroom so thathe can use it. Sensing something is wrong, Blanchecautiously enters the room.

Scene 8Nearly one hour passes. Stella, Stanley, andBlanche are eating dinner. Blanche is trying toignore the empty chair where Mitch would be sit-ting. Blanche tries to lighten the mood of the partyby telling a joke, but no one finds it funny. Stellasays Stanley is “too busy making a pig of himself.”She instructs him to wash up and help her cleanthe table. Stanley flies into a rage, sweeping thetable’s contents to the floor, and declares that he isthe king in his home. When Stanley leaves thetable and goes out onto the porch, Blanche begs

Stella to tell her what is going on. Blanche callsMitch’s home while Stella chastises her husband forpassing rumors to Mitch. Stanley presents the busticket to Blanche. She runs into the bedroom cry-ing. Stella yells at Stanley for being so terrible toBlanche. Stanley reminds his wife that she loves hiscommonness, especially at night in their bedroom.As he shouts for Blanche, Stella doubles over withpain. She is rushed to the hospital.

Scene 9Later that evening, Blanche sits alone in the dark-ness of the apartment drinking liquor. Mitch enterswearing his work uniform. Although he is dirty andunshaven, she admits that she is happy to see him,as his presence stops the polka music that other-wise persistently plays in her mind. She searches formore liquor to serve him, but he declines drinkingStanley’s liquor. Mitch inquires why Blanche keepsthe apartment so dark and insists on seeing himonly at night. He wants to turn on the light, butBlanche begs him to allow the magic (illusions) tocontinue. When he wrenches the lantern off thelightbulb, Blanche’s aged face is revealed. He pro-ceeds to tell her what he has heard about herpromiscuous life in Laurel. Blanche immediatelypleads that after Allan and the loss of Belle Reve,she could only find relief from the pain in the armsof strangers. A vendor is heard outside selling flow-ers for the dead. This sparks Blanche to talk aboutall of the deaths in her life. She says she was“played out” when she finally landed in NewOrleans. She found solace and love with Mitch,believing that she could possibly find happiness andrest. Mitch embraces her, and she pleads for mar-riage. Mitch says she is unsuitable. He pulls her hairand demands the physical intimacy she has deniedhim all summer. Blanche orders him to leave, andwhen he does not, she runs to the window andshouts, “Fire!” This action prompts Mitch to leave.

Scene 10A few hours later, Blanche is still alone and drinkingheavily. She is wearing an old gown and a rhinestonetiara. Stanley enters carrying liquor. He informsBlanche that Stella will not have the baby before themorning, so he has come home. Blanche is nervousabout being in the apartment alone with Stanley all


night. Stanley laughs at her and questions her attire.Blanche announces that she has received a telegramfrom Shep Huntleigh, inviting her on a cruise to theCaribbean. Stanley retreats to the bedroom and col-lects the red silk pajamas he wore on his weddingnight. When he returns, Blanche says that Mitchcame by begging for forgiveness, but she simplycould not forgive his cruelty. Stanley angrilydenounces her lies. Blanche rushes to the telephoneand pleads with the operator to connect her withShep Huntleigh. When she puts down the phone,Stanley corners her. Blanche retreats to the bed-room, where she smashes a bottle to use as a weaponagainst him. Stanley lunges at her, grabs the bottle,and gathers Blanche in his arms. She fights him, buthe overpowers her, stating that they have had thisdate with each other from the moment she arrived.

Scene 11Several weeks later, Stella cries as she packsBlanche’s belongings. Eunice holds the baby whileStanley and his friends play poker. Stella wonderswhether she is doing the right thing in sending hersister to the state institution. Eunice responds thatif Stella wants to save her marriage, she mustbelieve that Stanley did not rape her sister. Blancheenters from the bathroom with a “hysterical vivac-ity.” She asks whether Shep has called while shedresses. The doorbell sounds and a doctor andattendant enter to collect Blanche. Blanche wantsto leave the apartment, but she does not want to beseen by Mitch, Stanley, and the other men. Whenshe sees that the man at the door is not Shep, shetries to run back into the apartment. Stanley blocksher way. He cruelly tells her that all she has left inthis apartment is the paper lantern hanging overthe lightbulb. He tears it down and hands it to her.Blanche screams, and Stella rushes to the porch,where Eunice comforts her. The doctor and atten-dant wrestle Blanche to the ground to restrain her.

Mitch attacks Stanley, blaming him forBlanche’s condition. The men fight and theirfriends pull them apart. Blanche is helped to herfeet. The doctor helps her to the door and she saysthat she has “always depended on the kindness ofstrangers.” Stella is heartbroken by the scene. Shesobs while the doctor escorts Blanche out of the

apartment. Stanley consoles Stella by fondling herbreasts. Steve announces the next round of poker.

COMMENTARYWhen asked about the meaning of A StreetcarNamed Desire, Williams responded, “the ravishmentof the tender, the sensitive, the delicate, by the sav-age and brutal forces of modern society” (Haskell,230). All the characters in Streetcar have been rav-ished by life to some degree. Although Stanleyclearly functions as the most damaging force againstBlanche, he, too, has also been forced to grow uptoo quickly as he spent his youth as a soldier servingin World War II. Reintegration into a mundane,peaceful world does not keep him fulfilled. He ismoody and restless, and his animalistic tendenciesare challenged by the overly refined Blanche.

Stella is a submissive character, placed in themiddle of a war between gentrified society, repre-sented by Blanche, and the rugged, practical worldof the working class personified by Stanley. In warthere are the victors and the vanquished. Blancheultimately suffers the most damaging defeat, beinginstitutionalized, while Stanley continues to brutal-ize his way through life.

In the opening scene of the play, Stanley appearscarrying a package of bloody meat, which immedi-ately establishes his primitive nature. In stark con-trast, Blanche enters the scene wearing white.Williams compares her to a moth, symbolically stress-ing her fragility, purity, and virtue. Her pristine attireserves as an effective camouflage for her sordid past.As Chance Wayne (in SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH),Sebastian Venable (in SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER),and Lot (in KINGDOM OF EARTH, OR THE SEVEN

DESCENTS OF MYRTLE) do, by wearing white, Blancheuses her clothing to disguise her “degenerate” self-perception. Her name, which is French, literallymeans “white of the woods.” Out of her unlucky anddesperate wilderness, Blanche enters the Kowalskiapartment a transformed, mothlike creature ofnature, recast as a virginal character. Although shehas been a prostitute, Blanche prefers to believe inher renewed chasteness. She lives in a world of illu-sion and believes that her sexual encounters withstrangers never constituted love; therefore, she neverforfeited any aspect of her true self.


As has Karen Stone in THE ROMAN SPRING OF

MRS. STONE, Blanche has an aversion to beingviewed in bright light that will reveal her true age.As early as the first scene, she asks Stella to turnoff the overhead light. Blanche is most comfort-able in the warm glow of a lamp that allows her toplay the part of the innocent coquette completely.She lies about her age when she courts Mitch andavoids spending time with him in daylight. WhenMitch returns in the final meeting with her, heinsists on tearing the lantern off the overhead lightso that he may finally have a good look at her.When Blanche asks why he wants the glare ofbright light, he says he is just being realistic.Blanche replies:

I don’t want realism. I want—magic! . . . Yes,yes, magic! I try to give that to people. I do mis-represent things to them. I don’t tell the truth, Itell what ought to be the truth. And if that’s asin, then let me be damned for it! Don’t turn thelight on!

Of course, Stanley has informed him that shehas been lying about everything. However, hermothlike, youthful facade is not just used to foolMitch; it is an integral part of who she is. Blanchewishes she could actually be what she pretends tobe. She resigns from reality because it has been tooharsh. The “magic” in which she chooses to dwellis her only means of survival, as her suffering hasbeen so great. She fears that looking her age willfurther discredit her in a world that has alreadydiscarded her.

Blanche also drinks heavily, while pretending toadhere to a Southern gender code that restrictswell-bred women from drinking in company or inpublic. This is another aspect of playing the inno-cent coquette. Late in the play, Mitch informsBlanche that Stanley has talked about how muchof his liquor she has consumed, and she realizesthat her subterfuge has failed.

Although it is a means of comfort and relief,alcohol has long been a source of shame and regretfor Blanche. She particularly regrets her drunkencriticism of Allan because she did not mean thewords that drove him to take his own life. LeonardBerkman suggests:

It is not the existence of Allan’s homosexualitythat signals the failure of Blanche’s marriage; itis, rather, that Blanche must uncover this infor-mation by accident, that Blanche is incapableof responding compassionately to this informa-tion, that in short there never existed a mar-riage between them in which Allan could cometo her in full trust and explicit needs. (“TheTragic Downfall of Blanche DuBois,” 2)

Blanche responded to Allan’s sexuality with asense of wounded pride, and as Brick in CAT ON A

HOT TIN ROOF does to his friend Skipper, she spendsthe rest of her life regretting that she did not loveand accept him. Blanche responded too harshly. Sheloved Allan and truly believed in their marriage;however, she lived in a romantic world of delusionuntil she witnessed a real moment when Allan washaving sex with another man, which completelyshattered the illusion. As Blanche explains to Mitch:

[Allan] was in the quicksand clutching at me—but I wasn’t holding him out, I was slipping inwith him! I didn’t know that. I didn’t know any-thing except I loved him unendurably but with-out being able to help him or help myself.

In this instance, it was Blanche who was cruellyresponsible for the ravishment (or abuse) of onethat was “tender, sensitive, and delicate.”

Allan Grey’s suicide scene is reminiscent of thefinal scene in The Seagull by ANTON CHEKHOV (seeTHE NOTEBOOK OF TRIGORIN). When Konstantincan no longer endure his life and the knowledge thathe must live without the love he desires, he is drawnto the lake (like a seagull) and shoots himself. Kon-stantin and Allan are tragically similar characters,who are gravely misunderstood by those aroundthem. Williams was enamored of Chekhov’s charac-ters, finding them dynamically flawed and powerfullypresent. Chekhov’s dramaturgical influence is inher-ent in Streetcar, as the psychological reality of thecharacters creates the dramatic tension and fuels theaction to an unavoidable conclusion.

Blanche tells the story of her homosexual hus-band to Mitch, who could very easily assume thatBlanche and Allan’s marriage was never consum-mated. Even through her tragically truthful tales


Blanche continues to create the illusion that she isprim and virginal. This makes the news of herpromiscuous past more shocking and insulting toMitch, who has respected her wish to abstain fromsexual intimacy. Blanche presents the person shewould like to be: naive, proper, and respectable.Blanche has found an Allan substitute in Mitch.She longs to have an opportunity to re-create thatmarriage and have a second chance to make up forher cruel past actions. Mitch is the answer as hissensitivity stops the haunting polka music in hermind (i.e., the painful memories of Allan’s death).

Throughout the play, Blanche frequently takeslong hot baths in the sweltering heat of a NewOrleans summer. This symbolic act of baptismabsolves her of her past sins and cleanses her body inpreparation for her husband-to-be. She repeatedlypurifies her body in water, and in her mind, by eachritual bathing, she creates more distance from thesullied strangers she encountered at the FlamingoHotel in Laurel. In moments of desperation and self-doubt, Blanche bathes. This repeated action greatlyannoys Stanley.

Stanley and Blanche are archenemies becausethey possess antithetical personalities, and each laysclaim to Stella. Whereas Stanley respects completehonesty, Blanche delights in experiencing the worldthrough rose-colored glasses. She spends much ofher time rejecting the harshness of life, and Stanleyis always there to make her acknowledge the truth.Blanche enjoys the protocol of the Old South; she isnostalgic about the tradition of Southern life,whereas Stanley hates sentimentality. In his produc-tion notebook, Elia Kazan writes of Blanche:

Her problem has to do with her tradition. Hernotion of what a woman should be. She is stuckwith this “ideal.” It is her. It is her ego. Unlessshe lives by it, she cannot live; in fact her wholelife has been for nothing. (Kazan, 22)

Blanche defines her existence according to the tra-ditions of the Old South. She is completelyimmersed in that world, whereas Stanley symbol-izes the new or modern world that is obliteratingthat former way of living.

Early in the play these two characters clash overthe subject of Belle Reve. It is Blanche’s lost, beau-

tiful dream, rich with family heritage and pride;Stanley is interested only in the property’s materialor monetary real estate value. He is happy in theloud, harsh, and dirty world of the Vieux Carré ofNew Orleans, whereas Blanche prefers fineraccommodations, the bucolic setting of hundredsof acres of land and large white pillars on a grandveranda that provide lounging quarters out of themidday sun. Some critics see Blanche as Williams’smost representative character, as she has lost thestability of her ancestral home and is now in exile.

According to Kazan, Blanche’s emotional declinebegins when she is stripped of her plantation:

The things about the “tradition” in the nine-teenth century was that it worked then. It madea woman feel important with her own securepositions and functions, her own special worth.It also made a woman at that time one with hersociety. But today the tradition is an anachro-nism which simply does not function. It doesnot work. So while Blanche must believe itbecause it makes her special, because it makesher sticking by Belle Reve an act of heroism,rather than an absurd romanticism, still it doesnot work. . . . She’s a misfit, a liar, her “airs”alienate people, she must act superior to themwhich alienates them further. (Kazan, 22)

Blanche is one of Williams’s “lost souls,” thosecharacters who are caught between an old and anew world. As are Amanda Wingfield (in THE

GLASS MENAGERIE) and Alma Winemiller (in SUM-MER AND SMOKE), who also delight in tradition,Blanche is lost in a modern, industrial societybecause in it she does not have a special positionsimply by virtue of being a Southern woman. BelleReve is her identification or authentication as a per-son, and without it, she does not possess a self andtherefore must rely on others to supply stability,security, and substance. Blanche only realizes thatshe is responsible for her own financial and socialstatus when it is too late. Her “airs” are her tragicflaw in this new world, Stanley’s world, a world thathas been changed through hardship and strugglesassociated with industry, war, and economic depres-sion. Blanche becomes “a last dying relic . . . nowadrift in our unfriendly day” (Miller, 23). Although


this situation may make her more pitiable, it doesnot make her less offensive to her peers.

Blanche’s very vocal disapproval of Stanley servesto isolate her from Stella, the one sympathetic per-son in her life. Her critical opinion of the dismalapartment and of Stanley’s brutish demeanor createsa chasm in the sisters’ relationship, and her chancesof familial bonding are sacrificed. Blanche demon-strates her racial prejudices when she calls Stanley a“Polack,” and her gradual, yet persistent provoca-tions lead to her ultimate violation. This act of rapewounds Blanche to a point of no return. The culmi-nation of Stanley’s victory over Blanche occurswhen Stella refuses to believe that her sister hasbeen assaulted. Stella sides with her husband asBlanche’s past and world of illusions (or dishonesty)serve to silence her in her most desperate moment.

Williams’s ability to “capture something of thecomplexity of the novel within the dramaticform, especially in the area of character probity

and psychology” (Adler, 9), has set Streetcar apartand is the reason it merits its status not only as amodern classic, but s a watershed moment in U.S.theater history. Essentially, Williams created anew genre in the modern theater: a heightenednaturalism that allows dreams (or nightmares) tocoexist with reality.

PRODUCTION HISTORYA Streetcar Named Desire opened at the BarrymoreTheater, New York, on December 3, 1947, andelectrified its audience. The cast, which includedMARLON BRANDO (Stanley), KIM HUNTER (Stella),and JESSICA TANDY (Blanche), received a standingovation that lasted a full half hour after their open-ing performance.

At this point in his career, Williams had only oneother major success, The Glass Menagerie (onBroadway in 1945), which was revered as a delicate,elegiac, lyrical, and gentle play. By comparison,Streetcar was outrageously raw, sexual, and violent.

Critics immediately praised the first Broadwayproduction, complimenting every facet of the pro-duction: acting, directing, and design. In his reviewof the first production Irwin Shaw wrote:

As far as I am concerned, even the ushers andticket-takers at the Ethel Barrymore Theaterare beautiful these nights. . . . Such is the effectof a magnificent play, magnificently done. Theplay is “A Streetcar Named Desire,” by Ten-nessee Williams, and the production is theresult of Elia Kazan’s direction, Jo Mielziner’sscenery and lighting and, I suppose, IreneSelznick’s money, all of which have my unquali-fying blessing. (Miller, 45)

Shaw preferred Streetcar to The Glass Menageriebecause he believed that in Streetcar Williams incor-porated elements of “true tragedy” (Miller, 45).Some critics and audience members were shocked bythe coarse nature of the play. They were not pre-pared for its overt sexuality or its protagonist,Blanche DuBois, a teacher turned prostitute. How-ever the naysayers held the minority point of view.

Streetcar ran on Broadway longer than any otherWilliams play: 855 performances between Decem-ber 1947 and December 1949. In addition,


Marlon Brando (Stanley Kowalski) and Kim Hunter(Stella Kowalski) embrace, as Jessica Tandy (BlancheDuBois) looks on, in the Broadway production of AStreetcar Named Desire, 1947 (Eileen Darby)

Williams received both the Pulitzer Prize and theDrama Critics Circle Award for this play. Since itspremiere, Streetcar has been produced more than20,000 times, and worldwide it remains the mostpopular American play.

The film version of A Streetcar Named Desire(1951) popularized the play further. The film, as wasthe Broadway production, was directed by EliaKazan. With the exception of VIVIEN LEIGH playingBlanche, the cast remained the same. The film tookon a life of its own and sparked great controversyamong censors, who deemed it “immoral, decadent,vulgar and sinful” (Sova, 285). Much to the chagrinof Kazan and Williams, the movie was censored afterit had been shot and was altered without their con-sent. Several close-up shots were deleted to tonedown the insatiable sexual dynamic between Stellaand Stanley, and the scene in which Stanley rapesBlanche was cut, as were references to Blanche’spromiscuous nature and several of Stanley’s licen-tious comments to Blanche, such as his statementthat she “might not be bad to interfere with.” Themost significant alteration in the move from stage toscreen was Stella’s final response.

Under pressure from the censors, who requiredthat Stanley be punished for his violation ofBlanche, the ending was altered significantly.Instead of remaining with Stanley, Stella takes hernewborn baby in her arms, looks into the child’seyes, and exclaims, “We’re never going back.Never, never back, never back again.” She is lastseen running up the stairs to seek refuge withEunice and Steve Hubbell.

Vivien Leigh (Blanche), Karl Malden (Mitch),and Kim Hunter (Stella) all garnered AcademyAwards (Oscars) for their performances in the filmof A Streetcar Named Desire.

PUBLICATION HISTORYA Streetcar Named Desire was first published byNew Directions in 1947.

CHARACTERSDuBois, Blanche Described in the openingscene as “mothlike,” Blanche is an aging Southernbelle. She is refined, delicate, and steeped in thetraditions of Southern gentry. She first appears

wearing white, symbolizing her feigned purity andvirtuous nature. Blanche is one of Williams’sdreamers, forfeiting reality for a magical or roman-tic approach to life. She is not concerned withtruth, but rather “what ought to be the truth.”

When she was a young woman, Blanche marriedher true love, Allan Grey. He was tender and sensi-tive, different from the other men in her life.Although he was not “the least bit effeminate look-ing,” she learned of his homosexuality when sheentered a room uninvited and found Allan havingsex with an older male friend. Later that night, thethree of them attended a dance at Moon LakeCasino. During this evening of heavy drinking,Blanche confronted Allan about his sexuality whilea polka played and lovers danced around them. Dev-astated by Blanche’s disgust toward him, Allan ranoff the dance floor. He found refuge at the edge ofthe nearby lake, where he shot himself. Blanche isforever haunted by the guilt she feels over Allan’ssuicide. She cannot move beyond the loss of herhusband, and in moments of desperation she stillhears the polka waltz in her mind. She drinkswhiskey to cope with her self-reproach, but the cru-elty she displayed toward Allan forever torments her.

Blanche’s life continues on a downward spiralwith the deaths of several other family members.She is obligated to nurse them, witnessing the slow,torturous deterioration of life. Blanche is forced toearn her living as a high school English teacherbecause her ancestral home, Belle Reve (whichmeans “beautiful dream” in French), in Laurel,Mississippi, is in danger of foreclosure. Severelylonely and desperate, she finds consolation in theembrace of strange men. When she is fired fromher teaching position because of a “morally unfit”liaison with a 17-year-old boy, her reputation iscompletely ruined. Belle Reve is foreclosed and sheis forced to live in a seedy hotel called theFlamingo. Because of her practice of entertainingmen at the Flamingo, she is eventually forced toleave that establishment as well.

Destitute and homeless, Blanche travels to NewOrleans, taking a “streetcar named Desire” to theslums of Elysian Fields, where her sister, StellaKowalski, lives with her brutish husband, StanleyKowalski. She arrives unannounced at the cramped


two-room apartment. She immediately rejectsStanley because of his unrefined behavior andcrude, straightforward response to life. Her worstopinions of Stanley are justified when she witnessesthe beatings Stella suffers at the hands of her hus-band. Blanche believes that “a woman’s charm isfifty percent illusion,” and she clashes with Stanley,who is determined to catch Blanche in all of herlies. Her facade quickly positions her as Stanley’sprime enemy. He is sickened by her exaggerationsand false prudishness. Despite her past, Blancheremains married to the ideals of purity, creating theillusion of what she “ought to be.”

Stanley triumphs over her when he finds outabout her promiscuous past in Laurel. He destroysher only chance of comfort by relating her sordid pastto Mitch (Harold Mitchell), her only and final mar-riage prospect. Stanley then rapes Blanche, presum-ing that she has had so many sexual encounters thatone more will make no difference. After this act, adeed that Stella refuses to acknowledge, Blanche iswounded once and for all. She loses her grip on real-ity and finds consolation in a type of magical worldthat will not allow her to hurt anymore. This worldplaces her at the mercy of “the kindness of strangers.”The strange men in her life are replaced by the med-ical staff of a mental institution.

Hubbell, Eunice Eunice is the wife of SteveHubbell. She and Steve are the upstairs neighborsof Stanley and Stella Kowalski. As do Stanley andStella, Eunice and Steve have a volatile maritalrelationship. In many ways, the older couple(Eunice and Steve) mirror Stanley and Stella andoffer a vision of what the young couple will be inthe future. Eunice is a confidante to Stella, andEunice eases the younger woman’s transition into alife of denial and compromise. When Stella’s sister,Blanche DuBois, accuses Stanley of rape, Euniceinstructs Stella to disavow Blanche’s claims for thesake of her marriage, her child, and her own sanity.

Hubbell, Steve Steve is the husband of EuniceHubbell. He and Eunice are the upstairs neighborsof Stanley and Stella Kowalski. As do Stanley andStella, Eunice and Steve have a volatile marital rela-tionship. In many ways, the older couple (Eunice

and Steve) mirror Stanley and Stella and offer avision of what the young couple will be in the future.

Kowalski, Stanley He is a strong, brutish man ofPolish descent. Stanley is a former soldier, whofought during World War II and who now lives inthe mundane world of factory work. He is cruellyhonest. His pastimes include bowling, drinking,playing poker with his friends and having sex withhis wife, Stella Kowalski. Stanley enjoys the com-forts of Stella’s love. Although he is unrefined, loud,and quick-tempered, he possesses a simplicity whichmakes him desirable to Stella. There is also an ani-mal attraction between Stanley and Stella, and theirrelationship is based not on communication but onphysical attraction. In the stage directions of Street-car, Williams describes him as a “gaudy seed bearer[who] sizes women up at a glance.”

Stanley revels in the fact that Stella is from an oldaristocratic Southern family and that she hasrejected upper-crust society to live with him in a ten-ement house in the slums of New Orleans. Stanleyfunctions with very basic objectives. He is strong-willed and responds to adversity with violence.

When his sister-in-law, Blanche DuBois, movesin, Stanley feels threatened by her presence and herrejection of his way of life. He does not like to sharewhat is his: his wife, his liquor, and his apartment.When he finds out that the DuBois plantation,Belle Reve, has been foreclosed, he immediatelydemands proof that Blanche did not sell it and keepthe money. Stanley expects to share any profits, ashe is Stella’s husband. Stella and Blanche are per-sonally devastated by the loss of their ancestralhome; Stanley is only concerned with the practical,monetary side of the situation. He has no way ofcomprehending the emotional loss of such a thing.In addition, Blanche’s large personality leaves littleroom for him to be the center of attention. The twoengage in a power struggle that draws out the worstin Stanley’s personality. The tension created byBlanche’s presence provokes Stanley to beat Stellaand to seek a way to ruin his sister-in-law.

He triumphs over Blanche after searching forthe truth of her disreputable past. When he hasgathered this ammunition, he informs Blanche’sonly marriage prospect, Mitch (Harold Mitchell)


of her sordid past. By this he is able to pierce thevirginal facade that Blanche has used to manipu-late and control. Stella defends her sister byexplaining that she has had a tragic past and she isweak, but Stanley is interested only in survival ofthe fittest. He rapes Blanche and denies that hedid to Stella. This is Stanley’s ultimate triumph.In the end, Blanche is taken to a mental institu-tion while Stanley comforts his wife by fondlingher breasts.

Kowalski, Stella She is the wife of StanleyKowalski and the sister of Blanche DuBois. Stella isa member of a very refined and dignified Southernfamily, who has chosen to cast off her social statusin exchange for marriage to Stanley, a vulgar andoften brutal simpleton. She is caught in the warbetween Stanley and Blanche, whose constantbickering and fighting leads to Stanley’s sexuallyassaulting Blanche. Stella refuses to believe thather husband would rape her sister. After her accu-sations of rape, Stella commits Blanche to a mentalinstitution. As does her sister, Stella glosses overharsh reality to live in the world of illusions to copewith Stanley’s abhorrent behavior.

Mitchell, Harold (Mitch) A middle-aged manwhose dedication to his ailing mother leaves himlonely and troubled. Mitch falls in love with BlancheDubois, a refined, yet fading Southern belle. Theyengage in a respectable courtship, and Blanche insistson delaying sexual relations until they are married.When Stanley Kowalski informs Mitch of Blanche’ssordid past as a prostitute, he is shocked and offendedthat she has made him wait for sexual intimacy.

FURTHER READINGAdler, Thomas P. A Streetcar Named Desire: The Moth

and The Lantern. Boston: Twayne, 1990.Berkman, Leonard. “The Tragic Downfall of Blanche

DuBois,” Modern Drama 10, no. 2 (December1967): 249–257.

Kazan, Elia. “Notebook for A Streetcar Named Desire,”in Twentieth Century Interpretations of A StreetcarNamed Desire: A Collection of Critical Essays, editedby Jordan Y. Miller. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-tice-Hall, 1971, pp. 21–26.

Shaw, Irwin. “Masterpiece,” in Twentieth Century Inter-pretations of A Streetcar Named Desire: A Collectionof Critical Essays, edited by Jordan Y. Miller. Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971, pp. 45–47.

Sova, Dawn B. Forbidden Films: Censorship Histories of125 Motion Pictures. New York: Facts On File, 2001.

Suddenly Last SummerA one-act play written in 1958.

SYNOPSISThe setting is a Gothic-style Victorian mansion inthe Garden District of New Orleans, one late after-noon between late summer and early fall

Scene 1Mrs. Violet Venable, an aging aristocrat, entertainsher guest, Doctor Cukrowicz (or Doctor Sugar), inthe exotic gardens of her deceased son, Sebastian.She tries to persuade the neurosurgeon to performa lobotomy on her niece, Catharine, who is ruiningthe family reputation with a sordid story about theparticulars of Sebastian’s death. In order to combatCatharine’s story, Mrs. Venable had her niece com-mitted to Saint Mary’s Asylum.

Mrs. Venable tells Dr. Sugar that Sebastian wasa locally famous poet who, with her unfalteringguidance, perfected one poem every summer. Mrs.Venable offers a detailed account of her travelswith Sebastian. She then proposes to donatemoney for a neurosurgery wing at the Lion’s ViewHospital if Dr. Sugar will agree to silenceCatharine. The doctor is ambivalent about agree-ing to this deal when he has not yet met thepatient. Catharine and her nurse, Sister Felicity,can be seen entering the house.

Scene 2Miss Foxhill, Mrs. Venable’s secretary, leadsCatharine and her nurse outside while Mrs. Ven-able drinks her routine afternoon cocktail insideher home. While Catharine and her nurse argueabout Catharine smoking a cigarette, Doctor Sugarspies on them from a nearby window. Catharinediscovers him and shouts, “Lion’s View Hospital,”

Suddenly Last Summer 279

to let him know that she is aware of the torturouskind of medicine he practices. His blond hairreminds Catharine of the times Sebastian longedfor blond men as if they were “items on a menu.”Sister Felicity tries to quiet her. She speaks of hisdeath, convinced that if he had held on to herhand, she could have saved him. Catharine’smother, Mrs. Holly, and her brother, George, arrive.

Scene 3Mrs. Holly urges George to compliment Catharine,but he is uncooperative and more interested intalking to his sister in the nun’s absence. SisterFelicity is hesitant to allow her patient out of hersight; however, Mrs. Holly persuades her to goinside until she is called. George berates Catharineabout the drama that she has created aroundSebastian’s death. He begs her to refrain fromtelling her story to appease Mrs. Venable so thatshe will release the money Sebastian willed tothem. Mrs. Holly intervenes when Catharinebecomes upset, then attempts to convinceCatharine lovingly to stop telling her “fantastical”

story. George becomes very angry when Catharineinsists that she is telling the truth, as he knowstheir aunt will make sure they never receive theirinheritance.

Scene 4Mrs. Venable enters and Miss Foxhill delivers afolder containing the police report of Sebastian’sdeath. George and his mother ask Mrs. Venable tospeed up the inheritance process, but she ignorestheir request and calls for the doctor to evaluateCatharine. When Doctor Sugar joins them afterreceiving an urgent telephone call, Catharine askshim whether he wishes to drill a hole in her headand cut out a piece of her brain. She mocks him byexclaiming that he must have her mother’s permis-sion for the surgery. Mrs. Venable announces thatshe is in charge because she is paying for the lobot-omy, and she accuses Catharine of trying to takeSebastian away from her.

Doctor Sugar asks to speak with Catharinealone in order to assess her mental state fully.George goes to his aunt in another attempt to cre-ate peace within the family and secure his inheri-tance. Doctor Sugar and Catharine talk alone.Catharine admits that because Sebastian liked her,she loved him in a motherly way, the only way hewould accept love from a woman. She tells a storyabout a man she met at a Mardi Gras ball whooffered her a ride home. They stopped at the edgeof the woods and had sex, and afterward the youngman confessed to having a pregnant wife. He askedCatharine to keep their rendezvous a secret.Catharine was so upset that, after he took herhome, she went back to the ball, found the youngman, and created a public scene on the dance floor.Sebastian witnessed her outburst and escorted herhome. Doctor Sugar gives Catharine an injectionwhen she becomes agitated by her memories andasks her to tell him honestly what happened toSebastian. Catharine stands up to deliver thegraphic details of her cousin’s death, but the drugsdizzy her. The doctors stands to help her regain herbalance, and they embrace. Catharine forcefullykisses him as George returns to the garden. Heangrily shouts at his sister about her lewd behavior.

Mrs. Venable, Sister Felicity, and Mrs. Hollyenter. Doctor Sugar instructs Catharine to tell the

280 Suddenly Last Summer

Publicity portrait of Williams (Photograph courtesy of theBilly Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

true story once and for all. Catharine talks aboutthe cruise to Europe, the wonderful stay in Paris,and Sebastian’s lavish gifts to her. At the Cabeza deLobo, he was uninterested in his poetry and spenthis days scouring the beach for handsome youngmen. Mrs. Venable interrupts Catharine to say thatshe always protected him when she traveled withhim. Catharine realized that she was procuringmen for Sebastian by wearing a transparent bathingsuit he bought for her and demanded she wear. Asthe summer progressed and the beach grew morecrowded, he no longer needed her. Catharine wasthen allowed to wear a dark bathing suit and sit faraway from him. She would meet him every day atfive o’clock in the afternoon near the bathhouse.The homeless young men would follow him out ofthe bathhouse and onto the beach, where he paidthem for their services. Each day the band of menbecame more aggressive in their pursuit of Sebast-ian until he became afraid to go to the beach.

The mob of young men recognize Sebastian inhis white suit at a nearby café. Catharine noticesSebastian’s fear through his need to take his heartmedication. When they leave the café and Sebast-ian walks up the street, the mob attacks him, tearshis body apart, and eats his flesh. Catharine runs tofight them off, but it is too late, as she witnesses hismangled body in horror. Mrs. Venable orders thedoctor “to cut this hideous story out of her brain.”When prompted to give his analysis, Doctor Sugarasserts that maybe Catharine is telling the truth.

COMMENTARYSuddenly Last Summer is considered Williams’s mostshocking drama, and as a result, the play is often afavorite target of “Williams attackers” (Hurley,392). In its own time the play was simultaneouslyrevered for its seemingly simple structure anddetested for its “disturbing” content of homosexu-ality and cannibalism. Critical prudery blindedmany critics to the fact that this play is one ofWilliams’s “most richly and tightly written Gothicromances” (Canby, 17) and contains some ofWilliams’s most evocative language.

Scholarship regarding Suddenly Last Summer hasnearly exclusively focused on “one of the most suc-cessful creations of an offstage character in dra-

matic literature” (Harris, 11), the absent SebastianVenable. In addition to venerating Sebastian, manycritics view this character as a “stand-in” for Wil-liams himself. At first glance, this appears to beWilliams’s most direct and autobiographical con-nection to the play, as both author and characterare gay male literary artists.

There is no doubt that Suddenly Last Summerwas a deeply personal work for Williams; anotherpoignantly emotional and deeply autobiographicalconnection is provided by Catharine Holly, a char-acter directly reminiscent of his sister, ROSE

WILLIAMS, who had a prefrontal lobotomy per-formed in 1937. Williams was always haunted bythe fact that his mother consented to this life-altering experiment; his lifelong regret was that hewas not present to intervene and defend Rose.Some biographers have speculated that, as isCatharine’s, Rose’s lobotomy was prompted by thefamily’s need to silence her allegations of sexualabuse levied against their father, CORNELIUS COFFIN

WILLIAMS. Suddenly Last Summer is infused with the“blistering pain” (Brantley, 13) Williams felt atwhat his sister suffered in his absence.

As are BATTLE OF ANGELS and ORPHEUS

DESCENDING, Suddenly Last Summer is a “tangle ofChristian and mythical echoes” (Debusscher, 449).Scholars have extensively identified the connectionbetween Sebastian Venable with the life and deathof his namesake, the Roman martyr Saint Sebastian.According to legend, Saint Sebastian was an attrac-tive young Roman who became the emperor Dio-cletian’s lover. Upon his conversion to Christianity,Sebastian used his intimate and influential status totry to dissuade Diocletian from persecuting his fel-low Christians. Feeling betrayed, when Sebastian’sprotests become more public and outspoken, Dio-cletian sentenced him to death. Sebastian wasplaced before a firing squad of Mauritanian archers.Although severely wounded by the shower ofarrows, he miraculously survives and is nursed backto health by a pious widow. Sebastian returns toDiocletian’s court to continue his advocacy onbehalf of Christians. Diocletian swiftly orders thathis lover be bludgeoned to death. After this tormentSebastian is mortally wounded and another piouswoman collects his body and buries him.


Williams’s familiarity with the legend of this mar-tyred Roman Catholic saint is established by hispoem “San Sebastian de Sodoma” written in 1948.Scholars have been thorough in tracing references toSaint Sebastian and his life and death in SuddenlyLast Summer. Prompted by his name, Catharine’sdeclaration that they spent much of their vacationon “a beach that’s named for Sebastian’s namesaint,” and the fact that Sebastian Venable’s death is“carefully worded” (Debusscher, 450) to reflect thefirst death sentence (death by arrows) of the Romanmartyr, “There were naked children along the beach,a band of frightfully thin and dark naked childrenthat look like a flock of plucked birds, and theywould come darting up. . . . Sebastian started to runand they all screamed at once and seemed to fly inthe air.” Gilbert Debusscher also notes a further sim-ilarity in the narratives of the two Sebastians: thepresence of two female caretakers. He sees Mrs. Ven-able and Catharine Holly as modern versions of thetwo pious Roman widows who tended Saint Sebas-tian. A more invigorating approach to this concept isthe idea that on the death of both Sebastians, twowomen are present to lay claim to the remains, liter-ally in the case of Saint Sebastian and metaphori-cally (through reputation and legacy) in the case ofSebastian Venable.

Thomas Van Laan is one of many contemporaryscholars to argue that Suddenly Last Summer deservesrecognition as one of Williams’s best plays. The basisof this critical reevaluation is the acknowledgmentthat the play “is not a study of Sebastian Venable,sensationalistic or otherwise,” but rather “a conflictbetween opposing versions (or visions) of Sebastian,and especially a conflict for supremacy between thetwo who hold them” (Van Laan, 257). At the heartof this reassessment is a shift in emphasis to thecharacter of Catharine, which sends the reader onceagain into the world of martyrs, myths, and legends.

Catharine Holly’s name suggests “HolyCatharine.” The name Catharine (or Catherine)itself literally means “pure” or “innocent.” Theseinherent traits are underscored in the text byWilliams’s extensive lighting directions which con-centrate direct light on Catharine while the othercharacters “sink into shadow.” The effect is like anearly Renaissance painting of a golden-haloed saint

surrounded by heavenly light. Williams also insists,“During [her] monologue the light has changed, thesurrounding area has dimmed out and hot whitespot is focused on Catharine.” It is clear from theseinstances that Catharine, as is her cousin, is inextri-cably linked to her name saint, Catherine ofAlexandria.

As Sebastain had done in the court of Diocletian,Catherine of Alexandria, at the age of 18, presentedherself to the emperor Maximinus and reprimandedhim for his violent persecution of Christians. Theemperor was so impressed by Catherine’s intelli-gence and tenacity that instead of putting her todeath, he assembled 50 of his court scholars andordered them to outwit Catherine and prompt her torelinquish her faith. She was steadfast and emergedfrom the debate unaltered, with the added victory ofhaving converted several of Maximinus’s learnédmen to Christianity. As a result, Catherine wasscourged and imprisoned. She continued her missionfrom her jail cell. From there she managed to con-vert Maximinus’s wife and the captain of his army(both of whom were subsequently put to death). Tosilence her, Maximinus condemned Catherine todeath by a torture device known as “the wheel.”However, when Catherine laid her hand upon thisinstrument it miraculously disappeared. Refusing tobe outdone, Maximinus had her beheaded. Angelswere said to have carried Catherine’s headless bodyto Mount Sinai. According to Catholic tradition,Saint Catherine is revered as one of the most help-ful, and persuasive intercessory saints in heaven.

Catharine Holly shares her name saint’s desireto impart her truth to others. Both she and herpatron saint face a tyrannical adversary who has thepower to sentence them to a literal or metaphoricdeath, respectively. As the emperor Maximinusdoes, Mrs. Venable, “a caged tiger” (Harris, 9),attempts to silence Catharine by having her scruti-nized by the “learnéd men” of Saint Mary’s Asylum(and by Dr. Sugar), imprisoned and tortured (drugtherapy, insulin, and electric shock treatments). AsCatharine Holly refuses to relinquish or recant hertruth, Mrs. Venable attempts to orchestrate a sym-bolic “beheading” administered at the hands of Dr.Sugar: a lobotomy. Catharine’s gift for persuasion isevident in Dr. Sugar’s final hopeful line: “I think we

282 Suddenly Last Summer

ought at least consider the possibility that the girl’sstory could be true.”

Ironically the two Catherines also share a similarlogistical fate. In a strange quirk of canonical tradi-tion, clerics have called into question the “authen-ticity” of the legend of Saint Catherine. As a result,many of the discourses that have been attributed toSaint Catherine may ultimately be “rejected asinventions, pure and simple” (Clugnet, 323). InSuddenly Last Summer Catharine Holly is alsoenmeshed in a controversy of truths, lies, and nar-ratives. In addition, the validity and authenticity ofboth Catherines hinge on the significant detailsand circumstances concerning a death: For SaintCatherine the death in question is her own; forCatharine Holly it is that of her cousin, Sebastian.Ultimately, both women are exonerated.

Although some have contended that SuddenlyLast Summer is one of the darkest and most bleakplays in Williams’s dramatic canon, their assess-ment overlooks the fact that the play’s ending istriumphantly hopeful. Unlike other “silenced”characters (most notably Blanche DuBois, in ASTREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, who is similarly tor-mented and driven mad by a truth that othersrefuse to believe), Catharine is vindicated. Dr.Sugar, dressed in angelic white, becomes a sweetsavior to her. It is also implied by their fierceembrace and Dr. Sugar’s growing attachment toCatharine, that he, like the celestial beings in St.Catherine’s legend, may very well spirit her awayand carry her from his place of death.

Focusing on the character of Catharine Hollyprovides the play with an active and physically“present” center. By focusing on the character whois present (Catharine) instead of the absent non-character, Sebastian, Suddenly Last Summer shifts tobecome Williams’s most hopeful revision of his sis-ter Rose’s tragic fate.

PRODUCTION HISTORYSuddenly Last Summer premiered in New York atthe York Theatre in January 1958. It was producedin tandem with SOMETHING UNSPOKEN under thetitle Garden District. Herbert Machiz directed theproduction, which featured Anne Meacham asCatharine Holly and Hortense Alden as Mrs. Ven-

able. Suddenly Last Summer was adapted for film in1959; it featured ELIZABETH TAYLOR as CatharineHolly and Katharine Hepburn as Mrs. Venable.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSuddenly Last Summer was first published by NewDirections in 1958.

CHARACTERSCukrowicz, Doctor Also known as Doctor Sugar,Dr. Cukrowicz is a young neurosurgeon whom VioletVenable engages to evaluate her niece, CatharineHolly. In an effort to protect her dead son’s reputa-tion, Mrs. Venable would like Dr. Cukrowicz to per-form a prefrontal lobotomy on Catharine to preventher from revealing the circumstances surroundingher son’s death. Mrs. Venable has offered Dr.Cukrowicz a sizable amount of research funding inexchange for treating Catharine. When Catharine istaken to the Venable home for the evaluation, Dr.Cukrowicz gives her a truth serum and ultimatelydecides that Catharine may be telling the truth.

Doctor Sugar See Cukrowicz, Doctor.

Foxhill, Miss She is Mrs. Violet Venable’s secre-tary. She tries to maintain order when Mrs. Ven-able’s relatives, George Holly and Mrs. Holly, payher employer a visit.

Holly, Catharine Catharine is the niece of Vio-let Venable. Since her return from a Europeanvacation with her cousin, Sebastian Venable,Catharine has been incarcerated in Saint Mary’sAsylum. Her aunt has placed her in a state mentalinstitution in an effort to silence her, to prevent herfrom revealing the true circumstances surroundingSebastian’s gruesome death.

Holly, George George is the brother ofCatharine Holly. Along with his mother, Mrs.Holly, he visits his aunt, Mrs. Violet Venable, ather mansion in the Garden District of NewOrleans, Louisiana. George and his mother hopeto appease Violet and prevent Catharine fromupsetting Violet further. As Mrs. Venable’s poorrelations, George and his mother are beholden to


Violet’s charity and financial support. Georgearrives at the Venable mansion wearing a tailoredsuit previously owned by Mrs. Venable’s deceasedson, Sebastian. George’s lavish attire serves as acruel reminder to Violet of her dead son and theindebtedness of Catharine’s family to her own.George urges Catharine to refrain from revealingthe details of their cousin Sebastian’s death. IfCatharine will not refrain, their aunt has vowed tohave her silenced by a prefrontal lobotomy, admin-istered by Doctor Cukrowicz. George’s motives forpleading with Catharine are not entirely altruistic:Their aunt has also vowed to cut them off finan-cially if Catharine continues her tirades.

Holly, Mrs. Mrs. Holly is the mother ofCatharine Holly and George Holly. Along withGeorge, Mrs. Holly visits her sister-in-law, VioletVenable, at her mansion in the Garden District ofNew Orleans, Louisiana. Mrs. Holly and her sonhope to appease Violet and prevent Catharine fromupsetting her further. As Mrs. Venable’s poor rela-tions, Mrs. Holly and her children are beholden toViolet’s charity and financial support.

Sister Felicity Sister Felicity is a caretaker atSaint Mary’s Asylum near New Orleans, Louisiana.She is responsible for a young woman, CatharineHolly, who has been committed to the asylum byher aunt, Mrs. Violet Venable. Sister Felicity servesas a brisk guardian angel for Catharine. She tries tokeep her young patient calm and still, and she dis-approves of Catharine’s smoking cigarettes.

Venable, Violet Mrs. Venable is a wealthy South-ern widow who lives in a large mansion in the Gar-den District of New Orleans, Louisiana. She is themother of the deceased, young poet Sebastian Ven-able. Violet strives to protect her dead son’s legacyand reputation by placing her niece, Catharine Ven-able, in a mental institution. Catharine witnessedSebastian’s lascivious life and gruesome death whilevacationing with him in Europe. Mrs. Venable doesnot want Catharine to reveal what she has seen.Using her wealth and affluence, she tries to per-suade the young Dr. Cukrowicz (Dr. Sugar) to per-form a lobotomy on her niece, literally to removeher story from her head.

FURTHER READINGBrantley, Ben. “Tennessee Williams, Chilled Out,”

New York Times, December 10, 1994, p. 13.Canby, Vincent. “Decadence, Ferns and Facades,”

New York Times, October 11, 1995, pp. C17–C18.Clugnet, Leon. “St. Catherine of Alexandria,” in The

Catholic Encyclopedia, 3, edited by Kevin Knight.New York: Robert Appleton, 2003, 323–326.

Debusscher, Gilbert. “Tennessee Williams’s Lives ofthe Saints: A Playwright’s Obliquity,” Revue desLangues Vivantes 40 (1974): 449–456.

Hurley, Paul J. “Suddenly Last Summer as ‘MoralityPlay,’” Modern Drama 8, no. 4 (February 1966):392–402.

Van Laan, Thomas. “‘Shut Up!’ ‘Be Quiet!’ ‘Hush!’Talk and Its Suppression in Three Plays by Ten-nessee Williams,” Comparative Drama 22, no. 3(fall 1988): 257–263.

Summer and SmokeA play in two parts written in 1948.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in Glorious Hill, Mississippi, in sum-mer, during the early years of the 20th century. Alarge, dominating fountain in the form of a stoneangel called “Eternity” sits in the center of the stage.

PrologueAlma Winemiller and John Buchanan Jr. begin theplay as children. John teases Alma for her prudish-ness, and she introduces him to the stone angel ofthe fountain.

Part 1

Scene 1Several years later on the fourth of July 1916, theReverend and Mrs. Winemiller sit near the fountainenjoying fireworks. Alma can be heard singing anaria offstage. John Buchanan also stops at the foun-tain to listen. His father, Dr. Buchanan, appears, andJohn and his father have a heated exchange con-cerning John’s unruly behavior. When Alma joins

284 Summer and Smoke

her parents by the fountain, she becomes agitated byJohn’s presence. The Reverend Winemiller tries tomaintain order, but Alma succumbs to a panicattack, as her mother cries out for ice cream.

When Alma’s parents leave, John throws alighted firecracker underneath her bench. Alma isstartled by his prank. John offers her a drink ofbrandy from his flask, but she refuses. John is amedical doctor, and he diagnoses Alma’s nervouspalpitations as “an irritated Doppelgänger.” RosaGonzales sashays toward the fountain, and John istaken aback by her seductiveness. Nellie Ewellwalks over to congratulate Alma on her perfor-mance. Nellie also makes an appointment withJohn to discuss the facts of “nature” because shehas recently fallen in love. John tells Alma that sheis a source of ridicule in the Glorious Hill commu-nity. Alma is hurt by the news and retaliates by crit-icizing John’s reckless behavior. Rosa Gonzalesreturns, luring John from Alma’s side. Roger Dore-mus arrives to escort Alma home.

Scene 2The next day Mrs. Winemiller sits in her livingroom at the rectory. She primps in the mirror wear-ing a plumed hat that she has just stolen from alocal shop. She quickly hides the hat when Almaenters to answer the telephone. Alma apologizes tothe hat shop owner, finds the hat, and scolds hermother. She then calls John to invite him to a liter-ary club meeting. Alma’s mother harasses her abouthaving a crush on John. Nellie arrives for hersinging lessons and confesses her own interest inJohn. Alma chastises Nellie, but Mrs. Winemillerloudly declares Alma’s infatuation. Alma promptlysends Nellie away and berates her mother. As theyargue, the hat is destroyed.

Scene 3Later that evening, as Alma reads the minutes ofthe last meeting, John arrives and is welcomed intothe literary group. Rosemary attempts to read herpaper on the poet William Blake but is stoppedshort by Mrs. Bassett, who argues that Blake is animmoral poet. In Blake’s defense, Alma recites hispoem “Love’s Secret,” which expresses her feelingsfor John. Rosemary is encouraged to begin herpaper again, but the episode has prompted John to

escape the gathering of bickering members. Almabecomes angry with Mrs. Bassett for driving Johnout of the meeting.

Scene 4A few evenings later, John is cut in a fight. He goesinto his father’s office with Rosa, who bandages hiswounded arm when Rosa leaves. Alma enters tosee John’s father, but John Jr. intercepts her. Hegives her a sleeping tonic, unbuttons her blouse,and checks her heartbeat with a stethoscope. Hesays that inside her chest there is a little voice thatsays, “Miss Alma is lonesome.” He makes a datewith Alma for the following Saturday night andsends her home with a box of sleeping pills. Rosareturns as Alma exits. John kisses Rosa roughly.

Scene 5The following Saturday evening, Alma and her par-ents sit in their parlor and discuss John’s impendingvisit. John whistles for Alma outside the house. Sheexcitedly runs out to meet him.

Scene 6Outside the Moon Lake Casino, at an arbor withpicnic tables, John and Alma drink wine. They con-verse and explore their differences: Alma is seekinga spiritual form of love and John is merely interestedin physical satisfaction. Alma says she has beenunsuccessful with men. John kisses Alma severaltimes and asks her to forget she’s “a preacher’sdaughter.” Alma is offended and demands to gohome. John abruptly shouts for a taxi to return herto the rectory.

Part 2

Scene 7This scene alternates between the rectory and thedoctor’s office. On this Saturday evening in latesummer, Roger Doremus shows to Alma a scrap-book of his mother’s visit to Asia. Sounds of a rau-cous gathering at the Buchanan household can beheard. Mrs. Bassett enters to complain about theparty at the Buchanan residence and to ask theReverend Winemiller to call John’s father, who isaway at a fever clinic.

Mrs. Bassett gossips that John and Rosa haveobtained a marriage license and are to be married

Summer and Smoke 285

the next day. Alma rushes to the telephone andcalls John’s father. In the doctor’s office Rosadances for John. He is disgusted with himself andremarks that he should have been castrated. Rosa’sdrunken father, Papa Gonzales, enters the doctor’soffice and collapses on the couch. Rosa urges Johnto rejoin the party with her. Instead, John goes tothe rectory, seeking Alma’s cold hands to cool the“fire” in his head. Alma holds John close. In themeantime, Dr. Buchanan returns to his office tofind Rosa Gonzales and her father. He beats Rosa’sfather with his cane. Papa Gonzales responds byshooting Dr. Buchanan.

Scene 8A few hours later, Alma takes John coffee as theReverend Winemiller prays with John’s father inthe next room. Alma confesses that she phonedJohn’s father, prompting his return. John dragsAlma to the anatomy chart and forces her to lookat it. Alma declares that the soul is the most impor-tant part of human beings and the part of her withwhich she has loved John is missing from his chart.Alma sings for Dr. Buchanan.

Scene 9This scene alternates between the rectory and thedoctor’s office. On this late autumn afternoon, Almasits on the love seat. Her hair is undone and she isstill wearing her dressing gown. The Reverend andMrs. Winemiller return from watching the paradegiven in John’s honor. The Reverend Winemillercriticizes his wife’s behavior and scolds Alma for herdisheveled appearance. The parade marches past theWinemillers’ window. Alma rushes to watch and col-lapses. John enters the doctor’s office and places histrophy on his desk. Nellie slips into the office unno-ticed. She flirts with John and kisses him. He ordersher to leave before they get into “trouble.”

Scene 10On this afternoon in December, Alma sits in thepark with the stone angel fountain to catch herbreath. Mrs. Bassett discusses with her news aboutthe literary circle. Nellie enters with a basket ofChristmas presents. She gives Alma a beautifullywrapped box containing an exquisite lace handker-chief. Alma reads Nellie’s Christmas card and fromit learns of Nellie’s engagement to John.

Scene 11One hour later, at the doctor’s office, Alma tellsJohn about her recurring sore throat. She recalls hisearly diagnosis of Doppelgänger. John checks herpulse and her heart. Alma takes John’s head in herhands and kisses him. Alma pleads with John to loveher. Nellie enters the office, parading her engage-ment ring. She asks Alma to sing at their wedding.

Scene 12At dusk of the same day, Alma encounters ArchieKramer, a young traveling salesman, who is drink-ing water from the fountain. Alma takes one of hersleeping pills and offers one to Archie. She flirtswith him and offers to take him to Moon LakeCasino. He calls for a taxi while Alma bids farewellto the stone angel.

COMMENTARYBased on the short story “THE YELLOW BIRD,” thisdelicate tragedy of missed romantic possibility illus-trates an allegorical conflict of opposites. AlmaWinemiller’s ill-fated attempts to connect with JohnBuchanan personify a struggle of the spiritual versusthe sensual, the body versus the soul, and purity ver-sus carnality. John Buchanan, with his anatomychart and hedonistic self-indulgence, is firmlygrounded in the physical, sensual world; Alma—whose name is Spanish for “soul”—represents a rigidand repressive puritanism. At the heart of Summerand Smoke is a quest for self-awareness and discovery.In their awakening John and Alma face the extrem-ity of their beliefs and behavior and ultimatelyreverse roles. He finds his higher calling and truevocation while she (as is Blanche DuBois) is left tofind love and fulfillment through sex with strangers.The journey to self-knowledge provides solace forJohn, but only emptiness and regret for Alma.

Although she is largely identified with AmandaWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE, Williams’smother, EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS, also served asthe prototype for Alma Winemiller. As is Alma, theyoung Edwina Dakin was a minister’s daughter wholoved to sing and play the piano, and her usuallaugh was one of her well-noted mannerisms. Mrs.Williams recalled that her many gentleman callerswould visit her at the Dakin home in Mississippi to


hear her sing and play the piano. Summer andSmoke was, in fact, her favorite of her son’s plays(Brown, 113).

PRODUCTION HISTORYSummer and Smoke was first produced by MARGO

JONES in July 1947 at Theatre ’47 in Dallas, Texas.Jones’s production was generally very well received,and there were plans to have the production trans-ferred immediately to Broadway. The Broadway runof Summer and Smoke was delayed, however, by theBroadway opening of A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE

on December 3, 1947. When the production finallymade it to Broadway and premiered at the MusicBox Theatre on October 6, 1948, it was unfavor-ably compared to Streetcar.

The Broadway production closed on January 1,1949, after 100 performances. The most significantproduction of Summer and Smoke was the versiondirected by Jose Quintero in New York in 1952 atthe Circle in the Square Theatre, which featuredGERALDINE PAGE as Alma Winemiller. Page revivedher portrayal of Alma Winemiller when the play wasadapted for screen by James Poe and Meade Robertsand produced as a feature film in 1961. Page wasnominated for an Academy Award (Oscar) for herperformance as the fragile, lovelorn Alma. Pagebelieved that with Summer and Smoke Williams hadcreated “one of the most perfect things, both in formand content and everything else” (Steen, 239).

PUBLICATION HISTORYSummer and Smoke was first published in 1948. Itwas subsequently revised and rewritten as THE

ECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTINGALE in 1951.

CHARACTERSAlma She is Alma Winemiller as a young girl. Atthe tender age of 10, Alma is already completelydevoted to John. Noticing that he has had a badcold, she gives him a box of handkerchiefs andleaves them on his school desk. John finds her at thefountain in the center of town and teases her forleaving the handkerchiefs on his desk. Alma intro-duces John to the stone angel of the fountain. Sheshows him how to read the angel’s fading name inthe stone by using his hands. The stone angel, Eter-

nity, watches over Alma as John pulls her hair andkisses her. As her name (which is Spanish for “soul”)implies, Alma has an innocent, angelic presence.

Bassett, Mrs. An overbearing old widow who isa member of the literary circle in Glorious Hill,Mississippi, led by Alma Winemiller. At one of theirmeetings, she becomes irate when Rosemary triesto read her essay about William Blake. Mrs. Bas-sett’s unreasonable and childish behavior embar-rasses Alma in front of John Buchanan.

Buchanan, Dr. John Dr. Buchanan is a well-respected physician in the town of Glorious Hill,Mississippi. He is also John Buchanan Jr.’s father.He is greatly dismayed by his son’s unruly and com-mon behavior. As a result of John’s folly, Papa Gon-zales shoots Dr. Buchanan and kills him.

Buchanan, John, Jr. John is the crude, self-indulgent, and philandering son of Dr. John

Summer and Smoke 287

Geraldine Page (Alma Winemiller) and LaurenceHarvey (John Buchanan, Jr.) in the film version ofSummer and Smoke (Paramount, 1961)

Buchanan. He dallies with the affections of hislovelorn next-door neighbor, Alma Winemiller; Hebecomes engaged to Rosa Gonzales but ultimatelydecides to marry Nellie Ewell.

Doremus, Roger Roger is Alma Winemiller’sonly true friend in Glorious Hill, Mississippi. As isAlma, he is a musician: She is a singer and he playsthe French horn. He is also a member of Alma’s lit-erary circle. Their relationship is solely platonic.

Ewell, Nellie Nellie is one of Alma Winemiller’svocal students. During the course of the play shematures from an awkward teenager into an attrac-tive young woman. Initially, she frequents theWinemillers’ home for private voice lessons withAlma. Nellie confesses that her crush on MissAlma led her to take singing lessons. During one ofher lessons she catches Alma spying on JohnBuchanan and admits her own attraction to theyoung doctor. Nellie goes away to college, andwhen she returns from Sophie Newcomb, shebecomes John’s fiancée.

Gonzales, Papa Papa Gonzales is the owner ofthe Moon Lake Casino, near Glorious Hill, Missis-sippi, and the father of Rosa Gonzales. Papa Gonza-les strikes a deal with John Buchanan Jr. to help theyoung doctor settle his substantial debts at thecasino. If John will marry Rosa, he will not have torepay Papa Gonzales. John accepts the deal and thecouple promptly become engaged. The night beforetheir wedding, John hosts a raucous party at theBuchanan home. In an effort to help John and tostop his impending marriage to Rosa, Alma Wine-miller calls his father, Dr. John Buchanan Sr., who isout of town at a fever clinic. Dr. Buchanan returnshome immediately and confronts Papa Gonzales. Ina drunken rage, Papa Gonzales shoots Dr.Buchanan.

Gonzales, Rosa Rosa is Alma Winemiller’s firstrival for John Buchanan Jr.’s affection. A sensualMexican beauty, she is likened to the tropicalbreezes that blow from the Gulf of Mexico: warm,languid, and fluid. She provides a stark contrast tothe cold, rigid, and awkward Alma. Rosa’s father,

Papa Gonzales, forces John to propose to Rosa ascompensation for John’s gambling debts at theMoon Lake Casino, which Papa Gonzales owns.Rosa and John are engaged briefly but do notmarry. On the evening before their wedding, herfather shoots and fatally wounds John’s father, Dr.John Buchanan Sr.

John He is John Buchanan Jr. as a young boy.During the prologue, John confronts Alma at thefountains. She has publicly humiliated him by leav-ing a wrapped box of handkerchiefs on his schooldesk. Alma left the gift as a token of her affectionand concern for John, who has had a cold and iswithout a mother. Alma introduces John to thestone angel of the park fountain. She shows himhow to read the angel’s name with his fingers. Johnteases Alma for her awkward prudishness andkisses her roughly.

Kramer, Archie Archie is a traveling salesmanwho visits Glorious Hill, Mississippi. He encoun-ters Alma Winemiller after she has decided to leadan uninhibited life. Alma eagerly escorts Archie toa part of town where they can rent a room for anhour. Archie is the parallel character to the Travel-ing Salesman in THE ECCENTRICITIES OF A

NIGHTINGALE.

Rosemary A member of the literary circle inGlorious Hill, Mississippi, led by Alma Winemiller.She has written an essay on the poet WilliamBlake, which she attempts unsuccessfully to read atthe literary club meeting.

Winemiller, Alma She is the delicate daughterof the Reverend Winemiller and Mrs. Winemiller,who gives singing lessons in the rectory parlor.Although “prematurely spinsterish” and prudish, sheis hopelessly in love with John Buchanan Jr. Whenshe loses John to Nellie Ewell she seeks solace in thearms of Archie Kramer, a traveling salesman.

Although she is largely identified with AmandaWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE, Williams’smother, EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS, alsoserved as the prototype for Alma Winemiller. As isAlma, the young Edwina Dakin was a minister’s


daughter who loved to sing and play the piano, andher laugh was one of her much-noted mannerisms.Mrs. Williams recalled that her many gentlemancallers would visit her at the Dakin home in Missis-sippi to hear her sing and play the piano. Summerand Smoke was her favorite of her son’s plays(Brown, 113).

Winemiller, Mrs. She is the mentally unbal-anced mother of Alma Winemiller. Mrs. Wine-miller’s behavior toward her daughter and herhusband, the Reverend Winemiller, is childishlycruel and malicious.

Winemiller, Reverend The Reverend Wine-miller is the Episcopal minister of Glorious Hill,Mississippi, and the father of Alma Winemiller.



Steen, Mike. A Look at Tennessee Williams. New York:Hawthorn Books, 1969.

Sweet Bird of YouthFull-length play written in 1952.

SYNOPSIS

Act 1, Scene 1The setting is a bedroom of an old, fashionablehotel in the Gulf Coast town of Saint Cloud, in theearly morning.

Chance Wayne, a handsome man in his late 20s,watches a famous aging actress, Alexandra DelLago, also known as Princess Kosmonopolis, sleepas he smokes his first cigarette of the day. He isinterrupted by a delivery of coffee from room ser-vice. Church bells toll and Chance realizes that it isSunday. The waiter, Fly, tells him it is Easter. Flyremembers Chance from the town dances thatChance attended with his girlfriend, Heavenly Fin-ley. Chance is happy to recollect that time. The

young town surgeon, George Scudder, appears out-side the door, to tell Chance that he must leaveSaint Cloud and never return. He asks Chance whyhe is back in town. Chance has returned to see hismother and his “girl,” Heavenly. Scudder tells himthat his mother died several weeks ago. Devastated,Chance asks why no one contacted him. Scuddersays the whole town tried to track him down, andwhen they received no answer from several wiresand letters, they pooled their funds together to payfor the funeral. Scudder accuses Chance of beingunconcerned that his mother was seriously ill. Heclaims she was also “sick at heart” that Chance left.Scudder also says the whole town is angry at Chanceand asks whether he has received a very importantletter. Chance says he did not get the letter. Scudderinforms him that Heavenly had a terrible experi-ence. Despite Chance’s pleas for more information,Scudder says he has to leave. He warns Chance toleave town before Heavenly’s father, Boss Finley,hears that he is back. (Boss Finley has threatened tocastrate Chance if he ever encounters him again.)Scudder says he is going to tell Mr. Hatcher at thefront desk that Chance and the princess are check-ing out of the hotel this morning. Scudder callsChance a “criminal degenerate” and informs himthat Heavenly is no longer Chance’s “girl,” as she isnow engaged to Scudder.

Chance immediately phones Aunt Nonnie,Heavenly’s aunt. He tells her that he is at the RoyalPalms and wants to speak to Heavenly. Aunt Nonnieis fearful of talking to him and hangs up the phone.Suddenly the Princess begins to cry in her sleep.Chance runs to her side to awaken her. She does notknow who Chance is. She begs for her oxygen maskand begins to have a panic attack. Chance rum-mages through her luggage and finds the mask just intime. She takes a pink pill and washes it down withvodka. Chance calls down to the front desk to pleadwith Mr. Hatcher to allow them to stay. The Princessbegins to drink heavily because she wishes to forgether name and her life. Chance admits that she has agood idea. He grabs a small tape recorder and goes toher bedside. He inquires about her illness. She pan-ics at the mention of calling a doctor, as she hasbecome a hashish addict now that her acting careeris over. She informs Chance that she acquired her

Sweet Bird of Youth 289

current stash by mail from Morocco. The Princesssays this is not the kind of conversation that shouldbe happening anywhere as public as a hotel room.She scoffs at the prospect of being arrested and sentto a prison for “distinguished addicts.” She alsolaments her faded youth and the contemptible posi-tion of being an old actress. She confesses that herdecision to retire from the screen was prompted by abox office failure. Chance responds that no one isyoung these days. He too understands aging and theloss of sex appeal.

Chance changes the subject to discuss the “sec-ond-rate” Hollywood studio that she owns. He pro-poses that she give him an acting contract. If she doesnot agree to launch his career, he will use the conver-sation about the Moroccan hashish to blackmail her.Chance expects her to offer Heavenly an acting con-tract as well. The Princess acknowledges that this isthe first time Chance has ever tried anything such asblackmail. Chance encourages her to sign over sometraveler’s checks and lend him her Cadillac to findHeavenly. Princess Kosmonopolis demands thatChance draw the curtains, put on some sweet music,and pretend that they are youthful lovers.

Act 1, Scene 2In the darkened hotel room at the Royal PalmsHotel, Princess Kosmonopolis signs checks asChance dresses. He begins to tell his life story:about being born in Saint Cloud, leaving withdreams of stardom, and becoming a kept youngman of rich widows and bored wives of the aristoc-racy. Chance believes his past stole his youth. Heconfesses that he hated himself and couldn’t han-dle the routine of pleasing others for a living. Heleft Heavenly to join the navy and was dischargedwhen he had a nervous breakdown. He shows anude photo of Heavenly to the Princess anddelights in the recollection of the magical night hetook the photo. He says that every time he leftSaint Cloud and returned a failure, Heavenly washis cure. She nursed him back to emotional health.The Princess asks why he did not marry Heavenly ifhe loved her so much. Chance explains that BossFinley would not allow it as he believed she couldmarry someone of better social standing, a man thatcould help his political career. The last time he

returned to Saint Cloud, Heavenly called him a liarand said that she wanted nothing else to do withhim. Chance hopes that the acting contract willwin Heavenly back. The Princess is hesitant to helpChance as she wants to remain incognito. AsChance bids her farewell, the Princess says sheloves him and that she will wait for him.

Act 2, Scene 1On the terrace of Boss Finley’s Victorian house,Boss Finley is addressing Scudder. He tells him thatChance Wayne had sex with Heavenly when shewas just 15 years old. He knows this because hefound some photographs Chance took of Heavenlynaked on the beach. Furious that Chance hasreturned despite his orders never to return, BossFinley asks his son, Tom Finley Junior, to call thehotel and ask whether he has checked out yet. TomJunior makes the call and tells his father thatChance is still in town. Boss Finley chastises Scud-der for leaking the details about the surgery he hadperformed on Heavenly, which he calls a “whore’soperation.” Boss Finley orders Scudder to removePrincess Kosmonopolis to a hospital with a falsediagnosis of a contagious disease. At this moment,Chance drives by honking his horn. He calls forAunt Nonnie, who is afraid to go to him. Boss Fin-ley corners Aunt Nonnie. She admits that she senta message to the hotel warning him to leave SaintCloud before Boss Finley found out. Boss threatensthat Chance will leave, but not in a fancy Cadillac.Nonnie begs him to refrain from violence, and BossFinley insults her. Boss blames Nonnie for Heav-enly’s involvement with Chance.

Boss and Tom Junior argue, as Tom feels unappre-ciated by his relentless and despotic father. He hasdedicated himself to his father’s campaign and organ-ized the Youth for Tom Finley Club. Boss points outTom Junior’s recent arrest for drunk driving andflunking out of college. Tom Junior retorts with accu-sations that his father always had a mistress, MissLucy, even before the death of his mother. Bossdenies the allegation, and Tom Junior follows by say-ing that Miss Lucy tells everyone that Boss is too oldto be a good lover. She went so far as to write it on amirror in the ladies’ room. Boss Finley is embarrassedby Miss Lucy’s betrayal. He addresses the audience

290 Sweet Bird of Youth

with lofty banter about his political mission. He callsHeavenly, who has become despondent about herlife. Boss forces her to listen while his servantreminds him of an appointment and hands him a gift.

Boss Finley is revived by Heavenly’s beauty.Admiringly, he says that she is still beautiful despitewhat has happened to her. Heavenly refutes thecompliment, calling herself a carcass after the sur-gery. Her father scolds her for talking in such a way,and he orders her to not to repeat such derogatoryremarks because people listen. If more people knewthat, at 15, Heavenly contracted a venereal diseasefrom Chance Wayne and had to have a radicalhysterectomy, his political career could be tainted.Angered by his self-centeredness, Heavenly blamesher unhappiness on her father’s refusal to allow herto marry Chance at the time. She faults her fatherfor the empty life she is forced to live because Bossdrove Chance out of town. She is embittered thather father attempted to marry her to a 50-year-old“money bag” to fuel his political campaigns. Heav-enly says, “Papa, you married for love; why would-n’t you let me do it, while I was alive, inside, andthe boy still clean, still decent?” Heavenly men-tions Miss Lucy and says that the fact her fatherhad a mistress broke her dying mother’s heart.

Boss Finley tries to appease Heavenly by offeringher a shopping spree. He tells her about the timewhen he bought her dying mother a diamond pin toprove to her that he did not believe she was so ill. Hesent it back to the jeweler after she died. WhenHeavenly patronizes him about being such a kind,giving man, he reminds her that he has been heckledwith shouts about her surgery from the campaigncrowd. Heavenly apologizes for the embarrassmentshe has caused her family and suggests entering aconvent. Boss Finley rejects the idea of her enteringa Catholic convent: He will never be elected tooffice in this Protestant town if she does. He insiststhat she escort him and stand on the speaker’s plat-form at the next campaign rally. She refuses and hethreatens to hurt Chance if she does not. Boss Finleyexpresses his disdain for Chance and explains thathe is trying to keep the pure white blood of theSouth unadulterated. He believes he was called by“the voice of God” to go down from the mountainand protect the aristocracy.

Act 2, Scene 2The setting is the cocktail lounge at the RoyalPalms Hotel, where Chance Wayne used to work.Boss Finley has planned to hold his campaign rallythere tonight.

Miss Lucy enters wearing an elaborate ball gown.She sits down at the bar and glares at the bartender,Stuff. She accuses Stuff of telling Tom Junior whatshe said about his father. Stuff defends himself bysaying that she wrote it on the mirror in the ladies’room. A Heckler enters the lounge, to shout insultsat Boss about Heavenly’s sordid past. For revenge,Miss Lucy agrees to help him get into the rally.

Stuff gossips that Chance is staying at the hotelwith the old movie star Alexandra Del Lago. MissLucy is intrigued. Chance walks into the lounge,shouting orders at Stuff. At this moment, AuntNonnie enters the lounge. Chance is very happy tosee her, and she demands that he walk outside withher. She warns him to leave Saint Cloud. Chancetakes a pill, which he washes down with liquor.Chance reminisces about a drama league produc-tion that he and Heavenly starred in.

Chance shows Aunt Nonnie the acting con-tracts signed by his traveling companion. Shethinks they are fake and that this is another one ofChance’s scams. He pleads with her to take himseriously, but she can only warn him against BossFinley and exits. Two old friends, Bud and Scotty,enter the bar. Chance begins to feel high from thepills and alcohol. He sings with the piano, andeveryone in the bar silently watches this sad specta-cle. Miss Lucy announces herself to Chance as Budand Scotty make fun of his nonexistent actingcareer. Miss Lucy points out changes in Chance’sonce youthful appearance. She cruelly teases himabout being a beach boy in hotels in Florida.

Bud and Scotty tell Chance that an African-American man was recently castrated because hewas out on the street after curfew. At the rally,Boss Finley is going to state his opinion on thematter. Chance calls this violent act “sex envy,”and he predicts that Boss Finley will not beopposed to the crime. He becomes louder when hecondemns Boss Finley as a hypocrite and a liar.Miss Lucy tries to calm him, but he refuses todesist. He continues to take pills and talk loudly


about his devotion to Heavenly. A messenger is sentto collect Chance for Princess Kosmonopolis. WhenChance does not respond, she enters. Miss Lucyintroduces herself to the famous actress. The Princesscalls for Chance as he rushes out of the lounge. ThePrincess can see that he has been defeated and isrelieved that he has returned to her. Dan Hatcher,Tom Junior’s friend, calls Chance’s name from a dis-tance. Chance tries to make an escape, but it is toolate. Hatcher tells him that Tom Junior is waiting tospeak with him. Chance refuses to move, forcing TomJunior to appear. Chance demands to know what hashappened to Heavenly while he was gone. Enragedby Chance’s loyalty to Heavenly, Tom Junior tells himthat Heavenly contracted a venereal disease, whichChance must have contracted in his occupation as agigolo. Heavenly did not understand her illness untilit was too late and she had to undergo extensive sur-gery. Chance is dumbfounded, as he swears he didnot know that he had given the disease to Heavenly.

Tom Junior is bewildered by his stupidity. ThePrincess grows nervous waiting for the escalatingfight to end. She begs Chance to leave the loungewith her. The Princess has another attack and isescorted out of the lounge in a wheelchair.

Boss Finley and his entourage enter. He loosenshis tie and collar to catch his breath. A drummajorette ushers in the Youth for Tom Finley com-mittee, accompanied by Finley, Tom Junior, and areluctant Heavenly. Miss Lucy is seated beside theHeckler, who prepares his interruptions. Boss Fin-ley proclaims himself the “colored man’s bestfriend”; however, he follows this by explaining thathe will also fight to prohibit “blood pollution.” BossFinley claims to have had no part in the recent cas-tration. Chance shouts insults and heckles him fromthe audience. The Heckler joins in and inquiresabout Heavenly’s surgery, and Boss Finley’s gang ofmen beat him. Heavenly descends the platform andcollapses.

Act 3, Scene 1Later that night in the hotel bedroom, the Princesspaces the floor waiting for Chance. When he enters,she hysterically demands to get out of Saint Cloud.There is a knock on the door. Hatcher, Tom Junior,Bud, and Scotty enter the room in search of Chance,who hides down the corridor. They interrogate thePrincess and leave. Chance comes out of hiding anddemands that Princess Kosmonopolis phone someHollywood executives on his behalf. She calls SallyPowers, from whom she learns that her last moviewas not unsuccessful, as she had been led to believe.Princess Kosmonopolis discovers that she is still acelebrity and her career is very much alive.

The Princess’s attitude toward Chance Waynechanges. She indicates that she is not concernedwith the career of a pool boy. She can no longer bethreatened by his blackmail because she is a super-star. Princess Kosmonopolis gives Chance advice onaging and youth before a driver arrives to take her tothe airport. Tom Junior and his posse reenter to takeChance away. He says good-bye to the Princess, ashe submits to the men.

COMMENTARYSweet Bird of Youth is Williams’s darkest explora-tion of fading youth and diminishing livelihood


Geraldine Page (Alexandra Del Lago/PrincessKosmonopolis) embracing Paul Newman (ChanceWayne) in the 1959 Broadway production of SweetBird of Youth (Eileen Darby)

with the onset of age. Chance Wayne forfeits lovefor aspirations of becoming a movie star. This pur-suit consumes his consciousness and his chance athappiness. As he searches for a way to fulfill hisdestiny, he loses his most valuable asset—his youth.Although he remains handsome and is still in his20s, he is constantly reminded that he is not asstriking as he used to be.

Decay is a primary theme in this play. Chance’sopportunities fade with time, and he falls short ofhis dreams when he is forced to become a pool boyin order to survive. His refuge is his beauty, whichgrants him the luxury of older women, who are alsosearching for ways to retain their youth, beauty,and sex appeal. He does not give up on his desiresto become a star, but his chances wane as a result ofthe passing of time and his youth.

Chance returns to Saint Cloud in order to recon-cile with Heavenly for two reasons: He realizes thathe loves Heavenly, and he wants to try to retrievehis youth by rekindling an innocent relationshipand time in his life. This attempt to reconnect withthe past and make it the present serves as Chance’stragic flaw, as his past actions were too destructivefor him to ever regain access to Heavenly. Facingcastration by Boss Finley, Chance accepts that hislifestyle has brought about the degradation of hislife. Chance’s days of being a virile, beautiful manare over, just as the dreams of a Hollywood careerare. In his self-pity and self-loathing state of mind,Chance accepts punishment for his life’s mistakes:castration by Boss Finley’s henchmen.

Chance and the Princess are very similar char-acters. They are both battling life and time for achance to remain among the beautiful people,without much regard for others. Princess Kosmo-nopolis’s aging beauty propels her into a self-destructive cycle of drug addiction and meaninglesssexual encounters. She feels the loss of her ownyouth and is comforted only through forgetfulhashish episodes. As does Karen Stone in THE

ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE, the Princessdecides to end her own glamorous career by takingflight. Using an alias, she steps out of life, but onlyto encounter fading youth and unfulfilled dreamsin aging pool boys such as Chance. However, thePrincess’s hope is revived when she becomes aware

that her last film was actually a huge success. Herretirement has been premature; her fate and herfuture is still promising. Unlike Karen Stone, shehas strength of character and a fighting will to sur-vive. Although Chance and Princess Kosmonopolishave a similar nature, the actress “towers over theother characters in her rage and in her lust, sharingnone of their pettiness or vengefulness” (Tischler,498). Without the vices of pettiness or vengeful-ness, Princess Kosmonopolis is free to return to theworld and enjoy her life of celebrity and fame. Shedoes not stoop to take a part in this troubled plot.Rage and lust, which are typically viewed as con-temptible human qualities, prompt the downfall ofthe other characters in the play. They are, however,the Princess’s saving graces.

Boss Finley is one of the most malevolent andracist characters in Williams’s works. With his mis-sion and fanatical belief that the white race shouldnot be polluted, Boss Finely tries to separate himselffrom the violent crime against the African-Americanman. As it is established that he will castrate ChanceWayne, his involvement in the crime becomes glar-ingly obvious. Also, in his thirst for power he createspawns of his children. As is his counterpart, MissLucy, Boss Finley is disloyal and quick to turn on thepeople closest to him. He is an all-consuming forcethat barks and bellows unpleasantness as does BigDaddy in CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF. His hypocriticalself-righteousness can be compared to that of Jabe ofORPHEUS DESCENDING. As does Jabe, Boss Finley dis-penses what he perceives to be justice for the atone-ment of the sins of the small town. His power spansthe community like that of “the Old Testament Godof vengeance” (Adler, 658).

Because Williams continually revised and re-worked his plays, remnants of Sweet Bird of Youthcan be traced throughout his canon, including sev-eral one-act and full-length plays. There are distinctsimilarities and resonances between this work andthe much earlier one-act THE PURIFICATION (1940).The two heroines, Heavenly and Elena, share a sim-ilar fate of being brutally victimized for loving thewrong man. Interestingly, both Heavenly and Elena(whose name is Greek, meaning “bright light” or“torch light”) are ethereal characters whose lamen-tations permeate their respective communities.


PRODUCTION HISTORYSweet Bird of Youth was first produced at the Stu-dio M Playhouse in Coral Gables, Florida, April16, 1956, directed and designed by George Keath-ley. The play was produced at the Martin BeckTheatre in New York on March 10, 1959, directedby Elia Kazan, designed by JO MIELZINER andAnna Hill Johnstone. This production starredPaul Newman as Chance Wayne and GeraldinePage as the Princess. Despite mixed reviews, SweetBird was very successful, with 383 performances.Geraldine Page was said to have given “a com-pelling, bravura performance as Alexandra” while“Paul Newman was superb in a role that requireshim to be almost constantly repugnant” (Aston,348). Critics complained of an uneven script,excessive symbolism, and Chance’s concludingand heavily romantic plea. Williams himselfadmitted that this play “was in the works toolong” and said, “Sometimes I wish I had not triedto deal with so much” (Devlin, 60).

The film version of Sweet Bird was produced in1962, directed by Richard Brooks, again starring,Paul Newman and Geraldine Page. It won an Acad-emy Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (EdBegley) and a nomination for Best Actress in aLeading Role (Geraldine Page) and Best Actress ina Supporting Role (Shirley Knight). Sweet Birdrequired drastic textual revisions for the film ver-sion. As a result, according to Maurice Yacowar, “atragedy of poison [became] a romance of rebirth”(97). Richard Brooks and his producers felt com-pelled to turn the dark tragedy into a positive story,whereby Chance merely suffers a broken nose fromBoss Finley, rather than castration and implieddeath. Chance Wayne wins back Heavenly, andthey leave Saint Cloud for Hollywood. Boss Finley ishated by everyone at the end of the film, and MissLucy becomes Alexandra Del Lago’s driver. Thishopeful adaptation omits the African American’scastration and all references to the crime.

In 1989, a television version of this play wasfilmed, starring Elizabeth Taylor, Mark Harmon,and Valerie Perrine. This production returned tothe Williams script and restored many of the origi-nal uncensored elements of the plot.

PUBLICATION HISTORYSweet Bird of Youth was performed long before it wasofficially published. It first appeared in Esquire,April 1957, and was published as a book by NewDirections in 1959 and by Penguin in 1962.

CHARACTERSAunt Nonnie She is the sister-in-law of Boss Fin-ley and the surrogate mother of her niece, HeavenlyFinley. Aunt Nonnie sympathizes with Heavenly’slongtime boyfriend, Chance Wayne, and when hereturns to Saint Cloud to take Heavenly to Holly-wood with him, Aunt Nonnie warns him that BossFinley will kill him if he does not leave.

Boss Finley As his name suggests, Boss Finley isa domineering politician in the old Southern townof St. Cloud. Boss Finley is a womanizer whobelieves himself virtuous in his mission to maintainsegregation and inequality in the African-Americancommunity. Like those of Big Daddy of CAT ON A

HOT TIN ROOF, Boss Finley’s expectations for hischildren cripple their ability to persevere in life.Heavenly Finley, as does Brick Pollitt, deterioratesunder such despotism.

Finley, Heavenly She is a young beauty wholoves a handsome young man, Chance Wayne.Contracting a venereal disease that is cured onlythrough a hysterectomy, she prematurely agesbecause her life has been wrecked and her reputa-tion tarnished. Devoid of ambition, she is harassedby her politician father, Boss Finley, who insists ondressing her in elaborate white dresses and present-ing her on the campaign platform as his virtuous,pure example of white pride.

Finley, Tom, Junior The brother of HeavenlyFinley. Tom Junior loathes Heavenly’s recentlyreturned lover, Chance Wayne, and he agrees withhis father, Boss Finley, that Chance should leavetown immediately. Tom Junior serves Boss Finley asone of his thuggish hired men.

Heckler He is a protester who attends Boss Fin-ley’s campaign rallies. The Heckler is the voice ofreason, who serves to release the tension surround-


ing Finley’s campaign of bigotry. He is beaten by thepolitician’s henchmen when he points out Finley’shypocritical statements, heckling Boss Finley, andrevealing the tyrannical nature of the politician.

Miss Lucy She is an aging beauty who has beenclandestinely committed to the thuggish local politi-cian Boss Finley. Miss Lucy tires of his infidelitiesand sabotages his campaign rally. She sympathizeswith Boss Finley’s archenemy, Chance Wayne.

Princess Kosmonopolis Also known as Alexan-dra Del Lago, she is an aging movie star who devel-ops a hashish addiction after what she perceives asthe failure of her latest movie and end of her actingcareer. She finds consolation in pool boys and gigo-los, in particular Chance Wayne. Princess Kosmo-nopolis does not remember where she found him,but he quickly becomes her nurse and kept man.Princess Kosmonopolis wakes up in Chance’s GulfCoast hometown of Saint Cloud. She is pulled into adramatic fight for Chance’s love with Heavenly Fin-ley. When she is blackmailed by Chance to gain anacting contract, she discovers that her last moviewas a huge hit. With renewed confidence, PrincessKosmonopolis hires a driver and leaves Saint Cloud.Her need for Chance Wayne subsides, and she isrestored by the knowledge that she is not too old tobe attractive to moviegoers. Princess Kosmonopolisis very much like Karen Stone of THE ROMAN SPRING

OF MRS. STONE, another aging actress who finds lifein the arms of a beautiful young hustler. ThePrincess, however, is able to reestablish herself in thesocial circles that matter to her. With a reinstatedcareer, she has a second chance in life.

Wayne, Chance He is a handsome young manwho has lived life beyond his years. With dreams ofa career in film, he has been a gigolo in the aristo-cratic circles at resorts near Saint Cloud, a GulfCoast town. Chance’s true love, Heavenly Finley,has suffered the brunt of his playboy days. At 15years of age, she contracted a venereal disease fromhim and had a radical hysterectomy. Chance leftSaint Cloud to pursue his dreams, but when hereturns after several years, he discovers that he isno longer welcome in his hometown. As is Val

Xavier in ORPHEUS DESCENDING, he is the center ofattention, but his virility has severely wounded hisreputation as a good man. Heavenly’s father, apolitician named Boss Finley, threatens to castrateChance. With the plan of taking Heavenly to Hol-lywood with him, he learns of her surgery andrecoils in defeat. His traveling companion, PrincessKosmonopolis, also known as Alexandra Del Lago,leaves him to resume her film career. Chance is afallen man who finally submits to Boss Finley’sposse. He recognizes that after destroying Heav-enly’s life, his dreams are unattainable.

FURTHER READINGAdler, Thomas P. “Culture, Power, and the (En)gen-

dering of Community: Tennessee Williams and Pol-itics,” Mississippi Quarterly 48 (fall 1995): 649–665.

Aston, Frank. “Review of Sweet Bird of Youth,” NewYork World-Telegram, March 11, 1959, p. 30.Reprint in New York Theatre Critics’ Reviews 20(1959): 348.


Geraldine Page as Alexandra Del Lago (PrincessKosmonopolis) in Sweet Bird of Youth, 1959(Eileen Darby)

Devlin, Albert J., ed. Conversations with TennesseeWilliams. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,1986.

Tischler, Nancy. “A Gallery of Witches,” in TennesseeWilliams: A Tribute, edited by Jac Tharpe. Jackson:University Press of Mississippi, 1977, pp. 494–450.


Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen

A one-act play written around 1950.

SYNOPSISA Woman sits in a chair drinking water and watch-ing rain clouds through her window. She waits forthe Man, who lies in bed, to wake up. When hefinally does, he asks her the time. The Womananswers, “Sunday.” A Child’s Voice is heard, chant-ing the familiar rhyme “Rain, rain, go away! Comeagain some other day!”

The Man cannot find his unemployment check.The Woman tells him that she did not cash it andfound his illegible note when she returned fromscouring the city for him. He explains that he wasout and woke up naked “in a bathtub full of meltingice-cubes and beer,” and he pontificates on theabuse one endures when he is drunk in the city.The Man has been beaten, stripped naked, and wasleft in a trashed hotel room.

After relating his adventure, the Man begs theWoman to “talk to [him] like the rain and let [him]listen.” He tells her that it has been too long sincethey were completely honest with each other. TheWoman says she wants to go away without him.She wants to wear white, read poetry in a seasidehotel, and walk along the sea 50 years from now,letting the wind blow her “thinner and thinner.”The Man asks her to return to bed as he caressesher throat and face. She cries, and the Man waitsfor her to calm down. She then asks him to returnto bed. Slowly, he turns to her.

COMMENTARYThe relationship Williams constructs between theMan and the Woman is one of hopelessness. TheWoman is weary of life. She longs to remove her-self from the worries and anxieties of the worldand the relationship she shares with the Man. TheMan attempts to escape through alcohol and par-ties, but he repeatedly suffers physical abuse as aresult. This “hopeless[ly] inalterable” situationbinds them. When the Woman finally reaches thebrink of acting on her impulse to leave, she isdrawn back to the Man. Similarly when the Man isready to release her, resigning his hold emotionally,she pulls him back to bed. As do the charactersOne and Two in the play I CAN’T IMAGINE TOMOR-ROW, the couple in Talk to Me Like the Rain and LetMe Listen are tormented by the need for change,but are inextricably locked in a routine cycle ofcoexistence.

PRODUCTION HISTORYTalk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen was firstproduced at White Barn Theatre, Westport, Con-necticut, in 1958. The play was revived in Threeby Tennessee, Lolly’s Theatre Club, New York City,in 1973.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis play was published in 27 WAGONS FULL OF

COTTON AND OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSMan An unemployed drunkard, he is in a hopelessrelationship with the Woman. There is an invisiblewall between them, and an acceptance of things thatcannot be changed.

Woman She is a frail, quiet woman who is in ahopeless relationship with the Man. She shares herfantasy of living alone in a seaside motel with theMan after he has passed a night of drunken parties.The Woman nearly musters the courage to leavethe Man because of his irresponsible behavior, butshe accepts him again by luring him back to bedwith her.

296 Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen

Ten Blocks on the Camino Real


SYNOPSISThe setting is a small town in Mexico.

Block 1The Guitar Player strikes a somber chord. Aparched and ragged Peasant stumbles onto thestage and throws himself down near the plaza foun-tain when he realizes it is dry. He makes his way toa nearby cantina, but the owner, Mr. Gutman,blows a whistle for an Officer, who shoots the Peas-ant. Mr. Gutman and the Officer return to the can-tina, and the bleeding body of the Peasant lies nearthe fountain.

Block 2Kilroy enters whistling. He sees a sign that says,“KILROY IS COMING,” and he smudges out“COMING” and writes “HERE.” Kilroy asks anOfficer whether there is a Wells Fargo bank. Whenhe is informed there is no bank, Kilroy explainsthat he won the boxing gloves that hang aroundhis neck in the lightweight championship title. Hehas since retired after being diagnosed with a heartthe size of a baby’s head that is likely to explodeunder exertion.

The Officer refuses to tell Kilroy what town heis in. When Kilroy grabs his arm and asks again, theOfficer punches him in the stomach as he cursesand retires to the cantina. Kilroy recovers and isstopped by Rosita, a prostitute. He declines herservices. Over a loudspeaker, the Gypsy asks Kilroywhether he is lost. In his confusion, Kilroy does notrealize a Pickpocket has stolen his wallet.

Kilroy cries out for an Officer, who refuses tobelieve he has been robbed. He believes the Amer-ican embassy will help him solve the crime.Exhausted, Kilroy leans against the wall, watchingthe Officer go inside the cantina with Rosita. Infrustration, he declares, “This deal is rugged!” Kil-roy walks toward the pawnshop, taking off his ruby-and-emerald-studded belt.

Block 3A woman sings in the plaza. Mr. Gutman entersand promotes his hotel and the local tourist attrac-tions. Each time he finishes a sentence, the GuitarPlayer adds, “On the Camino Real,” and strums hisguitar. Mr. Gutman confesses that he cheats peopleof money and predicts that someday soon, theStreetcleaners will come for his body. Saddened bythis thought, he rhetorically asks, “Is this what theglittering wheels of heaven turn for?” He directs hisquestion to the Gypsy.

Block 4Jacques and Marguerite enter and sit at a littletable. They are irritated by the strange music;however, Mr. Gutman replies that an “Indian diedof thirst,” and the Streetcleaners are collectinghim. Marguerite tries to bribe them to leavequickly. Mr. Gutman cheers her by talking aboutthe fiesta that will occur tonight. Held every fullMoon, it publicly restores the virginity of theGypsy’s daughter, Esmerelda. She will dance onthe roof and then choose a “hero to lift her veil.”Mr. Gutman orders that a bottle of wine be deliv-ered to the table and departs.

Marguerite confesses to Jacques that althoughshe is comfortable with him, she still desires to bewith someone who is in love with her. At thatmoment, Jacques receives a letter informing himthat his cash flow has been depleted. He breaks thenews to Marguerite, who excuses herself to fetch hershawl. Mr. Gutman reenters to tell Jacques that theirreservations have been mixed up and they will haveto find a different place to stay for the night. AsJacques follows him inside, the Guitar Player strums.

Block 5Kilroy enters and sees the Baron de Charlus. Mis-taking the Baron for a “normal American in aclean, white suit,” Kilroy approaches and pro-claims, “It’s wonderful to see you!” The Baronpoints out that his suit is pale yellow. He is Frenchand an unusual man. Kilroy asks the Baron for afive-dollar loan because the pawnshop wanted onlyhis lucky gloves. The Baron refuses to lend himmoney and returns to the inside of the hotel. Mr.Gutman tells Kilroy to hold on to anything that’s“lucky” because there is no compassion for an

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unlucky man on the Camino Real. Confused, Kil-roy asks what the Camino Real is, and Mr. Gutmantells him that he must discover that for himself.

Searching for an exit, Kilroy is directed to acrumbling archway called “The Way Out.” Notic-ing that the Streetcleaners are eyeing Kilroy, Mr.Gutman tells him he should keep five dollars in hispocket lest the Streetcleaners remove him to the“laboratory” when he dies. Jacques enters the plaza,carrying his luggage. Kilroy asks him to spare fivedollars, but Jacques tells him that he has no money,he has no place to stay, and his last friend has lefthim. Kilroy strolls across the plaza to the pawn-shop. He removes his lucky gloves from around hisneck. A strum from the Guitar Player signals theStreetcleaners’ exit.

Block 6Later that night, the fiesta begins. Dancers in thesquare move as light falls on the roof of the Gypsy’shouse. Esmeralda appears and dances the fla-menco. Kilroy suddenly enters from the pawnshop.He is mesmerized and dances beneath the roof.Esmeralda throws her flower to him, and the plazaerupts with cheers proclaiming Kilroy the hero.There is a shower of fireworks as the Gypsy appearsat the door. She commands Kilroy to enter herhouse. The plaza empties and only Jacques and LaMadrecita remain. Jacques cries for Marguerite andLa Madrecita cries out, “Flores, flores para losmuertos.” (“Flowers, flowers for the dead.”)

Block 7Kilroy is seated behind a scrim in the Gypsy’shouse where she performs a psychic reading. TheGypsy says he will die soon, but he will also findlove. She strikes a gong and Esmeralda enters. Sheannounces that her fee is $10. The Gypsy leaves tocollect change. Esmeralda describes her dream ofgoing to Acapulco. Kilroy promises to take herthere in the morning if he can lift her veil. Shebegs him to “be gentle.” Esmeralda gasps andmoans while Kilroy lifts her veil, finally revealingher face. Once the veil has been lifted, both cryout, “I am sincere!” and lean back in exhaustion.Regaining his breath, Kilroy complains that he istired and regrets spending his money. The Gypsyreturns and says the price has gone up. Outraged,

Kilroy asks, “What kind of deal is this?” He isanswered with a gun pointed in his face and anassurance that the deal is “a rugged one!” Kilroymakes a quick exit as Esmeralda wipes away a tearthat has trickled down her face.

Block 8Kilroy finds Jacques, La Madrecita, and the GuitarPlayer in the plaza. Kilroy and Jacques converseabout love and drink a wine called “Tears ofChrist.” Jacques laments that he used to be a loverof many women, but since he’s been in the CaminoReal, his luck has changed: He has no women andno bed. Kilroy tells Jacques about his lovers andshows a picture of his former wife. The Streetclean-ers approach Kilroy’s table, making him nervous.He slumps back, having trouble breathing. He asksJacques to hold his hand. Jacques laughs that “twoold Casanovas” are holding hands, and they laughuntil Kilroy falls over dead. Jacques moves awayand leans against a wall as the Streetcleaners col-lect Kilroy’s body. They search his pockets and,finding no money, take his corpse to the laboratory.Jacques returns to the table and finds the wine bot-tle empty. The Guitar Player strikes a somber chord.

Block 9La Madrecita is seated with Kilroy’s body drapedacross her lap in the style of Michelangelo’s Pieta.Downstage a doctor and his assistants stand over asheeted corpse. As the doctor details the scientificparticulars of the case, La Madrecita describes Kil-roy’s personal life. As the doctor moves to open thecorpse’s chest cavity, voices offstage start a lamen-tation at La Madrecita’s request. Suddenly, LaMadrecita touches Kilroy with one of her gaudy tinflowers and he awakens to the voices shouting,“Olé! Olé! The Chosen Hero!” Standing up, Kilroyasks where he is and only sees La Madrecita leavingvia the alleyway. He approaches the doctors just asa glittering sphere is removed from the corpse’schest. The assistants wash the heart for furtherexamination. They discover it is solid gold. Kilroysnatches his heart and rushes offstage. The doctorshouts, “Stop, thief! Stop, corpse!”

Block 10Esmeralda appears on the Gypsy’s roof. Kilroy whis-tles to her, but she does not hear him. The fiesta

298 Ten Blocks on the Camino Real

scene of block 6 is replayed, this time in a haunt-ingly slow fashion. Kilroy throws his gold heart intothe air to catch Esmeralda’s attention, but shemerely says, “Go away, cat.” Kilroy rushes into thepawnshop to pawn his heart of gold. He emergeswith gifts for Esmeralda: a fur coat, a gown ofsequins, pearls, a rhinestone tiara, balloons, andtwo tickets to Acapulco. He begs her forgivenessand releases balloons that float up to her. Esme-ralda disappears from the roof, and Kilroy rushes tothe door to meet her. The Gypsy throws water inhis face and orders him to leave. Kilroy leaves thegifts strewn on the street and sputters in disgust,“How do you like them apples!”

Don Quixote appears outside the cantina. Kil-roy says, “The deal is rugged, you know?” DonQuixote invites Kilroy to join his journey. He callsfor Sancho while Kilroy runs to change the sign toread, “Kilroy was here.” Jacques sits at a table inthe plaza. Marguerite enters to confess that she wasonly out looking for a bit of silver. She invites himto her room and he weeps. Sancho emerges fromthe cantina burdened with Don Quixote’s knightlyarmor. He exits through the alleyway as the GuitarPlayer starts to play a tune. Sancho takes a finallook around the Camino Real and stretches hisarms in a gesture of wonder and finality.

COMMENTARYIn his Memoirs, Williams recalled sending Ten Blockson the Camino Real to his agent, Audrey Wood, whoinitially found the play to be “too coarse.” Sheinstructed Williams to put the play away and nevershow it to anyone. Williams was hurt by Wood’sreaction but conceded that the play was very muchahead of its time. He felt theater audiences were notready for his metaphors, abstractions, and poeticexpressionism.

Ten Blocks on the Camino Real is a prime repre-sentative of the true genius of Williams’s drama-turgy. The play invites the reader/audience tocontemplate the scenes or “blocks” of the CaminoReal, an existential wasteland. The play’s beautylies in its ambiguity. As metaphor is by nature sub-jective, this play, as does an abstract painting,becomes or “means” whatever the viewer/readerperceives it to be or mean. Beneath its surreal

structure lies Williams’s recurring social commen-tary. Kilroy’s quest to find love results in the literalloss of his heart, but he regains his sense of adven-ture and purpose through his friendship with DonQuixote, who becomes his guide, out of this sur-real land.

Ten Blocks on the Camino Real is significantly dif-ferent from its more realist counterparts in the one-act play anthology, AMERICAN BLUES; however, itseems to have been Williams’s favorite of this group.He continued to revise the play and developed itinto the full-length play CAMINO REAL in 1948.

PRODUCTION HISTORYTen Blocks on the Camino Real was produced as afilm in 1966. Directed by Jack Landau, it starredMartin Sheen, Lotte Lenya, and Tom Aldredge.

PUBLICATION HISTORYTen Blocks on the Camino Real was published inAmerican Blues in 1948.

CHARACTERSCasanova, Jacques He is a notorious lover, butnow he has only Marguerite Gautier for compan-ionship in the Camino Real. Jacques experiences astrain of bad luck: Marguerite leaves him, he runsout of money, and then he is evicted from his hotelroom. He befriends Kilroy, witnessing his strangejourney and relationship with Esmeralda.

Charlus, Baron de A literary figure in MarcelProust’s Remembrance of Things Past, as a characterin Ten Blocks on the Camino Real. He is a guest atthe Siete Mares Hotel. Baron de Charlus has a briefencounter with Kilroy in which he asks him for thetime and a light for his cigarette. Kilroy is unable toprovide either. De Charlus is a stately Frenchman,dressed in a pale yellow suit.

Esmeralda She is the Gypsy’s daughter. Esmeraldais a beautiful and highly desirable young woman.Though she is a lover of many men, her virginity isrestored every month during a public ritual celebrat-ing the full Moon. She woos Kilroy but rejects hisaffections. Esmeralda represents the regret all menfeel for a desire that cannot be fulfilled. She is a part

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of the “rugged deal,” or the unfortunate momentsin Kilroy’s life.

Gautier, Marguerite Marguerite is based on thecharacter Marguerite Gautier in Alexandre Dumas’snovel La Dame aux camélias. This elegant woman,once the most best dressed, most expensive, andmost successful courtesan in Paris, is now JacquesCasanova’s aging lover. Hints of her former gloryremain in her grand demeanor and her attire, whichincludes a hat heaped with violets. She abandonsJacques early in the play but ultimately returns tohim. In this highly symbolic play, Marguerite repre-sents faithfulness and companionship.

Guitar Player He provides choruslike narrationduring particular scenes in the play, along withmood music (which he plays with his blue guitar) atappropriate times. In this expressionistic play, heserves as a master of ceremonies.

Gutman, Mr. Mr. Gutman is the proprietor of theSiete Mares Hotel. As does the Gypsy, he cheats hisresidents of their money. Mr. Gutman is sly, welldressed, and indifferent to the plight of the needy.

Gypsy She is a psychic and the mother of Esme-ralda. The Gypsy consistently mistreats Kilroy. Shecheats him of money, and when he complains, sheholds him at gunpoint. She also throws water onhim when he returns to Esmeralda.

Kilroy Kilroy is a 25-year-old boxer. He is a naiveAmerican who has wandered into the CaminoReal. He has an abnormally large heart, which issaid to be the size of a baby’s head. This medicaloddity prevents him from boxing and prevents himfrom being physically intimate with his wife. He ishailed as the “Chosen Hero,” falls in love withEsmeralda, and loses all of his money trying to winher affection. Kilroy meets Don Quixote anddecides to travel with him. In this symbolic drama,Kilroy represents the innocent young man whogives away his heart for love and is rejected.

La Madrecita de Las Soledades She hides herface with a blanket and disguises herself as a street

figure for much of the play. La Madrecita revealsherself near the end. She wears a snow-white rebozo(a long, Mexican head scarf) and sells gaudy tinflowers that are used in Latin American funerals.Her voice is soft and musical and she is very old.Her name means “little mother of the lonely.”

Officer He is a corrupt law enforcer who has ahostile encounter with Kilroy. In this play, theOfficer is a criminal with authority: He shoots an“Indian” in the first scene, continuously con-sumes alcohol, and employs the services of theProstitute.

Panza, Sancho Sancho accompanies DonQuixote. He appears in the final scene of the play.Sancho follows Quixote out of the Camino Real,carrying armor, and says the town is confusing andwill remain a mystery.

Peasant He is a Native American man whostumbles into the town square in search of water.The Peasant is dying of thirst. When he investi-gates the dry fountain in the town square, he isunjustly shot and killed by the Officer.

Quixote, Don He is Sancho Panza’s master. Hemakes a brief appearance at the end of the play. Hegives Kilroy advice about life and love and inviteshim to venture out of the Camino Real with him.

Singer She is a performer who sings to set the toneof the scenes. The Singer’s presence is described as a“softening” in the harsh city setting.

Streetcleaners They are the two public serviceworkers who collect the dead bodies lying in thestreets of the Camino Real. It is their decisionwhether a deceased body can be claimed by rela-tives or becomes property of the state, and theybase their decision on the bribes they receive. Theyare fixtures in the corrupt power structure of theCamino Real. The Streetcleaners are also manifes-tations of the ever-present existential and forebod-ing tone that permeates the Camino Real.

300 Ten Blocks on the Camino Real

“Ten Minute Stop”Short story written around 1936.

SYNOPSISLuke travels from his home in Memphis to Chicagofor a job interview, but when he finally arrives atthe office, the secretary informs him that the boss isout of town on a cruise. He is due back at the endof the month. Luke is shocked by the news, as hehas spent nearly all of his money on a bus ticketand is desperate for work. After making a scene inthe office, Luke buys a pint of whiskey and boardsthe next bus back to Memphis.

He encounters a Young Negro boxer on thebus. Luke shares his whiskey with him, but hequickly tires of his new friend’s talkative nature.Luke finally goes to sleep, but the Young Negrosnores so loudly that he wakes. The bus makes astop at Champaign, and the boxer exits. Luke getsoff the bus and buys a glass of milk. As he boardsthe bus, he notices a billboard. It is an advertise-ment for a movie starring Jean Harlow and StarkNavle. He admires Harlow’s breasts, while listen-ing to the sound of crickets and drinking his milk.His mind wanders to thoughts of Restorationpoets, the universe, and social injustice. Lukedecides he should make a daring decision in hislife, so he sells his bus ticket to a passerby andblissfully falls asleep on the grass under the posterof Jean Harlow.

COMMENTARYLuke is in search of something more in life thanscraping together some sort of existence in hishometown of Memphis. He is an intellectualyoung man who has a promising future, and herecognizes his potential. His frustration lies in theknowledge that he could have a good job and bet-ter future if he could only somehow break through.Luke is seizing big opportunities, and he keepswaiting for something promising to happen. Goinganywhere is better than going home, and whenLuke makes the decision to stay in the town of the10-minute stop, he is pleased that he has foundanother option.

Luke is reminiscent of several “drifter” charac-ters in the Williams canon, such as Val Xavier inthe BATTLE OF ANGELS and ORPHEUS DESCENDING

and the protagonist of “THE GIFT OF AN APPLE.”

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Ten Minute Stop” was published in Collected Sto-ries (1985).

CHARACTERSLuke Luke is a young man desperate to find a joband have a stable, comfortable life. When his jobplans in Chicago fall through, Luke is forced toboard a train back to Memphis. He cannot acceptthat he is returning home so soon and without a job.What was originally a 10-minute bus stop in Cham-paign, Illinois, becomes Luke’s permanent home.

Young Negro He befriends Luke on a bus travel-ing south from Chicago. The Young Negro is aboxer, who has won his first major fight. Lukeadmires him for the exciting future he is creatingfor himself.

“Tent Worms”Short story written in 1945.

SYNOPSISIt is a beautiful summer day in Cape Cod, Massa-chusetts. Billy Foxworth is obsessed by the tentworms that have infested the orchard of his sum-mer home. His wife, Clara, ignores him in the hopethat he will stop talking and let her relax in thesun. She secretly dreams about leaving him as hescolds her for not listening. Clara knows Billy isdying and will not return with her next summer.She is irritated that he is wasting his time thinkingabout the infestation.

Clara smells smoke and discovers that Billy isburning the worms by lighting the webs they formbetween the trees. Clara dreams of the coming win-ter, which will be a time of “expensive mourning.”Clara receives a phone call from the doctor. Shetells him that she cannot wait: She cannot take

“Tent Worms” 301

much more from her husband. He tells her to bepatient and bide her time. He reminds her it willsoon be over. She hangs up and resumes her posi-tion on the deck. Billy sits in the adjoining chair.He contemplates the tent worms and the summerhouse on the Cape, and he acknowledges that hewill not return. Clara holds his hand. They bothremember the wonderful love they once shared, alove as fleeting as the summer and now as fleetingas Billy’s life.

COMMENTARY“Tent Worms” is a highly elusive and remarkabletale. It is an intricate study in oppositions: endingsand beginnings, life and death, darkness and light.Billy and Clara personify these oppositional ten-sions. Billy, at the end of his life, spends his remain-ing days covered in the shade of the orchard,smoking out the worms that have infested his trees.This is his futile attempt to control the uncontrol-lable and a way of clinging to life. He literally triesto conquer the very trappings of death: worms andcobwebs. Clara, by contrast, dreams of new begin-nings as she basks in the sunlight of her youth.

As are many other of Williams’s works, “TentWorms” is an exploration of the conflict betweenthe soul and the flesh, or world of the spirit versusthe material world. Billy, who is in essence alreadydead to Clara, has an almost ghostly existence inthe story. His presence troubles Clara, as if he werea sort of meddlesome goblin. He is already firmlyimmersed in the realm of nature, connecting withthe elements (fire and air) even before his body hasbeen committed to the ground. Clara’s place is verymuch in the material world, as she self-indulgentlydreams of limousines, furs, and other trappings of“expensive mourning.”

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Tent Worms” was published in Esquire (1980) andin Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSFoxworth, Billy Billy is a writer from New Yorkwho is spending the summer in Cape Cod, Massa-chusetts, with his wife, Clara. During their summerholiday he has become obsessed with the tent

worms that have infested his orchard. Billy tries toburn them out, an action which disturbs Clara,who is trying to relax on the deck. Billy and Clarahave ceased to love one another; their relationshiphas become one of merely coexisting. Billy is awarethat he is dying and that this will be his last visit toCape Cod.

Foxworth, Clara Clara is the disgruntled wifeof Billy, a New York writer. She and Billy arespending the summer in Cape Cod, Massachu-setts. Clara is frustrated by Billy’s obsession withthe tent worms that have infested their orchard.She is irritated that he is spending his last summerdays trying to find ways of killing the worms. Sheis bored and ignores his temper tantrums. Clara isalso aware that Billy is dying; however, she is nolonger in love with him. She begins to imagine theglamorous life she will have without him: loveaffairs, furs, and limousines.

This Is the Peaceable Kingdomor Good Luck God

One-act play written around 1980.

SYNOPSISThe setting is a nursing home in Queens, NewYork, during a nursing home strike in 1978.

Scene 1A male (Ralston) and a female (Lucretia) patientin their 80s, confined to wheelchairs, peer out ontothe audience in silence. On the wall above them isthe inscription “Good Luck God.” In a pantomimicperformance, an old woman named Mrs. Shapiro isspoon-fed by her elderly daughter, Bernice, andson, Saul.

Bernice shouts at Saul about his uselessness.Saul admits that he cannot bear to see his motherin this condition. Bernice states that their motheris now incontinent. Lucretia repeats the wordincontinent. Bernice says this in English so that hermother, who primarily speaks Yiddish, will notunderstand. Bernice begins to shout at her mother,

302 This Is the Peaceable Kingdom or Good Luck God

asking her where she left her false teeth. Saul sug-gests that they ask Miss Goldfein, the nurse whomthey pay extra for special attention.

Lucretia repeats “incontinent” to herself. Ralstoninquires about her thoughts. Ralston says he gets outof bed to go to the toilet, but Lucretia reminds himthat he soiled himself last week. Ralston snaps thathe received someone else’s laxative tablet in his pills.Bernice begs her mother to eat. Bernice tells Saulthat the nurse phoned last week to say their motherlost her teeth down the toilet when she was vomit-ing. Saul does not understand why she asked whenshe already knew the answer to the question. Ber-nice suspects the nurse is robbing them and is askingto make certain the stories match. Bernice shouts ather mother to eat, and Lucretia scolds her for shout-ing. Saul and Bernice contemplate moving theirmother to another nursing home. A Strange Voiceover an intercom announces, “This is the PeaceableKingdom; this is the Peaceable Kingdom.”

Bernice drops the spoon she is using. Lucretiagroans, and Ralston strokes her hand as “a delicateray of light strikes his face with a glimmer of benig-nity.” The Strange Voice repeats his message as awhisper. Lucretia tells Ralston that she has been inthe nursing home for more than eight years. Shethought her family forgot about her because theystopped visiting, but she learned over time thatthey were all dead.

Saul yells at Bernice for forcing food into theirmother’s mouth. The First Black Man and SecondBlack Man converse in the corner. They tell dirtyjokes that offend Lucretia, who says that she is a moralChristian woman. Lucretia announces that she is nei-ther black nor Jewish. Saul overhears this commentand is incensed. Bernice warns him to be carefulabout what he says. Ralston tries to quiet Lucretia,who announces the nursing home is Christian. TheStrange Voice reverberates its “Peaceable Kingdom,the kingdom of love without fear” message.

Saul and Bernice decide to move their motherto another nursing home. Ralston warns Lucretiathat she is being anti-Semitic. Saul presents Lucre-tia with a peace offering of knishes. Saul suffers aseizure. Bernice gives him a pill, which restoreshim. Saul speaks hatefully to his mother, who holdsher withered hand out to him.

The Supervisor enters the room to announcethat negotiations are being made. The First BlackMan demands food, and the crowd erupts in a riot.Bernice panics and tries to figure out a way to gether mother out of the commotion. A Matronenters with a cart of plates of nuts and fruit. As shegives her speech about the donors of the snacks,Ralston grabs two of the plates. The Matrondemands he return them, and he obeys. A mob ofpatients attack the Matron, throwing the platesand ripping her clothes.

In the midst of the chaos, Bernice wheels hermother into an adjoining room. She shouts andcries that her mother is dead, killed by the Nazis ofthe nursing home. The Strange Voice reiterates“This is the Peaceable Kingdom.” A policemanescorts the Matron out of the home. Lucretiaenvies Mrs. Shapiro, who has died, and she bangsher head against the wall. Calling for last rites, theStrange Voice interrupts her pleas to remind her ofthe Peaceable Kingdom “of love without fear.”

Scene 2Time has elapsed and the nursing home is quiet.Ralston comforts Lucretia with thoughts of loveand encouragement that they live for each other.Lucretia replies that love is not something in whichto believe. Ralston serenades her with a song aboutlove, but she is not moved by the sentiment. Lucre-tia is angry, hungry, thirsty, and has just “wet” her-self. Ralston tells her that he is God, who has cometo the nursing home to take care of her. Lucretiaquestions the horrible conditions around them andasks why if he is God would he allow this to go on.Ralston calls her “Daughter” and says that he ispatiently biding his time.

Saul and Bernice wait for the funeral home toarrive to collect their mother’s body. Ralstonwheels Lucretia back to the ward. The StrangeVoice announces the Peaceable Kingdom.

COMMENTARYIn This Is the Peaceable Kingdom Williams bitterlysatirizes the state of assisted care homes and socialand racial divides that exist within them. As hedoes in LIFE BOAT DRILL, Williams writes of thetragedy of old age. Stephen Grecco writes that the

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elderly characters in these plays who are “usuallynear death’s door, are parodies of human beings,grotesque puppets with only a dim awareness of alife that might have been at one time dignified andpurposeful” (World Literature Today, 586). As inTHE FROSTED GLASS COFFIN, whose characters aredivested of essential humanity and are parodied bybeing identified as mere numbers (i.e., One, Two,or Three) rather than names, the senior citizensdepicted in This Is the Peaceable Kingdom sufferrepeated indignities and social isolation. With thiswork, Williams reasserted himself as an advocate ofthe outcast and the put aside.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThis play has not been professionally produced.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis Is the Peaceable Kingdom was published in TheTheatre of Tennessee Williams, volume 7, in 1994.

CHARACTERSLucretia She is an elderly woman confined to awheelchair. Lucretia has been living in a nursinghome for eight years. In moments of extreme frus-tration about her quality of life and the tragedy ofaging, Lucretia beats her head against the wall.She is often rescued by her friend, Ralston. Duringa workers’ strike at the nursing home, Lucretialearns that Ralston is actually God, who is there totake care of her. She is skeptical but wants tobelieve that she will have a better life because Godis with her.

Ralston He is an elderly man confined to awheelchair. Ralston lives in a chaotic nursing homewhere a workers’ strike is under way. Ralston iscontinually hopeful, whereas his friend, Lucretia,suffers depression caused by the deterioration ofher body and the quality of her life at the nursinghome. Ralston tells Lucretia that he is God and isthere to take care of her.

Shapiro, Bernice She is the elderly daughter ofMrs. Shapiro, a woman who has been living in anursing home. Bernice impatiently cares for hermother, who can no longer speak. During a work-

ers’ strike at the nursing home, Bernice experiencesanti-Semitism and a patients’ revolt. The pande-monium of the scene proves too much for Mrs.Shapiro. Bernice and her brother, Saul, witness thedeath of their mother during the strike.

Shapiro, Saul He is a university professor whovisits his mother, Mrs. Shapiro, during a nursinghome strike. Saul suffers seizures and fights with hissister, Bernice. He refuses to look at his mother inher current condition. A revolt breaks out at thenursing home, and Saul’s mother dies.

FURTHER READINGGrecco, Stephen. Book Review of The Theatre of Ten-

nessee Williams. World Literature Today 7, no. 3(1994): 586.

This Property Is CondemnedA one-act play written before 1942.

SYNOPSISThe action of this play takes place on a railroadembankment in Mississippi. Near the tracks is anabandoned house, with a large sign indicating“THIS PROPERTY IS CONDEMNED.”

Willie is a young girl dressed in a frilly woman’sdress and children’s shoes. She wears rouge andlipstick and carries a doll and a banana, which shehas salvaged from the Dumpster of a café. Tomapproaches Willie, carrying a kite. Willie balanceson one rail as she approaches Tom. She asks whathe plans to do with a kite on a windless day. Willienotices the sky, “white as a piece of paper,” as shesings “My Blue Heaven.”

Willie dropped out of grade school two yearsago when her older sister, a prostitute, died. Shetells Tom about her beautiful sister, who wouldhouse the railroad men. She says her sister died of“lung affection” and her mother and father aremissing. Tom asks her about a rumor that shedanced naked for Frank Waters. Willie tries tochange the subject, but Tom asks whether she willdance for him. She refuses, explaining that she was

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lonely when she danced before, but she is “notlonesome now.” Willie admits that she still lives inthe condemned house, and that the railroad menvisit her. Willie says good-bye, and Tom watchesher walk away. As she sings to herself, he holds upa finger to test the wind.

COMMENTARYThis Property Is Condemned reads as a sequel to theone-act play HELLO FROM BERTHA, or a retelling ofBertha’s tale from a different perspective, if she hadhad a younger sister. Willie is another engaging, ifbrief, female character study in the Williams canon.As do Bertha and Blanche Dubois, Willie clings tothe relics of her past and her family home as longshe can.

Willie’s isolation and incredible innocence arecompelling, and Williams effectively captures Willie’sodd position in the world. In many ways she is anolder woman, trapped in a child’s body. She enter-tains railway workers, and yet she still plays withdolls. Williams effectively evokes sympathy—with-out sentimentality—for this young, abandoned fugi-tive child.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThis Property Is Condemned was first produced atthe New School for Social Research in 1942. A filmversion starring Natalie Wood and Robert Redfordwas produced in 1966. The film focused on the lifeof Willie’s sister Alva and her relationship with arailroad boss named Owen Legate.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThis Property Is Condemned was first published inAmerican Scenes in 1941. It was subsequently pub-lished in 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND OTHER

ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSTom Tom is a young boy who encounters a younggirl named Willie. He questions her about her fam-ily because he is interested in her provocativebehavior. Tom is slightly older than Willie and car-ries a red crepe-paper kite.

Willie Willie is a young orphaned girl whospends her days wandering the train tracks. She

dresses in her late sister’s clothes and waits for therailroad men. She is naive about their associationwith her; she likes the parties they take her to anddoes not realize they are prostituting her to othermen. Although she lives in an adult world and hasadult relationships, Willie still carries her doll.

“Three Players of a Summer Game”

Short story written between the years 1951 and1952.

SYNOPSISBrick Pollitt, a thin, handsome former athlete, ismarried to Margaret, a former New Orleans debu-tante. After a couple of years of marriage, Brickhas become an alcoholic. Margaret is forced tomanage her husband’s plantation. The timid, deli-cate debutante has transformed herself into anastute businesswoman.

Margaret goes to Memphis to attend a funeral.While she is gone, Brick’s doctor becomes termi-nally ill of brain cancer. Brick visits Dr. Grey and hiswife, Isabel Grey. Brick and Isabel sit at the doctor’sbedside, and Brick helps her administer the hypo-dermic needle that ends her husband’s anguish.When it is over Isabel and Brick lie side by side in abed and hold hands. They lie still and silent, tryingto comprehend that the doctor is dead.

Isabel and her 12-year-old daughter, MaryLouise, have very little money. Brick takes it uponhimself to care for the widow and her child. At firstthe people of the town think he is noble, but afterseveral weeks, gossip of an affair surfaces. He reno-vates her Victorian home, and he tries to quitdrinking for her. When he does succumb to alco-hol, he pontificates about the game of croquet. Hebelieves it to be a sober man’s sport, which heaspires to play.

Mary Louise spends the summer setting up thecroquet game in the hope that Brick will play withher. He makes a spectacle of himself and the gamewhen he is drunk. He leaps and runs wildly in the

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yard, disregarding what the neighbors are sayingabout his behavior. Mary Louise and her mothercower in embarrassment, begging him to stop.Eventually he passes out in the middle of the frontlawn, partly dressed. The local police collect him,and an hour later, Isabel fetches him from jail.

As time passes, Brick’s visits become less fre-quent. When he does happen to stop by, he isalways with a group of people, drinking and party-ing. Isabel is forced to invite the entire party intoher home, and the neighbors gossip about her.Isabel’s car is repossessed, and she and Mary Louisemove away. Late in the fall, the narrator sees BrickPollitt in the backseat of his car, being chauffeuredby his wife, Margaret.

COMMENTARY“Three Players of a Summer Game” is the sourcetext for the drama CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF. As inthe later dramatic work, the short story is centeredon the self-indulgent Brick Pollitt and his problem-atic relationship with his wife, Margaret.

In the short story, their marriage is strained byBrick’s dying best friend, Dr. Grey, and his widow,Isabel. Isabel and Brick develop a psychological bondin the act of releasing Dr. Grey from his pain. Theyare prompted to commit euthanasia by their love forthe dying doctor, and it is their love of him thatbrings them together as lovers. Brick’s affection fillsthe void in Isabel’s life left by her husband. ForBrick, their romantic tryst is a delightful summerfling that takes him away from the responsibilities ofbeing a land owner and running a plantation. Unlikehis counterpart in Cat, in “Three Players of a Sum-mer Game,” Brick is able to carouse, play childhoodgames (croquet) and relive the frivolity of his youth.His indulgence comes at a high price for Isabel.Brick’s wild antics tarnish her reputation in thesmall-town society, and she and her daughter areforced to move away.

Brick’s wife, Margaret, is ever steadfast anddetermined in both the short story and the play.Margaret, as does her counterpart, “Maggie theCat,” shoulders the responsibility of their survivaland success. She is shrewd in her business dealingsand possesses the strength of will to literally and fig-uratively drive her wayward husband into maturity.

The tension and distance that exists between themin the short story is expanded and heightened in thedramatic retelling.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Three Players of a Summer Game” was publishedin the New Yorker (1952) and reprinted in BestAmerican Short Stories of 1953 (1953), Hard Candy(1954), Stories of Modern America (1961), Fifty BestAmerican Short Stories (1965), and Young Man Axel-bord & Other Stories (1975).

CHARACTERSGrey, Dr. Dr. Grey is a handsome young doctor,who is married to Isabel Grey and is the father ofMary Louise Grey. He is dying of brain cancer, andhis best friend, Brick Pollitt, is present at his bed-side during his final hours. Moments after hisdeath, Dr. Grey’s wife becomes Brick’s mistress.

Grey, Isabel Isabel is married to Dr. Grey and isthe mother of Mary Louise Grey. When her hus-band is diagnosed with brain cancer, his best friend,Brick Pollitt, arrives to comfort and assist the cou-ple. Isabel falls in love with the handsome planta-tion owner and begins an affair with him momentsafter her husband dies. Brick helps Isabel manageher finances and she tries to help him overcome hisalcoholism. When it becomes obvious that she hasfailed to help him, the pain is too much for her tobear. She and her daughter move away and arenever heard from again.

Grey, Mary Louise She is the 12-year-olddaughter of Isabel and Dr. Grey. Mary Louise lovesto play croquet and takes the game very seriously.She often plays the game with her mother’s lover,Brick Pollitt. However, when his heavy drinkinginterferes with their matches, she does not care forhis participation.

Pollitt, Brick He is a handsome plantation ownerwho struggles in an unhappy marriage and throughalcoholism attempts to escape reality. Brick’s life isspent fighting the disease, and although two womenlove and support him, he cannot be good to either ofthem.

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Pollitt, Margaret She is the wife of Brick Pollitt.Margaret has been forced to take control of theirplantation because her husband’s alcoholism hasmade him incapable of meeting the responsibility.Margaret was once a frail debutante, but shebecomes a strong, astute businesswoman. Margaretis humiliated by Brick’s affair with Isabel Grey, butshe remains married to him and dedicated to takingcare of him.

Tiger TailA play in two acts written in 1977.

SYNOPSISThe play is set in the rural town of Tiger Tail, Mis-sissippi. The action of the play takes place in andaround the home of Archie Lee Meighan and hiswife, Baby Doll Meighan.

Act 1, Scene 1The Meighan’s furniture is being repossessed. BabyDoll places a call to the Kotton King Hotel. Shemakes a room reservation and explains her currentsituation with Archie Lee to the person on theother end. Baby Doll gives the details of her marital“agreement” with Archie Lee, a pact made byArchie Lee and Baby Doll’s father in which ArchieLee promised Baby Doll’s father that he would notattempt to consummate their marriage until shereached the age of 20.

An explosion is heard as a fire breaks out at theSyndicate Plantation across the road. Aunt RoseComfort McCorkle rushes out of the house to findBaby Doll. Ruby Lightfoot and her son, Two Bits,deliver a gallon of liquor for Archie Lee. In need ofrefreshment, Baby Doll decides to go to RubyLightfoot’s place to purchase some Coca-Colas.Aunt Rose tries to stop or at least accompany her,but Baby grabs a pistol for protection and sets offdown the road alone. A shot is fired as Baby Dollserves a warning to a man hiding in the bushes.Baby Doll chastises Archie Lee for leaving herbehind and causing her to miss the fire that hestarted at the plantation. He becomes irate and

physically abusive. He corrects Baby Doll and rein-forces his alibi with her by squeezing her arm. Hetries to make peace and seduce Baby Doll by kissingher wounded arm. Archie Lee seizes her wristssharply and sends her to bed.

Act 1, Scene 2The location is the same as in the previous scene,and the time is the next morning. Silva Vaccaro andhis assistant, Rock, arrive at the Meighan home with27 wagons of cotton. Rock discovers an emptykerosene can. Archie Lee eagerly accepts the oppor-tunity to gin Vacarro’s cotton. Archie Lee introducesBaby Doll to Silva and Rock and instructs her toentertain Silva while his cotton is being ginned.Baby Doll yawns and apologizes for her bad manners,stating that she and Archie were up very late theprevious night. Silva, Rock, and Archie Lee noticethe discrepancy between Baby Doll’s statements andArchie Lee’s. Archie Lee rushes back into the houseand barks for Aunt Rose to make coffee for Silva. Hereturns and shakes Silva’s hand confirming the “titfor tat,” “good neighbor policy.” Silva has strong sus-picions that Archie lee destroyed his gin. After heand Rock have disappeared to start ginning cotton,Silva toys with Baby Doll to find out the truth. BabyDoll inadvertently lets it slip that Archie Lee left thehouse and did not return until after the fire at theSyndicate Plantation had started. When he ques-tions her directly about Archie Lee’s whereabouts,Baby Doll tries to retract her comments.

Silva teases and taunts Baby Doll. His advancesawaken Baby Doll sexually. She runs to Archie forprotection; he is infuriated by her disruption of hiswork and slaps her in front of all the gin workers.Archie Lee is frustrated by a piece of brokenmachinery and vents his rage on Baby Doll. Silvasends Archie Lee all over the state to fetch a newpart for the machinery. Silva and Rock makearrangements to have the part taken from theircotton gin across the road. Silva takes this opportu-nity to pursue Baby Doll further.

Act 2, Scene 1Silva hopes to obtain a confession from Baby Doll.He intimidates her and tells her that the house shelives in is haunted. Silva engages Baby Doll in agame of hide-and-seek. He then terrorizes her to

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sign a statement verifying that Archie Lee burneddown the Syndicate Gin. Baby Doll is disappointedwhen Silva is satisfied with nothing more than hersignature. Silva decides that they have playedenough “children’s games.” He kisses Baby Dollpassionately and paddles her backside with his rid-ing crop. She runs to the nursery; he follows andaggressively seduces her.

Act 2, Scene 2Silva and Baby Doll talk intimately after theirencounter. Baby Doll inquires whether she and Silvawill have “more afternoons” like the one they havespent. Baby Doll is delighted to learn that they will.

Archie Lee returns, and Baby Doll descends thestairs dressed in a silk slip. Archie Lee shouts abouther appearance and refers to “useless women.”Baby Doll counters by referring to “destructivemen,” who “blow things up and burn things down.”Archie Lee is stunned and stung by her words.Baby Doll walks out onto the porch; Archie Leefollows her and switches on the porch light. Theworkers from the Syndicate Gin catch a glimpse ofBaby Doll in her negligee and several men call outand whistle. Archie Lee defends what is “his,” andBaby Doll warns him about taking his possession ofher for granted. Ruby Lightfoot and her son makeanother delivery of liquor to Archie Lee. WhenBaby Doll questions whether he is celebrating his“criminal actions,” he whacks her across the face infront of Ruby and Two Bits. Baby Doll cancels theiragreement.

Archie Lee is shocked to discover Silva pumpingwater from the Lees’ well. Baby Doll informs ArchieLee that Silva wants to establish a “good neighborpolicy” whereby Archie Lee will gin cotton for himindefinitely. The one condition is that Baby Dollmust entertain Silva every day. Aunt Rose Comfortcalls everyone to supper. The meal is undercookedand unsatisfactory to Archie Lee. He accosts AuntRose Comfort and threatens her with eviction. Silvapromptly offers her a job cooking for him.

Archie Lee collects his shotgun and chases Silvaout of the house. Silva climbs a nearby pecan tree.Baby Doll phones the police and runs out of thehouse to join Silva in the tree. Archie Lee runsaround the yard crying out for his “Baby Doll!”

Sheriff Coglan and Deputy Tufts arrive and escortArchie Lee away. As Aunt Rose sings a hymn, thelovers remain in the tree.

COMMENTARYTiger Tail holds a significant and unique place in theWilliams canon. It evolved, as did a large percent-age of Williams’s full-length stage dramas, fromwhat can be termed Williams’s “three-tiered” writ-ing method, whereby he initially shaped an idea intoa short story, then used the short story as the basisfor a one-act play, and then used the one-act as thefoundation text for an expanded full-length play.The material was often then adapted or revised intoa screenplay or produced as a film. However, TigerTail is Williams’s only dramatic work which is astage version of a screenplay. It is an adaptation ofthe controversial film BABY DOLL. Thus, this play isthe final installment of a dynamic cycle of worksdetailing the complex and tumultuous relationshipsof a beautiful, voluptuous woman and two rival cot-ton gin operators.

PRODUCTION HISTORYTiger Tail was first produced at the Alliance The-atre, Atlanta, Georgia, in 1978, under the directionof Harry Rasky.

PUBLICATION HISTORYTiger Tail was first published, with the screenplayBaby Doll, in 1991.

CHARACTERSCoglan, Sheriff The chief law enforcement offi-cer in Tiger Tail, Mississippi. Sheriff Coglan is sum-moned to the home of Archie Lee Meighan by hisyoung wife, Baby Doll Meighan. He and DeputyTufts take Archie Lee into custody for causing apublic disturbance. Baby Doll calls the Sheriff’soffice when her husband grabs his shotgun andthreatens to kill her lover and his business rival,Silva Vaccaro.

Lightfoot, Ruby She is a beautiful bootleggerand tavern hostess who sells illegal homemade dis-tilled liquor in Tiger Tail, Mississippi. Her son, TwoBits, helps her to distribute her brew. Archie Lee

308 Tiger Tail

Meighan is one of her faithful customers. To theconsternation of Aunt Rose Comfort McCorkle,Ruby’s son, Two Bits, leaves a gallon of liquor onthe porch for Archie Lee. As does Archie Lee’syoung wife, Baby Doll Meighan, Ruby repeatedlysuffers verbal and physical abuse from the hot-headed Archie Lee.

McCorkle, Aunt Rose Comfort She is an adap-tation of Aunt Rose Comfort McCorkle from thescreenplay BABY DOLL. Aunt Rose is the elderlyunmarried relative of Baby Doll Meighan. AuntRose Comfort lives with Baby Doll and her hus-band, Archie Lee Meighan, and makes herself “use-ful” by cooking for them. Archie Lee has growntired of Aunt Rose Comfort, her “simple-mindedfoolishness,” and her poor cooking skills. WhenArchie Lee threatens to throw her out, the rivalcotton gin operator, Silva Vacarro, offers her a jobcooking for him.

Meighan, Archie Lee He is a revision of thecharacter Archie Lee Meighan in the screenplayBABY DOLL. Archie Lee is a severely frustratedman: He is going bankrupt because the SyndicateCotton Gin is dominating the ginning business, andhis wife, Baby Doll Meighan, refuses to consum-mate their marriage until she turns 20. After yearsof waiting and with only two days until Baby Doll’sbirthday, Archie Lee is forced to focus on his busi-ness. In desperation, he burns down the rival gin,but he pays dearly when he agrees to gin his rival’scotton and assigns Baby Doll the task of entertain-ing the man.

Meighan, Baby Doll She is a revision of thecharacter Baby Doll Meighan in the screenplayBABY DOLL. She is the voluptuous 19-year-oldvirgin wife of Archie Lee Meighan. Her husbandis down on his luck since the Syndicate CottonGin started to dominate the cotton business inthe area.

After the fire at the Syndicate Plantation, herhusband is given the opportunity to gin 27 wagonsof cotton for Silva Vacarro, the Syndicate Planta-tion manager. Archie Lee orders Baby Doll toentertain Silva. During their visit Baby Doll acci-

dentally contradicts Archie Lee’s alibi. She essen-tially confirms for Silva that Archie Lee started thefire at his gin. Silva takes his revenge on Archie Leeby persuading Baby Doll to sign a statement con-firming that Archie Lee started the fire. In themidst of their heated flirtations, Baby Doll isaroused sexually for the first time and surrenders toSilva’s overpowering sexuality.

Tufts, Deputy He is a law enforcement officer inTiger Tail, Mississippi. Deputy Tufts accompanieshis boss, Sheriff Coglan, when he is summoned tothe home of Archie Lee Meighan. Archie Lee’steenage wife, Baby Doll Meighan, calls the sheriff’soffice when her husband grabs his shotgun andthreatens to kill her lover and his business rival,Silva Vacarro.

Two Bits He is the diminutive son of Ruby Light-foot, a bootlegger in Tiger Tail, Mississippi. TwoBits assists his mother in distributing her illegalbrew throughout the rural cotton town.

Vaccaro, Silva He is the handsome, virile, andvolatile Italian manager of the Syndicate Planta-tion Cotton Gin in a small town in rural Missis-sippi. Silva’s success has threatened other cottongin operators in the area, and many have gone outof business as a result. His chief competitor isArchie Lee Meighan. After a fire destroys his cot-ton gin, Silva considers Archie Lee the primary sus-pect. When Silva takes his 27 wagons of cotton toArchie Lee to be ginned, his suspicions are con-firmed. Delighted by his triumph over Silva, ArchieLee orders his full-figured, teenage, virgin wifeBaby Doll Meighan to entertain Silva while thecotton is being ginned. During their conversation,Baby Doll innocently contradicts Archie Lee’salibi. Silva takes revenge on Archie Lee by aggres-sively seducing Baby Doll.

The Travelling CompanionA one-act play written in 1981.

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SYNOPSISThe play is set in the bedroom of a lavish New Yorkhotel. The time is late evening, around midnight.

Scene 1Vieux, an aging writer, and Beau, his young travelingcompanion, have arrived at their suite in a poshhotel. Beau stares blankly at the double bed. Vieuxsuggests that Beau order two bottles of wine fromroom service, while he searches frantically for hismedicine kit. Vieux takes note of the tasks Beaushould undertake on future travels as his travelingcompanion. Beau is indifferent to Vieux’s referencesto the future and “hereafter.” Vieux continues toramble nervously, while Beau remains frozen, staringat the large double bed. Beau demands that he begiven his own room and threatens to make a scenedownstairs in the hotel if Vieux does not accommo-date his request. Vieux reminds Beau that he methim in a gay bar in San Francisco. Beau pretendsthat he did not know that the bar was for gays. Beautakes a quaalude tablet and calls the front desk,demanding a room of his own. Room service deliverstheir food and wine, and Beau explains that hewould never have taken the job of being Vieux’straveling companion if he had known that itrequired physical intimacy. Vieux reminds Beau thatthe terms of their arrangement were “young com-panionship, [and] privilege of light caresses.”

Beau takes another table and places a long-distance call to his boyfriend, Paul, who has recentlyreturned to San Francisco from Alaska. During thecall, he discovers that his friend Hank is trying toseduce Paul. He shows a picture of Paul to Vieuxand collapses on the double bed until his singleroom is ready. Vieux watches him sleep.

Scene 2In the same location as scene 1, some time later, asBeau sleeps, Vieux contemplates him and pondersthat “boys are fox-teeth in the heart.” He remi-nisces about the care and attention good travelingcompanions should give, such as caring for laundry.New traveling companions neglect such details andare more attentive to their own needs; Vieuxdeclares that they suffer from the “give-me’s.” Hepredicts that Beau will follow suit and be like theothers. Beau awakens and mentions that he left his

guitar in San Francisco. Vieux admonishes him fornot telling him about the guitar before they left.Vieux lies down beside Beau on the double bed andturns out the light. Beau demands that Vieux callthe front desk about his room. Vieux reminds Beauthat he is his employer and as such should not bespoken to in such a callous manner. The hotel staffdelivers a cot to Vieux’s room for Beau. Beau con-cedes that he will stay with Vieux, if he buys him anew guitar.

COMMENTARYThe Travelling Companion is similar in plot, theme,tone, and structure to the play AND TELL SAD STO-RIES OF THE DEATH OF QUEENS. However, Companionis an updated version of the story of a cold-heartedhustler abusing the romantic sensibilities of a deli-cate, lonely person longing for love. The theme oflove as a mercantile exchange is vividly andpoignantly explored throughout Williams’s work. Nolonger able to use their fame or their beauty ascommodities, Karen Stone (of THE ROMAN SPRING

OF MRS. STONE), Sabbatha Veyne Duff-Collick (of“SABBATHA AND SOLITUDE”), and Trinket Dugan(of THE MUTILATED) are forced to secure theirlovers’s affection with financial incentives andrewards.

Metaphorically, The Travelling Companion is atale of age versus youth. Vieux, whose name means“old” in French, is forced to contend with Beau,whose names is French for “handsome.” Ironically,the word beaux, also pronounced Beau, means“male admirers.” When they are viewed as twosides of a single character, Vieux and Beau in theirconflict express the human struggle with aging andimpending death. Vieux tries repeatedly to connectand make peace with youth, as fervently as Beautries to escape aging. In the final scene, Vieuxencapsulates their dilemma: “Being unable to go onalone and having no way to go back—where wouldI go back to? To me as difficult as reversing the waythe earth turns.” Whether Vieux and Beau areviewed as two separate characters or as the feudingsides of a single one, the apex of their conflict isthat age cannot exist with youth or without youth,and vice versa. By having the front desk deliver totheir room a cot for Beau, Williams comically illus-

310 The Travelling Companion

trates that there is no reprieve from this eternaldilemma. The young man is not offered an escape.Beau and Vieux remain together and are forced toreach an uneasy compromise and ultimately find away to lie together.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Travelling Companion was first professionallyproduced in New York by the Irish Repertory The-atre in 1996.

PUBLICATION HISTORYThe Travelling Companion was first published inChristopher Street magazine, in 1981.

CHARACTERSBeau Beau, whose name means “handsome” inFrench, is an attractive 25-year-old hustler. Thisblond youth is the traveling companion of Vieux,an aging writer. Beau has accompanied Vieuxacross the country from San Francisco to NewYork, but once they arrive at their suite in NewYork, he adamantly refuses to share a room withVieux. Beau threatens Vieux and tries to call hisboyfriend, Paul, back in San Francisco. Ultimately,he offers Vieux a compromise and establishes themercantile terms of their intimacy.

Vieux Vieux, whose name means “old” inFrench, is an aging writer. He has engaged the com-pany of Beau, a destitute young man, as a travelingcompanion. Once a beautiful youth himself, Vieuxis now middle-aged and suffering from defectivevision and a damaged liver. Beau is not physicallyattracted to Vieux, and when they arrive at theirhotel in New York, he initially refuses to share aroom with him. Accustomed to this routine, Vieuxwaits patiently while Beau rationalizes the mercan-tile terms of their intimacy.

“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton”

A short story written in 1935.

SYNOPSISThe story takes place in rural Mississippi, on thefront porch and inside the home of Mrs. JakeMeighan. The time is late afternoon during summer.

Mrs. Meighan has been given the task of “enter-taining” the Syndicate Plantation Manager whilehis 27 wagons of cotton are being ginned by herhusband, Jake. (He is unable to gin his own cotton,as his gin was destroyed by fire the evening before.)

Mrs. Meighan and the Plantation Manager sittogether in the porch swing. It is an exceedingly hotday, and Mrs. Meighan is drenched in sweat. She istired and would like to have an afternoon nap, butshe is responsible for hosting the Manager. TheManager makes advances toward Mrs. Meighan,declaring that he likes “big women.” Mrs. Meighanrejects the advances but is somewhat flattered byhis desire. Their flirtation intensifies until Mrs.Meighan’s defenses are weakened. He teases her byflicking her shapely legs with his riding crop. Con-fused and disoriented, Mrs. Meighan leans againstthe screen door and tries to go into the house. TheManager half forces and escorts her into the house.Mrs. Meighan, a “tremendous, sobbing Persephone,”backs into the darkened hallway and halts breath-lessly outside the Meighans’ bedroom door. She fearsthat the Manager is going to beat her with his whip.She pleads with him not to hurt her as she throwsher arms around him.

COMMENTARY“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton” is a conciseand evocative tale of seduction. As in similar tales ofoverpowering desire (such as “DESIRE AND THE

BLACK MASSEUR” and “GIFT OF AN APPLE”) Williamsemploys the device of contrasts to underscore themagnetic attraction of the characters. In “Twenty-seven Wagons” he pairs an almost absurdly largewoman (“You’re bigger’n the whole southern hemi-sphere,”) with a minuscule man; and the two share asexual dynamic that borders on sadomasochism.Their relationship is a reversal of the “little andlarge” interplay which occurs in “Desire and theBlack Masseur,” a later short story.

Metaphorically, the exceedingly full-figured Mrs.Meighan, whose proportions are too large for the

“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton” 311

Manager to encircle with his small hands, personi-fies the Manager’s—and her husband’s—ambition.She is also an embodiment of the American Southand its great potential wealth. She, as is the land, issomething to be idolized, possessed, seduced, orcoerced into surrender.

“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton” is thebasis of the one-act play 27 WAGONS FULL OF COT-TON and a source text for the screenplay BABY

DOLL and the play TIGER TAIL.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton” was first pub-lished in Manuscript magazine in 1936. It was subse-quently published in Collected Stories in 1985.

CHARACTERSMeighan, Mrs. Jake She is the extremely full-figured wife of Jake Meighan, a cotton gin ownerand operator. Mrs. Meighan is ordered by her hus-band to spend the day hosting and entertaining theSyndicate Plantation manager, while her husbandgins his 27 wagons of cotton. After rejecting hisrepeated sexual overtures, she ultimately allowsherself to be seduced by the Manager.

Syndicate Plantation Manager He is the man-ager of the Syndicated Plantation Cotton Gin. As aresult of a fire that destroyed his gin, the plantationmanager has taken his 27 wagons of cotton to JakeMeighan to be ginned. While his cotton is beingginned, the manager has been left in the care ofMrs. Jake Meighan, an exceedingly full-figuredwoman. The manager has a fondness for “bigwomen” and proceeds to seduce Mrs. Meighan.

27 Wagons Full of CottonA one-act play written before 1946.

SYNOPSISThe action of the play occurs on the front porchof the home owned by Jake and Flora Meighan,near Blue Mountain, Mississippi. The time is earlyevening, in September 1936.

Scene 1Jake Meighan rushes out of the house and runs offthe porch carrying a can of coal oil. He speeds awayin his Chevy as Flora calls him from the house. Anexplosion is heard in the distance, and voices andsounds of confusion nearby. A voice calls out toFlora offering her a ride to see the fire at the Syndi-cate Plantation. Flora is startled by the news thatthe Syndicate gin is on fire. She sits on the frontporch, waiting and watching the fire in the dis-tance. Jake returns slowly from the side of thehouse. Flora chastises him for leaving her alonewithout a ride or Coca-Cola in the house. Whenshe continues to accuse him of “disappearing,” hebecomes irate and physically abusive. He correctsFlora and reinforces his alibi with her by twistingher wrists. Flora accepts Jake’s alibi. They decide togo into town to buy Coca-Cola.

Scene 2The location is the same; the time is just afternoon, the next day.

Jake returns to the house with Silva Vacarro, thesuperintendent of the Syndicate Plantation. Jakecalls for Flora. He introduces Silva to Flora as theman he wants her to “cheer up” for him. Silva isdisgruntled about losing his gin. As the conversa-tion turns to the fire, Jake diverts Silva and Flora’sattention to Flora’s well-proportioned body. Heleaves them alone on the porch and gleefullydeparts to gin Silva’s cotton.

Flora and Silva make an awkward attempt atconversation. She remarks on his bravery in sittingout in the sun. By lifting his shirt he shows her thathis skin is “natcherally [sic] dark” and not merelysunburned. This level of intimacy with a strangerflusters Flora. She laughs and apologizes that shecannot offer Silva a soft drink. In explaining whythey do not have any Coca-Colas, Flora inadver-tently lets it slip that after dinner Jake “went offan’ left her settin’ on this ole po’ch” and did notreturn until after the fire at the Syndicate Planta-tion had started. Her admission of the truth is notlost on Silva. When he questions her directlyabout Jake’s earlier whereabouts, she tries toretract her comments.

Silva joins Flora in the porch swing. Their con-versation takes a “personal turn.” Flora tries to cover

312 27 Wagons Full of Cotton

her lapse in Jake’s alibi. Silva becomes very flirtatiousand starts teasing her with his riding crop. Silvanotices the bruising on Flora’s wrist and speculatesthat Jake twisted it and that Flora enjoyed it. Floratries to retreat into the house, but Silva blocks herpath and threatens to accompany her. Flora becomesconfused and begins to cry. She is afraid that Silva isgoing to beat her with his whip. She pleads with himto leave his whip on the porch if he is going to followher into the house. Silva orders her into the house;as she cries, she tries to reassure Silva that Jake didnot destroy his gin. They enter the house. Thesounds of a “despairing cry,” a slamming door, andanother scream are drowned out by the slow, steadythumping sound of the cotton gin across the road.

Scene 3The location is the same; the time is nine o’clock inthe evening.

Flora stumbles onto the porch from the house.She has been severely beaten and raped. She hidesin the shadows of the porch as Jake returns tri-umphantly from his cotton gin. He is too proud andvain to notice her. He thinks about the details ofhis most successful workday, when he pushed hisworkers harder than he ever had. Flora sits in theswing trying to restrain her growing hysteria. Floragives Jake the news that Silva is going to allow himto gin all of his cotton for the rest of the seasonwhile Flora entertains him. Jake cannot believe hisgood luck. To celebrate, he offers to take Flora tosee a movie. Flora waddles down the porch stepspainfully. As she walks to the car she sings, “Rock-a-Bye-Baby.”

COMMENTARY27 Wagons Full of Cotton is a dramatization of theshort story “TWENTY-SEVEN WAGONS FULL OF COT-TON.” As does its predecessor, the play depicts thecomplex relationship of a woman caught betweentwo rival cotton gin operators. Flora Meighanbecomes a commodity that changes hands in theunderhanded dealings of the two men. In exchangefor the brutalization of his wife, Jake Meighanacquires Silva Vacarro’s 27 wagons of cotton. Jake istoo blinded by his own success and ambition tonotice his wife’s suffering. Her dignity and welfare

are negligible to him. All that matters to Jake is thevictory over his competitor.

Metaphorically, the full-figured Mrs. Meighanpersonifies Jake and Silva’s ambition and its source,cotton. Both men associate and equate her with cot-ton, referring to her in cotton-related terminology(e.g., big, soft, and white). While doting on her andidolizing her for her cottonlike qualities, both menalso verbally and physically abuse Flora. They eachmanipulate her to gain advantage over the other. Inthis regard, Flora also embodies the American Southand its great potential wealth. She, as is the land, isto be possessed, dominated, and exploited.

27 Wagons Full of Cotton, along with THE LONG

STAY CUT SHORT, OR THE UNSATISFACTORY SUPPER,serves as a source text for the screenplay BABY

DOLL and the full-length play TIGER TAIL.

PRODUCTION HISTORY27 Wagons Full of Cotton was first produced in NewOrleans at Tulane University in January 1955.Edward Ludlam directed the production, whichfeatured MAUREEN STAPLETON as Flora Meighan.Stapleton also played Flora in the first New Yorkproduction at the Playhouse Theatre in April 1955.

PUBLICATION HISTORY27 Wagons Full of Cotton was first published in BestOne-Act Plays of 1944 (1945) and subsequently inthe anthology 27 WAGONS FULL OF COTTON AND

OTHER ONE-ACT PLAYS (1966).

CHARACTERSMeighan, Flora She is the full-figured wife ofJake Meighan, a cotton gin owner in rural Missis-sippi. After a fire at the Syndicate Plantation, herhusband is given the opportunity to gin 27 wagonsof cotton for Silva Vacarro, the Syndicate Planta-tion manager. Flora is ordered to entertain Silva, tokeep him out of Jake’s way while the cotton is beingginned. During her conversation with Silva, Floraaccidentally contradicts Jake’s alibi. She essentiallyconfirms that Jake did in fact start the fire at hisgin. Silva takes his revenge on Jake by beating andraping Flora. Jake is so blinded by his “victory” overSilva that he does not notice that Flora has beenharmed.

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Meighan, Jake He is a cotton gin owner in ruralMississippi, the husband of Flora Meighan. Jake isdescribed as a “fat man of sixty.” After the fire atthe Syndicate Plantation, he is given the opportu-nity to gin 27 wagons of cotton for his principalcompetitor, Silva Vacarro, the Syndicate Plantationmanager. Jake orders his full-figured wife to enter-tain Silva, to keep him out of his way while the cot-ton is being ginned. During her conversation withSilva, Flora accidentally contradicts Jake’s alibi.Flora confirms that Jake started the fire thatdestroyed Silva’s gin. Silva takes his revenge onJake by beating and raping Flora. Jake is so blindedby his “victory” over Silva that he does not noticethat Flora has been harmed.

Vacarro, Silva He is the superintendent of theSyndicate Plantation near Blue Mountain, Missis-sippi. An Italian, Silva is described as “a rathersmall and wiry man of dark Latin looks.” After afire destroys the Syndicate Plantation cotton gin,Silva considers the primary suspect, his next-doorneighbor and principal competitor, Jake Meighan.When Silva takes his 27 wagons of cotton to Jaketo be ginned, his suspicions are confirmed. Jakeorders his full-figured wife, Flora Meighan, toentertain Silva while the cotton is being ginned.During their conversation, Flora accidentally con-tradicts Jake’s alibi. She confirms that Jake startedthe fire that destroyed Silva’s gin. Silva takes hisrevenge by beating and raping Flora.

27 Wagons Full of Cotton andOther One-Act Plays

A collection of 13 one-act plays published in 1966.The collection includes 27 WAGONS FULL OF COT-TON, THE PURIFICATION, THE LADY OF LARKSPUR

LOTION, THE LAST OF MY SOLID GOLD WATCHES,PORTRAIT OF A MADONNA, AUTO-DA-FÉ, LORD

BYRON’S LOVE LETTER, THE STRANGEST KIND OF

ROMANCE, THE LONG GOODBYE, HELLO FROM

BERTHA, THIS PROPERTY IS CONDEMNED, TALK TO

ME LIKE THE RAIN AND LET ME LISTEN, and SOME-THING UNSPOKEN. This collection contains some of

Williams’s finest and most powerful shorter dramas.Each of these works illustrates Williams’s insightinto human nature and his gift for an evocative andpoetic revelation of character.

PUBLICATION HISTORY27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Playswas published by New Directions in 1966.

The Two Character PlayA play written between 1966 and 1975.

SYNOPSISAct 1In an unspecified theater at an unspecified loca-tion, the stage is partially set for a performance.The design re-creates the interior of an old Victo-rian Southern house in summer. Through a windowa field of tall sunflowers can be seen. Set pieces andproperties from other productions also clutter thestage area. The stage is dominated by a statue ofsinister-looking giant on a pedestal.

Felice, a young actor and playwright, enters thestage area and sits on a piano stool. He is the malestar of a touring acting company. As he sits, herevises a monologue he has written about thepower of fire and fear. His sister and costar, Clare,calls to him from offstage. Felice does not answer,but continues to draft his monologue. She callsagain, and he finally responds. Clare enters thestage; she seems heavily medicated. She places atiara, which is missing several stones, on herdisheveled hair as she approaches her brother.Felice switches on a tape recorder, which plays pre-viously recorded guitar music, and he and Clarerehearse a section of their lines to the music. Claredeclares that she is ready to meet the press. Feliceclarifies that they will not be meeting with the pressbefore their performance. Clare is furious that apress reception has not been scheduled, as shebelieves she handles the press skillfully. Her brothercriticizes her for getting drunk and raging againstfascism in front of the press. Clare counters that hebores them with his discussions of “total theater.”

314 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays

She spots a cockroach on the stage and kills itby crushing it underfoot as she shouts “Cock-roach!” Felice suggests she “drop an upper,” butClare believes she only needs strong coffee. Claredemands that Felice stay out of her affairs withother company members and stick to the businessof the performance. Clare procrastinates, andFelice warns her that it is nearly time for the per-formance to begin. Clare discovers a prop throneon the stage and she pretends to be royalty. Felice isseized by a migraine. Clares inquires whether theirtour is nearly over. Felice assures her that it will beover if they do not do well that evening. Clareexpresses her frustrations about touring. Felice crit-icizes his sister’s chemical dependencies andreminds her that her doctor has warned her thatshe runs the risk having a heart attack onstage.The two argue and insult each other bitterly.

Clare confesses that she wants to return home.Felice reminds her that the theater is their home andthat they have no where else to go. Felice checks theproduction props, as Clare continues to complain.Clare recalls the bad reviews they received for a pro-duction of Antony and Cleopatra that they performedtogether. Clare and Felice turn their attention to theevening’s performance of “The Two Character Play.”The set is not complete, and Felice warns Clare thatthere will be a great deal of improvisation needed toperform the play successfully. Clare realizes that sheand her brother have no lines of communicationestablished between themselves and the front-of-house staff; they are isolated onstage.

Clare’s persistent nagging that Felice end thetour prompts him to tell her the truth about theirdire financial situation. He finally shares with her atelegram that he received from the other membersof the company informing him that they have allquit. Clare decides they should quit too, but Felicebelieves the show must go on. Clare wants to returnto her hotel room to relax, and Felice reminds herthat they have no hotel rooms. The show has to goon because they have nowhere else to be. Feliceorders Clare to remove her coat; as she is cold, sherefuses. Felice abruptly snatches it off her. Theybicker as their “audience” gathers in the theater.Felice attacks Clare, calling her a variety of crudenames, and leaves her onstage. Before Clare can

regain her composure, the “curtains” are openedand she is caught onstage by the “audience.” Thetwo actors struggle to perform their play, whichrecounts the death of their parents. Clare foundersthroughout the performance and Felice chastisesher for “destroying the play.” Clare falls apart com-pletely when Felice utters the word “confined,”which as far as she is concerned is a prohibited wordand should not be included in the script. The cur-tain is drawn for a 10-minute intermission.

Act 2During the intermission Felice and Clare’s fightinghas continued. They return to the stage with cutsand bruises. They resume their “performance.”Clare tends to Felice’s wounded cheek. As she dabshis scratched cheek, Felice confesses that he hasforgotten his lines. When Clare admits that she hasforgotten hers too, he instructs her to improvise.Clare improvises on the tension that existedbetween her parents before the accident thatcaused their death. Her improvisation leads herparents to reveal that they are penniless becausetheir father’s life insurance payment was forfeitedon a “legal technicality.” The play begins to fallapart again, as the actors argue about life togetherfollowing their parents’ demise. They emphaticallycall “Line!” even though there is no one availableto prompt them. They bicker over the whereaboutsof their father’s revolver. Clare recounts the timeFelice spent in a state asylum. They endeavor toventure from the confines of their home. Theyeach offer excuses and hesitate, until Felice forciblymaneuvers Clare out the door. They attempt a visitto Grossman’s Market, a block away from theirhome. Clare succumbs to fear and scrambles toreturn to the house. Felice threatens that he willleave her, and Clare threatens that she will wait forhim. Felice leaves the house. He speaks directly tothe audience and tells them of his own cowardiceand how he will return to the house. He re-entersthe house, and he and Clare are too ashamed tolook at one another. Clare concludes the perfor-mance and orders Felice to “come out of the play.”Clare informs Felice that the audience has alreadyleft the theater. He blames the audience’s retreaton Clare for her lack of concentration and for

The Two Character Play 315

destroying the play’s texture. They sit on the propsofa, have a cigarette, and discuss their next move.Clare urges Felice to contact their manager, Fox,and obtain enough money for them to leave. Theycall out for Fox, and do not receive a reply. Clarespeculates that “The Two Character Play” may nothave an ending.

The pair makes plans to find a nearby hotel.Felice leaves Clare on the stage, only to returnabruptly with the news that the stage doors and thefront doors of the theater have been locked fromthe outside. There are no windows in the building,and the backstage phone is “as lifeless” as the proptelephone they use onstage. They both begin torecognize that the stage lights are dimming, andFelice is not controlling them. Sensing that theyare completely trapped, Clare realizes “it’s a prison,this last theater of ours.” Their greatest fear, beingconfined, has finally come to pass. Clare resignsherself to the fact that “there is nothing to bedone.” Felice corrects his sister: They can returninto the world of the play. They begin their per-formance again, speaking their lines rapidly in anattempt to “lose themselves” in the play. Clareswiftly grabs their father’s revolver and aims it atFelice. He urges her to shoot him, but she hesitates.She allows the gun to slip from her hand. Feliceretrieves it, aims it at Clare, and tries to pull thetrigger. He cannot. Clare and Felice reach out foreach other as the lights fade to total darkness.

COMMENTARYIn this remarkable play Williams parodies his owndramaturgy, his life, the theater, and life itself.Structurally, the play is a composite of all the princi-pal themes, motifs, situations, and relationshipsfound in Williams’s writings.

Felice and Clare’s dilemmas (the unhappy mar-riage of their parents, abandonment, death, loss,emotional isolation, social rejection, madness,chemical dependency, poverty, hunger, lack ofhuman connections, fear of confinement, fear ofinsanity, fear of the outside world, and fear of artis-tic failure) are concepts to which Williams repeat-edly returned throughout his literary career. Theseare also issues that concerned Williams throughouthis own life. The play inextricably meshes Williams’s

life and his art, to an even greater degree than inTHE GLASS MENAGERIE and SOMETHING CLOUDY,SOMETHING CLEAR.

The play features a pair of tormented siblingswho are the product of a tempestuous home life. Atthe heart of Clare and Felice’s drama is their role asunwilling participants in and traumatized witnessesto their parents’ volatile marriage and the brutalityit spawns. The Williamses’ home in Saint Louis reg-ularly brimmed with tension and hostility, whichculminated in ROSE WILLIAMS’s accusation of sex-ual abuse against her father. She was institutional-ized and received a prefrontal lobotomy shortlyafter making this claim.

In addition to representing or re-presenting ele-ments of his life and works in The Two CharacterPlay, Williams also spoofs his own characters in thisdrama about theater and acting (taking on roles).Felice, the poet-playwright, is obviously a stand-infor Williams. However, with his good looks,unkempt, shoulder-length hair, oversized great-coat, and “period” shirt he is the quintessentialactor, who seems on the brink of assaying Hamlet,that great and most existential dramatic role inWestern drama. Felice’s opening line (“To play withfire is to play with fire”) is clearly a take on Ham-let’s “To be or not to be” speech, and he statesrepeatedly that “theatre is a prison.” Felice sharesthis connection to Hamlet with Constantine,another of Williams’s struggling playwrights, in THE

NOTEBOOK OF TRIGORIN. As does Constantine,Felice is dedicated to new innovations in the the-ater, and he postulates repeatedly on his theory of“total theatre.”

Similarly, Felice’s sister, Clare, is a serious carica-ture of many of Williams’s dynamic and edgywomen. She makes her first appearance wearing atiara, a highly suggestive hint of Blanche DuBois(A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE), and her Victoriancostume pieces, a parasol and gloves, seem fit forAlma Winemiller (ECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTIN-GALE). It is easy to imagine that underneath hergreatcoat she also wears a provocative slip, as doesMaggie Pollitt (CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF). Alongwith these external indicators, Clare’s dispositionbelies her alignment with these and various otherWilliams characters. Clare’s bedraggled restlessness

316 The Two Character Play

is reminiscent of Gloria Bessie Greene (AT LIB-ERTY), Cassandra Whiteside (BATTLE OF ANGELS)and Carol Cutrere (ORPHEUS DESCENDING). Herfrantic phone call to the Reverend Wiley is reminis-cent of Blanche’s final appeal to Shep Huntleigh.Clare’s name, which is an anagram of the word“clear,” her demeanor, and “apparitional look”resurface later in the character Clare in SomethingCloudy, Something Clear.

In The Two Character Play not only does Williamssatirize his own dramaturgy, he merges it with that ofLuigi Pirandello and SAMUEL BECKETT. As a workabout the theater, the theatrical (or performative)nature of human existence, and the drama of lifeitself, The Two Character Play is closely aligned withPirandello’s existential drama Six Characters inSearch of an Author. As does the family of performersin Pirandello’s work, Felice and Clare struggle to cre-ate a meaningful existence for themselves withoutany real guidance or a complete script, and they aretrapped in the roles that have been assigned tothem. As do Vladimir and Estragon in Beckett’s clas-sic Waiting for Godot, Clare and Felice find them-selves alone in a desolate wasteland. Williamscleverly replaces Beckett’s withered tree with a giantsunflower, which grows has high as a house, rightoutside their window. Felice and Clare’s cheery sun-flower-filled garden belies the pair’s dark and desper-ate existence inside the house. As do DorothySimple’s rigid double row of petunias in THE CASE OF

THE CRUSHED PETUNIAS, Clare and Felice’s border ofsunflowers protects them from the outside world butalso becomes a barrier that imprisons them. Similarto Beckett’s transients, Clare and Felice cannotleave the place where they find themselves, nor arethey satisfied to remain. They wait expectantly forhelp to arrive; their Godot-figure is Fox, a crafty pro-duction manager who fleeces them of their moneyand absconds. Both Beckett and Williams’s workspresent a “fragmented world” and convey “that allwe can do is act roles which will screen for a time ourexistential loneliness” (Cohen, 338). Both drama-tists express the absurdity of the human conditionand share the sentiment that all human beings arelocked in the theater/prison of life.

While Felice merely strives to create “total the-ater” in his play-within-a-play (“The Two Charac-

ter Play”), Williams succeeds in doing so in his.Through an evocative manipulation of his life storyand his own unique dramaturgy, combined with sig-nificant and recognizable elements of theater his-tory, Williams creates an existential masterpiece.This extraordinary work is at once a panoramic dis-play of Williams’s entire literary world and a snap-shot that reveals a vision of the human conditionand life itself.

PRODUCTION HISTORYThe Two Character Play was produced at theLyceum Theatre, in New York in March 1973.Peter Glenville directed the production, which fea-tured Michael York and Cara Duff-MacCormick asFelice and Clare.

PUBLICATION HISTORYWilliams began writing The Two Character Play in1966. It was first published by New Directions in1969. The play was revised under the title OUT

CRY. This version of the play was published by NewDirections in 1973. Williams extensively revisedthe work again, returning to the original title, TheTwo Character Play. This version, considered defini-tive, was published by New Directions in 1975.

CHARACTERSClare Clare is an actor in a touring theater com-pany. Her brother Felice is her costar, director, andthe company playwright. She and Felice have beenabandoned by their fellow company members andremain in an unspecified theater, in an unspecifiedlocation in the South. The two actors attempt to per-severe by performing the play that Felice has writtencalled “The Two Character Play.” Much to Felice’schagrin, Clare continually forgets her lines and dropscharacter repeatedly. She stops the performancewhen she realizes that the audience has left.

Felice Felice is a handsome young playwrightwho dreams of creating what he calls “total the-atre.” He is the leading member, director, and play-wright for a touring theater company, and his sisterClare is his principal costar. When the rest of theensemble deserts them, and their production man-ager, Fox, absconds with their money, Felice urges

The Two Character Play 317

Clare to persevere. The two of them attempt toperform a play Felice has written called “The TwoCharacter Play.” Once they have stopped their per-formance, Felice realizes that he and his sister havebeen locked in the theatre. As there is no means ofescape, nor any way to communicate with the out-side world, Felice suggests that he and Clare returnto the world of the play.

FURTHER READINGCohn, Ruby. “Late Tennessee Williams,” Modern

Drama 27, no. 3 (September 1984): 336–344.

“Two on a Party”Short story written between the years 1951 and1952.

SYNOPSISBilly and Cora befriend each other in a Manhattanbar one night. As they are both cruising for men,they become best friends. Billy and Cora move intogether and have sex once, but it is not fulfillingfor either of them. They spend their time attendingfantastic parties, and Cora falls in love with Billy(although she never discloses this information).They indulge in drugs and alcohol, and althoughthey enjoy the frenetic pace of their life, theyalways arrive at an empty and lonely emotionalstate. One night they pick up a hitchhiker for Billy,but when Billy flirts with him, the hitchhikerattacks him. Cora distracts the hitchhiker with sex-ual advances. Billy and Cora are very shaken by theincident, but they are ultimately “two birds flyingtogether against the wind, nothing real but theparty, and even that’s sort of dreamy.”

COMMENTARYWhen Cora is asked why she parties so incessantly,she explains that she and Billy are just lonely peo-ple. The answer to loneliness for them is perpetualdebauchery. Even when the circumstances becomedangerous, Billy and Cora accept their roles andfind ways to surf through them regardless of thewounds they suffer. Billy is beaten, slumped in the

corner, and Cora seduces the hitchhiker as a meansto an end. Their interest in young men is a solidbond between them. Billy and Cora live for thechallenge of seduction, proving to themselves thatthey remain attractive and desirable. Donald Spotoclaims that “Two on a Party” was Williams’s tributeto and celebration of his “wild weeks on the roadsharing liquor and men” with his friend MarionBlack Vaccaro (62). Williams had hoped to create afilm version of this story featuring Sylvia Miles andJoe Dallesandro.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“Two on a Party” was published in the collectionsHard Candy in 1954, Collected Stories (1985), TheOther Persuasion: An Anthology of Short Fiction aboutGay Men and Women (1977), and The Faber Book ofGay Short Fiction (1991).

CHARACTERSBilly Billy is a young gay man who meets hisbest friend, Cora, in a bar. The two join forces intheir quest for potential boyfriends. Billy and Coralove to party and dedicate themselves to the pur-suit of pleasure.

Cora She is a wild young woman who loves toparty. She and her best friend, Billy, actively scoutfor potential male lovers together.

FURTHER READINGSpoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. New York:

Ballantine Books, 1985.

“The Vengeance of Nitocris”A short story written in 1928.

SYNOPSIS

Part 1The Egyptian god Osiris causes a great flood of theNile River that washes out a bridge that wouldhave allowed Egypt’s Pharaoh to traverse the greatriver triumphantly. Angered by the flood, Pharaoh

318 “Two on a Party”

publicly denounces Osiris by beating the priestsand defiling the sacred altars.

Fearing the wrath of the god, the Thebans rushthe palace gates. Drawing his sword, the Pharaohslashes the air ferociously and addresses the crowd,who demand he light the temple fires. The Pharaohstands defiant and resolute. The mob retreatsslightly, as they are taken aback by his fierce pres-ence. The Pharaoh controls the mob with minimaleffort, but he is careless of the crumbling stepsbeneath him. He tries to catch his balance, but hetumbles down the remaining steps, landing at thefeet of the priests. Declaring this a sign from Osiris,the priests incite the mob once more. They kill thePharaoh by dismembering his body with theirhands and weapons. The Pharaoh’s beautiful sister,Nitocris, witnesses this scene and vows to avengeher brother’s death.

Part 2Soon after Nitocris’s coronation, there are rumorsthat she has ordered the construction of a newtemple, but the details remain secret. The peopleacknowledge the gift of the new temple on thebanks of the Nile, as an apology for the Pharaoh’sdefilement.

A great banquet is announced. An extravagantcelebration is held in honor of Nitocris. When shearrives at the gala, Thebans shout with excitementand appreciation. Nitocris remains steadfast in herwelcoming expressions of gratitude and love. Shesmiles and exudes piety and beauty in the face ofher enemies. Nitocris orders the lifting of a greatwall, revealing a vault with splendid tables of deli-cacies. The Thebans rush down the steps andaround the tables, devouring the feast and enjoyingthe music and the beautiful servants. Singing,laughing, and drinking intensify and the banquetbecomes an orgy.

Nitocris sits on her throne and watches the fes-tivities with cat eyes. At midnight, Nitocris risesfrom her seat. She surveys the room one final timeand ascends the stairs. When she reaches the top,she looks back to be sure that her exit has beenundetected. Nitocris leaves the banquet, motioningto the guards, who are waiting at their posts. Theyplace a gigantic slab of rock over the vault, tightly

enclosing the citizens. Nitocris feels an exhilaratingtingle throughout her body as she draws the hoodof her cloak around her feline face and exits. Usinga secret passage, the empress and her guards walkto a stone pier at another point of the river. At thepier stand a number of levers. With an ecstaticglance into the night sky, she pulls back one leverand leaps to the edge to hear the water rush.Nitocris releases a victorious cry.

Inside the vault, the dancers freeze and gazeinto the black abyss. The banquet grows silent asthe thunderous rushing water advances. The ban-queters are met with a tidal wave and terrorabounds. The Pharaoh is avenged.

The next day, citizens block Nitocris’s chariot,demanding an explanation for the people who didnot return from the banquet. Nitocris ignores theirinsistence and lashes her horses forward. When shearrives at the palace, she orders her slaves to fill herchamber with fiery ashes. She locks herself in theroom, and after a short period, she suffocates.

COMMENTARYIn 1928, Williams entered a short story contestsponsored by Weird Tales, a science fiction and fan-tasy magazine. The story was published, and hewon a $25 prize. In the New York Times, March1958, Williams recalled that this story, his firstpublished work, “set the keynote for most of thework that followed.” Although some critics havefound numerous shortcomings in the piece, it is animportant example of Williams’s thematic andpoetic style.

The story contains themes such as revenge, sib-ling bonds, familial honor, societal violence, andself-sacrifice, all of which became staples in theWilliams canon. This early fiction illustrates thepromise of the mature Williams, who would writesimilar works such as the short story “DESIRE AND

THE BLACK MASSEUR” and the plays ORPHEUS

DESCENDING and SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER.Williams revisited themes and works many times,and his short stories often served as the frameworkand blueprint for his full-length plays. “TheVengeance of Nitocris” was the profound beginningof a prolific writer. This short story is based on astory in The Persian Wars by Herodotus.

“The Vengeance of Nitocris” 319

PUBLICATION HISTORYFollowing its first publican in Weird Tales magazinein 1928, “The Vengeance of Nitocris” appeared inLa Venganza de Nitocris (1968), The Pulps: FiftyYears of American Pop Culture (1970), Collected Sto-ries (1985), Masterpieces of Terror and The Supernat-ural (1985), First Fiction: An Anthology of the FirstPublished Stories by Famous Writers (1994), and Intothe Mummy’s Tomb (2001).

CHARACTERSNitocris She is a regal, pious, and determinedwoman who becomes empress of Egypt when herbrother is slaughtered. Her brother’s body was dis-membered by Thebans for defiling the temple ofOsiris. Nitocris vows to avenge the death of herbrother. She builds a new temple as a peace offeringand invites the Thebans to a great banquet. Theunsuspecting priests and citizens think Nitocris isatoning for her brother’s actions; however, she trapsthem inside the vaultlike hall and floods it with thewaters of the Nile. Nitocris then commits suicide toavoid being killed by the remaining Thebans.

Pharaoh The Pharaoh is the ruler of Egypt. He isa statuesque man who considers his nobility anddivinity equal to those of the gods. Pharaoh’s prideprovokes him to defile the temple altars of Osiris.His citizens fear retribution for this act, so theystorm the palace, attack Pharaoh, and dismemberhis body.

Vieux CarréFull-length play written in 1976.

SYNOPSISThe setting is a rooming house, No. 722 ToulouseStreet, in the French Quarter of New Orleans. Therooming house has been transformed into a dank artgallery. The time is winter 1938 and spring 1939.

Part 1, Scene 1The Writer, who also serves as the narrator,informs the audience that the house was livelier at

one time, but now it is inhabited by desperatecharacters who struggle to survive. He calls them“shadowy occupants like ghosts.” The Writer alsoframes the story by explaining that the charactersare also characters in his memory, and the recol-lection begins.

Mrs. Wire shouts at Nursie, the housemaid, whopanics because bats are in the kitchen. As theygrumble, Mrs. Wire notices a knapsack in the hall-way. Nursie explains that a crazy man had arrivedin search of accommodations, but when she toldhim there were no vacancies, he left the sack ofbelongings to be picked up the next day. Mrs. Wirenotices the name Sky written in shiny letters on thesack, and she orders Nursie to carry it upstairs.Frustrated by her orders, Nursie announces thatshe is retiring to become a bag lady. Mrs. Wirerefuses to placate her and Nursie refuses to followthe order. Mrs. Wire rests on a cot she has set upnear the front door to monitor the comings andgoings of her tenants.

The Writer appears in the entranceway. He has aconfrontation with Mrs. Wire, who orders him to hisroom. Another tenant, Jane Sparks, enters thehouse. Mrs. Wire chastises her for being out in theQuarter so late at night. Mrs. Wire reminds her thatwhen she rented the room, she agreed that a singlewoman should have a curfew of midnight. Janeangrily insists that she went out to purchase a can ofinsect repellent because the house is infested withcockroaches. As she storms out of the room, Mrs.Wire asks about the man who is living with herupstairs. Jane says the man is Tye McCool, as sheleaves to join Nursie for coffee. Nightingale, a tenantand sketch artist, enters with a man he has picked upfor the night. When Mrs. Wire accosts him, Nightin-gale claims the young man is his cousin, who is visit-ing New Orleans. She does not believe him and doesnot allow the man to go upstairs.

Mary Maude and Miss Carrie enter the kitchen,where they find the Writer, Nursie, and Jane. Thetwo “crones” ask Nursie to store their leftover foodin the icebox for them. Jane volunteers to let themuse her icebox, but Nursie tells her that the womenare starving and they have collected the greasy bagof food from the outside garbage can. She insists ondiscarding the bag. Jane decides to buy them gro-

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ceries the next day. Jane pontificates about prideand confesses that she is living with a drug addictwho works at a strip club. Tye enters with boxes ofstolen merchandise to store in Jane’s room.

Part 1, Scene 2The Writer has undressed and lies in bed. He hearsNightingale’s tubercular coughs in the nearby cubi-cle. The sound of Jane’s sobbing permeates therooms. Nightingale lights a cigarette and strikes up aconversation by criticizing their miserly landlady.Nightingale then talks about the sketches he doesfor the tourists who pay him to “prostitute” his artis-tic ability. The Writer says that he cries because hisgrandmother, Grand, died the previous month. Thetwo men agree that loneliness is an affliction asNightingale offers the Writer a cigarette and com-plains that bedbugs are “bleeding him like leeches.”Nightingale makes sexual advances to the Writer,who initially declines. The Writer admits that he hasnot “come out completely” and says that he has hadonly one sexual experience, with a paratrooper. Theypause for a moment to listen to the rain. The lightsdim as Nightingale joins the Writer under his sheets.

The Writer then returns to his role as the narra-tor, and addresses the audience. He explains thatan apparition of an old female saint visited him inthe alcove of his room after this encounter. She washis deceased grandmother. She stared at him, andhe wondered whether she witnessed their act. Shegave no indication but stood indifferently. Theapparition then forgave the Writer by lifting hercool, gray hand before he drifted to sleep.

Part 1, Scene 3In the boardinghouse, the Writer encounters Janeand helps her take her groceries into her room.Jane insists he stay and have a cup of coffee withher. The Writer hesitates because Tye is sprawledout on the bed in a drug-induced slumber. Janereassures him that Tye is asleep, though his eyes arenot completely closed. Tye angrily awakens andaccuses Jane of taking another man home. TheWriter focuses on an elegant chess board to defusethe embarrassing situation. He asks whether Janeand Tye play chess together. Tye lewdly responds byrubbing his genitals and explaining that they “play”often. As they sit and drink coffee, Tye calls the

Writer a “faggot” and continues to tell a story abouthis encounter with a gay man. Unable to toleratemore insults and discomfort, the Writer leaves.Jane reprimands Tye for his impolite behavior. Janeadmits that she is attracted to Tye because she hasnever encountered anyone like him.

Part 1, Scene 4Mrs. Wire prepares a pot of gumbo in her kitchen.It is midnight.

As the Writer enters the kitchen area, Mrs. Wiretells him that he has been evicted from her board-inghouse because he has not paid rent. He sits at thetable in a state of desperate disbelief. He says that heapplied for work on the Works Progress Administra-tion (WPA) for writers but could not prove he wasdestitute, so he was considered ineligible. The aromaof the gumbo lures Miss Carrie and Mary Maudefrom their room. Tye enters the house in an inebri-ated state. The Writer helps him carry boxes up thestairs, and Tye collapses in the Writer’s bed.

The Writer returns to the kitchen. Mrs. Wireasks him where he goes at night. She confesses thatshe has maternal feelings for him and worries abouthis well-being. She observes that he has changedsince he arrived at the rooming house. She serveshim a bowl of gumbo and asks him to pass out flyersfor the restaurant she has decided to open in therooming house. Tye’s angry voice is heard fromupstairs. It is followed by Nightingale’s apologies forgetting into bed with him.

Part 1, Scene 5In the Writer’s cubicle, Nightingale enters theroom and complains about bedbugs. The writer isimmediately irritated by his visit and the earlier sit-uation with Tye. Nightingale starts an argumentwith the Writer. He is restless and does not want tobe alone; however, the Writer is upset and prefersto be alone. The Writer suspects that Nightingalehas a fever. Nightingale disrobes and asks to beheld. When the Writer rejects him, Nightingaleaccuses him of being coldhearted. Infuriated, theWriter insists that Nightingale come to terms withhis disease (tuberculosis).

Part 1, Scene 6The next morning in Jane and Tye’s room, theWriter delivers a letter to Jane, who has spent the

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morning working on her fashion designs. Tye issprawled across the bed wearing only a pair ofshorts. Jane invites the Writer to stay for coffee, buthe declines. She begs him to stay, and the Writerrealizes that she is disturbed by the letter. Janebegins to drink bourbon while the Writer gazes atTye’s body. Jane notices and covers him with ablanket. Tye calls for the cat in his semiconsciousstate. The Writer leaves.

Part 1, Scene 7The lights come up on the Writer as narrator. TheWriter begins the scene with information about adistinguished photographer who leased the base-ment of Mrs. Wire’s rooming house. When theWriter enters the house for the night, he is stoppedby Mrs. Wire, who has been spying on the photog-rapher’s party below. She orders the Writer to helpher boil water to pour through the hole in the floorthat has exposed the orgiastic party. With talk ofstamping out corruption in the Quarter, she isdetermined to end these parties permanently. TheWriter refuses to participate in the scalding. Mrs.Wire pours the boiling water onto the floor andscreams are heard as people can be seen runningfrom the basement. Nightingale enters, and Mrs.Wire decides to blame the incident on him if thepolice arrive. Miss Carrie and Mary Maude enter asthe police arrive.

The lights dim on the scene as the Writerappears in the witness box at night court. The OldJudge asks him whether he saw Mrs. Wire scald thepartygoers. The Writer does not directly answer thequestion. The Old Judge finds her guilty anyway.The scene then dims and lights come back up onthe kitchen. Mrs. Wire accuses the Writer of testi-fying against her. He is quick to say that he hasreturned to the house only to collect his belong-ings. Mrs. Wire says she is withholding his posses-sions until he pays his bill. She begins to pity himand offers him a drink.

Mrs. Wire states that the incident revealed to herthat she is utterly alone in the world. She acknowl-edges that in her own home she is surrounded bystrangers who loathe her. Nightingale enters thekitchen mimicking the Writer’s court testimony.

Part 2, Scene 8In his cubicle, the Writer is working at his old type-writer. A man enters and introduces himself asSchuyler, or Sky. The Writer remembers the knap-sack that appeared in the hallway nearly a year ago.Sky is a musician who is passing through town. Heasks the Writer to leave with him and go west. Skyurinates out of the window overlooking the court-yard. Mrs. Wire sees him and shouts at him fromdownstairs. Nightingale is heard coughing from hiscubicle, and Mrs. Wire begins to quarrel about himand his contagion. Nightingale calls her accusationslies, still denying that he has tuberculosis. Mrs. Wireinforms him that she has heard that the cashiers atthe Two Parrots have to scrub the pavement with lyewhere Nightingale works, as he coughs up blood andspits on the ground. Nightingale fiercely defendshimself by locking himself in his room. The Writerasks Mrs. Wire to stop this arguing because Nightin-gale is near death. Mrs. Wire angrily demands thatNursie unlock his door and throw out everything inthe room to get rid of the disease. When Mrs. Wireenters the room, Nightingale suffers a coughingspasm that leaves him prostrate on the floor. Mrs.Wire orders the furniture burned, and she tellsNightingale that he will be going to the charity wardat Saint Vincent’s Hospital.

Mrs. Wire refuses to allow the Writer to leave.She says that she has adopted him since her son wastaken away from her years ago. Sky and the Writeragree to meet at midnight to leave New Orleans.

Part 2, Scene 9Jane has been packing. She frantically tries toawaken Tye from an unnaturally deep sleep. Shediscovers a needle mark on his arm as he gruntswith irritation. Jane slaps his face with a wet towelto stir him, and he threatens to beat her. Shereminds him that he promised to quit his job at thestrip club to find a more wholesome means ofincome, but he is indignant about his lifestyle. Janehints that she is not healthy. Tye immediatelyassumes she is pregnant, and she quickly dispels thethought. He tries to entice her to bed, but sherejects him because he has lipstick smeared on hisface and other places on his body. She also admon-ishes him for the needle mark on his arm. Jane

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urges Tye to get dressed and leave the studio,because she is expecting a call from a businessmanfrom Brazil who propositioned her for a sexualencounter. He gave her $100, but she was so dis-turbed by the circumstances that she originallydeclined the offer. She thoughtfully questions howan educated woman ever ended up in such a diresituation as hers. Nursie is heard directing touristsin the courtyard, and this exasperates Jane. Tyetries to persuade her to get back into bed with him.When she tells him they are finished and that he ismoving out, he rapes her. The Writer overhearsJane’s cries of protest. He is so baffled that he doesnothing. Mrs. Wire happens upon him and sarcasti-cally disregards his concern, claiming the sounds donot mean that Jane is in pain. Mrs. Wire shouts atthem to quit “that loud fornication.” Tye shrieks atthe old woman and jumps up to confront her. Janeintervenes, explaining that Tye is moving out of therooming house.

Part 2, Scene 10The Writer explains that this was his last Sunday inthe Quarter. He served meals for Mrs. Wire andretired to his cubicle. He thought Nightingale wasdead because there was silence, but he heard a softcry. For the first time, the Writer returns his visits.

Nightingale tries to get dressed and leave Mrs.Wire’s to avoid being committed to a charity ward.Nightingale shows the Writer his most prized pos-sessions: a tortoiseshell comb with a mother-of-pearl handle and a silver-framed mirror thatbelonged to his mother. The Writer gives Nightin-gale a sleeping pill and instructs him to concentrateon the apparition in the alcove that has appearedto comfort him. The Writer returns to his room topack for the West Coast.

Part 2, Scene 11In Jane’s studio, Jane cries on the bed while Tyerolls a joint and tries to assuage her after the rape.The conversation quickly becomes nasty when Tyeinsinuates that Jane is “less than a whore” becauseshe has sex with him for free. Jane grows nauseouswhen Tye tells her a story about a stripper who wasmauled to death by the owner’s dogs because shethreatened to leave him. Tye finally notices thatJane is losing weight and is always physically weak.

She is ambivalent about telling him that she has ablood disease that has been in remission for sometime, but it is now rapidly progressing. Tye reads thetest results and begins to dress. Nightingale is takento the charity ward.

Part 2, Scene 12The Writer observes that Jane’s gaze was full ofresentment. Mrs. Wire appears in the hallway. Sheappears disheveled and delusional. She calls theWriter “Timmy,” the name of her son. Mrs. Wireleads him back to his room, tucking him in his bedand reasoning with him as if talking to a child. Nur-sie enters to help Mrs. Wire back to bed. As theyexit, the apparition of Grand appears to the Writer.Jane watches Tye primp in the mirror, and she sus-pects he will not return to her now that he knowsshe is dying. Tye leaves for work, promising to behome early. She follows him into the hallway,where she collapses. The Writer helps her to herroom. He begins to set up the chess board whenSky arrives to collect him for the trip. The Writer is

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Portrait of Williams, 1977 (Bill Viggiano)

hesitant to leave Jane in her state, but she insists hejump at this opportunity and get out of the Quarter.The Writer turns to leave Mrs. Wire’s house.

COMMENTARYWilliams often recalled his struggling youthful daysin New Orleans in letters, calling it his “favorite cityof America . . . of all the world, actually,” and heboasted, “My happiest years were there” (Williams,103). Vieux Carré is one of several Williams play setin New Orleans. As in A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE, the eclectic nature of the French Quarter iscaptured through Williams’s poetic language. Dankand dilapidated houses, decay and decadence, lan-guorous and destitute drifters, and the desperationthat thrived along with the burgeoning artists of theVieux Carré in the 1930s, all create the atmosphereof suffocating despondency. This atmosphere wassimultaneously tragic and beautiful, as the unique-ness of the memory as well as the eccentric natureof New Orleans enhance a coming of age story ofexciting adventure and extreme hardship.

The dramaturgical evolution of Vieux Carrébegan with the short story “THE ANGEL IN THE

ALCOVE,” written in 1943. In this work, the writer isseduced by the tubercular artist and leaves therooming house when the artist is evicted. Theapparition of Grand appears only to the writer as aguide, much like Dante’s Virgil. The Writer is farmore bewildered by the angel in the alcove, and hisactions are prompted by Grand’s appearance. Theshort story also functions as a coming-out story fromWilliams to his deceased grandmother, as she (inher ghostly form) witnesses the sexual encounter ofthe artist and writer. The plot of the short storyresurfaces as the one-act play THE LADY OF LARK-SPUR LOTION. In this retelling Williams shifts thefocus to include the ruthless Mrs. Wire, Mrs. Hard-wick-Moore, and a writer who fancies himself asANTON CHEKHOV. In The Lady of Larskpur Lotion,there is less mood surrounding the plot. Williamswas hesitant to adapt this short story for the stage,because it was what he called a “story of . . . mostlymood and nostalgia” (Conversations, 301).

Vieux Carré is similar in tone and structure toTHE GLASS MENAGERIE. Both plays center on nar-rative form and a strong sense of nostalgia that

coincides with recollections of the past. Both playsare framed by a narrator (who is also a writer) andare derived from Williams’s personal experiences.Whether Vieux Carré (as well as The Glass Menag-erie) is strictly autobiographical is debatable, accord-ing to Williams’s comments on the play:

You can’t do creative work and adhere tofacts . . . there is a boy who is living in a housethat I lived in, and undergoing some of theexperiences that I underwent as a young writer.But his personality is totally different frommine. He talks quite differently from the waythat I talk, so I say the play is not autobiograph-ical. And yet the events in the house actuallydid take place. (Conversations, 300)

Robert Bray suggests that Vieux Carré “may bemore profitably seen as a well-unified artistic andautobiographical sequel to The Glass Menagerie”(152). In this context, Tom’s escape from his puri-tanical Saint Louis environment leads him to thebohemian French Quarter, where he becomes anopenly gay artist. Tom the writer is rescued from thestifling oppression of Mrs. Wire by a fellow artist andadventure seeker. The apparition of Grand appearsin two possible ways: as Tom’s guilty conscience fil-tering past events or as a ghost. In either case, Grandabsolves him of much more than being a gay man:She lets him know that he is forgiven for abandoninghis responsibility in the Wingfield household.

Central themes found in Vieux Carré includeloneliness, depression, and destitution in thecrumbling South. Nightingale is a character whohas been reduced spiritually as well as physically.He is an insomniac whose loneliness enraptures hissense of reality. Nightingale searches for comfortfrom the solitude caused by his disease. As a per-son who is marginalized by his sexuality, he is fur-ther isolated by his contagion. Jane Sparks wrestleswith the mistakes she has made in the past, andthey propel her toward similar ones in the future.As a result she is consumed by such a despicableman as Tye McCool. Jane’s loneliness has drivenher to Tye who does not fulfill her thirst for intel-lectual companionship.

The brutish Tye McCool is like Bill McCorkle ofSMALL CRAFT WARNINGS in his homophobic response

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to the writer. He enjoys tormenting the writer forbeing gay and yet he reveals in drug-inducedmoments when he himself has had sex with men.Sex for Tye is merely a primal act in response to nat-ural desires. He does not associate love with sex, orlove with sex, but uses his virility as a means of dom-inating and subjugating Jane.

Vieux Carré’s Mrs. Wire is a dynamic character.She resents that her home has become a den ofcorruption and misfits, although she enjoys thefinancial benefits they bring her. As is EloiDuvenet in AUTO-DA-FÉ, Mrs. Wire is obsessedwith abolishing the amoral aspects of life in theFrench Quarter to the point of using force andcausing physical harm. Her crusades are, however,contained within the walls of the rooming house,and her continual rampages are concentrated onthe few dismal tenants.

PRODUCTION HISTORYVieux Carré premiered at the Saint James Theatre,May 11, 1977, directed by Arthur Alan Seidelmanand starring Richard Alfieri as the Writer, TomAldredge as Nightingale (or the Painter), andSylvia Miles as Mrs. Wire. It was revived for a Lon-don production at the Playhouse Theatre, Not-tingham, May 16, 1978. Directed by Keith Hack,the play starred Karl Johnson as the Writer,Richard Kane as Nightingale, and Sylvia Miles asMrs. Wire.

PUBLICATION HISTORYVieux Carré was published by New Directions in1979.

CHARACTERSMary Maude She is a starving unmarriedwoman who resides at the New Orleans roominghouse of Mrs. Wire. Mary Maude occupies hertime, along with Miss Carrie, by writing a Creolecookbook. Mary Maude refuses to admit that she isdestitute and dying of malnutrition.

McCool, Tye A rough and handsome man wholives in the French Quarter of New Orleans withhis girlfriend, Jane Sparks. Tye is a self-destructivedrug addict whose lifestyle includes working nights

at a strip club. He also deals in stolen merchandiseas a side job. Tye is often in a drug-induced sleep,but his temper rages at Mrs. Wire and the Writer,and eventually he rapes Jane. When he learns thatJane is dying of a blood disease, he leaves her.

Miss Carrie She is a starving unmarried womanwho resides at the New Orleans rooming house ofMrs. Wire. Miss Carrie is a member of a oncerespected family, who has fallen on hard times. AllMiss Carrie has left is her pride, which preventsher from admitting that she is dying of malnutri-tion. She shares a room with her friend, MaryMaude.

Nightingale He is a lonely young artist strug-gling to survive by sketching tourists in NewOrleans. Nightingale resides in the rooming houseof Mrs. Wire, a wretched aging woman. His dailyfights with her escalate when it becomes obvious heis dying of tuberculosis. Refusing to believe that hehas the disease, he tells other tenants that he is suf-fering from asthma or a flu. Nightingale’s lonelinessincreases with the progression of the disease. Hefinds some comfort in the arms of a young mancalled the Writer. Against his wishes and during hislast days, Mrs. Wire commits Nightingale to thecharity ward at the local hospital.

Nursie She is the maid and disregarded assistantof Mrs. Wire. Nursie is an aging woman who hasgrown tired of her employer’s strange and harshorders. She is responsible for the upkeep of a dilap-idated rooming house in the French Quarter ofNew Orleans.

Sky He is a young musician who leaves hisknapsack at the rooming house of Mrs. Wire andreturns to claim it a year later. Sky befriends theWriter and invites him to leave the sordid FrenchQuarter (and the dank rooming house) for theWest Coast.

Sparks, Jane She is a woman who flees her NewEngland home in search of a fresh start in NewOrleans. With dreams of becoming a prominentfashion designer, Jane falls prey to a brutish drug

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addict named Tye McCool. His reckless and aggres-sive disposition excites her at first, but when shewants to end the relationship, he rapes her. Jane isdying of a blood disease that is rapidly progressing.She looks to the fellow tenants in Mrs. Wire’srooming house for companionship. Lonely and des-perate, she urges her only friend, the Writer, toleave New Orleans when the chance arises. WhenJane reveals the severity of her disease to Tye, hecoldly disengages and leaves.

Wire, Mrs. She is the miserable landlady of adilapidated rooming house in the French Quarter ofNew Orleans. Mrs. Wire terrorizes her tenants, con-sidering it her duty to stamp out corruption andvice. These tenants also serve as her only source offamily and income. Mrs. Wire is based on Williams’sexperience of various landladies in New Orleanswhen he was a young and struggling writer.

Writer A young man who has made his way toNew Orleans in search of freedom from his con-trolling mother. The writer lives in the dank anddesperate rooming house owned by Mrs. Wire. Hisencounters with the other tenants serve as mate-rial for his art after he escapes the hopeless scenefor the West Coast with another drifter, Sky. Theplay is a coming of age story for the Writer, anddesolate tenants such as Nightingale, Jane Sparks,and Tye McCool provide a jolting thrust intoadulthood. Williams based this character on him-self during the time in New Orleans when he was ayoung and struggling artist. The Writer also servesas the narrator of the play, which is his recollectionof bygone days.

FURTHER READINGBray, Robert. “Vieux Carré: Transferring a Story of

Mood,” in The Undiscovered Country: The LaterPlays of Tennessee Williams, edited by Philip Kolin.New York: Peter Lang, 2002, pp. 142–154.

Grauerholz, James. “Orpheus Holds His Own: WilliamBurroughs Talks with Tennessee Williams,” in Con-versations with Tennessee Williams, edited by Albert J.Devlin. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986.

Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.New York: Crown, 1995.

“The Vine”Short story written between the years 1939 and1944.

SYNOPSISDonald, a middle-aged actor, discovers his wife,Rachel has left him. He tries to move on, but hissanity depends on her. He searches all over the cityfor Rachel, intruding on friends and acquaintances,interrogating them about her whereabouts. Donaldattacks one acquaintance when she says she hasnot heard from Rachel. Donald returns to hisempty apartment to calm down and contemplatehis life with Rachel. Donald goes to bed and crieshimself to sleep on her pillow.

COMMENTARYAs a brief tale of loneliness and loss, “The Vine”seems a precursor to a later short story, “THE INTER-VAL.” In that work, Jimmie the actor husband is theone who leaves, not the one who is abandoned.“The Vine” was inspired by ANTON CHEKHOV’sshort novel My Life. “The Vine” illustratesWilliams’s affinity with Chekhov, particularly in itspsychological texture and tone. Williams often pro-claimed the Russian writer as his primary artisticinfluence.

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Vine” was published in Mademoiselle (1954)and included in Hard Candy (1954). It won theBenjamin Franklin magazine award in 1955. It waspublished in Collected Stories (1985).

CHARACTERSDonald Donald is a middle-aged actor, who isfaced with being alone after many years with hislovely wife, Rachel. He is shattered by her depar-ture, and he suspects she has left him because he issterile and cannot give her the child she desires.

Rachel She is an actor and dancer who leavesher husband, Donald, who suspects she has left himbecause he is sterile.

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Where I LiveWilliams’s collection of essays written throughouthis career. Spanning the years 1944–78, theseessays vary in nature and tone and have largelyserved as prefaces to his published works. In thisprose form, Williams grapples with such issues assuccess, the vocation of the poet, theatrical fail-ures, the personal nature of his dramaturgy, and hisbeloved KEY WEST, FLORIDA. Included in the essaysare Williams’s additional thoughts on such works asA STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, THE ROSE TATTOO,CAMINO REAL, and SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH.Throughout these essays, Williams presents hisphilosophies regarding the theater as well autobio-graphical meanderings.

PUBLICATION HISTORYWhere I Live was published in 1978 by NewDirections.

Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis?

Full-length play, estimated to be written during the1950s.

SYNOPSISThe setting is Saint Louis, also known as “TigerTown.”

Act 1, Scene 1Louise and her daughter, Gloria, sit motionless andsilent for several minutes. A banjo plays a ragtimepiece. Louise then moves center stage and addressesthe audience. She says that while she was preparingMr. Merriwether’s room for his return, a Gypsyappeared at her door and prompted her to ask hermost pressing question. Louise asked whether in factMr. Merriwether would return from Memphis butreceived a puzzling answer: “He will never forgetyou.” Louise refuses to believe that her boarder willnot return, and she tells Gloria that Mr. Merriwetherphoned her in the middle of the night, excited about

returning. Gloria suggests that she dreamed the call,as he was elated to receive the promotion that calledhim away from the boardinghouse.

Louise scolds Gloria, who is scantily dressed.She warns her against her going to the library solate at night and about the young men who wait onthe library steps for her. Nora (a plump, smallwoman of 50) enters carrying a bowl of strawberriesand cream for Louise, who, she worries, is losingweight. Louise tells Nora about Gloria’s outings tothe library, where the boys wait for her, “like maledogs tagging after a female dog in heat.” Nora sug-gests they summon an apparition to distract Louisefrom her problems. Nora says Mme. du Barry, amistress of King Louis XV, visited her the previousnight. Louise says Marie Antoinette visited her.The women both agree that the wind is right forreceiving apparitions.

Louise and Nora chant for an apparition toappear. The Ghost of Vincent Van Gogh appearsto them. He searches for light, brushes, and paint.He tells them that light is a tremendous gift,regardless of whether one paints, and disappears.Louise leaves to get a sweater, and Nora addressesthe audience with the information that Louise is awidow who fell in love with a drummer (Mr. Mer-riwether). Louise returns, puts on her sweater, andsays that she still feels chilled from the appari-tion’s visit. Nora tells her a story about lepers wholive in large cisterns on Bella Street, between thewhite and black sections of town. Every night thelepers get out of the cisterns and receive foodtheir families have left them. They have sextogether in the shadows of the old trees. Some ofthe lepers even give birth in the cisterns, makingno sound, to prevent detection. Louise decides tosay good night to Nora. She is disappointed thatMr. Merriwether did not return, and she hears abanjo playing in the distance.

Act 1, Scene 2Gloria speaks to the audience. She confesses thatshe wears light dresses and enjoys the masculinesmell of her admirers, which permeates the class-rooms. She becomes drowsy from the smell andwatches them loll in their chairs. The boys are sounresponsive that the teachers become angry. She

Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? 327

says that a piece of chalk becomes too heavy forthem.

Act 1, Scene 3At the public library, the Librarian (a tense littlewoman wearing a pink dress) calls out to Gloria.She reprimands Gloria for her misuse of the libraryand scolds her for the nearly transparent dress sheis wearing. Gloria retaliates by claiming to use thelibrary to write her English papers. She says it isnot her fault that boys follow her into the refer-ence room and sit too close to her. The Librariansays that she sees what happens in the room anddemands that Gloria stop using the library. Gloriais infuriated and threatens to call the superintend-ent. The Librarian says that she will do the same.

Act 1, Scene 4Louise secretly calls Mr. Merriwether. When heanswers, she slams down the phone and lecturesherself about being so impatient.

Act 1, Scene 5In the classroom at the library, Miss Yorke congratu-lates Gloria for a well-written paper. She asks Gloriato read it for the class. Gloria reads the paper, whichdetails a class trip to search for fossils. She explainsthat she found five fossils in the rocks, and a boychipped them out for her. The class left and she wasalone with the boy. She began to cry and tremble.The boy had to escort her to town, and even whenshe arrived at home, she was still so shaken by theidea that she was holding ancient artifacts. Hermother did not care about the fossils, however.Gloria received a phone call from the boy whohelped her with the fossils. She told him that shewould be at the library later that evening to writethe paper. She hoped she would understand whyshe was so affected by the fossils. Miss Yorke sug-gests that she realized the transitory nature of life.Gloria begins to cry again. The Handsome Youthwho helped her with the fossils escorts her to thestreetcar to go home.

Act 1, Scene 6Gloria and the Handsome Youth sit silently on abench. Gloria eventually breaks the silence. TheYouth admits that he becomes speechless at times.He says that speaking is torture. Gloria calls him

Richard, and asks whether he feels that way evenwith her. Gloria recalls a time in Spanish classwhen he was asked to read. The Handsome Youthsaid he could not because he stutters. The teacherreassured him that the class is aware of that fact.Gloria thought the teacher was sympathetic; how-ever, the Youth insists that it was condescension,and he was humiliated. Gloria reminds him that heis the most handsome boy in the school.

Gloria asks whether he would mind if sheremoved her dress, because she wishes to lie in theclover and does not want to stain the dress. TheYouth awkwardly assures her that he does notmind. He says he has no experience, and she saysshe believes he should have some. She tells himthat she loves him. Gloria asks him to close hiseyes, and she removes her dress and hides. Whenthe Youth opens his eyes, she tells him to find her;she is invisible to everyone in the world except him.A banjo is heard in the distance. The Youth beginsto search for Gloria.

Act 1, Scene 7Three Crones enter, carrying wooden stools, sewingequipment, and a large hourglass. They speak withan Irish brogue.

One negatively surmises that they will have tointroduce themselves as “The Fatal Sisters.” Threereminds her that this is the assignment. Two addsthat “a philosophical attitude” is a sign of old age.The Crones fight over a sausage Two eats. Threeannounces that they are the Fatal Sisters, who havebeen summoned to sew the fabrics of the initiationthat is taking place in the field. A woman’s voicehowls like a wildcat’s. One comments that the howlwas the sound of a man hitting a woman. Three saysthat the woman tries to prevent the man from drink-ing, and One concludes that there is no use in mak-ing the effort. The man and woman fight openly,lowering their social status in their neighborhood.

Three reminds them to keep sewing, but Oneconcludes that they are no more than a vaudevilleturn in the play. Two reminds them that a poet spokeof them, as “The Eumenides.” One says that hisdeath was stitched with regret. Three announces thatthey are both now undressed in the field. One saysthat a boy with a stammer may not have an erection

328 Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis?

or may ejaculate prematurely. The Crones fight overwhich will turn the hourglass this time. They watchGloria and the Youth in varying stages of undress.One comments on the state of her mother, whospends her life wondering whether Mr. Merriwetherwill return to her. They stitch the time away.

One exits and returns with tea. Three announcesthat Gloria has given the Youth “tender knowledge,”ending his stammer for all time.

Act 1, Scene 8Nora and Louise enter and sit down to chat. Noraasks whether an apparition visited Louise the nightbefore, and Louise disappointedly says no. Nora saysshe received a naked apparition. The French ClubInstructor enters for their evening lesson. Mrs. Bid-dle enters for the club meeting. They converse aboutthe dark doorway behind them, which representstheir lives. The club is invested in learning French,but the women also gather to express what is ontheir minds. The Instructor leads them in the exer-cise. Louise begins to cry, and the Instructor advisesher not to suppress her emotions. In French Noratells her peers that although her husband has beendead for 20 years, she prepared a dinner for two theprevious night. The Instructor states that even indreams there is suffering. Louise tries to confess heremotions to the club. The Instructor says that he fre-quents the bus stop in search of the company of“youth in the military services.” The police caughthim and are forcing him to leave town before mid-night. The Instructor is going to Memphis. Louisecomments that Memphis is “a memory of a dream.”

Act 2, Scene 1Louise and Nora summon an apparition. The poetArthur Rimbaud, seated in a wheelchair, appears tothe women. His sister, Isabelle, pushes him. Isabellesays that her brother became a poet at 16 and gaveup at 20. Arthur rejects the occupation and tellsthe story of having his leg amputated. The appari-tions talk of the mist between death and heaven.Arthur begins to recite poetry. He then demands aletter be dictated to a man in Aden to inquireabout a job. Isabelle and Arthur exit.

Act 2, Scene 2Louise sits, drinking a cup of tea, when Nora entersher home. She tells Nora that she invited appari-

tions tonight, but the winds are not moving to per-mit their visit. Nora delivers upside-down cake andsets it on the table. Louise is perplexed, as sheenjoys the deliberate composition of the table.Louise tells Nora that the empty spaces are just asimportant to the overall aesthetic as the objectsthat occupy space. Louise calls the vacant spacesplastic space. Louise tells her friend that Eleanor ofAquitaine visited her and commented on the com-position of her table, particularly the starfish.

Nora realizes that she left the front door openwhen she entered, and she has heard someone elseenter. Louise jumps up, hoping to greet Mr. Merri-wether. However, Mrs. Eldridge enters. She isremarkably clothed, in an Oriental dress. Mrs.Eldridge suspects that her chauffeur has just died,and she called on Louise to help her get to the BarApache, where she is expected. When she leaves,Nora asks whether she was an apparition, andLouise explains that she is the richest living lady inTiger Town. The banjo is heard in the distance.

Act 2, Scene 3Louise sits at her table while she listens to thebanjo in the distance. Nora enters with a bowl ofblancmange. Nora is upset when Louise takes it tothe ice box and discovers that everything she givesLouise to eat remains untouched. When Louisesays she has no appetite, Nora suggests that she isdepressed. She also suggests that Louise take in anew boarder. Louise is offended and retorts that sheis not promiscuous. Louise grows irate, and sheshouts about Mr. Merriwether’s leaving. She isinterrupted when she hears a car stop. Mr. Merri-wether enters through a window with a flowerbetween his teeth. Louise falls with emotion. Mr.Merriwether says that he has returned to stay andasks for his old room. Louise tells him that herentire life is waiting for him. They embrace whileNora searches the house for something to calmLouise’s nerves. Gloria and her Handsome Youthenter, and the two couples dance.

Nora realizes that she is now alone. She consid-ers inviting an apparition just as the Apparition ofher deceased husband appears. He confesses thathe was always unfaithful to her, and she asks why.The Apparition begins to hum the banjo tune thathas been heard throughout the play.

Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? 329

COMMENTARYAlthough Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Mem-phis? is meant to be a comedy, a rare commodity inthe Williams canon, the dark and mournful atmo-sphere of Tiger Town, with its evocation of appari-tions, seems to contradict its stated dramaticpurpose. However, as are much of Williams’s laterworks, and most of the drama of the THEATER OF

THE ABSURD, the play is unpredictable; anythingcan happen in the realm of the supernatural.

In this fluid, ethereal, and dreamlike worldwhere characters thrive on their intuition and emo-tional instability, Williams’s dramaturgy comes fullcircle. His ideas about PLASTIC THEATRE (encapsu-lated in the scene concerning Louise’s ponderouslycomposed table) are coupled with his later innova-tions in absurdist and expressionistic techniques. Inthe preface to THE GLASS MENAGERIE, Williamsmakes the claim that all artistic measures availableshould be used to put forth the world of a play. Toachieve this, Williams felt it necessary to buildupon realist staging by creating expressionisticmoments with new media and technology.

In Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? hisexpressionistic technique is guided more by the para-normal than the technological. Following AugustStrindberg’s example in such works as Ghost Sonataand A Dream Play, Williams challenges the charac-ters’, and by extension the readers’ (or spectators’),perception of reality. This technique is exploredextensively in similar works, such as CLOTHES FOR A

SUMMER HOTEL and SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOME-THING CLEAR, where Williams goes a step further anddispenses with a realistic concept of time. Thesethree “ghost plays” go beyond the Williamsian “mem-ory play,” in which the past is recalled or activelyreexamined; in these works, the past is lived simulta-neously with the present. The mature Williams con-tinued to experiment with theatrical forms, eveninventing his own, and Will Mr. Merriwether Returnfrom Memphis? is an example of his continued dra-matic evolution.

PRODUCTION HISTORYWill Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? pre-miered at the Tennessee Williams Performing Arts

Center, Florida Keys Community College, on Janu-ary 25, 1980.

PUBLICATION HISTORYWill Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? waspublished in Missouri Review, in 1997.

CHARACTERSApparition One of several apparitions thatappear in the play, he is the spirit of Nora’s deceasedhusband. Alone and dejected, Nora summons himto comfort her. When he arrives, he proceeds toconfess that he was always unfaithful to her.

Eldridge, Mrs. Mrs. Eldridge is the wealthiestwoman in Tiger Town. She enters Louise’s houseunannounced and demands that Louise assist her.Mrs. Eldridge’s chauffeur has just died, and sheneeds to get to Bar Apache for an event. Nora is sostunned by this remarkable occurrence that shequestions whether Mrs. Eldridge is an apparition.

French Club Instructor A foreign-languageteacher who offers emotional support to his stu-dents, Nora and Louise. During their evening lan-guage session, the class becomes aware of the painand suffering each person is enduring. They discusstheir respective grievances in French.

Ghost of Vincent Van Gogh He is an appari-tion summoned by Nora and Louise. When heappears, he searches for light, brushes, and paint.Van Gogh’s ghost advises Nora and Louise that“light” is a tremendous gift.

Gloria She is a young woman who delights in theattention she receives from young men. Gloria,known for her beauty, is constantly berated by hermother, Louise, for her escapades with the youngmen at the public library. Gloria lives freely, andduring a sexual encounter with a Handsome Youthin a field of flowers, Gloria cures the young man ofself-consciousness and a speech stammer.

Handsome Youth He cares for the beautifulGloria. The Handsome Youth has his first sexual

330 Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis?

experience with her and is freed from a nervousstammer in his speech.

Librarian A prim, petite woman who works inthe public library. She is appalled by Gloria’s behav-ior in the library. The Librarian admonishes Gloriafor coming to the library scantily clad and accusesher of luring boys into the reference section forindecent activities.

Louise She is a middle-aged woman who suffersdepression after her boarder, Mr. Merriwether,leaves to take a job in Memphis. Louise is wiltingaway without him, and the attention her daughter,Gloria, draws from young men does not help hercondition. Louise’s only companion, a neighborcalled Nora, tries to care for her, but Louise is irri-tated by her constant presence. The women sharethe hobby of summoning apparitions at night.

Merriwether, Mr. He is a young musician whoboarded at the home of Louise. Mr. Merriwetheraccepted a position in Memphis, but he returnsbecause he has become romantically attached toLouise. The couple are reunited at the end of theplay, and they dance with joy.

Nora She is a middle-aged widow who likes todabble in the world of the supernatural. She spendsher time summoning apparitions of famous peoplewith her neighbor, Louise. Nora tries in vain to helpLouise, who is heartbroken because Mr. Merri-wether has moved to Memphis.

One One of three Irish Crones known as “theFatal Sisters.” One introduces herself and her sistersto the audience. She provides a running commen-tary on the Handsome Youth’s sexual encounterwith Gloria.

Rimbaud, Arthur Historical figure and charac-ter in Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis?This man of letters appears as an apparition alongwith his sister, Isabel, summoned by Nora andLouise. Rimbaud recites some of his poetry and dis-cusses with his sister the “mist between death andheaven.”

Rimbaud, Isabel She appears as an apparitionwith her brother, Arthur Rimbaud. The two aresummoned by Nora and Louise. She escorts herbrother, who is confined to a wheelchair, andrecounts his life story to the two women.

Three She is one of three Irish Crones, known as“the Fatal Sisters.” Three announces their functionin the play to the audience. She declares that theyhave been summoned to sew the “fabrics of initia-tion” for Gloria’s sexual encounter with the Hand-some Youth. She has to remind her sisters to keepsewing, when they become repeatedly distracted.

Two One of three Irish Crones known as “theFatal Sisters.” Two greedily eats a sausage, whichshe does not share with her sisters. While her sisterOne introduces the siblings to the audience, Threeinforms the audience that that they are responsiblefor sewing the “fabrics of initiation” for Gloria’s sex-ual encounter with the Handsome Youth. Two hasloftier aspirations and reminds her sisters that aprevious poet referred to them as “the Eumenides.”

“The Yellow Bird”Short story written before 1947.

SYNOPSISAlma Tutwiler is the descendant of Goody Tutwiler,a woman who was accused of practicing witchcraft.She was hanged during the Salem witch trials. Leg-end has it that Goody’s yellow bird, Bobo, flew toher enemies and damned them to hell.

Alma, who is 30 years old, rebels against herfather, the Reverend Tutwiler, a long-winded min-ister, and her rigid mother. She smokes cigarettesin her parents’ home despite her mother’s threatsand publicly defies her father, who disowns her. Inhis rage, the Reverend Tutwiler slaps Alma, whothen slaps him in return. She bleaches her hair,routinely stays at parties all night and dates Stuff, awild, local soda jerk.

Alma moves to New Orleans, where she becomesa prostitute in the French Quarter. In New Orleans,

“The Yellow Bird” 331

she begins to feel the presence of some unseen per-son who is with her at all times. Her parents send ayoung woman from the church to call on her. Almais pleased, because her parents will know how she isliving.

Alma realizes that she is pregnant. She givesbirth to a son, whom she names Johnnie. This childis magical, and he crawls out of the apartmentevery morning and returns late in the evening withhis fists full of gold and jewels. Alma and Johnbecome rich and move north.

Johnnie grows up and becomes a sailor. Old andlying on her deathbed, Alma wishes for her son toappear. Instead, Alma’s deceased lover, John,appears to her. He resembles Neptune, and hedumps riches over her bed. She leaves with him,and when her son returns, he donates the riches tothe Home for Reckless Spenders. A monument isbuilt in the town square in commemoration of AlmaTutwiler. On the monument is inscribed “Bobo.”

COMMENTARY“The Yellow Bird” is the basis and source text forthe plays SUMMER AND SMOKE and THE ECCENTRICI-TIES OF A NIGHTINGALE. As are the two later works,“The Yellow Bird” is a study of the conflict betweenthe soul and the flesh, or spirituality versus carnal-ity. In this version of events in Alma Tutwiler’s life,the flesh has clearly triumphed over the soul. As aresult, the short story’s protagonist is strikingly—and thrillingly—different from her incarnations inthe later two dramas. Here, in her vigorous andhedonistic pursuit of a life of pleasure, she becomesa kindred spirit of John Buchanan Jr., Alma Wine-miller’s “combatant” and love interest in Summerand Smoke.

Alma Tutwiler senses she is trapped in her small-town society and takes out her spiritual and sexualfrustrations on her repressive and scandalized par-ents. She eventually breaks free of her puritanicalconfines and lives the life she chooses, withoutremorse or regret. Ironically, she is handsomelyrewarded for her rebelliousness by the god Neptune,and her life of pleasure continues in the afterlife.

Williams reinvented Alma in the two laterworks, where she exhibits far more restraint andgentility. Alma’s passions are significantly repressed,

which subjects her to comments about her eccen-tricities and slightly odd and old-fashioned behavior.Had Alma remained as she is portrayed in “The Yel-low Bird,” the two dramas that evolved from thistext would have become two very different tales.Although she is repressed in the later retellings ofthe Alma stories, the passionate essence of AlmaTutwiler resurfaces in such characters as CassandraWhiteside (BATTLE OF ANGELS), Carol Cutrere(ORPHEUS DESCENDING), and Valerie Coynte (MISS

COYNTE OF GREENE).

PUBLICATION HISTORY“The Yellow Bird” was published in Town andCountry (1947), One Arm (1948), Great Tales of theModern South (1955), Collected Stories (1985), andStories of the Modern South (1986).

CHARACTERSStuff Stuff is a soda jerk and lover of Alma Tut-wiler. He is roughly 10 years younger than Alma. Al-though he has many girlfriends, Alma is his favorite.

Tutwiler, Alma At the beginning of the story,Alma is a quiet, reserved minister’s daughter; latershe breaks out of oppressive conservatism to becomea free spirit. Alma moves to New Orleans, becomes aprostitute, moves north with her son, and dies as arich old woman.

Tutwiler, Mrs. She is the Reverend Tutwiler’swife and the mother of Alma. Mrs. Tutwiler wit-nesses her daughter’s rebellion and entry into a lifeof prostitution, which cause her spells.

Tutwiler, Reverend Increase He is a well-respected member of a small community. When hisdaughter, Alma, rebels against their conservativelifestyle, he is devastated that he can no longercontrol her.

You Touched Me!A play in three acts written with DONALD WIND-HAM in 1942.

332 You Touched Me!

SYNOPSISThe action of the play takes place in a countrymansion in rural England during the spring of 1942.

Act 1, Scene 1The time is morning. Matilda Rockley and heraunt, Emmie Rockley, sit in the living room.Matilda mindlessly polishes silver while Emmielaments the presence of a fox that is terrorizing thelocal vicinity. Emmie describes the details of herimpending visit from the rector, the ReverendMelton. The maid, Phoebe, delivers a wire fromMatilda’s adopted brother, Hadrian. He is a fighterpilot who is on leave and wishes to visit the Rock-ley estate. Emmie and Matilda despise and fearHadrian because he has an unknown bloodline.Matilda’s drunken father, Captain Cornelius Rock-ley, celebrates this news by drinking and singing oldsailor tunes.

Hadrian sneaks into the house and startlesMatilda. He hides behind furniture as Matildarushes into the garden to assist Emmie with thecaptain. Emmie and the captain return to the livingroom bickering about Hadrian. He overhears themand plays his penny flute to reveal himself.

Act 1, Scene 2A few hours later tea is served in the garden.Matilda rushes into the living room to escape inter-action with Hadrian. Emmie follows her to say thatshe fears that the captain will leave his room andembarrass her in front of the Reverend Melton.Hadrian enters to find Matilda. Cornelius escapesfrom his room, and Phoebe hurries him into hiscabin near the garden. Hadrian and the ReverendMelton join Emmie and Matilda in the living room.Emmie and Matilda try desperately to hide the factthat the captain is home. When Hadrian begins totalk about change and liberation, Matilda sendshim to guard Captain Rockley.

The captain tells Hadrian tales of his seafaringdays. Emmie and the Reverend Melton becomebetter acquainted, discovering that they are similar.Cornelius escapes from the cabin and swearscrudely as he chases Phoebe through the livingroom and into the kitchen. Emmie is mortified andruns up the stairs in tears.

Act 2, Scene 1Later that evening Matilda and Emmie return froma women’s meeting at the church. Hadrian andCornelius hide in the cabin and eavesdrop on theirconversation. When Emmie calls them out, Cor-nelius apologizes for his bad behavior. Emmieorders Cornelius to go to sleep in the cabin. Sheand Hadrian discuss the resentment and hostilitythat exist between them. Hadrian sends Corneliusup to his bedroom and takes his place in the cabin.

During the night there is a raucous in the hen-house. Matilda and Emmie hurry downstairs fromtheir bedrooms. Emmie rushes into the garden witha shotgun. Matilda enters the cabin to check on herfather. While caressing his forehead, Matilda dis-covers it is Hadrian’s.

Act 2, Scene 2The next morning, Palm Sunday, Matilda andHadrian converse uncomfortably at the breakfasttable. Hadrian joins Cornelius for coffee in thecabin. Matilda and Emmie eavesdrop on their con-versation about Emmie’s frigidity and Matilda’spotential spinsterhood. Hadrian professes to thecaptain his romantic intentions toward Matilda,and Emmie barges in to confront him. Corneliusdeclares that unless Matilda weds Hadrian, she andand Emmie will be cut out of his will. Emmie rushesout to seek the Reverend Melton’s assistance.Hadrian confesses his love to Matilda. Matilda tellshim that Emmie has taught her to fear him. Theytalk about their past together, and Matilda agreesto marry him. When Emmie returns, she ordersMatilda to her room. She fumes at Hadrian as heleaves to obtain a marriage license.

Act 3, Scene 1Later that evening, Emmie sleeps in a chair in theliving room. Phoebe awakens her with a telegramfor Hadrian. Matilda creeps down the stairs fromher bedroom. Emmie tells Matilda that she is goingto commit Cornelius to an asylum for alcoholics.Emmie is trying desperately to hold on to her inher-itance, so she tells her niece that Hadrian wants tomarry her only for her money. She then hurriesMatilda back upstairs as Hadrian and Corneliusreturn from a drunken spree. Cornelius discusseshis views about frigid virginity with Hadrian. The

You Touched Me! 333

Reverend Melton arrives to persuade Cornelius toattend a Christian retreat. Cornelius becomes vio-lent and bloodies Melton’s nose.

Hadrian tricks Matilda to open her bedroom doorand step out into the hallway. As he rushes intoMatilda’s bedroom, Emmie races out of her roomand locks Matilda’s door, locking Hadrian inside.Emmie calls the police, and she and Cornelius fightferociously on the stairs. Hadrian climbs out the bed-room window and reenters the house through thefront door. As they wait for the police to arrive, thefox makes another appearance in the henhouse.Cornelius provokes Emmie to grab the shotgun andkill the fox. Hadrian takes Matilda in his arms as twogunshots ring out. A Policeman arrives to collectHadrian, but Matilda dismisses him. To ponder heroptions, Matilda leaves for the night.

Act 3, Scene 2At dawn the next morning, Matilda returns. Sheand Hadrian embrace as Emmie is heard calling forPhoebe. Matilda runs to her room to gather someof her belongings. Hadrian waits outside as Cor-nelius and Emmie discuss his abrupt departure.Cornelius tells Emmie that the Reverend Meltonhas asked for permission to marry her. Matilda andHadrian make a gleeful escape and Emmie departsfor church services stunned and elated.

COMMENTARYInspired by a D. H. Lawrence short story of the sametitle, You Touched Me! is a romantic comedy in whichWilliams (in collaboration with Donald Windham)explores the conflict between soul and flesh. Thatallegorical struggle resurfaces throughout Williams’swork. This theme is most prominently featured inthe argument about spiritual love versus physicallove that occurs in both SUMMER AND SMOKE andTHE ECCENTRICITIES OF A NIGHTINGALE.

Adoption is not a common theme for Williams;however, here he uses it as a vehicle to explore thefading importance of class structure and family her-itage. Hadrian is a young man who understandsfamilial ties through a veil of strain, resistance, andturmoil. Williams exposes the injustices created byliving with a system of ideals based on pedigrees.Hadrian is an orphan, who rejects his role as a

“charity boy” and becomes a decorated war hero.He shatters the rubric of class and social standingas he is virtuous, dutiful, and gentlemanly.

Emmie is persistent in belittling Hadrian, mak-ing him feel low-bred. She closely resembles otherWilliams characters, such as Mrs. Critchfield andAmanda Wingfield, who live by an arbitrary systemof class and protocol, regardless of how miserable itmakes them or those around them.

Hadrian’s character is rooted in the life of theRoman emperor Hadrian (A.D. 76–138), a famousleader and the protégé and adopted son of Trajan.When he became emperor, Hadrian immediatelymet resistance and resentment among older mili-tary and political leaders. His peers immediatelyplotted against him, as Emmie and Matilda plotagainst Williams’s Hadrian. Captain Rockley mir-rors Trajan: He delights in the idea of having aprotégé despite the apparent and unhealthy obsta-cles that Hadrian faces. Much to the chagrin of hissister, Emmie, and his daughter, Matilda, Hadrianbecomes a Rockley, the male heir to the familyestate.

PRODUCTION HISTORYMARGO JONES directed the first production of YouTouched Me! at the Playhouse in Cleveland, Ohio,in October 1943. The first New York production ofthe play was in September 1945 at the Booth The-atre. Guthrie McClintic and Lee Shubert directedthe production with Montgomery Clift in the roleof Hadrian.

PUBLICATION HISTORYYou Touched Me! was first published in 1947 by NewDirections.

CHARACTERSMelton, Reverend Guildford The ReverendMelton is a pompous Anglican vicar. He pursues aplatonic compassionate relationship with EmmieRockley. He is only amused by his own wit, intel-lect, and humor.

Phoebe She is a servant in the home of Cor-nelius and Emmie Rockley. Phoebe is a simplewoman who tolerates her drunken boss, Cornelius

334 You Touched Me!

Rockley, and the constant war between Corneliusand his sister.

Rockley, Captain Cornelius Cornelius is aretired British sea captain. He is the biologicalfather of Matilda Rockley and the adoptive fatherof Hadrian. Cornelius adopted Hadrian as a way ofgiving meaning to his life. He also took this orphanhome as an ally against the tyranny of his spinstersister, Emmie Rockley. When Hadrian leaves theestate, Cornelius becomes a drunk. Hadrianreturns as a war hero and helps Cornelius fightEmmie.

Rockley, Emmie Emmie is a prim, middle-agedBritish spinster, who lives with her brother, CaptainCornelius Rockley, and her niece, Matilda Rockley.Emmie is lonely and unhappy, and as a result, she isharsh and judgmental to Cornelius and Matilda.Emmie despises her adopted nephew, Hadrian Rock-ley, and she mistreats him to the point that he leavesas soon as he is old enough to join the military.

Proud of her virginity, Emmie is smitten by the Rev-erend Melton and hopes to marry him.

Rockley, Flight Lieutenant Hadrian Hadrian isthe adopted son of Cornelius Rockley. He is a dash-ing young pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Forceduring World War I. Hadrian returns to the Rockleyestate as a decorated war hero. He introduces a pro-gressive worldview to challenge their classist andarchaic perspectives on society, suffering, and war.Abhorred by his oppressive aunt, Emmie Rockley,and feared by his adopted sister, Matilda Rockley,Hadrian extends warmth and respect to the onlyfamily he has known. He is met with resistance fromEmmie but wins the heart of Matilda.

Rockley, Matilda Matilda is the timid and naivedaughter of a former sea captain, Cornelius Rock-ley. She lives a sheltered life under the watchful eyeof her aunt, Emmie Rockley. Matilda is afraid ofadventure and of her adopted brother, HadrianRockley, who ultimately wins her heart.

You Touched Me! 335

PART III

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Albee, Edward (1928– ) American playwright,producer, and director; literary peer and friend ofWilliams’s. Edward Albee entered the Americantheater scene in the late 1950s. Albee’s plays, whichexposed the agonies and disillusionment of contem-porary American life, startled critics and audiencesalike and changed the landscape of Americandrama. Many critics and scholars have hailed Albeeas the most immediate successor to Williams’s the-atrical legacy. As do Williams’s, Albee’s dramas forma body of work that is recognized as unique, uncom-promising, controversial, elliptical, and provocative.

During the early 1960s Williams, Albee, andtheir fellow playwright WILLIAM INGE were all tar-geted by conservative critics for the “queer mate-rial” these critics perceived in their works. Dramacritics such as Howard Taubman warned audiencesthat these three gay playwrights were “purveying anunwholesome version of masculinity and feminin-ity” by depicting “weak male and strong femalecharacters” (Woods, 11) onstage.

Albee’s masterpiece, Who’s Afraid of VirginiaWoolf? (1962), which is centered on the theme ofillusion, appearance, and reality, is said by some tobe a continuation of the conflictual marriage ofMargaret (Maggie the Cat) and Brick Pollitt in CAT

ON A HOT TIN ROOF. Albee’s other works includeThe Zoo Story (1959) and A Delicate Balance (1966).

Further ReadingWoods, Gregory. “The ‘Conspiracy’ of the ‘Hom-

intern.’” The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide 10,no. 13 (May–June 2003): 11–13.

The American The principal legitimate theaterin SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI. Touring productionsfrom Broadway were performed at the Americanand provided Saint Louis audiences with an oppor-tunity to see prominent actors, such as TALLULAH

BANKHEAD and LAURETTE TAYLOR, in exceptionalproductions. Williams regularly attended perform-ances at the American while growing up in SaintLouis. His most profound experience was seeingALLA NAZIMOVA playing Mrs. Alving in HENRIK

IBSEN’s Ghosts in 1934.

American Academy of Arts and Letters Anhonorary academy of notable U.S. artists, writers,and composers. Founded in 1904, the AmericanAcademy of Arts and Letters was created to recog-nize American achievement in the arts. In 1944,Williams was awarded a grant of $1,000 in recogni-tion of his dramatic achievements. Williams wasrecommended for the honor by the New Directionschief executive, JAMES LAUGHLIN, who praised himas the most talented and promising young writerbeing published by New Directions. Admission intothe academy is considered one of the highest hon-ors an American artist can achieve.

antagonist The major character opposing a heroor a protagonist. Williams possessed an amazing abil-ity to weave antagonistic traits into many of hischaracters so that the lines of good and evil are oftenblurred. Dramatic friction is caused by the charac-ters’ unpredictability. Williams believed that hispoet-characters were always “tragic antagonist[s],”

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because they searched for the pure in an impureworld, fighting against the tide of social order.

antihero A protagonist lacking heroic qualitiessuch as courage, idealism, and honesty. Williams pres-ents many antiheroes in his pursuit to portray peopleas realistically as possible. He claims the antihero is anappropriate image of modern humankind, seeking amoral truth, but devoid of a natural path. The anti-hero or “negative saint” is faced with a different andmore dangerous world in the modern age. Drivenmore from within than without, Williams’s antiheroacts according to his or her own social constraints,pressures, and personal anxieties. The results are notnecessarily heroic but are always characteristic. Heonce stated, “I don’t believe in villains or heroes—only right or wrong ways that individuals have taken,not by choice but by necessity or by certain still-uncomprehended influences in themselves, their cir-cumstances, and their antecedents.” Tom Wingfieldof THE GLASS MENAGERIE is a prime example of aWilliams antihero who chooses to serve himself byescaping his obligations to his mother and sister. Tomdoes not soldier on and assume the responsibility ofthe breadwinner; instead, he escapes the pressure andoppressive atmosphere, to be forever haunted by thischoice. Tom succeeds in preserving his life and mentalwell-being but certainly does not respond to his moraldilemma with traditional heroics.

Ashley, Elizabeth (1939– ) American actor. Eliz-abeth Ashley is one of the premier interpreters ofWilliams’s female characters. A close friend of theplaywright’s, Ashley made a promise to him to assayas many of his female roles as possible. In the late1970s, Williams elicited “a blood oath” (Evans, 8)from Ashley (with her mother serving as the wit-ness) whereby she promised she would continue towork on his plays indefinitely.

Williams was particularly keen for her to performthe leading roles in THE MILK TRAIN DOESN’T STOP

HERE ANYMORE, THE RED DEVIL BATTERY SIGN,SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH, and THE GLASS MENAGERIE.Her 2001 portrayal of Amanda Wingfield in TheGlass Menagerie (Hartford Stage Company, Hart-ford, Connecticut) marked a quarter-century of

Ashley’s distinguished work on Williams’s plays.She shares Williams’s Southern background (shewas born in Florida and raised in Louisiana), andshe was notably the first Southerner to play MaggiePollitt (“Maggie the Cat”) in CAT ON A HOT TIN

ROOF. It was during the successful Broadway revivalof Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1974 that the twobecame acquainted.

Further ReadingEvans, Everett. “Role of a Lifetime: Actress Elizabeth

Ashley Honors Commitment to Tennessee Wil-liams,” Houston Chronicle, August 26, 2001, p. 8.

awards Williams was the recipient of numerousnational and international awards, which includedtwo fellowships from the Rockefeller Foundation(1939 and 1940); a grant from the American Acad-emy of Arts and Letters (1944); the New YorkDrama Critics Circle Award for THE GLASS

MENAGERIE (1945), A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE

(1948), CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF (1955), and THE

NIGHT OF THE IGUANA (1962); the Sidney HowardMemorial Award for The Glass Menagerie (1945);the Donaldson Award for A Streetcar Named Desire(1948); the Pulitzer Prize for A Streetcar NamedDesire (1948) and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955); theBrandeis University Creative Award (1965); theGold Medal for Drama by the American Academyof Arts and Letters and the National Institute ofArts and Letters (1969); the National TheatreConference Annual Award (1972); the CentennialMedal of the Cathedral Church of Saint John theDivine (1973); the Medal of Honor for Literatureby the National Arts Club (1975); and the Enter-tainment Hall of Fame Award (1974). In addition,Williams received two honorary degrees, from theUniversity of Missouri (doctor of humanities, 1969)and the University of Hartford, Connecticut (doc-tor of literature, honoris causa, 1972). The citationfor the Centennial Medal of the Cathedral Churchof Saint John the Divine recognized Williams as the“foremost dramatist of our day, whose compassionfor the suffering of others has served to increase thesensitivity of an insensitive age, and replace stoneswith human hearts.”

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in 1954, Waiting for Godot established Beckett asthe leading voice of the THEATER OF THE ABSURD.Williams admired the work of Beckett and wasinstrumental in introducing him to U.S. audiences.Beckett’s works are concerned with human suffer-ing and survival and expose the existential anguishof the 20th-century human being.

Although Williams is not generally considered amember of the Absurdist school of thought, manyof his works possess elements and techniques simi-lar to those of Beckett. Both writers often depictcharacters beset by guilt and loss of purpose, indi-viduals who struggle against meaninglessness in aworld that is little more than a desolate void. Thisis most apparent in the later works of the Williamsdramatic canon, notably IN THE BAR OF A TOKYO

HOTEL, OUT CRY, THE TWO CHARACTER PLAY, andI CAN’T IMAGINE TOMORROW.

Bowles, Jane (1917–1973) American novelist, play-wright, literary colleague, and friend of Williams’s. Herworks include Two Serious Ladies (1943), A Quar-relling Pair (1945), In the Summer House (1953), andPlain Pleasures (1966). Williams regarded Bowles as“the finest writer of fiction” in the United States.He admired her “unique sensibility,” which hefound even more appealing than that of CARSON

MCCULLERS (Memoirs, 159–160). Williams was par-ticularly fond of Bowles’s play In the Summer Houseand named the gazebo of his Key West home “theJane Bowles Summer House.” Williams met Bowlesand her husband, PAUL BOWLES, in Mexico in 1940.

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Bankhead, Tallulah (1903–1968) American actor,friend of Williams’s. Williams first met TallulahBankhead, a fellow Southerner, in Provincetown,Massachusetts, in 1940. Williams had hoped thatBankhead would perform the role of Myra Tor-rance in BATTLE OF ANGELS, his first professionallyproduced work. Bankhead refused, and the rolewas played by Miriam Hopkins. Years later,Bankhead did play another part Williams wrotefor her, BLANCHE DUBOIS in A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE. Bankhead performed in Streetcar at theCoconut Grove Playhouse in Miami, Florida, andthe City Center Theater in New York in 1956.After her Miami performance, Williams lan-guished over what he called Bankhead’s assaultupon the role of Blanche. Williams’s remarksabout Bankhead’s performance were subsequentlyreprinted in Time magazine. Williams apologizedto Bankhead publicly in the New York Times. Onopening night of the run at the City Center The-ater in New York, Williams knelt at Bankhead’sfeet and apologized again. Bankhead is said tohave accepted his apologies and two dozen roseswith queenly dignity. These two incidents are ref-erenced in Williams’s autobiographical work,SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR, in whichBankhead is represented by the character Tallulah.

Beckett, Samuel (1906–1989) Nobel Prize–winningIrish playwright, poet, and novelist. Beckett achievedinternational fame with his landmark play Waitingfor Godot. Written in 1949 and published in English

Further ReadingWilliams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

Bowles, Paul (1910–1999) American composer,author, and translator. Bowles was one of the preem-inent composers of music for the U.S. theater. He cre-ated numerous musical compositions for Williams’splays, including THE GLASS MENAGERIE, SUMMER

AND SMOKE, SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH, and THE MILK

TRAIN DOESN’T STOP HERE ANYMORE. Bowles greatlyadmired Williams’s dramatic works, but he alsofound Williams to be an excellent lyricist. PaulBowles set four of Williams’s poems (“HeavenlyGrass,” “Lonesome Man,” “The Cabin,” and “Sugarin the Cane”) to music for the suite Blue MountainBallads, published by Schirmer in 1946. Bowles’scomposition for Williams’s poem “Heavenly Grass”was used as incidental music in ORPHEUS DESCEND-ING. Paul Bowles and his wife, JANE BOWLES, met

Williams in Acapulco in 1940. They all remainedlifelong collaborators and close friends.

Brando, Marlon (1924–2004) American actor. Mar-lon Brando achieved international acclaim throughhis portrayal of Stanley Kowalski in the 1951 film ofA STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, directed by ELIA

KAZAN. Brando originated the role on Broadway in1947. His acting style, characterized by sexualdynamism, physical vibrancy, and a brooding inten-sity, became legendary. Brando’s performance is con-sidered the definitive portrayal of the character, andall other “Stanleys” are measured by his success.

For Williams, Brando was possibly the “greatestliving actor . . . greater than Olivier” (Williams, 83).He believed Brando possessed an onstage presenceand charisma that corresponded to that of LAU-RETTE TAYLOR in its “luminous power” (Williams,131). Brando also brought this legendary charismaand vigor to his portrayal of Val Xavier in the filmversion of ORPHEUS DESCENDING, entitled THE

FUGITIVE KIND (1960).

Further ReadingWilliams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

Breton, André (1896–1966) French poet, essayist,critic, editor, and chief promoter of surrealism. Bretonbegan his career as a dadaist but soon turned toSURREALISM as a medium of artistic expression. Bre-ton’s manifestos are the most important statementsof this artistic movement. Breton and the surreal-ists drew from the works of French poets CharlesBaudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud. Williams wasstrongly influenced by the surrealists’ use of vividimagery, ambiguous sexuality, and inclinationtoward severe despair. The results of these influ-ences are evident in THE NIGHT OF THE IGUANA,SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER, and SWEET BIRD OF

YOUTH, among others. Williams’s trademark is histalent for combining the fantastical tones of thesurrealists with a REALISM much like that of AntonChekhov. Breton and his brand of surrealismemphasized the unconscious mind’s wealth ofthoughts, opinions, and intellect as the trueresponse to life. In his Manifeste du surréalisme

342 Bowles, Paul

Marlon Brando as Stanley Kowalski and Jessica Tandyas Blanche DuBois in the Broadway production of AStreetcar Named Desire (Eileen Darby)

(published in 1924), he defines surrealism as anexpression of the authentic thought process, with-out the confines of reason. Williams adopts a surre-alist stance in his creation of unconventionalcharacters who determine their own boundaries

and exist outside the limitations of their respectivesocieties.

Byron, George Gordon, Lord See Lord Byron,in CAMINO REAL.

Byron, George Gordon, Lord 343

Capote, Truman (1924–1984) American novelist,celebrated man-about-town, and literary associate ofWilliams’s. Capote is best known for his novellaBreakfast at Tiffany’s (1958). Williams met Capote in1948 aboard a luxury liner bound for New York.Williams was on his way to the Broadway premiereof SUMMER AND SMOKE. The two became friends andoften traveled abroad together. Like Williams,Capote was a Southerner and the Deep South pro-vided the setting and background for much ofCapote’s fiction. The friendship soured significantlywhen excerpts of Capote’s then novel in progress,Answered Prayers (published posthumously in 1986),was published in Esquire magazine in 1975–76. Itcontained passages about a character called “Mr.Wallace,” an acclaimed U.S. playwright from theSouth, who was described as “a chunky, paunchy,booze-puffed runt with a play moustache gluedabove laconic lips.” It was very apparent thatCapote’s “Wallace” was a cruel send-up of Williams.In response to Capote’s attack, Williams composed avery curt letter to the magazine’s editor. However, hewas advised to maintain a dignified silence and wasdissuaded from sending the letter.

Cassidy, Claudia (1905?– ) Influential U.S. artscritic and cultural writer for the Chicago Tribune. Cas-sidy has written commentaries that have greatlyinfluenced the course of music, dance, and theater inChicago for more than seven decades. She attendedthe Chicago premiere of THE GLASS MENAGERIE atthe Chicago Civic Theatre on December 26, 1944.For her The Glass Menagerie was a “tangible, taut and

tentacled play . . . that gripped players and audiencesalike, and created one of those rare evenings in the-atre that make ‘stage struck’ an honorable word”(Cassidy, Tribune). Her enthusiastic reviews and regu-lar support of the play were instrumental in prevent-ing an early closure of the production because of poorbox office receipts. She championed the play and pre-dicted its overwhelming future success. Audienceseagerly responded to Cassidy’s personal crusade forthe play, and a complete turnaround at the box officeresulted: Tickets became virtually impossible toobtain. The play was a huge success, proceeded toBroadway, and became one of the most famous mod-ern American plays. Claudia Cassidy’s perceptive eyechanged the course of Williams’s career and Ameri-can theater history.

Further ReadingCassidy, Claudia. “Fragile Drama Holds Theater in

Tight Spell” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 27,1944, p. 11.

Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich (1860–1904) GreatRussian playwright and short fiction writer. His workoften depicts the provincial aristocracy during theperiod before the Russian Revolution. The stiflingand oppressive atmosphere that Chekhov creates insuch works as Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchardis echoed in Williams’s depiction of the plight of thegentry in the modern American South. In his Mem-oirs, Williams writes, “It has often been said that [D.H.] Lawrence was my major literary influence. . . .Lawrence was, indeed, a highly simpatico figure in

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my literary upbringing, but Chekhov takes prece-dence as an influence.” It was during the summer of1934 that Williams became enamored of the “deli-cate poetry” he found in the works of Chekhov, par-ticularly in his short stories.

Williams believed that Chekhov’s play The Seagullwas “the greatest of modern plays.” In 1980, Williamspaid homage to his predecessor in his adaptation ofThe Seagull, called THE NOTEBOOK OF TRIGORIN.Chekhov is also the name given to the characterknown as the Writer in THE LADY OF THE LARKSPUR

LOTION.

Clurman, Harold (1901–1980) Stage director,critic, author, and teacher who shaped modern American

theater. Clurman was the founder of the GROUP

THEATRE, along with Irwin Shaw and Molly DayThacher. The organization was already very wellknown for being EUGENE O’NEILL’s resident theateras well as for introducing CLIFFORD ODETS’s talent tothe theater world when it awarded Williams theprize of $100 for three plays in the collection AMERI-CAN BLUES. Through this association, Williams wasintroduced to his longtime literary agent, AUDREY

WOOD.

Crane, Hart See Crane, Hart, in STEPS MUST BE

GENTLE.

Crane, Hart 345

surrogate father to his grandchildren, Rose andTom, in whom he sparked an interest in the writtenword early on. Despite his seemingly traditionalreligious background, his philosophy and outlookwere broad-minded. The Bible stories he told tothe children were interspersed with recitationsfrom Milton, Homer, Shakespeare, and Poe, and heinstilled a lifelong love of travel in his elder grand-son. In the summer of 1928, Tom accompanied himon a parish tour of Europe, which was preceded bya visit to New York and, importantly, Tom’s firstexperience of Broadway.

In the summer of 1935, Williams’s “fantasticallyunworldly grandfather” (Leverich, 151) entrustedhis and Rosina’s life savings to a pair of unknowncon men, and as a result the elderly couple becamefinancially dependent on Edwina and her tempera-mental spouse, CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS. In1941, he and Rosina moved to SAINT LOUIS, MIS-SOURI, to live with their daughter and resentfulson-in-law. The situation became even moreunbearable after the death of Rosina in 1944 andthe reverend’s virtual blindness. In 1948, Tom tookhis grandfather to KEY WEST, FLORIDA, and, the fol-lowing year, bought a house for him on DuncanStreet near his and FRANK MERLO’s home. WalterDakin loved his grandson unconditionally and wasaccepting of his sexual orientation. He wasintrigued by “gay culture,” which he found ratherelite and stylish.

In the fall of 1949, the Reverend Dakin wastreated for minor skin cancer. He died on Febru-ary 14, 1955, at Saint Barnes Hospital, Saint

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Dakin, Reverend Walter Edwin (1857–1955)Walter Dakin was born April 23, 1857, in Harveys-burg, Ohio. He studied at Eastman Business Collegein Poughkeepsie, New York, and subsequently foundwork as an accountant in Marysburg, Ohio, wherehe met his future wife, ROSINA ISABEL OTTE DAKIN.They were married on October 10, 1883. Less than ayear later, on August 19, 1884, their only daughter,Edwina Estelle, was born. Walter attended seminaryfor the Episcopalian ministry at the University of theSouth in Sewanee, Tennessee, and obtained histeaching license in the late 1880s; on March 23,1895, he was ordained to the Episcopal deaconate.

During the early years of his ministry, he moved atleast six times, from Ohio to Tennessee to Mississippi,until he was appointed to Saint Paul’s Church,Columbus, Ohio, in 1905, and the family settled inthe rectory in Second South Street in Columbus. In1913, he was appointed to the Church of the Adventin Nashville, Tennessee; after two years, the familyrelocated to Canton, Mississippi. On December 31,1915, the Dakin family, including his married daugh-ter (EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS) and twograndchildren (ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS and ThomasLanier [Tennessee] Williams), moved to Clarksdale,Mississippi, where “life was a stencil of gracious livingin the Old South” (Spoto, 10). The Reverend Dakinremained in Clarksdale, at Saint George’s Church,for 14 years, until his retirement in 1931, after whichhe and Rosina moved to Memphis, Tennessee.

Variously described as a bon vivant and as self-ish and self-important, he also was known to bekind, liberal, and erudite. Walter Dakin became a

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Louis. Williams donated $1,000 to the Universityof the South in Sewanee in memory of his grand-father, who, unlike his father, accepted, inspired,and encouraged him. This gentle man is alsoremembered in the character Nonno (JonathanCoffin), the world’s oldest poet in THE NIGHT OF

THE IGUANA.

Further ReadingLeverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.

New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Da

Capo, 1997.

Dakin, Rosina Isabel Otte (1863–1944) Rosinawas born in 1863 in Buffalo, New York, the daugh-ter of German immigrants. Raised in Marysville,Ohio, she attended the Roman Catholic boardingschool in Youngstown and subsequently the Conser-vatory of Music in Cincinnati. After her return toMarysville, she met WALTER EDWIN DAKIN, whomshe married on October 10, 1883. Their daughter,Edwina Estelle, was born on August 19, 1884.

While her husband studied for the Episcopalministry, she began to augment the family incomeby working as a music teacher and seamstress,activities she never abandoned, even after the fam-ily’s financial situation improved. From 1909, whenEDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS returned to herparental home, to 1918, when Edwina’s husband,CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS, moved his family toSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, Rosina cared for hergrandchildren, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS and ThomasLanier (Tennessee) Williams, allowing Edwina toresume her active social life. When Edwina becameseriously ill after the birth of her last child, DAKIN

WILLIAMS, in 1919, her mother moved to SaintLouis to care for the children again, much to thedelight of Rose and Tom. For them the move andthe separation from their grandparents had beentraumatic. Reserved, serious, and frugal, “Grand”—as Tom and Rose would always call her—was thecounterpoise to their grandfather’s extrovert per-sonality, and in many ways she became her grand-son’s conscience and angel.

The question “What would Grand think ofthis?” (Spoto, 12) turned into a moral guideline.

Throughout her life she financially supported hergrandchildren, enabling Edwina and the childrento take a holiday in the summer of 1925 and payingfor Rose’s violin lessons and her tuition at HosmerHall as well as Tom’s college fees. It was she and theReverend Dakin to whom Tom turned after hisnervous breakdown in 1935, when he stayed withthem in Memphis to recover. Tom discovered inNovember 1941 that she had lung cancer, whenshe visited Saint Louis to consult specialists. Overthe next two years she would slowly waste awayfrom the disease, and her grandson would pay atleast some of her medical expenses after he began ajob as a contract writer for METRO-GOLDWYN-MAYER. She died at the Williams home in SaintLouis on January 6, 1944, after a horrific hemor-rhage. Williams was present when his grandmotherdied, but poignantly he scheduled an eye operationfor the day of her funeral, because he could notbear to see dead the “only member of my familythat I cared for very deeply” (Leverich, 432).Williams paid tribute to his grandmother in severalof his works, such as “GRAND,” “ANGEL IN THE

ALCOVE,” “ORIFLAMME,” and THE LONG STAY CUT

SHORT, OR THE UNSATISFACTORY SUPPER.


New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers. Boston: Da

Capo, 1997.

Dowling, Eddie (Joseph Nelson Goucher)(1889–1976) Pulitzer Prize–winning American pro-ducer, playwright, songwriter, director, and actor.Eddie Dowling codirected the premiere productionof THE GLASS MENAGERIE with MARGO JONES in1945. Dowling also originated the role of TomWingfield in this production, which also featuredLAURETTE TAYLOR as Tom’s overbearing mother,Amanda Wingfield.

Dramatists Guild In 1940 the Dramatists Guildawarded Williams $1,000 to return to New York(he was in Saint Louis) to work on his plays. Hewas invited by John Gassner to attend a play writ-ing seminar at the New School for Social Research.

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expressionism A 20th-century literary and artis-tic movement, which evolved in part as a reactionagainst realism and naturalism, and in part as arevision of impressionism. In expressionism, theartist’s gaze is turned inward, and emphasis isplaced upon the thoughts and images rooted withinthe artist’s mind over those that precisely reflectthe outside world. The results are often distorted,dreamlike, or nightmarish. The origins of expres-sionism lay in the works of such painters as WassilyKandinsky (1866–1944) and Oscar Kokoschka(1886–1980) and the playwright AUGUST STRIND-BERG (1849–1912). In American literature, expres-sionism appeared most prominently in the dramaticwritings of EUGENE O’NEILL (1888–1953) and ElmerRice (1892–1967). In fine art, JACKSON POLLOCK

(1912–56) was the exemplar of abstract expression-ism. Many of Williams’s dramatic works, particu-larly his later plays, are prime examples of theexpressionistic tradition, particularly CAMINO REAL

and SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR.

Flanner, Janet (Genet) (1892–1978) Americannovelist, translator, and journalist. Flanner is bestknown for her fortnightly “Letter from Paris,” whichshe contributed to the New Yorker magazine from1925 to 1978, under the pen name Genet. A promi-nent figure in the American lesbian expatriate com-munity of Paris, Flanner met Williams and hispartner, FRANK MERLO, in Rome during the summerof 1949. Flanner’s life partner, the Italian writerNatalia Danesi Murray, developed a working rela-tionship with Williams and served as the dialect

coach and personal assistant to Italian screen starANNA MAGNANI during the filming of THE ROSE

TATTOO and ORPHEUS DESCENDING. Flanner greatlyadmired Williams’s dramatic writings and declaredhim “the strangest theatre contributor of our time,anywhere. He makes the angry young men of Lon-don seem merely furious socialists and Red BrickCollege (i.e., poor boys) graduates” (Flanner,308–309). The plucky American journalist MegBishop in THE ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE is aportrait of the feisty Janet Flanner.

Further ReadingFlanner, Janet. Darlinghissma: Letters to a Friend.,

edited by Natalia Danesi Murray. New York: Ran-dom House, 1985.

García Lorca, Federico (1898–1936) Spanish play-wright and poet. Williams admired García Lorca’sacute imagery and employment of universal charac-ters. As García Lorca incorporated elements such aswater, the Moon, the Earth, and blood in his litera-ture, Williams followed suit in such works as THE

PURIFICATION and THE ROSE TATTOO. Williams wasalso influenced by García Lorca’s extreme use of thetragic form to convey deep emotion regarding inher-ent injustice in the world. These elements coupledwith ritualized actions produce drama with anancient and epic quality.

The Group Theatre An American theater com-pany founded in 1931 by HAROLD CLURMAN, LeeStrasberg, and Cheryl Crawford. The Group was a

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pioneering theater collective dedicated to presenting“new American plays of social significance” (Wil-meth, 212). The Group Theatre organized anannual playwriting competition to develop and pro-mote the works of young playwrights. This competi-tion launched Williams’s career. In 1939, Williamssubmitted a collection of three one-act plays,MOONY’S KID DON’T CRY, THE DARK ROOM, andTHE CASE OF THE CRUSHED PETUNIAS to the compe-

tition and won the $100 prize. His work garneredthe attention of AUDREY WOOD, who became hislongtime agent.

Further ReadingWilmeth, Don B., and Tice L. Miller, eds. Cambridge

Guide to American Theatre. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993.

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Hellman, Lillian (1905–1984) One of the leadingU.S. playwrights of the 20th century. During Williams’sfirst professional visit to New York City in 1939, hesaw the Broadway production of Hellman’s The LittleFoxes, a play that centers on a traditional Southernfamily at odds with modern changes or the “NewSouth.” Starring TALLULAH BANKHEAD, the playwon the Drama Critics Circle Award and was laudedfor its Chekhovian (see ANTON CHEKHOV) texture.Williams was strongly inspired by this performance,and in his own dramaturgy, he would push theboundaries and complexities of Southern culturebeyond Hellman’s treatment. In 1968, Hellman pre-sented to Williams the National Institute of Artsand Letters Gold Medal for Drama.

Hemingway, Ernest See Hemingway, Ernest, inCLOTHES FOR A SUMMER HOTEL.

homosexuality, gay literature, and WilliamsOver the past several years critics and scholars ofgay literature and queer theory have fallen intotwo camps regarding Williams’s works. At thecenter of their debate is the question whetherWilliams’s works should be characterized asexhibiting an “internalized homophobia” or laudedas progressive and revolutionary. As this debatecontinues, there is little doubt that the latter willultimately be proven the more accurate assess-ment, as critics and scholars (re)examine the his-torical and sociopolitical context surroundingWilliams’s works and delve more deeply into his

entire canon them, beyond the more well-knowndramatic works.

GORE VIDAL outlined the historical context(and conflict) surrounding Williams’s sexualityand his works in his introduction to Williams’sCollected Stories:

It has suited the designers of moral life in theAmerican republic to pretend that there areindeed two teams, one evil and sick and dan-gerous, and one good and “normal” andstraight. . . . Although Tennessee came to feel adegree of compassion for his persecutors, theynever felt any for him. For thirty years he wasregularly denounced as a sick, immoral, viciousfag and . . . in the fifties, the anti-fag brigademounted a major offensive. (pp. xxi, xxiii)

The 1960s did not prove much more tolerant, asGregory Woods recalled:

In the early 1960s, like-minded critics whippedup a flurry of disquiet around the plays ofWilliams, WILLIAM INGE and EDWARD ALBEE.That the three major American dramatists wereknown to be gay was bad enough; that they werepurveying an unwholesome version of masculin-ity and femininity—creating weak male andstrong female characters—was seen as intolera-ble. (p. 11)

In 1963, Howard Taubman, drama critic of theNew York Times, warned his readers of the need topolice dramatic works for putatively “queer” mate-

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rial. Given such open and public hostility in the1950s and 1960s, it is remarkable that Williamscontinued to write at all. However, even at theheight of his career, in the late 1940s, his workswere considered “dangerous.” In 1947, A STREET-CAR NAMED DESIRE “hit the public like a bomb[and] . . . brought the American stage into adult-hood because of its sex and hint of homosexuality”(Gardner, A.01).

Homosexuality is more than hinted at in manyof Williams’s lesser-known and often later dramaticworks (such as NOW THE CATS WITH JEWELLED

CLAWS; SOMETHING UNSPOKEN; AND TELL SAD

STORIES OF THE DEATH OF QUEENS; THE TRAVEL-LING COMPANION; STEPS MUST BE GENTLE; SOME-THING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR; and THE

REMARKABLE ROOMING-HOUSE OF MME. LE MONDE)and in his fiction (such as “DESIRE AND THE BLACK

MASSEUR,” “MISS COYNTE OF GREENE,” “SABBATHA

AND SOLITUDE,” “THE KILLER CHICKEN AND THE

CLOSET QUEEN,” “ONE ARM,” “HARD CANDY,” “THE

INTERVAL,” and “HAPPY AUGUST THE TENTH”).These works are remarkably bold and unapologeticin their treatment of homosexuality. Interestingly,“Happy August the Tenth,” which concludes withits two principal female characters’ nestling com-fortably into a loving lesbian relationship, is one ofthe few instances of a mutually affirming romanticrelationship in Williams’s canon. Rightfully, Williamsis considered the most important gay writer of thepre-1969 (Stonewall) era.

Williams’s most overt and personal treatment ofhomosexuality is in his Memoirs (1973), which islargely a discourse about his “amatory activities.”He explained that this emphasis was largely due to

the fact that he was “late in coming out, and whenI did it was with one hell of a bang” (Memoirs, 50).During these later years Williams found pride in hissexuality and in his community, as he stated:“There is no doubt in my mind that there is moresensibility—which is equivalent to more talent—among gays of both sexes than among the ‘norms’”(Memoirs, 51). Williams saw the gay rights move-ment as a “serious crusade to assert for its genuinelymisunderstood and persecuted minority, a free posi-tion in society which will allow them to respectthemselves” (Memoirs, 50).

Further ReadingGardner, Elysa. “Tennessee Williams Is Hotter Than

Ever,” USA Today, October 25, 2003. p. A.1.Vidal, Gore. “Introduction,” in Tennessee Williams:

Collected Stories. New York: New Directions, 1985,pp. xix–xxv.


Woods, Gregory. “The ‘Conspiracy’ of the ‘Hom-intern.’” The Gay & Lesbian Review Worldwide. 10,no. 13 (May–June 2003): 11–13.

Hunter, Kim (Janet Cole) (1922–2000) Ameri-can stage, film, and television actor. Hunter made herBroadway debut in 1947 as Stella Kowalski in thepremiere production of A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE, directed by ELIA KAZAN. She reprised thisrole in the 1951 film, also directed by Kazan.Hunter won an Oscar (Academy Award) as BestSupporting Actress for her portrayal of this engag-ing Williams character.

Hunter, Kim 351

Ibsen, Henrik (1828–1906) Norwegian playwright.Generally credited as the “father of modern drama,”he demonstrated the power of psychological real-ism. His masterpieces include Peer Gynt (1867), ADoll’s House (1879), An Enemy of the People (1883),The Wild Duck (1884), and Hedda Gabler (1891).His plays often depict individuals in bitter conflictwith the norms of their society.

Ibsen’s dramatic convention of the “unmaskingof a guilty secret” (Spoto, 38) became a major facet ofWilliams’s dramaturgy and is a prominent featureof such works as A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, CAT

ON A HOT TIN ROOF, KINGDOM OF EARTH, THE MUTI-LATED, and SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER, among others.

Ibsen’s dramas inspired Williams on the stage aswell as on the page. Williams recalled that his mostprofound encounter in the theater as a young manwas attending a production of Ibsen’s Ghosts, star-ring Alla Nazimova, at the American Theatre inSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, in 1934. Ghosts has beendescribed as Ibsen’s greatest play, invested with theintensity and fatalism of a Greek drama and thefirst play to deal with both euthanasia and a clinicalcomprehension of heredity.

Further ReadingSpoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of


Inge, William Motter (1913–1973) PulitzerPrize–winning U.S. playwright and a literary associ-ate and friend of Williams’s. Inge began his theatri-

cal career as a drama critic. In 1943, he moved toSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, and joined the staff of theSt. Louis Star-Times. In December 1944, he wasasked to interview Williams, the “local boy”whose play THE GLASS MENAGERIE was being pro-duced in Chicago. Inge immediately admiredWilliams, and when he ventured to Chicago tocover the premiere of Menagerie, the two becameromantically involved.

Shortly after seeing Williams and Menagerie inChicago, Inge wrote his play Farther Off fromHeaven and sent it to Williams. Williams liked theplay and gave it to his agent, AUDREY WOOD,whose response was less positive than Williams’s.Williams introduced Inge to MARGO JONES, whoproduced Farther Off from Heaven in Dallas, Texas,in 1947. His success was confirmed with his nextwork, Come Back, Little Sheba. Williams, Jones, andWood all loved the work, which premiered in NewYork in 1950. Williams was instrumental in launch-ing Inge’s career. Inge never forgot this andthanked Williams for his support and encourage-ment by dedicating The Dark at the Top of the Stairs(1957), his last work, to Williams. Inge’s otherworks include Picnic (1953) and Bus Stop (1955).

Further ReadingCuoco, Lorin, and William Gass, eds. “William Inge,”

in Literary St. Louis: A Guide. St. Louis: MissouriHistorical Society Press, 2000, pp. 203–207.

International Shoe Company (I.S.C.) Williamsworked from 1931 to 1934 at a branch of the Inter-

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national Shoe Company, located at Fifteenth andDelmar Streets in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI. Afterspending three years at the UNIVERSITY OF MIS-SOURI and failing the Reserve Officers TrainingCorps (ROTC) course there, Williams was forcedby his father, CORNELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS, to with-draw from the university. Cornelius financed ashort typing course for his son and then promptlyobtained a position for him as a clerk/typist at thewarehouse of the Continental Shoe Makers, earn-ing $65 per month.

Williams detested the position and referred to itas his “season in hell.” The work was monotonousand tiring: dusting hundreds of pairs of shoes eachmorning, carrying heavy cases of them across townin the afternoon, and typing endless lists of figures.What he did enjoy about the position was thecamaraderie with his coworkers, the daily exchangeof talk about movies, stage shows, and radio pro-grams. He began to write at night, scheduling him-self one short story a week. Occasionally he wouldwrite poetry in the lid of shoe boxes during the dayat work.

His time at the shoe warehouse was invaluable tohim as a writer. He learned firsthand the fate of thewhite-collar worker trapped in a hopelessly routinejob. The experience endowed him with a compas-sion for the working class. Williams deducted thethree years he spent at the International Shoe Com-pany from his actual age, as he felt he did not trulylive during those years. This has been a source ofconfusion for biographers and researchers. TheInternational Shoe Company (as I.S.C. and/or Con-tinental Shoe Makers) is referenced in several workssuch as THE GLASS MENAGERIE, A LOVELY SUNDAY

FOR CREVE COEUR, and STAIRS TO THE ROOF.

Isherwood, Christopher (1904–1986) British-bornU.S. novelist, pioneer of the gay liberation movement,friend and literary associate of Williams’s. Isherwood isbest known for The Berlin Stories (1933), a series ofstories about life in pre–World War II Germany. Ish-erwood’s vivid and vibrant tales are the basis for theplay I Am a Camera and the popular musicalCabaret. Williams considered Isherwood one of hismost valued friends and allies.

Isherwood, Christopher 353

Jones, Margo (1911–1955) American director, pro-ducer, and friend of Williams’s. Jones was the origina-tor of the regional theater movement in the UnitedStates. She founded Theatre ’47 in Dallas, Texas,the name changing with the year; it became the

Margo Jones Theatre, after her death. Jones main-tained that theater should be happening in everycommunity of the United States. She believed thatevery locale “with a population of over one-hun-dred-thousand could sustain a theatre,” and it wasthe responsibility of “competent theatre people to goto such an area and create a fine theatre” (Lea, 481).For Jones, theater in America needed to be morethan exclusively a Broadway experience.

Although she was devoted to producing classi-cal plays, particularly those of HENRIK IBSEN, Joneswas also a champion of new U.S. playwrights andnew play development. Jones was a loyal promoterof Williams’s work throughout her life. She nur-tured him and directed the premieres of many ofhis works, including YOU TOUCHED ME! (1943),THE PURIFICATION (1944), THE GLASS MENAGERIE

(codirected with EDDIE DOWLING, 1945), and SUM-MER AND SMOKE (1947).

Williams and Jones had a lifelong professionalrelationship and friendship. The two had similarpersonalities and were very close friends. BecauseJones accompanied Williams to numerous publicengagements, rumors spread that they were roman-tically involved. However, their relationship wasstrictly platonic. It has been said that Williams’sone-act play SOMETHING UNSPOKEN details Jones’srelationship with a wealthy, older woman, whomshe accompanied on a worldwide tour as her secre-tary and companion. Williams playfully describedthis “strong-willed, magnetic and fiery” (Spoto, 99)woman as a “Texas tornado” (ibid.).

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Margo Jones, artistic director of Theatre ’47, Dallas,Texas (Photograph courtesy of the Billy Rose TheatreCollection, New York Public Library)

Further ReadingLea, Florence M. “Margo Jones,” in Notable Women in

the American Theatre, edited by Alice M. Robinson,Vera Mowry Roberts, and Milly S. Barranger. NewYork: Greenwood Press, 1989.

Sheehy, Helen. Margo: The Life and Theatre of MargoJones. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press,1989.


Jones, Margo 355

Kazan, Elia (1909–2003) American stage and filmdirector. Elia Kazan was considered by many tohave been the foremost American director of stageand screen. He won two Best Director AcademyAwards for his direction of Gentleman’s Agreement(1947) and On the Waterfront (1954). He collabo-rated with Williams frequently and successfullythroughout his career. His work with Williamsincluded stage and screen versions of A STREETCAR

NAMED DESIRE (staged 1947, filmed 1951) andBABY DOLL (1956). Kazan’s directorial style wasnoted for its psychological and emotional depth. Inhis work with actors, such as MARLON BRANDO,Kazan focused on the development of an on-screenlife that possessed a high-charged intensity andprofound sexual vibrancy. Kazan’s style of directionmatched the intense realism of Williams’s dramas.Of Williams’s writing Kazan once stated:

One comes out of his plays feeling that particu-lar mixture: sadness transmuted into joy, thetwo together or the one unexpectedly followingthe other. Also this: that despite ourselves wemay have a chance after all. One feels—grati-tude. His concern is humanity and what can befound there to sing about and respect. Still he isanything but bland: his words have sharp teeth.(Spoto, 378–379)


Tennessee Williams. Ballantine Books: New York,1985.

Key West, Florida An island located at the south-western end of the Florida Keys, 55 miles from main-land Florida and 90 miles from Havana, Cuba. Thetown of Key West, the southernmost city in the

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United States, was incorporated in 1828. Key Westwas then, and is now, a mecca for painters, writers,and artists, a “haven for those who choose to dropout of conventional society” (Williams, “Homage,”162). For Williams, this tropical locale was a para-dise, where “time past has a wonderful way ofremaining time present. I once wrote a line, ‘The dayturns holy as though God moves through it.’ That’sthe way I feel about Key West” (Lang, 66).

Williams’s attachment to Key West began whenhe arrived in 1941, at a time when the island was“still affected by the presence of Ernest Heming-way” (“Homage,” 160). Williams sought solace andrefuge in Key West after the first important disasterin his career (see BATTLE OF ANGELS). In 1950,Williams and his life partner, FRANK MERLO, boughta small Bahamian house at 1431 Duncan Street.

Key West was Williams’s favorite setting inwhich to write, and he became one of the island’sfavorite residents. In 1970, Williams was made anhonorary “Conch” (Key West native) by Mayor Ger-

ald Staundberg. In 1980, the Florida Keys Commu-nity College established the Tennessee WilliamsFine Arts Center, which opened with the premiereproduction of WILL MR. MERRIWETHER RETURN

FROM MEMPHIS? (1964), which Williams himselfdirected. Key West is referenced in Williams’s lateplay THE GNÄDIGES FRÄULEIN, which is set in thefictional “Cocaloony Key.” As did Williams, theprincipal character of the play retreats to this tropi-cal isle to recover from an artistic disaster and rein-vent herself.

Further ReadingLang, John. “In Key West, They Like to Live on the

Edge.” U.S. News & World Report, April 9, 1984,64–66.

O’Reilly, Jane. “In Key West: Where Writers Get TopBilling,” Time, February 6, 1984, 11–13.

Williams, Tennessee. “Homage to Key West,” inWhere I Live: Selected Essays, edited by Christine R.Day and Bob Woods. New York: New Directions,1978, pp. 160–164.

Key West, Florida 357

Lanier, Sidney (1842–1881) American poet andmusician. An ancestor of Williams, Sidney CloptonLanier was born February 3, 1842, in Macon, Geor-gia. Educated at Atlanta’s Olgethorpe College, hewas inspired by the works of Byron, Tennyson, Scott,and other romantic writers. Known as America’s“Sweet Singer of Songs,” Lanier created poetry thatis marked by its melodic verse and extravagant con-ceits. His haunting and musical poetry reflected hislove of nature and the Old South of his boyhoodand is among the best Southern writing of the 19thcentury. Lanier’s first novel, Tiger-Lilies, publishedin 1867, was based on his experiences during theCivil War. His study of the interrelation of musicand poetry, The Science of English Verse, was pub-lished in 1880. His Poems was published posthu-mously in 1887. He died at the age of 39, a victim oftuberculosis contracted during the war.

Williams was quite proud of his literary ancestor.Through the Lanier family line, Williams was also adescendant of Valentine Xavier, the younger brotherof Saint Francis Xavier, whose name Williams wouldtake when he converted to Roman Catholicism. Asa fledgling writer, Williams briefly called himselfValentine Xavier.

Laughlin, James, IV (1914–1997) U.S. publisher,friend of Williams’s. Laughlin founded New Direc-tions publishing house in 1936, while he was still anundergraduate at Harvard University. With NewDirections he went on to publish, often the first todo so, such authors as Williams Carlos Williams,Vladmir Nabokov, Dylan Thomas, FEDERICO GAR-

CÍA LORCA, Yukio Mishima, Djuna Barnes, RainerMaria Rilke, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Henry Miller,and Ezra Pound.

Laughlin quickly gained a reputation for pub-lishing innovative works by unconventional anddaring writers. In 1944, he published an anthologyof poetry entitled Five Young American Poets, whichincluded poems by such young writers as Williamsand CLARK MILLS. Williams contributed 40 pages ofpoetry to the anthology. This collaboration was thestart of a lifelong author-publisher relationship.

Lawrence, D. H. See Lawrence, D. H., in I RISE

IN FLAME, CRIED THE PHOENIX.

Leigh, Vivien (Vivian Mary Hartley) (1913–1967) Award-winning British actor. Leigh is noted asone of the most successful interpreters of Williams’sfemale characters. Williams described Leigh as “anactress of great talent which has steadily grownthrough meeting the challenge of many classicalroles, Greek, Shakespearean, Restoration, and Shaw,while still appearing so masterfully in such Americanfilms as Gone with the Wind and A STREETCAR

NAMED DESIRE” (Williams, Where I Live, 127–128).Leigh will always be remembered for her AcademyAward (Oscar)–winning portrayal of two of the mostcompelling women in American literature, ScarlettO’Hara and Blanche DuBois.

Leigh first appeared as Blanche in the firstBritish production of A Streetcar Named Desire in1949. She was then selected to play the role in the1951 film version of the play. Leigh was chosen for

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the film over JESSICA TANDY, who had originatedthe role on the U.S. stage in 1947. Leigh had theadvantage of being a recognizable screen nameover the then relatively unknown Tandy. Many alsobelieve Leigh was chosen because of her highly suc-cessful portrayal of the quintessential Southernheroine, Scarlett O’Hara. John Russell Tayloracknowledged that the role of Blanche was in manyways a “natural successor” (Taylor, 86–87) to Scar-lett, as the two shared an obsession with theirancestral home (Tara and Belle Reve) and sufferedfrom the rapid decay of the South. These two rolesproved to be the “twin peaks” (ibid.) of Leigh’scareer. Vivien Leigh’s performance as Blanche wasconsidered by many, including Williams, to be thedefinitive portrayal of that character.

In 1961, Leigh appeared in the screen version ofTHE ROMAN SPRING OF MRS. STONE. Leigh’s por-trayal of the complicated Karen Stone, anotherromantically tragic character, who is desperate forlove and denied the “consolations of beauty, peaceand spiritual grace,” is said to have been “one of[Leigh’s] finest” (Quirk, 181).

Further ReadingQuirk, Lawrance J. The Great Romantic Films. Secau-

cus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1974.Taylor, John Russell. Vivien Leigh. London: Elm Tree

Books, 1984.Williams, Tennessee. “Five Fiery Ladies,” in Where I

Live: Selected Essays, edited by Christine R. Dayand Bob Woods. New York: New Directions, 1978,pp. 127–128.

Leigh, Vivien 359

Mabie, E. C. Williams studied playwriting underProfessor Mabie at the UNIVERSITY OF IOWA. Theirrelationship was rocky, as Mabie often cruellyreferred to Williams as “the sissy.” Despite Mabie’scontempt for Williams and his distaste forWilliams’s dramaturgy, Williams respected him.Williams also admired Mabie’s intellect as well ashis contributions to the Federal Theatre Project(Mabie was the regional director as well as afounding designer of the Works Progress Adminis-tration program).



Magnani, Anna (1908–1973) Award-winning Ital-ian actress. Anna Magnani was renowned for herportrayals of earthy, passionate female characters.Williams first met Anna Magnani in Rome in 1950,while there on holiday with his life partner, FRANK

MERLO. Merlo, who was Italian American, mediatedbetween the two. Magnani and Williams becameimmediate and lifelong friends.

Williams introduced Magnani to U.S. audiencesin the film version of THE ROSE TATTOO (1955).Her portrayal of the fiery Serafina Delle Rose wasconsidered the highlight of her acting career. Crit-ics and audiences were enthralled by her greatbeauty and her remarkable film presence. She wonthe Academy Award (Oscar) for Best Actress forher performance. Magnani captivated U.S. audi-ences again when she portrayed the strong-willed

Lady Torrance in THE FUGITIVE KIND, the screenversion of ORPHEUS DESCENDING, in 1959. Thefilm, directed by Sidney Lumet, paired Magnaniwith MARLON BRANDO.

Anna Magnani died of cancer at the age of 65.Williams sent 20 dozen roses for her cortege.Williams’s 25-year friendship with Magnani is thesubject of Franco D’Alessandro’s play RomanNights (2002).

McCullers, Carson (1917–1967) American nov-elist, poet, and playwright. One of Williams’s dearestfriends, Carson McCullers was a leading figure inSouthern fiction and American literature. She isrenowned for her exploration of spiritual and socialalienation in a Southern milieu. Her works includeThe Heart Is a Lonely Hunter (1940), The Member ofthe Wedding (1946), The Ballad of the Sad Cafe(1951), The Square Root of Wonderful (1958), Clockwithout Hands (1961), and Sweet as a Pickle, Cleanas a Pig (1965). Kindred in spirit to Williams’s,McCullers’s works offer sensitive and compassion-ate depictions of individuals in isolation. Her char-acters, as Williams’s, are usually outcasts andmisfits whose need for love is never fulfilled.

In 1940, after reading The Heart is a LonelyHunter, Williams wrote to McCullers, stating thathe wanted to meet her. He invited her to spendthe summer with him on Nantucket. The two writ-ers spent the summer working together at the endsof a long table. Williams drafted SUMMER AND

SMOKE, while McCullers—at Williams’s sugges-tion—adapted her novel The Member of the Wed-

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ding for the stage. This was the start of a lifelongfriendship. McCullers developed a strong connec-tion with Williams and his sister, ROSE ISABEL

WILLIAMS. The three spent several Christmasestogether at McCullers’s home in Nyack, New York.Williams referred to McCullers as “Sister-Woman,”and Rose simply called her “C.”

McCullers’s life was as complex as her fiction.She married, divorced, and remarried the sameman, Reeves McCullers. Carson and Reeves wereboth openly and actively bisexual. Williams wit-nessed and recorded in his Memoirs episodes oftheir turbulent relationship, which ended withReeves’s suicide in 1953. Reeves’s death was butone of the many tragedies in McCullers’s life.Williams often wrote to MARIA ST. JUST about his

concern for McCullers: “[She has had] so muchtragedy in her life that it scares you almost intofeeling indifferent to her, as if she were hopelesslydamned and you couldn’t afford to think about it:the way I feel for my sister.” (St. Just, 113).

Williams clearly understood McCullers’s “isola-tion and longings” (ibid., 116). In the introductionto her novel Reflections in a Golden Eye, he wrote:

If artists are snobs it is . . . not because they wishto be different and hope and believe that theyare, but because they are forever painfully struckin the face with the inescapable fact of their dif-ference which makes them hurt and lonelyenough to want to undertake the vocation ofartists . . . [with] a sense, an intuition, of anunderlying dreadfulness in modern experience.

McCullers, Carson 361

Anna Magnani and Williams in Key West, Florida, during the filming of The Rose Tattoo (Photograph courtesy of theBilly Rose Theatre Collection, New York Public Library)

In the preface to her novel The Heart Is a LonelyHunter he declared that McCullers possessed a great“heart and the deep understanding of it, but inaddition she had that ‘tongue of angels’ that gaveher power to sing of it, to make of it an anthem.” Asdid his sister, Rose, Carson McCullers’s artistry andfragile, tragic beauty served as inspiration toWilliams and surfaced continually in his work. Forexample, in the preface to THE ROSE TATTOO,Williams cites the concluding line of one ofMcCullers’s lyric poems: “Time, the endless idiot,runs screaming ’round the world.”

Further ReadingSt. Just, Maria, ed. Five O’Clock Angel: Letters of Ten-

nessee Williams and Maria St. Just, 1948–1982. NewYork: W. W. Norton, 1990.

Williams, Tennessee. “Introduction,” in The Heart Is aLonely Hunter. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1967.

———. “Introduction,” in Reflections in a Golden Eye.New York: Bantam, 1974.

Merlo, Frank Philip (1922–1963) Williams’s lifepartner of 16 years. Williams and Merlo met inProvincetown, Massachusetts, in the summer of1947. Their relationship began at nearly that verymoment and lasted until Merlo’s death in 1963.Merlo, a handsome, self-educated navy veteran ofSicilian descent, was born and raised in Brooklyn,New York. His union with Williams provided theplaywright with emotional stability and a real andmuch-needed sense of “home.” The couple bought ahouse in KEY WEST, FLORIDA, at 1431 DuncanStreet, in 1950. Locals still recall Merlo as a kindand gentle soul and a man who possessed a realsense of civility and “humanity.” Merlo was a posi-tive and stabilizing force in William’s hectic andoften self-destructive life. Artistically, Merlo servedas a muse for Williams. Merlo opened the world ofItalian, and particularly Sicilian, culture to Williams,which he embraced wholeheartedly. This exposureto the culture of Italy, with the help of a native sonas a guide, was the catalyst for Williams to createsuch works as THE ROSE TATTOO and THE ROMAN

SPRING OF MRS. STONE and the source for the Italian/Sicilian elements found in such works as ORPHEUS

DESCENDING and BABY DOLL. Williams dedicated

the The Rose Tattoo to Merlo in honor of his sharinghis culture with the author.

In the early 1960s their relationship began to dete-riorate as a result of Williams’s repeated infidelitieswith other men. Merlo was diagnosed with lung cancerand succumbed to the disease in 1963. Williams was atMerlo’s bedside when he died, and the playwrightmemorialized that traumatic time—Merlo’s finaldays—in a scene in the highly autobiographical play,SOMETHING CLOUDY, SOMETHING CLEAR! Williams wasdevastated by the loss of the greatest love of his life,and as a result he slipped into a severe depression. Heturned to drugs and alcohol to ease his pain. Williamsreferred to the period following Merlo’s death as his“stoned age.” In his MEMOIRS Williams wrote: “As longas Frank was well, I was happy. He had a gift for creat-ing life, and, when he ceased to be alive, I couldn’t cre-ate a life for myself. So I went into a seven-yeardepression” (194). Donald Spoto believes that the twofemale lovers in the short story “HAPPY AUGUST THE

TENTH” were modeled on Williams and Merlo andthat the delicate love story of Horne and Elphinstoneis in fact a “gentle tribute” (Spoto, 294) to their rela-tionship. A similar connection can also be drawn tothe dashing, young male couple in NOW THE CATS

WITH JEWELLED CLAWS. David P. Foley offers a dramaticrendering of Williams and Merlo’s long-term relation-ship in his play Sad Hotel.

Further ReadingFoley, David P. Sad Hotel. New York: Theatre Commu-

nications Group, 1999.Spoto, Donald. The Kindness of Strangers: The Life of

Tennessee Williams. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985.Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday, 1975.

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) With the helpof his agent, AUDREY WOOD, Williams became ascriptwriter for MGM in 1943. Williams was sus-pended from scriptwriting duties when he did notcomplete the work he was assigned. Williamsdespised this position, calling the Hollywood writersaround him “hacks.” Williams resisted writing theneatly packaged scripts with happy endings thatMGM required. He hoped that his screenplay “TheGentleman Caller” (later developed into THE GLASS

362 Merlo, Frank Philip

MENAGERIE) would relieve him from his contractualobligations at MGM, such as having to write whathe termed a “celluloid brassiere” for Lana Turner.

Mielziner, Jo (1901–1976) American theatricaldesigner. Mielziner made his Broadway debut in1924. He worked on more than 200 Broadway pro-ductions designing sets and often lighting. Mielzinerdesigned the production of nine plays for Williams:A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE, CAMINO REAL, SWEET

BIRD OF YOUTH, and CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF. Inappreciation, Williams dedicated his play SUDDENLY

LAST SUMMER to his memory.

Miller, Arthur (1915–2005) Pulitzer Prize–winningAmerican playwright, novelist, and a literary associate ofWilliams’s. In comparing these two great Americanplaywrights, Kenneth Tynan stated:

Miller’s plays are hard, “patrist,” athletic, [and]concerned most with men. Williams’s are soft,“matrist,” sickly, [and] concerned mostly withwomen. What links them is their love for thebruised individual soul and its life of “quiet des-peration.” (Tynan, 141)

Miller, whose most noted works are All My Sons(1947), Death of a Salesman (1949), and The Cru-cible (1953), believed that Williams was a truly rev-olutionary artist whose lasting gift to the Americantheater was a profound sense of “eloquence and anamplitude of feeling” (Centola, 203). The Ameri-can theater, according to Miller, never truly recog-nized or fully appreciated its indebtedness toWilliams’s first success, THE GLASS MENAGERIE.The works of Williams, Miller once stated, are “aspermanent in the vision of this century as the starsin the sky” (203).

Williams held a similar admiration for Miller. Heonce stated that he “looked up to” Miller (Devlinand Tischler, 234) and felt a bona fide and “unmis-takable beam of satisfaction” (ibid., 235) uponlearning that Miller’s play Death of a Salesman hadbeen well received by the press. Williams himselffound the work “a deep, human play, warmly feltand written with a great simple dignity whichcomes out of Miller’s own character.” (ibid.). ELIA

KAZAN, who directed the premiere of Salesman,acknowledged that Miller had “learned from Street-car how easily nonrealistic [theatrical] elements” ina drama “could be blended with the realistic ones”(Kazan, 361).

Further ReadingCentola, Steven, ed. Arthur Miller: Echoes down the

Corriodor—Collected Essays 1944–2000 New York:Viking, 2000.

Devlin, Albert J, and Nancy M. Tischler. The SelectedLetters of Tennessee Williams, vol. 11, 1945–1957.New York: New Directions, 2004.

Kazan, Elia. Elia Kazan: A Life. New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1988.

Tynan, Kenneth. Tynan on Theatre. Baltimore: Pen-guin Books, 1961, p. 141.

The Mummers A small theater group that flour-ished in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, during the 1930s.Willard Holland, director of the Mummers, askedWilliams to write a brief sketch for his company.Williams wrote a 12-minute antimilitary play calledHeadlines. It was presented as a curtain raiser withIrwin Shaw’s Bury the Dead in 1936. Williams alsowrote a full-length play, CANDLES TO THE SUN, forthe Mummers. It was a powerful story about coalminers in Alabama.

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New Orleans, Louisiana Williams migrated toNew Orleans in 1938 in the hope of being recog-nized by the Federal Writers Project, a branch ofPresident Roosevelt’s New Deal during the depres-sion. In New Orleans, Williams finally found a cityin which he could live freely and without the suffo-catingly puritanical and depressing atmosphere ofSAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, his hometown. Williamsremarked, “It was a period of accumulation, I foundthe kind of freedom I had always needed, and theshock of it, against the Puritanism of my nature, hasgiven me a subject, a theme, which I have neverceased exploring” (Spoto, 68).

In New Orleans Williams was awakened to a dif-ferent way of living and viewing the world. Hefound the eccentric and the downtrodden, the oldaristocrats, as well as prostitutes and passerbysailors, living and enjoying the rich culture of theFrench Quarter. New Orleans provided fodder forhis writing and became a distinct setting for manyof his plays. His New Orleans literature includesVIEUX CARRÉ, “ANGEL IN THE ALCOVE,” AUTO-DA-FÉ, AND TELL SAD STORIES OF THE DEATH OF

QUEENS, LORD BYRON’S LOVE LETTER, and the mostfamous, A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.


Tennessee Williams. Boston, Little, Brown, 1985.

O’Neill, Eugene (1888–1953) Nobel and PulitzerPrize–winning American playwright. O’Neill is rec-

ognized as one of America’s greatest, and possiblyits most bleak and pessimistic, dramatists. His later,and most renowned, naturalistic dramas deal withthe inevitability of fate: The Iceman Cometh (1939),Long Day’s Journey into Night (1941), and A Moonfor the Misbegotten (1943). His other significantworks include Anna Christie (1920), Desire underthe Elms (1924), and Ah, Wilderness! (1933). Hewon the Pulitzer Prize four times and, in 1936, theNobel Prize in literature.

Williams and O’Neill share many characteris-tics in their style and subject matter. In additionthey also shared a remarkable coincidental experi-ence. In the spring of 1907, O’Neill attended a pro-duction of HENRIK IBSEN’s Hedda Gabler, with AllaNazimova playing the title role. According toO’Neill biographer Louis Sheaffer, the playwrightwas so taken by the production and Nazimova’sperformance that he saw the play 10 times. Ibsen’splay and Nazimova’s performance deeply movedand inspired O’Neill and guided his conception ofmodern theater. It was also Nazimova’s command-ing performance in Ibsen’s Ghosts at the AmericanTheatre in Saint Louis, in 1934, which so electri-fied and transfixed Williams as a youth that heknew immediately he had to write for the stage.

Further ReadingSheaffer, Louis, O’Neill: Son and Artist. Boston: Little,

Brown, 1973.Sheaffer, Louis. O’Neill: Son and Playwright. Boston:

Little, Brown, 1968.

Page, Geraldine (1924–1987) Prominent Ameri-can actor. Page is noted as one of the most success-ful interpreters of Williams’s female characters.Her first notable success was in the role of AlmaWinemiller in the 1951 Broadway production ofSUMMER AND SMOKE. Hers was considered bymany, including Williams himself, the definitiveportrayal of this character. Page is said to havebrought the character to life precisely as Williamshad envisioned her (Steen, 225). Page approachedthe role of Alma with the philosophy that beneathAlma’s extreme femininity and delicacy lie a “willof steel” (Steen, 240). Page re-created the role forfilm and was nominated for an Academy Award(Oscar) as Best Actress.

Page is also noted for her performance asPrincess Kosmonopolis (Alexandra Del Lago) inthe play SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH. She won the NewYork Drama Critics Award and was nominated forthe Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award and the SarahSiddons Award for her performance in the 1959Broadway production of Sweet Bird of Youth. Theproduction, which also featured Paul Newman asChance Wayne, ran for 375 performances. Pageand Newman re-created their roles for the filmversion of the play in 1962, and Page was againnominated for an Academy Award as Best Actress.

Ironically, Page’s first encounter with Williams’swork occurred when, as a young woman, she workedas an usher at the Civic Theatre of Chicago duringthe first, highly successful, run of THE GLASS

MENAGERIE in 1945. Page subsequently credited

LAURETTE TAYLOR’s performance as Amanda Wing-field in that production as the impetus that propelledher into a career on the stage. Williams describedGeraldine Page as “the most disciplined and dedi-cated of actresses, possibly the one fate will select asan American Duse” (Where I Live, 128–129).

P–R

Anna Magnani with Geraldine Page (right) backstageafter a performance of Sweet Bird of Youth, 1959 (WideWorld Photos, Inc.)

365

Further ReadingRoberts, Vera Mowry, and Mark Hall Amitin.

“Geraldine Page,” in Notable Women in the Ameri-can Theatre: A Biographical Dictionary, edited byAlice M. Robinson, Vera Mowry Roberts, andMilly S. Barranger. New York: Greenwood Press,1989, pp. 709–712.


Williams, Tennessee. Where I Live: Selected Essays,edited by Christine R. Day and Bob Woods. NewYork: New Directions, 1978.

Young, William C., ed. Famous Actors and Actresses onthe American Stage: Documents of American TheaterHistory. Vol 2. K–Z. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1975,pp. 901–909.

Pictorial Review Magazine A women’s maga-zine that Williams sold door-to-door in the summerof 1930, during the Great Depression. As were somany other salesmen during this difficult period,Williams was largely unsuccessful in his efforts. Hisexperience selling magazine subscriptions wasimmortalized in Amanda Wingfield’s efforts to sellThe Homemaker’s Companion to her friends in THE

GLASS MENAGERIE.

Pinter, Harold (1930– ) British dramatist, screen-writer, director, and actor. Harold Pinter is one of theleading dramatists of the THEATER OF THE ABSURD.His most noted works are The Birthday Party (1958),The Dumb Waiter (1959), and The Homecoming(1965). Williams once stated that he both admiredand envied Pinter. Their admiration was mutual andtheir literary concerns were quite similar. The worksof both Williams and Pinter expose the humanstruggle against victimization.

In 1981, the playwrights shared the honor of beingjoint recipients of the Commonwealth Award for“excellence and outstanding achievement in variousfields of human endeavour” (Billington, 301). In1985, Pinter directed SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH, whichfeatured Lauren Bacall as the aging Alexandra DeLago (Princess Kosmosnopolis), at the TheatreRoyal, Haymarket. Pinter’s work on Williams wasdriven not only by his admiration of Williams, butalso by his awareness of the sociopolitical dimension

of Williams’s work—a dimension Pinter believed was“largely ignored by British critics” (ibid.).

Further ReadingBillington, Michael. The Life and Work of Harold Pin-

ter. London: Faber and Faber, 1996.

plastic theatre A term Williams used to describehis unconventional theater aesthetic. In his prefaceto THE GLASS MENAGERIE, Williams explains thisconcept as the incorporation of many theatricalstyles such as EXPRESSIONISM and REALISM and theuse of different media and poetry to present thefullest artistic expression on the stage. Williamsdelighted in these unorthodox marriages, callingthe results “plastic” and their effect “closer to thetruth.” Although he considered realism a founda-tion for his work and often cited ANTON CHEKHOV

(a leading figure of the genre) as his primary influ-ence, this dramatic style was not always vividenough for his dramaturgy.

Ever experimenting with forms to create new andorganic art, Williams believed the conventionalforms of the U.S. theater ill represented a modernculture. In WILL MR. MERRIWETHER RETURN FROM

MEMPHIS?, Louise contemplates the theory of plasticspace in fine art by strategically composing a table ofobjects as a painting whose free space or plastic spaceis just as important as the objects that exist withinthe space. Richard E. Kramer suggests that Williamswas influenced by the artist Hans Hoffman, whocoined the term plastic space. The principles of plas-tic theater are also at work in such works as CAMINO

REAL and THIS IS THE PEACEABLE KINGDOM.

Further ReadingKramer, Richard E. “The Sculptural Drama: Ten-

nessee Williams’s Plastic Theatre,” The TennesseeWilliams Annual Review 5 (2002): 1–10.

Pollock, Jackson (1912–1956) American painter.Pollock was the leading figure of the abstract ex-pressionist movement (see EXPRESSIONISM). Pollockdeveloped an artistic technique in which he rhyth-mically “dripped” paint onto enormous horizontalcanvases. His physically active style of painting ledto the creation of the term action painting. Williamsfirst met Pollock while he was writing THE GLASS

366 Pictorial Review Magazine

MENAGERIE in Provincetown, Massachusetts, dur-ing the summer of 1944. In many ways the twowere kindred spirits: They shared a similar back-ground of disjointed childhoods, dramatic siblingrelationships, fluid sexuality, and chronic artisticfrustration. Williams and Pollock became closefriends and shared a playful association.

Williams greatly admired Pollock, an artist hebelieved was a heroic and self-destructive figure,who could “paint ecstasy as it could not be written”(Memoirs, 250). Williams commemorates Pollock inthe character of Mark Conley, the tormented artistat the center of the play IN THE BAR OF A TOKYO

HOTEL. Many scholars also contend that Pollock,who was often drunk and violent and had a turbu-lent relationship with his wife, Lee Krasner, mayhave served as the model for Stanley Kowalski in ASTREETCAR NAMED DESIRE.

Further ReadingNaifeh, Steven, and Gregory White Smith. Jackson

Pollock: An American Saga. New York: C. N. Pot-ter, 1988.

Ruas, Charles. Conversations with American Writers.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1985, pp. 75–90.


Redgrave, Vanessa (1937– ) British actress andpolitical activist. MARIA BRITNEVA, LADY ST. JUST,gave Redgrave a copy of one of Williams’s earliestworks, NOT ABOUT NIGHTINGALES. Redgrave was sotaken with the text that she prompted a major pro-duction of the work in London in 1998. Redgrave’sefforts sparked a revival of interest in the earlierworks of Williams. She is also noted for her portrayalof Lady Torrance in ORPHEUS DESCENDING.

Redgrave, Vanessa 367

St. Just, Maria Britneva, Lady (?–1994) Russian-born actress and close friend of Williams’s. Williamsand St. Just first met in London in 1948, at a partycelebrating the London production of THE GLASS

MENAGERIE. The two remained close friends untilWilliams’s death in 1983. They often traveledtogether, and even when they were not together, theycorresponded extensively. In fact, their relationship isrecorded in 35 years of letters. St. Just played BlancheDuBois in a 1955 revival of A STREETCAR NAMED

DESIRE. Williams loved her interpretation of thecharacter. He wrote to her, “I hope that you are stillplaying Blanche as well as you can with your wholeheart and complete understanding and no intrusiveannoyances from the management” (St. Just, 113).

Williams was a frequent guest at St. Just’s home,Wilbury Park, where he would relax and write.When Williams died, St. Just was devastated; sheclaimed never to have fully recovered from the lossof Williams. A cotrustee of his estate, St. Justguarded Williams’s unpublished writings and corre-spondence. She was known for her strident ferocityin protecting and maintaining Williams’s reputa-tion and for her strict control over access toWilliams’s published and unpublished works. Shealso championed unsuccessfully an attempt to pre-serve his home in KEY WEST, FLORIDA, as a historicsite. St. Just was said to have been the model forMaggie Pollitt in CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF.

Further ReadingSt. Just, Maria. Five O’Clock Angel: Letters of Tennessee

Williams to Maria St. Just 1948–1982. New York:Knopf, 1990.

Saint Louis, Missouri Williams spent 16 years ofhis life in Saint Louis (1918–29 and 1932–37). TheWilliams family moved there from Mississippi in1918, when Williams’s father, CORNELIUS COFFIN

WILLIAMS, accepted a position at the INTERNA-TIONAL SHOE COMPANY. The family lived in a board-inghouse on Lindell Street temporarily then settledin an apartment at 4633 Westminster Place.Williams recalled this location as a “perpetually dimlittle apartment in a wilderness of identical brickand concrete structures with no grass and no trees”(Cuoco and Gass 1951–69). It was a far cry from hisidyllic Southern childhood in rural Mississippi.

In this new locale he also became aware of thefact that there were “two kinds of people, the richand the poor, and that we belonged more to the lat-ter” (Cuoco and Gass 196). The building has sincebeen renamed the Glass Menagerie Apartments inWilliams’s honor. The family moved twice more,finally to a cramped apartment at 6254 EnrightAvenue. This tenement building is the model forthe Wingfield home in THE GLASS MENAGERIE.

Williams was educated at the Eugene Field Pub-lic School and Stix School. He attended highschool at Blewett School, Soldam High School,and University City High School and then enteredWashington University (1936–37). He also spentthree years at the University of Missouri at Colum-bia (1929–32).

Saint Louis also served as Williams’s trainingground as a dramatist. There he encounteredWilliard Holland and his theatre company, THE

MUMMERS. Williams described the troupe as a

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dynamic, if disorderly theater group that guided his“professional youth” (Cuoco and Gass 199). TheMummers produced Williams’s first theatrical effortsand encouraged his development as an artist.

Ultimately, however, Saint Louis would alwaysrepresent all the dreadful experiences of his life, suchas his parents’ marital strife, his sister’s mentalbreakdown, his frequently ailing health, his timespent at the International Shoe Company, and hisbrief hospitalization in Barnes Psychiatric Hospital.He maintained that Saint Louis was a cold, material-ist, “middle-American” sort of place that had no ves-tige of the romantic aura of the Deep South. Histime spent in Saint Louis was “the bitter education”that taught him about the “inequities of society,” thestarting point of the social consciousness that devel-oped as an inherent feature of Williams’s writing(Cuoco and Gass 197).

David Merrick, the theatrical producer and afriend of Williams’s, who shared his Saint Louisupbringing, recalled they “received no encourage-ment from the city” (Brown, 103). Against hiswishes and express directives in his will, Williamswas buried in Calvary Cemetery, in Saint Louis,beside his mother, EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS.

Many of Williams’s plays and fiction take placein and around Saint Louis, such as STOPPED ROCK-ING, ALL GAUL IS DIVIDED, A LOVELY SUNDAY FOR

CREVE COEUR, THE GLASS MENAGERIE, THE IMPOR-TANT THING, “THE FIELD OF BLUE CHILDREN,” andA PERFECT ANALYSIS GIVEN BY A PARROT.

Further ReadingBrown, Dennis. Shoptalk: Conversations about Theatre


Saint Louis, Missouri 369

Williams painting in the back garden of his Key West home, 1979 (Bill Viggiano)

370 the South and Williams

Cuoco, Lorin, and William Gass, eds. “TennesseeWilliams,” in Literary St. Louis: A Guide. St. Louis:Missouri Historical Society Press, 2000, pp. 194–202.

the South and Williams Williams proudlydescribed his ancestors as “pioneer Tennesseeans,”and he honored his forebears by claiming “Ten-nessee” as his nom de plume. Williams’s pride in hisSouthern heritage is also reflected in his writing.

He once explained:

Excuse me for writing mostly about my folks.My own life seems relatively prosaic. I left theSouth when I entered high school, but fre-quently returned, home being where you hangyour childhood . . . and Mississippi to me is thebeauty spot of creation, a dark, wide, spaciousland that you can breathe in. (Kozlenko, 174)

The “dark, wide, spacious land” of the AmericanSouth is prominently featured throughout Williams’sdramatic and fictive canon. His works illustrate hiscultural identification with and connection to thisregion. Born in northern Mississippi, raised thereand in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, Williams also cen-tered his life in the Southern cities NEW ORLEANS,LOUISIANA, and KEY WEST, FLORIDA.

The Southern landscapes that appear inWilliams’s works are invested with Williams’s deep-set affection and disdain for the region. In hisworks this part of the world is simultaneouslyrevered and reviled as “the beauty spot of creation”(ibid.) and as “dragon country, the country ofpain, . . . an uninhabitable country which is inhab-ited” (Williams, Tomorrow, 138). In numerous playsand short stories, Williams chronicles and depicts avividly dichotomous South.

The beauty of the South and its romantic,chivalric past are most often chronicled by Williamsthrough memory. The “Old South” is a stinginglonged-for dream and a genteel illusion that servesas an escape and a buffer for individuals unable tocope with their tragic realities, such as AmandaWingfield (in THE GLASS MENAGERIE) and BlancheDuBois (in A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE). By con-trast, the “new South” is depicted as an active land-scape, as opposed to a fantasy dreamscape. This

terrain is often a harsh wasteland rife with cruelty,isolation, bigotry, hatred, exploitation, brutality,and racial injustice. This view of the South isrevealed in such works as BABY DOLL, ORPHEUS

DESCENDING, THIS PROPERTY IS CONDEMNED, 27WAGONS FULL OF COTTON, SWEET BIRD OF YOUTH,SOMETHING UNSPOKEN, AT LIBERTY, and SUDDENLY

LAST SUMMER.It has been said that Williams’s appreciation of

this dichotomous tension in Southern culture wasthe key to his success. His ability to vividly (andoften brutally) convey Southern cultural myths andsimultaneously deconstruct these very same mythsis considered his greatest achievement as a writer.

Further ReadingWilliams, Tennessee. “Landscape with Figures: Two

Mississippi Plays,” in American Scenes, edited byWilliam Kozlenko. New York: John Day, 1941.

Stapleton, Maureen (1925– ) American actor.Maureen Stapleton is one of the premier inter-preters of Williams’s female characters. She hascompleted an impressive and successful range ofWilliams’s female roles, such as Serafina Delle Rosein THE ROSE TATTOO (1951), Flora Meighan in 27WAGONS FULL OF COTTON (1955), and Lady Tor-rance in ORPHEUS DESCENDING (1957).

In 1951, she won the Antoinette Perry (Tony)Best Supporting Actress Award for her perfor-mance as the passionate and complex SerafinaDelle Rose, and in 1969 she received a NationalInstitute of Arts and Letters Award. Stapleton wasone of Williams’s favorite performers, and he oftenwrote his plays with her in mind, specificallySTOPPED ROCKING (which is dedicated to her) andKINGDOM OF EARTH, OR THE SEVEN DESCENTS OF

MYRTLE. For Williams, Stapleton was a magnani-mous performer who possessed an extraordinarygift for characterization.

State University of Iowa Williams attended theUniversity of Iowa in 1937. He was drawn to theUniversity of Iowa, as he believed it had the bestwriting program in the country. At that time thetheater program was under the direction of Profes-

sor E. C. Mabie and Elsworth P. Conkle. (The StateUniversity of Iowa is now the University of Iowa.)Here, Williams was relieved of the familial feudsthat plagued his family in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI,

and he was free to embark seriously on his playwrit-ing. During his time at Iowa, Williams wrote NOT

ABOUT NIGHTINGALES and SPRING STORM andrevised the FUGITIVE KIND.

State University of Iowa 371

Maureen Stapleton as Serafina Delle Rose and Eli Wallach as Alvaro Mangiacavallo in the Broadway production ofThe Rose Tattoo, 1951 (George Karger)

Tandy, Jessica (1909–1994) British-born Americanactor. Tandy was one of the greatest actresses of the20th-century American stage. After seeing her asLucretia Collins in PORTRAIT OF A MADONNA in1946, Williams demanded that Tandy be given thelead female role in the production of his latest play,

A STREETCAR NAMED DESIRE. Her portrayal ofBlanche DuBois in the original Broadway produc-tion of Streetcar (1947) was praised overwhelminglyby critics. This role successfully launched Tandy toBroadway stardom, and she won an AntoinettePerry (Tony) Best Actress Award for her portrayal ofWilliams’s most famous female character. Despiteher remarkable success in the part, she was not cho-sen to play Blanche DuBois in the film version ofStreetcar. The role was given to VIVIEN LEIGH, whowas at the time a better-known star.

Taylor, Elizabeth (1932– ) Award-winning English-born American screen actor. Taylor rose to stardom inthe 1950s, after her success in National Velvet(1944), Little Women (1955), and Father of the Bride(1950). At the age of 15, Taylor was declared “themost beautiful woman in the world” (Sonneborn,213). Taylor contributed her remarkable talent andstriking good looks to her legendary performance ofMargaret Pollitt (“Maggie the Cat”) in the 1958 filmversion of CAT ON A HOT TIN ROOF and receivedher second Academy Award (Oscar) nomination forher portrayal of Williams’s sultry powerhouse.Williams considered Taylor to be one of the greatestcultural phenomena in America, and possibly the“finest raw talent on the Hollywood screen” (Where ILive, 131).

Further ReadingSonneborn, Liz. “Elizabeth Taylor,” in A to Z of Ameri-

can Women in the Performing Arts. New York: FactsOn File, 2002, pp. 212–214.

T

Jessica Tandy as Blanche DuBois in the Broadwayproduction of A Streetcar Named Desire, 1947(Eileen Darby)

372

Williams, Tennessee. “Five Fiery Ladies,” in Where ILive: Selected Essays, edited by Christine R. Dayand Bob Woods. New York: New Directions, 1978,pp. 127–132.

Taylor, Laurette Cooney (1884–1946) Americanactor. Taylor originated the character of AmandaWingfield in THE GLASS MENAGERIE for the play’sChicago premiere in 1944 and on its subsequentrun on Broadway in 1945. Taylor’s performancebecame legendary and a benchmark for subsequentperformers of the role, including Helen Hayes(1956), MAUREEN STAPLETON (1965), and JESSICA

TANDY (1983).Her portrayal of the faded Southern matriarch

was considered her greatest acting success and wasalso her triumphant return to the stage after a con-siderable absence following the death of her hus-band, J. Hartley Manners, in 1927. She was sogrief-stricken by his death that she withdrew fromthe stage. Taylor was in her 60s and a confirmed

alcoholic when Williams’s play reached her. Sheimmediately refused the part, believing her illustri-ous career had ended, but was prevailed upon toaccept it.

Rehearsals for The Glass Menagerie were plaguedby Taylor’s drinking and her reluctance to learn herlines. However, when the production opened inDecember 1944, Taylor was at the height of herpowers and on her way to “creating a legend”(Spoto, 111). Taylor’s portrayal of Amanda Wing-field was voted “best performance” of 1945 by thereaders of Variety magazine. Perhaps the highestpraise for Taylor’s performance was that byWilliams’s mother, EDWINA DAKIN WILLIAMS, theprototype for Amanda Wingfield. Mrs. Williamsgreatly enjoyed Taylor’s performance and declaredher “a real genius” (Brown, 116). Mrs. Williamsadmired Laurette Taylor’s skill for “adequately cap-turing the pathos” (Brown, 116) of the characterand she proclaimed her the definitive AmandaWingfield.



Kullman, Colby H. “Laurette Cooney Taylor,” inNotable Women in the American Theatre: A Bio-graphical Dictionary, edited by Alice M. Robinson,Vera Mowry Roberts, and Milly S. Barranger NewYork: Greenwood Press, 1989, pp. 857–861.


Young, William C., ed. Famous Actors and Actresses onthe American Stage: Documents of American TheaterHistory, Vol 2. K–Z. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1975,pp. 1,041–1,053.

theater of the absurd A term coined by MartinEsslin to describe a group of dramatic works thatstrive to expose the absurdity of the human condi-tion. Dramas of this kind present a view of humanperplexity and spiritual anguish through a series ofconnected incidents and patterns of images thatpresent human beings as “bewildered beings in anincomprehensible universe” (Harmon, 2). These

theater of the absurd 373

Elizabeth Taylor as “Maggie the Cat” in the film versionof Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (MGM, 1958)

plays are generally devoid of a realistic plot or lin-ear time frame, while also possessing a dreamlike ornightmarish quality; they often contain languagethat consists of “incoherent babblings” and strik-ingly unusual characters who can be perceived as“mechanical puppets” (Esslin, 21–22).

Eugene lonesco’s play The Bald Soprano (1950)is considered by many to be the first genuine exam-ple of absurdist drama. The best-known work ofthis school of thought is Samuel Beckett’s Waitingfor Godot (1955). Other absurdist playwrights whoflourished in Europe and the United States in the1950s and 1960s include HAROLD PINTER and JeanGenet. Although Williams is not widely acknowl-edged as a principal writer within this genre, many

of his dramatic works—particularly those of his lateperiod—exhibit absurdist qualities or undeniablypossess an absurdist aesthetic. Thematically, all ofWilliams’s dramatic works exude the fundamen-tally absurdist philosophy that human beings arevery often creatures living in “meaningless isolationin an alien environment” (Harmon, 2).

Further ReadingEsslin, Martin, Theatre of the Absurd. London: Pen-

guin Books, 1961.Harman, William, and C. Hugh Holman, eds. A


374 theater of the absurd

University of Missouri Williams attended theUniversity of Missouri at Columbia between theyears 1929 and 1932. At the university, the Dra-matic Arts Club produced his then-controversialone-act play BEAUTY IS THE WORD. The play centerson a missionary and his family who live among thenatives of the South Pacific. The scandalous aspectof the play occurs when the missionary’s daughtersays that fear and God are dichotomous ideas; herGod is one of beauty. Williams also became knownfor his short story, “THE LADY’S BEADED BAG,” pub-lished in the college magazine. When Williams failedReserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) for thethird time, his father, CORNELIUS WILLIAMS, forcedhim to quit school and take a clerical position at theINTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY.

Vidal, Gore (1925– ) novelist, playwright, essay-ist, literary associate and friend of Williams’s. Hismajor works include The City and the Pillar (1948),The Judgment of Paris (1953), and United States(1993). Williams met Vidal in Rome, Italy, in 1948,

shortly after Vidal had achieved fame for his secondnovel The City and the Pillar, which was one of thefirst national best-sellers to feature an openly gaymain character. Vidal wrote the introduction toCollected Stories, an anthology of Williams’s shortstories, published in 1985, two years afterWilliams’s death. Vidal’s essay is a remarkable pieceof literary and social criticism of Williams’s life andart. In it he states:

[Williams] is not a great short story writer likeChekhov but he has something rather more rarethan mere genius. He has a narrative tone ofvoice that is totally compelling. The only otherAmerican writer to have this gift was MarkTwain . . . you cannot stop listening to either ofthese tellers no matter how tall or wild their tales.

Further ReadingVidal, Gore. “Introduction,” in Tennessee Williams:

Collected Stories. New York: New Directions, 1985,pp. xix–xxv.

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Washington University During the years1936–37, Williams made his mark as a buddingpoet and aspiring playwright at Washington Uni-versity, in SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI. As members of aliterary circle called the Saint Louis Poets Work-shop, Williams and his peers sent out poetry topublishers, and Williams was by far the most suc-cessful. Seven of his poems were published in Col-lege Verse, four in Poetry, and nine in The Eliot.During this time, Williams was also awarded firstplace in a one-act play competition for THE MAGIC

TOWER, and he ferociously studied works by AugustStrindberg, ANTON CHEKHOV, and his favorite poet,Hart Crane (later to appear as a character inWilliams’s play STEPS MUST BE GENTLE). WhenWilliams submitted ME, VASHYA! to a college com-petition and did not win, he furiously withdrewfrom Washington University and transferred toIOWA STATE UNIVERSITY.

Webster, Margaret (1905–1972) British-born Amer-ican director. Renowned for her notable and pro-vocative productions of Shakespeare’s plays inAmerica, Margaret Webster directed the premiereproduction of BATTLE OF ANGELS, Williams’s firstprofessional produced work, for the Theatre Guildin 1940. Although the production was a profes-sional disaster, Webster was captivated by the playand the talent of its young playwright. To Webster,Williams’s drama featured an extraordinary dram-aturgy, which possessed “naturalistic dialoguepenetrated with poetic diction, the clashing of

impassioned central characters, a pervasive senseof humor, and remarkable technical innovations”(Barranger, 112).

Further ReadingBarranger, Milly S. Margaret Webster: A Life in the The-

atre. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,2004).

Williams, Cornelius Coffin (1879–1957) Cor-nelius Coffin Williams was born in Knoxville, Ten-nessee, to an old Tennessee family. His father wasThomas Lanier Williams, who traced his lineage toFrench Huguenots; his mother, Isabel Coffin, wasdescended from colonists who settled Virginia.Cornelius had two older sisters, Ella and Isabel. Hismother died of tuberculosis in 1884, when he wasfive years old.

He attended Rogersville Synodical College andlater Bell Buckle Military Academy, from whichhe was dismissed. After two years of law studies atthe University of Tennessee, he volunteered toserve in the Spanish-American War, during whichhe acquired a taste for drinking, gambling, andwomen. He was demobilized as an officer and ini-tially worked in a paralegal position for the tele-phone company in Memphis after the war. On June3, 1907, he married EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN

(WILLIAMS) at her father’s church in Columbus,Mississippi. The first 18 months of their marriagewas spent in Gulfport, Mississippi. His wifereturned to her paternal home, and he visited herregularly there. By 1910 his lifestyle, specifically his

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drinking and gambling, became a topic of publicinterest in Columbus.

In early summer 1918 he obtained a managerialposition with the Friedman-Shelby branch of theINTERNATIONAL SHOE COMPANY in SAINT LOUIS,MISSOURI, and moved his family there in July 1918.Although known and respected among his peers asa shrewd businessman, he began to behave irre-sponsibly and violently in the domestic sphere. Hehad little interest in his two elder children, ROSE

ISABEL WILLIAMS and Thomas Lanier (Tennessee)Williams, and often called Tom “Miss Nancy,” asthe boy preferred reading or writing to sports. Hisyoungest son, WALTER DAKIN WILLIAMS, clearly hisfavorite, was the only one of his children to whomhe related. He spent hours listening to sportsevents on the radio with Dakin. His obvious disap-pointment in his “unmanly” son was confirmedwhen Tom failed Reserve Officers Training Corps(ROTC) in 1935. Cornelius reacted by taking hisson out of college and getting him a job at Interna-tional Shoe, which Tom resented to the point ofhaving a nervous breakdown. In 1946 Corneliusretired from the shoe business, with nothing to dobut drink and gamble and make life a misery for hiswife and despised father-in-law, REVEREND WALTER

EDWIN DAKIN, whom he referred to as “the Par-son,” who had by this time joined them at ArundelPlace in Saint Louis.

When Cornelius returned home from the hospi-tal, where he had been admitted after a drunkenspree, his wife refused to see him; shortly thereaftershe divorced him. In an act of surprising generosity,he gave Edwina the house at Arundel Place as wellas half his stock in International Shoe, although theroyalties she received from her son’s highly success-ful play THE GLASS MENAGERIE (1945) had made herindependently wealthy. Cornelius initially lived withhis sister, Ella, in Knoxville and then moved into anapartment hotel. Eventually he met a widow fromToledo, Ohio, who became his drinking partner andconstant companion until his death in 1957.

Williams, Edwina Estelle Dakin Edwina EstelleDakin was born August 19, 1884, in Marysville,Ohio. She was the only child of REVEREND WALTER

EDWIN DAKIN and ROSINA ISABEL OTTE DAKIN.

From 1897 she attended Harcourt Place Seminary,Gambier, Ohio. Academic activities, however, tooksecond place to the school chorus, dances, andlocal parties, not to mention her male admirers atKenyon College, the local military academy, andthe theological school. Between 1901 and 1905Edwina records no fewer than 45 beaux in herdiary. Although she nursed a secret ambition tobecome an actress, her most successful perfor-mance was that of a quintessential Southern belle.

In 1906, while appearing in an amateur produc-tion of The Mikado in Columbus, she met CORNELIUS

COFFIN WILLIAMS, whom she married on June 3,1907, at her father’s church. The couple moved toGulfport, Mississippi, and the 18 months they spentthere were possibly the happiest of their marriage.Pregnant with her first child, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS,Edwina returned to her parental home in 1909 andstayed there for the next nine years, regularly visitedby Cornelius. In 1910 she became pregnant withtheir second child, Thomas Lanier (Tennessee)Williams, who was born March 23, 1911.

Williams, Edwina Estelle Dakin 377

Edwina Dakin Williams with her children, Rose andTom (George Freedley)

Beautiful, strong-willed, and ambitious, Edwinashowed very little talent or inclination for house-keeping duties, but she devoted part of each day toher children, reciting old ballads and acting outfolk tales for them. When Tom had a near-fatalbout of diphtheria in 1916 she cared for himaround the clock. The lasting psychological effectof this illness was a deep emotional attachmentbetween mother and son. The idyll ended whenCornelius took his family to Saint Louis in 1918.Edwina became pregnant for the third time, andconstant financial constraints forced a massivechange in her life. Her quest for Southern gentilitywas sublimated in an unending hunt for better liv-ing accommodations that forced numerous moveswithin Saint Louis. The birth of WALTER DAKIN

WILLIAMS on February 21, 1919, sparked a string ofillnesses, culminating in the miscarriage of herfourth child in 1921 and incipient tuberculosis.

Edwina and Cornelius spent two weeks on theWest Coast in the hope of warding off the disease.The trip was financed by Paul Jamison, Cornelius’semployer, who was clearly attracted to Edwina,although their relationship remained platonic. Hermarital relationship, however, deteriorated from icypoliteness to open hostility, with incidents of physi-cal abuse. Despite this, Edwina attempted toencourage Tom’s writing and increasingly presenteda cheerful front to protect her children from theeffects of the family situation. This was not enoughto prevent Rose’s increasingly apparent mental ill-ness. Rose was hospitalized repeatedly and for longperiods, and in 1943 Edwina gave consent for herdaughter to have a prefrontal lobotomy. Althoughhe never forgave his mother for this decision, in1946 Williams signed over to her half of his royal-ties for THE GLASS MENAGERIE, the play that sheinspired. Financially independent at last, she sepa-rated from her abusive husband but continued tolive at Arundel Place in Saint Louis.

With the assistance of Lucy Freeman, Edwinawrote her memoir, Remember Me to Tom, in 1963.Her mental state began to deteriorate, and from theearly 1970s onward she was increasingly disorientedand entered a nursing home. When she died in1980, Williams refused to accept his brother’s tele-phone call notifying him of her death. However, he

imported 2,000 English violets—Edwina’s favoriteflower—to cover her coffin, thus commemorating arelationship characterized by love and resentment.

In addition to Amanda Wingfield in The GlassMenagerie, Edwina Dakin Williams is mirrored insuch characters as Grace Hart Crane in STEPS MUST

BE GENTLE, Violet Venable in SUDDENLY LAST SUM-MER, and Sally McCool in the short story “COM-PLETED.” Edwina is said to have greatly enjoyed herstage persona Amanda Wingfield, and she particu-larly favored LAURETTE TAYLOR’s interpretation ofthe part. She considered Taylor “a real genius,” whoadequately captured the “pathos” of the character(Brown, 116). Alma Winemiller in SUMMER AND

SMOKE was also fashioned after Edwina and is saidto have been her favorite of all her son’s characters,in her favorite of his plays. Edwina Dakin Williamswas exceedingly proud of her internationally suc-cessful son. She once declared, “I’m just like anyother mother who thinks her son is of course agenius always” (Brown, 118).



Williams, Edwina Dakin, with Lucy Freeman. Remem-ber Me to Tom. New York: Putnam, 1963.

Williams, Rose Isabel (1909–1996) Rose IsabelWilliams was the first child of CORNELIUS COFFIN

WILLIAMS and EDWINA ESTELLE DAKIN WILLIAMS.She was born November 17, 1909, in Columbus,Mississippi. Rose spent her early years under the careof her maternal grandmother, ROSINA OTTE DAKIN,who was known as “Grand.” A highly imaginativechild, she enjoyed with her brother, Thomas Lanier(Tennessee) Williams, or Tom, a sheltered upbring-ing as the minister’s granddaughter. The family’smove from this idyllic locale to the industrial innercity of SAINT LOUIS, MISSOURI, in July 1918 was dev-astating for Rose. She began absenting herself fromschool, sitting in the dark, and waiting for Tom toreturn home. Her father’s drunken volatility becameextremely unsettling for her, and she increasinglyidentified with her mother, Edwina, during her long

378 Williams, Rose Isabel

Williams, Walter Dakin 379

period of illness at this time. In an attempt to takeRose’s mind off the family situation, Edwinaarranged for her to take violin lessons, which werefinanced by Grand, an experiment which endedwhen Rose froze with terror at the Costume ViolinRecital in 1922. (This incident is chronicled in theshort story “THE RESEMBLANCE BETWEEN A VIOLIN

CASE AND A COFFIN.”)Her time as a student at Soldan High School also

produced a failure, and she left the school perma-nently during the first quarter of 1924. Subse-quently, she attended Hosmer Hall, a private juniorhigh, and, when Edwina could no longer cope withher rebellious and erratic behavior, she was sent tothe All Saints Episcopal junior college in Vicksburg,Mississippi. Upon her return to Saint Louis she wasenrolled in Rubicam’s Business College to learn ste-nography. Unable to cope with the workload andunsympathetic teachers, she again missed class andeventually quit. She then attempted two brief sub-sequent stints of employment, which also did notlast. By this time, 1926, she was suffering increas-ingly from psychosomatic gastric trouble, a condi-tion her mother sought to remedy by a combinationof church visits and gentleman callers. Alternatingbetween sexual ravings and a withdrawal thatestranged her even from her brother Tom, she wasfinally confined to a private sanatorium in 1929.

During the early 1930s her mental state declinedconsistently, and the psychological counseling shereceived in 1936 did little to halt the process. Aftershe alleged that Cornelius had sexually abused her,she was admitted to a state asylum in Farmington,diagnosed with schizophrenia, and given electricshock therapy treatments in the summer of 1937.She remained at Farmington, where six years later,with her mother’s consent, she received a prefrontallobotomy that left her practically autistic and inneed of permanent institutionalization. Her brotherTom was not informed of the procedure until after-ward and alternately blamed his mother and himselffor not preventing the surgery. Racked with guiltand constantly afraid that the specter of mental ill-ness would affect him, he did not visit Rose untilNovember 1948.

In 1951, Williams had his sister transferred toStony Lodge in Ossining, New York, and continued

to visit her frequently, taking her out for trips andshopping excursions. His attempt to move her outof Ossining altogether in 1979 failed, but he didsuccessfully move her into a private residence inKEY WEST, FLORIDA, for a short time. He engagedone of their cousins as her companion, but thearrangement lasted for less than a year, and Rosereturned to Stony Lodge. Rose Williams died onSeptember 4, 1996, having outlived Tom by 13years. She was buried beside him in the CalvaryCemetery in Saint Louis, and her headstone reads:“Blow out your candles, Laura.”

Many of Williams’s female characters were cre-ated in homage to his fragile and much-belovedsister Rose, such as Rosemary McCool in “COM-PLETED,” Sister in “Resemblance between a ViolinCase and a Coffin,” and Laura Wingfield in “POR-TRAIT OF A GIRL IN GLASS” and THE GLASS

MENAGERIE. Roses, in many forms (rose bushes, rosepetals, and rose oil), repeatedly serve as symbols oflove, beauty, and grace throughout Williams’s work,as in THE ROSE TATTOO, SOMETHING UNSPOKEN,and THE LONG STAY CUT SHORT, OR THE UNSATIS-FACTORY SUPPER.

Williams, Walter Dakin (1919– ) Walter DakinWilliams was born February 21, 1919, in SAINT

LOUIS, MISSOURI. He was the third child of COR-NELIUS COFFIN WILLIAMS and EDWINA ESTELLE

DAKIN WILLIAMS, and the only one to whom hisfather was able to relate. Consistently good atschoolwork and interested in sports, he clearly wasthe son Cornelius always wanted. Dakin graduatedfrom high school third in his class and went on tocollege, where, unlike his brother, Thomas Lanier(Tennessee) Williams, or Tom, he did not failReserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC). Dakinstudied law at WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY and grad-uated in April 1942. He continued his studies atHarvard University, where he studied businessadministration as part of his officer training.Drafted into the army as a noncommissioned offi-cer, Dakin was dispatched to duty in the Pacific in1943 and to Asia in 1944.

During his time in the armed forces, Dakin con-verted to Catholicism. After his demobilization he

became a legal adviser to his family. In this capacity,he drafted his parents’ separation agreement andadministered the trust fund Tom established for theirsister, ROSE ISABEL WILLIAMS (based on half the roy-alties from his brother’s play SUMMER AND SMOKE) in1948. Together with AUDREY WOOD, Dakin man-aged the legal and financial aspects of his brother’scareer. In 1968, he persuaded his brother to convertto Catholicism, hoping to cure his chemical depend-ency. Dakin continued to care for his brother and, in1969, after a near-fatal incident, had him hospital-ized for his chemical addiction. During his with-drawal period, Williams suffered three grand malseizures and nearly died. As a result, he never for-gave Dakin for the enforced hospitalization and per-manently removed him from his will.

Windham, Donald (1920– ) U.S. novelist, mem-oirist, editor, and longtime friend of Williams’s. Wind-ham is best known for such works as Dog Star (1950),The Hero Continues (1960), The Warm Country(1962), Emblems of Conduct (1963), TennesseeWilliams’s Letters to Donald Windham 1940–1965

(1976), and Lost Friendships: A Memoir of TrumanCapote, Tennessee Williams, and Others (1987). Wind-ham and Williams met in January 1940. Windhamhad recently arrived in New York City from Atlanta,Georgia, with his companion, Fred Melton. Wind-ham and Williams were both youthfully optimisticabout the future. Whereas Windham and Meltonwere struggling to survive and Windham’s literaryaspirations were still dreams, Williams’s career hadalready become promising and somewhat financiallyfruitful. He had been awarded a Rockefeller Founda-tion fellowship of $1,000, and THE GROUP THEATRE

prize of $100 for his collection AMERICAN BLUES.While Windham and Melton secured temporary oddjobs to pay the rent, Williams traveled and exploredand wrote many letters to his newly established fam-ily of choice, Windham, Melton, and others.

Williams and Windham collaborated in 1942 tocreate the play YOU TOUCHED ME!, an adaptationof D. H. LAWRENCE’s short story of that title. WhenYou Touched Me! was produced on Broadway in1945, it was brutally and unfavorably compared toWilliams’s most recent success, THE GLASS MENAG-

380 Windham, Donald

Williams and Donald Windham, in Times Square, New York City, early 1940s (Photograph courtesy of the Billy RoseTheatre Collection, New York Public Library)

ERIE. Although this close friendship would becomestrained and distant over the years, Windhamremained fascinated by, and in many ways enam-ored of, Williams’s vulnerability, genius, and whathe called his “mysteriousness.” This is evident inWindham’s book Tennessee Williams’s Letters to Don-ald Windham 1940–1965. Windham wrote in theintroduction, “A great deal of my life would havebeen different if Tennessee and I had not knowneach other. He remains the rarest, the most intoxi-cating, the most memorable flower that has blos-somed in my garden of good and evil.”

Further ReadingKellner, Bruce. Donald Windham: A Bio-Bibliography.

Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1991.Leverich, Lyle. Tom: The Unknown Tennessee Williams.

New York: Crown, 1995.Windham, Donald. Lost Friendships: A Memoir of Tru-

man Capote, Tennessee Williams, and Others. NewYork: William Morrow, 1987.

———. Tennessee Williams’s Letters to Donald Wind-ham 1940–1965. New York: Penguin Books, 1976.

Wood, Audrey (1905–1985) Leading literary andtalent agent in American theater during the 20th cen-tury. Wood was introduced to Williams throughTHE GROUP THEATRE founder, Molly Day Thacher,in 1939. After reading the one-act play collectionAMERICAN BLUES, Wood became not only his agent,but his caretaker and protector. Williams relied onWoods for emotional and financial support duringtimes of crisis. This close and famous relationshipwould last more than 30 years, spanning Williams’syears of commercial success.

In 1971, after many failures at the box office andthe death of his long-term partner, FRANK MERLO,Williams experienced severe depression coupled withexcessive chemical dependency. In this destructiveperiod in his life, Williams became extremely fearfuland angry. He focused his aggression on Wood, andhe “turned on her the way one can turn on a parent”(Spoto, 330), accusing her of neglecting his workand blaming her for the decline in his career. Thiswas the episode that finally ended their professionaland personal relationship. Later Williams wouldwrite in MEMOIRS:

To me she was much like a family member onwhom I was particularly dependent. . . . Perhapsif my feelings for her had been limited to profes-sional ones, I would not have been so disturbedand finally so outraged when her concern forme—once so great and sincere . . . appeared toebb, so that I found myself alone as a child lostor an old dog abandoned. (229)

Williams would continue to praise Wood as anoutstanding theater professional. Neither Wood norWilliams ever recovered from the loss of this rela-tionship, which has been described as “one of themost lengthy, loving and finally tragic creative rela-tionships in American theatre history” (Spoto, 81).



Williams, Tennessee. Memoirs. New York: Doubleday,1975.

Works Progress Administration Federal Writ-ers’ Project Federal government program underthe Works Progress Administration (WPA) to pro-vide gainful employment for out-of-work writersduring the Great Depression. Early in his careerWilliams attempted to secure a place in the WPAFederal Writers’ Project but was unsuccessfulbecause the project administrators felt that hiswork lacked significant social and political content.Also, Williams could not prove that his family wasdestitute. He recalled that he had “a touch ofrefinement in my social behavior which made meseem frivolous and decadent to the conscientiouslyrough-hewn pillars of the Chicago Project” (81).Williams refers to his experience with the Writers’Project in his essay “The Past, the Present and thePerhaps,” which serves as the preface to ORPHEUS

DESCENDING. Also, in VIEUX CARRÉ, the Writerdescribes the experience to his landlady, Mrs. Wire,when she threatens him with eviction.

Further ReadingWilliams, Tennessee. “The Past, the Present and the

Perhaps,” in Where I Live: Selected Essays, edited byChristine R. Day and Bob Woods. New York: NewDirections, 1978, pp. 81–88.

Works Progress Administration Federal Writers’ Project 381

1911March 26, Thomas Lanier Williams (TennesseeWilliams) is born to Cornelius Coffin and EdwinaDakin Williams in Columbus, Mississippi.

1918The Williams family moves to Saint Louis,Missouri.

1927Williams’s first published work, “Can a Good WifeBe a Good Sport?” (essay), appears in Smart Setmagazine.

1928Short story “The Vengeance of Nitocris” is pub-lished in Weird Tales.

1929Williams attends the University of Missouri atColumbia.

1931Williams’s father forces him to withdraw from col-lege and take a job with him at the InternationalShoe Company.

1935July 13, Cairo! Shanghai! Bombay! is produced inMemphis, Tennessee.

1936Williams enrolls in Washington University, SaintLouis, Missouri. The Magic Tower and Headlines areproduced.

1937Candles to the Sun is produced in Saint Louis.Williams leaves Washington University to attendthe University of Iowa, Iowa City. His sister, RoseWilliams, has a prefrontal lobotomy. The FugitiveKind is produced in Saint Louis.

1938Williams graduates from the University of Iowa. Hesubmits four short plays, Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry, TheDark Room, Case of the Crushed Petunias, and TheLong Stay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Supper,(which together with Ten Blocks on the Camino Realmake up the collection American Blues), to a playcontest sponsored by The Group Theatre, NewYork City.

1939Williams is awarded $100 for American Blues.Audrey Wood becomes his agent. Not AboutNightingales is produced in Saint Louis. “The Fieldof Blue Children” is published in Story magazine;this is the first time his work appears under thename Tennessee Williams. He receives aRockefeller Foundation grant of $1,000 andmoves to New York City. He lives a vagabond life,traveling and writing.

1940The Long Goodbye is staged in New York City. Battleof Angels is produced in Boston.

1941Battle of Angels closes after a disastrous run.

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1942This Property Is Condemned is produced in New YorkCity.

1943Williams signs a six-month contract as a screen-writer with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He writes TheGentleman Caller, the prototype for The GlassMenagerie. You Touched Me! (collaboration withDonald Windham) opens in Cleveland, Ohio.

1944The Purification is produced in Pasadena, California,in July. The Glass Menagerie opens in Chicago onDecember 26.

1945Stairs to the Roof is produced in Pasadena,California, on March 25. The Glass Menagerie opensin New York City to critical acclaim and earnsWilliams a New York Critics Circle Award. YouTouched Me! opens in New York City.

1947Williams meets Frank Merlo, who becomes hispartner for the next 16 years. A Streetcar NamedDesire opens in New York City.

1948One Arm is published on July 28, and The GlassMenagerie opens in London.

1949A Streetcar Named Desire is produced in London.

1950The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone is published, andthe film of The Glass Menagerie is released. The RoseTattoo opens in Chicago on February 3.

1951The Rose Tattoo opens in New York City and earnsWilliams a Tony Award. The film of A StreetcarNamed Desire is released.

1952The film A Streetcar Named Desire film wins a NewYork Film Critics Award. On April 24, Summer andSmoke opens in New York City.

1953In the Winter of Cities is published. Camino Realopens in New York.

1954Hard Candy is published.

1955Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opens in New York City onMarch 24. It wins a Pulitzer Prize and DramaCritics Circle Award. The film of The Rose Tattoois released.

1956Baby Doll, the screenplay that fuses two one-actplays, 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and The Long StayCut Short, is released and instantly blacklisted bythe Catholic Church.

1957Orpheus Descending opens in New York on April 8.Camino Real is produced in London.

1958Cat on a Hot Tin Roof opens in London on January30. Garden District opens in New York and London.The film Cat on a Hot Tin Roof is released.

1959The Rose Tattoo is produced in London on January15. Sweet Bird of Youth opens in New York on April14. I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix is produced inNew York. Orpheus Descending is produced inLondon on May 14. The film Suddenly Last Summeris released.

1960Period of Adjustment opens in New York onNovember 10. The Fugitive Kind (the film ofOrpheus Descending) is released.


1961The Night of the Iguana is produced in New York onDecember 29. The films of Summer and Smoke andThe Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone are released.

1962The Night of the Iguana wins the New York CriticsCircle Drama Award. Period of Adjustmentbecomes Williams’s first British hit on June 13.The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore pre-mieres at the Spoleto Festival, Italy. The film ver-sions of Sweet Bird of Youth and Period ofAdjustment are released.

1963Remember Me to Tom, by Williams’s mother, EdwinaWilliams, is published. The Milk Train Doesn’t StopHere Anymore is produced in New York on January16. Frank Merlo dies.

1964The film The Night of the Iguana is released.

1965The Night of the Iguana is produced in London andwins the London Critics Award for Best ForeignPlay.

1966The Knightly Quest is published on February 22.Slapstick Tragedy opens in New York City. The filmof This Property Is Condemned is released.

1967The Two Character Play premieres in London.

1968Kingdom of Earth (also entitled The Seven Descentsof Myrtle) opens in New York. Sweet Bird of Youthand The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore areproduced in England. BOOM! (film version of MilkTrain) is released.

1969Williams is baptized in the Roman CatholicChurch. In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel opens in New

York. Williams is committed for three months to apsychiatric hospital. The Last of the Mobile HotShots (film version of Kingdom of Earth) is released.Williams is awarded a doctorate in humanities bythe University of Missouri and the Gold Medal forDrama by the American Academy of Arts andLetters.

1971Confessional is produced in Maine. Out Cry (revisedversion of The Two Character Play) opens inChicago. Williams fires Audrey Wood, his agent ofmore than 30 years.

1972Small Craft Warnings opens in New York in April.Williams wins the National Theatre ConferenceAnnual Award, and the University of Hartfordawards him a doctorate in humanities.

1973Small Craft Warnings opens in London. Out Cryopens in New York on March 1.

1974Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed is published. Williamsis awarded the Medal of Honor for Literature by theNational Arts Club and the Entertainment Hall ofFame Award.

1975Moise and the World of Reason and Memoirs arepublished.

1976The Red Devil Battery Sign opens in Boston and clos-es after 10 days. Eccentricities of a Nightingale (rewrit-ten version of Summer and Smoke) opens in NewYork. Androgyne, Mon Amour is published.

1977The Demolition Downtown is produced in London.Vieux Carré is produced in New York. The RedDevil Battery Sign is produced in London.Tennessee Williams Performing Arts Center isdedicated at the Florida Keys Community College,Key West.

Chronology of Life and Works 385

1978Kingdom of Earth and Vieux Carré are produced inLondon. Tiger Tail (stage version of Baby Doll) isproduced in Atlanta.

1979Creve Coeur has a New York premiere.

1980Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? is pro-duced at the Tennessee Williams Performing ArtsCenter on January 25. Clothes for a Summer Hotelopens in Chicago.

1981Something Cloudy, Something Clear is produced inNew York.

1982A House Not Meant to Stand is produced in Chicago.Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws is commissioned byNew World Festival of the Arts. It Happened the Daythe Sun Rose is published.

1983On February 24, Williams is found dead in his roomat the Hotel Elysée, New York City.


Columbia University LibraryButler Library, 6th Floor East535 West 114th StreetNew York, NY 10027212/854-5153www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/

This collection includes the personal archive fromTennessee Williams’s Key West home: letters,manuscripts, typescripts, annotated books, photo-graphs and ephemera documenting the final yearsof Williams’s life, as well as 66 miscellaneouspieces of artwork, among them paintings by theplaywright and his sister, Rose. Correspondence inthe Key West collection includes letters from PaulBowles, Marlon Brando, and Carson McCullers,as well as postcards and notes from fans, agents,and editors.

Items from Williams’s personal library includehis copies of Kafka’s diaries, Hart Crane’s CollectedPoems, the plays of Pirandello, and Rilke’s DuinoElegies, all with extensive notes and dialogue on theendpapers and flyleaves. His copies of IreneNemirovky’s Life of Chekhov (1950) and an editionof Chekhov, The Personal Papers (1948), includepages of handwritten notes and poetry. Othermarked and annotated works include Edith Hamil-ton’s The Greek Way (1953), Beverly Nichols’s All ICould Never Be (1952), novels by Faulkner andErnest Hemingway, and Santayana’s Character andOpinion in the United States.

Billy Rose Theatre Collection at the New YorkPublic Library for the Performing Arts

40 Lincoln Center PlazaNew York, NY 10023212/870-1639www.nypl.org/research/lpa/

The Billy Rose Theatre Collection includes anextensive photograph collection, including portraitsof Williams and various production photographs.The collection also includes newspaper clippings ofproduction reviews, programs, and playbills.

Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center atthe University of Texas at Austin

21st and GuadalupeP.O. Box 7219Austin, TX 78713512/471-8944www.hrc.utexas.edu

The extensive collection at the Ransom Centerincludes paintings, drawings, and prints by andrelated to Tennessee Williams. The collection isorganized into works by Tennessee Williams, por-traits of Williams by other artists, and works relatedto Williams.

The collection also includes numerous draftsand copies of Williams’s literary works, includingtheatrical and radio plays, television and motionpicture scripts, short stories, poetry, anthologies,

FESTIVALS, INTERNET RESOURCES, AND IMPORTANT LIBRARIES FOR

RESEARCH ON WILLIAMS

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reviews, journalistic essays, personal journals,notes, and academic assignments. Also present arenewspaper clippings, photographs, and correspon-dence (including letters, telegrams, postcards, andChristmas cards).

University of Delaware LibraryNewark, DE 19717302/831-2229www.lib.udel.edu

The Tennessee Williams Collection, spanning theyears 1939 through 1994, includes correspondence,photographs, poems, essays, programs, playbills,theatrical and film ephemera, plays, notes, fiction,posters, clippings, page proofs, articles, and reviews.

The Ralph Delauney Papers related to Ten-nessee Williams’s The Rose Tattoo, spanning theyears 1947–53, comprise the playscript and revi-sions, correspondence, bills and receipts, budgets,clippings, notes, itineraries, theater programs, andsketches of the set. The material was gathered byRalph Delauney in his role as stage manager forboth the 1950 world premiere production ofWilliams’s The Rose Tattoo at Erlanger Theatre inChicago and the 1951 New York run at the MartinBeck Theatre. The Rose Tattoo playscript, with itsnumerous revisions, includes more than 10 variantendings to the play. Tennessee Williams, presentduring auditions and early rehearsals, as well asseveral actual productions, was continually rewrit-ing the ending of the play.

Mississippi Writers Page Online at theUniversity of Mississippi

www.olemiss.edu/mwp/index.html

The Mississippi Writers Page is a versatile Internetresource about writers associated with the state ofMississippi. The site includes a collection of articlesabout Williams’s life, a comprehensive list of pub-lished titles, various awards and honors, and aselected bibliography of additional resources.

Tennessee Williams/New Orleans LiteraryFestival

www.tennesseewilliams.net

Every March, scholars, writers, performers, educa-tors, and booksellers gather in New Orleans to cel-ebrate and study Tennessee Williams and the art ofwriting. As Williams was greatly inspired by NewOrleans throughout his career, the festival also cel-ebrates the uniqueness of the city of New Orleans.

Tennessee Williams Society in Key Westwww.tennesseeinkeywest.com

An annual festival celebrating the life and works ofTennessee Williams is held at the Tennessee WilliamsTheatre in Key West, Florida. The festival is dedi-cated to celebrating the works of Williams, educatingthe general public about his works, and supportingthe works of his contemporaries and literary heirs.The festival includes theatrical productions, plays,readings, movies, lectures, and discussions.


Plays and ScreenplaysAll Gaul Is Divided (c. 1950; published in Stopped

Rocking and Other Screenplays, with an introduc-tion by Richard Gilman [New York: New Direc-tions, 1984]).

American Blues (a collection of five of Williams’s one-act plays [New York: Dramatists Play Service,1948]. The collection comprises Moony’s Kid Don’tCry; The Dark Room; The Case of the Crushed Petu-nias; The Long Stay Cut Short, or The UnsatisfactorySupper; and Ten Blocks on the Camino Real [dis-cussed later]; reprinted in 1968 and 1976 [NewYork: Dramatists Play Service].

And Tell Sad Stories of the Death of Queens (date ofcomposition unknown; published with Not AboutNightingales [discussed late] in Political Stages: PlaysThat Shaped a Century, edited by Emily Mann andDavid Roessel [New York: Applause Books, 2002]).

At Liberty (before 1940; published in American Scenes:A Volume of New Short Plays, edited by WilliamKozlenko [New York: John Day Company, 1941]).

Auto-Da-Fé (1938; published in 27 Wagons Full ofCotton, and Other One-Act Plays [Norfolk, Conn.:New Directions, 1945]; reprinted in 1953, 1966,and 1981 [New York: New Directions]).

Baby Doll (1956; published with the two one-act playsthat suggested it, 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and TheLong Stay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Supper[New York: New Directions, 1956]; reprinted withSomething Unspoken and Suddenly Last Summer[Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1968]; and inBaby Doll and Tiger Tail: A Screenplay and Play[New York: New Directions, 1991]).

Battle of Angels (1939; first published by Pharos [Mur-ray, Utah: 1945]; reprinted in Orpheus Descendingwith Battle of Angels: Two Plays [New York: NewDirections, 1958]; The Theatre of Tennessee Williams

[New York: New Directions, 1971]; Battle of Angels,The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire[New York: New Directions, 1971]; and in Plays1937–1955, edited by Mel Gussow and KennethHoldich [New York: Library of America, 2000]).

Beauty Is the Word (1930; unpublished).Cairo! Shanghai! Bombay! (1935; unpublished).Camino Real (1946; first published in 1953 [New York:

Dramatists Play Service]; reprinted in 1976 and1981 [New York: Dramatists Play Service];reprinted in 1953 and 1970 [New York: New Direc-tions]; reprinted in Four Plays [London: Secker &Warburg, 1957]; The Rose Tattoo and Camino Real[Harmondsworth, Penguin Books in associationwith Secker & Warburg, 1958]; Three Plays of Ten-nessee Williams [New York: New Directions, 1959];Six American Plays for Today, edited by Bennett Cerf[New York: Modern Library, 1961]; Three Plays: TheRose Tattoo, Camino Real, and Sweet Bird of Youth[New York: New Directions, 1964]; The Eccentrici-ties of a Nightingale, Summer and Smoke, The RoseTattoo and Camino Real [New York: New Directions,1971]; The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real, OrpheusDescending [Harmondsworth, England. New York:Penguin Books, in association with Secker & War-burg, 1976]; and The Theatre of Tennessee Williams,Volume 2 [New York: New Directions, 1976]).

Candles to the Sun (1935; first published in 2004 [NewYork: New Directions]).

The Case of the Crushed Petunias (1939; first publishedin 1948 in American Blues [see previous discussion][New York: Dramatists Play Service); reprinted in1968 in Upstage and Down, edited by Daniel P.McGarity [Toronto: Macmillan of Canada]).

Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1955; [New York: New Direc-tions, 1955]; [New York: New American Library,New York, 1955]; [New York: Penguin, 1955];

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reprinted in [New York: New Directions, 1971New York in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, OrpheusDescending and Suddenly Last Summer in Cat on aHot Tin Roof: A Play in Three Acts [New York:Dramatists Play Service, 1958, 1983, 1986];included in The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Vol-ume 3, [New York: New Directions, 1991] and inThe Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, Caton a Hot Tin Roof and Suddenly Last Summer [NewYork: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1994]).

Clothes for a Summer Hotel (1980; [New York: Drama-tists Play Service, 1981]; [New York: New Direc-tions, 1983]; included in The Theatre of TennesseeWilliams, Volume 8 [New York: New Directions,1992]).

Confessional (1967; published in Dragon Country,[New York: New Directions, 1970]).

Creve Coeur See A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur.The Dark Room (c. 1939; published in American Blues,

[New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1948]).The Demolition Downtown (before 1971; published in

Esquire, 75, no. 6, [June 1971]): 124–127.Dragon Country (collection of one-acts) [New York:

New Directions, 1970]).The Eccentricities of a Nightingale (1951 [New York:

New Directions, 1964]); reprinted as The Eccen-tricities of a Nightingale and Summer and Smoke: TwoPlays [New York: New Directions, 1964]; includedin The Theatre of Tennessee Williams Volume 2 [NewYork: New Directions, 1971, 1990]; [New York:Dramatists Play Service, 1977, 1992]).

The Frosted Glass Coffin (1941; published in DragonCountry, [New York: New Directions, 1970]); Inthe Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays, [NewYork: New Directions, 1981]).

The Fugitive Kind (1936–38; [New York: New Ameri-can Library, 1960]); [New York: New Directions,2001]).

Garden District (published as Garden District TwoPlays: Something Unspoken and Suddenly Last Sum-mer [London: Secker & Warburg, 1959]; Baby Dolland Other Plays [London: Penguin, 1968, 2001]).

The Glass Menagerie (1944; published [New York:Random House, 1945]; [New York: New Direc-tions, 1945]; [New York: Penguin Press, 1945];[London: Methuen, 1945]; reprinted [New York:New Directions, 1949, 1970, 1966, 1971, 1999];[New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1948, 1972,1975, 1976]; [London: Heinemann Educational,1968]; included in Four Plays by TennesseeWilliams [London: Secker & Warburg, 1956];

included in Four Plays [London: Secker & War-burg, 1957, 1968]; [New York: New AmericanLibrary, 1972, 1987]; [New York: Penguin, 1987];included in Sweet Bird of Youth, A Streetcar NamedDesire, and The Glass Menagerie [Harmonds-worth, England: Penguin Press, 1962, 1982];included in The Glass Menagerie, A StreetcarNamed Desire, and Suddenly Last Summer [NewYork: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1994];included in The Theatre of Tennessee Williams Vol-ume 1 [New York: New Directions, 1971, 1990];[London: Methuen, 2002]).

The Gnädiges Fräulein (1965; included in SlapstickTragedy [along with The Mutilated], Esquire, 64, no.2, pp 95–102, 130–134 [August 1965]; [New York:Dramatists Play Service, 1967]). (Included in Inthe Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays. New York:Dramatists Play Service, 1981.)

Grand (1964; [New York: House of Books, 1964]).Hello from Bertha (1941; published in the collection 27

Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays [Nor-folk, Conn.: New Directions, 1945]; reprinted [NewYork: New Directions, 1953, 1954, 1966, 1981]).

Hot Milk at 3 a.m. (1930) See Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry.I Can’t Imagine Tomorrow (1966; published in Esquire

65 [March 1966]; included in Dragon Country[New York: New Directions, 1970]; The Best ShortPlays, 1971 [Radnor, Pa.: Chilton Book Co., 1971];In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays [NewYork: New Directions, 1981]).

I Rise in Flame, Cried the Phoenix (1939–41; published[New York: New Directions, 1951, 1981]; [NewYork: Dramatists Play Service, 1951, 1964, 1979];in Ramparts 6 pp 14–19 [Jan. 1968]); included inDragon Country [New York: New Directions,1970]; in Plays 1937–1955 [New York: Library ofAmerica, 2000]).

In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel (1960s; published [NewYork: Dramatists Play Service, 1969]; included inDragon Country [New York: New Directions,1970]; The Theatre of Tennessee Williams Vol. 7[New York: New Directions, 1971–92]; [NewYork: New Directions, 1981].

The Kingdom of Earth (one-act) (1967; published inEsquire, 67 [February 1967]).

The Kingdom of Earth, or The Seven Descents of Myrtle(full-length) (1967; published [New York: NewDirections, 1954]; reprinted [New York: New Direc-tions, 1968]; published [New York: Dramatists PlayService, 1969]; reprinted [New York: DramatistsPlay Service, 1975, 1997]; published The Milk Train


Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore, Kingdom of Earth (TheSeven Descents of Myrtle); Small Craft Warnings, TheTwo-Character Play [New York: New Directions,1976]; included in The Theatre of Tennessee WilliamsVol. 5 [New York: New Directions, 1971–92]).

The Lady of Larkspur Lotion (before 1942; published inThe Best One-Act Plays of 1941 [New York: Dodd,Mead, 1942]; included in 27 Wagons Full of Cottonand Other One-Act Plays [New York: New Direc-tions, 1945]).

The Last of My Solid Gold Watches (before 1946; pub-lished in 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays [New York: New Directions, 1945]; BestOne-Act Plays of 1942 [New York: Dodd, Mead,1943]; included in Great American One-Act Plays[Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1985]).

Lifeboat Drill (c. 1970; published in In the Bar of a TokyoHotel and Other Plays [New York: New Directions,1981]; included in The Theatre of Tennessee WilliamsVol. 7 [New York: New Directions, 1971–92]).

The Long Goodbye (1940; published in 27 Wagons Fullof Cotton and Other One-Act Plays [New York:New Directions, 1945]).

The Long Stay Cut Short (before 1945; published asThe Unsatisfactory Supper in The Best One-ActPlays of 1945 [New York: Dodd, Mead, 1946]; inthe collection American Blues [New York: Drama-tists Play Service, 1948]; in Baby Doll; the Script forthe Film, Incorporating the Two One-Act Plays WhichSuggested It: 27 Wagons Full of Cotton [and] TheLong Stay Cut Short; or The Unsatisfactory Supper[New York: New Directions, 1956]).

Lord Byron’s Love Letter (before 1946; published in thecollection 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays [New York: New Directions, 1945];included in The Best American One-Act Plays[Tokyo: Kaibunsha, 1964]).

The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond (1950s; published inStopped Rocking and Other Screenplays [New York:New Directions, 1984]).

A Lovely Sunday for Creve Coeur (1976; [New York:New Directions, 1980]; included in The Theatre ofTennessee Williams Vol. 8 [New York: New Direc-tions, 1971–92]; Plays 1957–1980 [New York:Library of America, 2000]).

Me, Vashya! (1937; unpublished).The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore (1959–62;

published in The Best Plays of 1962–1963: TheBurns Mantle Yearbook [New York: Dodd, Mead,1963]; [Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions, 1964];[New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1964]; The

Milk Train Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore and Cat on aHot Tin Roof [Harmondsworth, England: Penguin,1969]; included in The Theatre of Tennessee WilliamsVol. 5 [New York: New Directions, 1971–92]; Caton a Hot Tin Roof, The Milk Train Doesn’t Stop HereAnymore, and The Night of the Iguana [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin, 1976]; The MilkTrain Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore; Kingdom of Earth(The Seven Descents of Myrtle); Small Craft Warn-ings; The Two-Character Play [New York: NewDirections, 1976]; Plays 1957–1980 [New York:Library of America, 2000]).

Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry (1930; published in AmericanBlues [New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1948];included in The Best One-Act Plays of 1940 [NewYork: Dodd, Mead, 1941]).

The Mutilated (1965; included in Slapstick Tragedy[along with The Gnädiges Fräulein], Esquire, 64, no.2 [August 1965] p. 95–102, 130–134; published[New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1967;included in Dragon Country [New York: NewDirections, 1970]; The Theatre of Tennessee WilliamsVol. 7 [New York: New Directions, 1971–92]; In theBar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays [New York:New Directions, 1981]; Plays 1957–1980 [NewYork: Library of America, 2000]).

The Night of the Iguana (1959; published [New York:New Directions, 1961]; [New York: New AmericanLibrary, 1961]; [Harmondsworth, England: PenguinBooks 1961]; The Best Plays of 1961–1962 [NewYork: Dodd, Mead, 1962]; The Best Plays of1961–1962: The Burns Mantle Yearbook [New York:Arno Press, 1962]; [New York: Dramatists PlayService, 1963]; [London: Secker & Warburg,1963]; reprinted [New York: Dramatists Play Ser-vice, 1964]; reprinted [Harmondsworth, England:Penguin Books, 1964]; The Night of the Iguana andOrpheus Descending [Harmondsworth, England:Penguin, 1968]; Sweet Bird of Youth, Period ofAdjustment, The Night of the Iguana [New York:New Directions, 1972]; reprinted in The Best Playsof 1961–1962: The Burns Mantle Yearbook. [NewYork: Arno Press, 1975]; Three by Tennessee: SweetBird of Youth, The Rose Tattoo, The Night of theIguana [New York: New American Library, 1976];Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Milk Train Doesn’t StopHere Anymore, and The Night of the Iguana [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin, 1976]; SelectedPlays [Franklin Center, Pa.: Franklin Library, 1977];Eight Plays [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979];reprinted Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, The Milk Train


Doesn’t Stop Here Anymore, and The Night of theIguana [New York: Penguin Books, 1985]; reprinted[New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1991]; TheTheatre of Tennessee Williams Vol. 4 [New York: NewDirections, 1993]; Plays 1957–1980 [New York:Library of America, 2000]).

Not About Nightingales (1938; published [New York:New Directions, 1998]; [London: MethuenDrama, 1998]; [New York: Samuel French, 1999];included in Plays 1937–1955 [New York: Library ofAmerica, 2000]).

The Notebook of Trigorin (1981–83; published [NewYork: New Directions, 1997]; [New York: Drama-tists Play Service, 1997]).

Now the Cats with Jewelled Claws (1981; included inThe Theatre of Tennessee Williams Vol. 7 [New York:New Directions, 1981]).

One Arm (1960s; published in Stopped Rocking andOther Screenplays [New York: New Directions,1984]).

Orpheus Descending (1957; published [New York: NewDirections, 1958]; [London: Secker & Warburg,1958]; included in The Best Plays of 1956–1957:The Burns Mantle Yearbook [New York: Arno Press,1957]; [New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1959];Orpheus Descending with Battle of Angels: Two Plays[New York: New Directions, 1958]; Five Plays[London: Secker & Warburg, 1962]; Five MorePlays [London: Secker & Warburg, 1962]; FiveMore Plays [London: Secker & Warburg, 1962];The Night of the Iguana and Orpheus Descending[Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1968];Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, Orpheus Descending, Sud-denly Last Summer [New York: New Directions,1971]; reprinted [New York: New Directions,1971]; The Theatre of Tennessee Williams Vol. 3[New York: New Directions, 1971]; reprinted (inThe Best Plays of 1956–1957: The Burns MantleYearbook) [New York: Arno Press, 1975]; FourPlays [New York: Signet Classic, 1976]; TennesseeWilliams, Four Plays: Summer and Smoke, OrpheusDescending, Suddenly Last Summer, and Period ofAdjustment [New York: New American Library,1976]; The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real, OrpheusDescending [Harmondsworth, England: PenguinBooks, 1976]; Eight Plays [Garden City, N.Y.: Dou-bleday, 1979]; reprinted [New York: DramatistsPlay Service, 1983, 1987]; reprinted in The Theatreof Tennessee Williams Vol. 3 [New York: New Direc-tions, 1991]; Plays 1957–1980 [New York: Libraryof America, 2000]).

Out Cry (1973; published [New York: New Direc-tions, 1973]; included in Plays 1957–1980 [NewYork: Library of America, 2000]).

A Perfect Analysis Given by a Parrot (1958; published[New York; Dramatists Play Service, 1958); Esquire50, no. 4 [October 1958] pp. 131–135; included inDragon Country [New York: New Directions,1970]; In the Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays[New York: New Directions, 1981]; The Theatre ofTennessee Williams Vol. 7 [New York: New Direc-tions, 1971–92]).

Period of Adjustment (1957; published in Esquire, 54, no.6 [December 1960], pp. 210–276; reprinted [NewYork: New Directions, 1960]; [London: Secker &Warburg, 1960]; [New York: Dramatists Play Ser-vice, 1961, 1989]; [New York: New AmericanLibrary, 1962]; [New York: Signet, 1962]; [NewYork: Four Square Books, 1963]; included in TheTheatre of Tennessee Williams, vol. 4 [New York: NewDirections, 1971, 1993]; Sweet Bird of Youth, Periodof Adjustment, and The Night of the Iguana [NewYork: New Directions, 1972]; Four Plays [New York:Signet Classic, 1976]; Four Plays [New York: NewAmerican Library, 1976]; Period of Adjustment, Sum-mer and Smoke, Small Craft Warnings [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin, 1982]; Plays1957–1980 [New York: Library of America, 2000]).

Portrait of a Madonna (before 1946; published in 27Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays[Norfolk, Conn., New York: New Directions,1945, 1953, 1966, 1981]).

This Property Is Condemned (before 1942; published in27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays[Norfolk, Conn., New York: New Directions,1945, 1953, 1966, 1981]).

The Purification (1940; published in 27 Wagons Full ofCotton and Other One-Act Plays [Norfolk, Conn.,New York: New Directions, 1945, 1953, 1966,1981]).

The Red Devil Battery Sign (1975–76; published [NewYork: New Directions, 1988]; reprinted The The-atre of Tennessee Williams, vol. 8 [New York: NewDirections, 1992]).

The Remarkable Rooming-House of Mme. Le Monde(date of composition uncertain; published in lim-ited edition [New York: Albondocani Press, 1984]).

The Rose Tattoo (1950; published [New York: NewAmerican Library, 1950]; reprinted [1955, 1956];reprinted [New York: New Directions, 1951]; [NewYork: Dramatists Play Service, 1951, 1965, 1966,1979]; [London: Secker & Warburg, 1954];


included in The Rose Tattoo and Camino Real [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin Books in associa-tion with Secker & Warburg, 1958, 1968]; ThreePlays: The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real, and Sweet Birdof Youth [New York: New Directions, 1959, 1964];Best American Plays, series 4 [New York: CrownPublishers, 1958, 1968]; Five Plays [London: Secker& Warburg, 1962, 1970]; Five More Plays [London:Secker & Warburg, 1962]; The Eccentricities of aNightingale, Summer and Smoke, The Rose Tattoo,and Camino Real [[New York: New Directions,1971]; Three by Tennessee: Sweet Bird of Youth, TheRose Tattoo, and The Night of the Iguana [New York:New American Library, 1976]; The Theatre of Ten-nessee Williams, vol. 2 [New York: New Directions,1976]; Eight Plays [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,1979]; Three by Tennessee [New York: Penguin,1976]; The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real, and OrpheusDescending [Harmondsworth, England, New York:Penguin Books in association with Secker & War-burg, 1976]; Selected Plays [Franklin Center, Pa.:Franklin Library, 1977]; Plays 1937–1955 [NewYork: Library of America, 2000]).

Slapstick Tragedy (1965; published in Esquire 64, no. 2[August 1965]; 95–102, 130–134). (See TheGnädiges Fräulein and The Mutilated.)

Small Craft Warnings (1971; published [New York:New Directions, 1972]; reprinted [New York;McClelland & Stewart, 1972]; [London: Secker &Warburg, 1973]; included in The Best Plays of1971–1972 [New York: Dodd, Mead, 1972]; TheTheatre of Tennessee Williams, vol. 5 [New York:New Directions, 1976]; Plays 1957–1980 [NewYork: Library of America, 2000]).

Something Cloudy, Something Clear (1979; published[New York: New Directions, 1995]; reprinted[1996]; reprinted [London: Methuen Drama,1995]; [New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1995]).

Something Unspoken (before 1953; published in 27Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays[Norfolk, Conn., New York: New Directions,1953, 1966, 1981]; The Best Short Plays of1955–1956, edited by Margaret Mayorga [Boston:Beacon Press, 1956]; Baby Doll: The Script for theFilm, Something Unspoken, and Suddenly Last Sum-mer [Harmondsworth, England, Baltimore: Pen-guin, 1959, 1968, 1976, 1982, 1984, 2001]; GardenDistrict: Two Plays—Something Unspoken and Sud-denly Last Summer [London: Secker & Warburg,1959]; Orpheus Descending: Something Unspoken,Suddenly Last Summer [Harmondsworth, England:

Penguin, 1961]; Five Plays [London: Secker &Warburg, 1962, 1970]; Five More Plays [London:Secker & Warburg, 1962]; Baby Doll and OtherPlays [London: Penguin, 1968, 2001]).

Spring Storm (1937–38; published [New York: NewDirections, 1999]; reprinted Plays 1937–1955[New York: Library of America, 2000]).

Stairs to the Roof (1940–42; published [New York:New Directions, 2000]).

Steps Must Be Gentle (1980; published in a limited edi-tion [New York: William Targ, 1980]; reprinted in27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other Short Plays[New York: New Directions, 1981]).

Stopped Rocking (1977; published in Stopped Rockingand Other Screenplays [New York: New Direc-tions, 1984]).

The Strangest Kind of Romance (1946; first published in27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays[Norfolk, Conn., New York: New Directions,1945]; reprinted [1953, 1966, 1981]).

A Streetcar Named Desire (1945–47; published [NewYork: New Directions, 1947]; reprinted [New York:New Directions, 1980]; reprinted [New York: NewAmerican Library, 1947]; reprinted [New York:New American Library, 1972, 1973, 1980, 1984,1988]; [New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1953];reprinted [New York: Dramatist Play Service, 1974,1981]; with an introduction by Jessica Tandy [NewYork: Limited Editions Club, 1982]; included insuch collections as The Burns Mantle Best Plays of1947–48 and the Year Book of the Drama in America[New York: Dodd, Mead, 1948]; The Theatre ofTennessee Williams, Vol. 1 [New York: New Direc-tions, 1971]; Battle of Angels, The Glass Menagerieand A Streetcar Named Desire [New York: NewDirections, 1971]; Eight Plays, with an introductionby Harold Clurman [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,1979]; The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar NamedDesire, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and Suddenly LastSummer [New York: Quality Paperback Book Club,1994]; Plays 1937–1955 edited by Mel Gussow andKenneth Holdich [New York: Library of America,2000]. The filmscript of the play was published byCharles K. Feldman Group Productions, Los Ange-les, CA for Warner Brothers, 1951]; Script City,Calif.: Hollywood, 1951]; the screenplay wasreprinted in Film Scripts One, compiled by George P.Garrett [New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,1971]. The libretto and text of an opera of the playwere published [San Francisco: San FranciscoOpera, 1998]).


Suddenly Last Summer (1958; published [New York:New Directions, 1958]; reprinted [New York: NewDirections, 1980]; reprinted [New York: NewAmerican Library, 1958]; reprinted [New York:New American Library, 1964]; [New York: Drama-tists Play Service, 1986]; included in Garden Dis-trict: Two Plays—Something Unspoken and SuddenlyLast Summer. [London: Secker & Warburg, 1959];Five Plays [London: Secker & Warburg, 1962];Baby Doll: The Script for the Film; Something Unspo-ken and Suddenly Last Summer [London: PenguinBooks, 1968]; reprinted as Baby Doll and OtherPlays [London: Penguin, 2001] Cat on a Hot TinRoof; Orpheus Descending; Suddenly Last Summer[New York: New Directions, 1971]; The Theatre ofTennessee Williams, Vol. 3. [New York: New Direc-tions, 1971]; Four Plays: Summer and Smoke,Orpheus Descending, Suddenly Last Summer, Period ofAdjustment [New York: New American Library,1976]; Four Plays [New York: Signet Classic, 1976];The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire, Caton a Hot Tin Roof, and Suddenly Last Summer [NewYork: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1994]; Plays1957–1980, edited by Mel Gussow and KennethHoldich [New York: Library of America, 2000].The screenplay, written by Gore Vidal, was pub-lished [London: Scripts Limited, 1959]).

Summer and Smoke (1948; published [New York: NewDirections, 1948]; reprinted under the title TheEccentricities of a Nightingale and Summer andSmoke: Two Plays, [New York: New Directions,1964]; reprinted [New York: Belgrave Press,1948]; [New York; Dramatists Play Service, 1950];reprinted [New York: Dramatists Play Service,1975, 1977, 1978]; [London: J. Lehmann, 1952];[New York: New American Library, 1961];included in Best American Plays, edited by JohnGassner [New York: Crown Publishers, 1952];reprinted [1968]; Four Plays by Tennessee Williams:The Glass Menagerie, A Streetcar Named Desire,Summer and Smoke, Camino Real [London: Secker& Warburg, 1956]; The Eccentricities of a Nightin-gale, Summer and Smoke, The Rose Tattoo andCamino Real [New York: New Directions, 1971];The Theatre of Tennessee Williams, Vol. 2 [NewYork: New Directions, 1976]; Four Plays: Summerand Smoke, Orpheus Descending, Suddenly Last Sum-mer, Period of Adjustment [New York: New Ameri-can Library, 1976]; Four Plays [New York: SignetClassic, 1976]; Eight Plays, with an introduction byHarold Clurman [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,

1979]; Period of Adjustment, Summer and Smoke,Small Craft Warnings [Harmondsworth, England:Penguin, 1982]; The Eccentricities of a Nightingale,Summer and Smoke, The Rose Tattoo, Camino Real[New York: New Directions, 1990]; Plays1937–1955, edited by Gussow and Holdich [NewYork: Library of America, 2000]. The screenplaywas published [Hollywood, Calif.: Paramount Pic-tures, 1961]. The libretto and text of an opera(music by Lee Hoiby and libretto by Lanford Wil-son) were published [New York: Belwin-Mills,1972, 1976]; [Long Eddy, N.Y.: Rock Valley MusicCo.: [2000]).

Sweet Bird of Youth (1952; first published in Esquire 51,no. 4 [April 1959]: pp. 114–115; reprinted, [NewYork: New American Library, 1959; 1962]; [NewYork: New Directions, 1959, 1972, 1975]; [Lon-don: Secker & Warburg, 1961]; [New York:Dramatists Play Service, 1962, 1987, 1992];included in A Streetcar Named Desire and OtherPlays [London: Penguin in association with Secker& Warburg, 1962, 1992]: Sweet Bird of Youth, AStreetcar Named Desire, The Glass Menagerie [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin in association withSecker & Warburg, 1962, 1982]; Three Plays: TheRose Tattoo, Camino Real, Sweet Bird of Youth [NewYork: New Directions, 1964]; The Theatre of Ten-nessee Williams, Vol. 4 [New York: New Directions,1971]; Sweet Bird of Youth, Period of Adjustment,and The Night of the Iguana [New York: New Direc-tions, 1972]; Three by Tennessee: Sweet Bird ofYouth, The Rose Tattoo, and The Night of the Iguana[New York: New American Library, 1976]; Threeby Tennessee [New York: Signet Classic, 1976];Selected Plays [Franklin Center, Pa.: FranklinLibrary, 1977]; Eight Plays, with an introduction byHarold Clurman [Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,1979]; Plays 1957–80 edited by Gussow andHoldich [New York: Library of America, 2000].The screenplay was published [Culver City, Calif.:Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1961]).

Talk to Me Like the Rain and Let Me Listen (1950; pub-lished in 27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays, 3d ed. [Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions,1953]; reprinted 1958, 1966, 1981, 1992]).

Ten Blocks on the Camino Real (1946; published inAmerican Blues [New York: Dramatists Play Ser-vice, 1948]; reprinted [1968, 1976]).

This Is the Peaceable Kingdom (1980; published in Inthe Bar of a Tokyo Hotel and Other Plays [New York:New Directions, 1981]).


This Property Is Condemned (before 1942; published in27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays[Norfolk, Conn., New York: New Directions,1945, 1953, 1966]).

Tiger Tail (1977; published in Baby Doll & Tiger Tail: AScreenplay and Play [New York: New Directions,1991]).

The Travelling Companion (1981; published in Christo-pher Street 5, no. 10 [November 1981]: 32–40).

27 Wagons Full of Cotton (before 1946; published[Norfolk, Conn.: New York: New Directions,1945]; reprinted [1946, 1949, 1953, 1954, 1958,1966, 1981, 1992]; [London: J. Lehmann, 1949];included in Baby Doll: The Script for the Film,Incorporating the Two One-Act Plays Which Sug-gested it—27 Wagons Full of Cotton, and The LongStay Cut Short, or The Unsatisfactory Supper [NewYork: New Directions, 1956]; The Theatre of Ten-nessee Williams, vol. 6 [New York: New Directions,1971]; Plays 1937–1955 [New York: Library ofAmerica, 2000]).

The Two-Character Play (1968; published [New York:New Directions, 1969, 1979]; included in TheTheatre of Tennessee Williams, Vol. 5 [New York:New Directions, 1976]). (See also Out Cry.)

The Unsatisfactory Supper. See The Long Stay CutShort.

Vieux Carré (1976; published [New York: New Direc-tions, 1979]; reprinted [2000]; [New York: GoldenEagle Productions, 1979]; included in The Theatreof Tennessee Williams, Vol. 8 [New York: NewDirections, 1992]; Plays 1957–1980 [New York:Library of America, 2000]).

Will Mr. Merriwether Return from Memphis? (1950;published The Missouri Review, 20, no. 2 [1997];79–131).

You Touched Me! (1942; published [New York: SamuelFrench, 1947]; reprinted [1993]).

Fiction, Essays, and PoetryAndrogyne, Mon Amour (1977; poetry collection [New

York: New Directions]).Blue Mountain Ballads (c. 1943; poetry collection pub-

lished as lyrics for musical score, with musicalcomposition by Paul Bowles, under the title Heav-enly Grass [New York: G. Schirmer, 1943];reprinted [New York: G. Schirmer, 1946]; reprint-ed as Blue Mountain Ballads [New York: G.Schirmer, 1946]; Sugar in the Cane [New York:G. Schirmer, 1946]; Lonesome Man [New York: G.Schirmer, 1946]; Cabin [New York: G. Schirmer,

1946]; Heavenly Grass and Cabin [New York: G.Schirmer, 1979]; Blue Mountain Ballads [New York:G. Schirmer, 1979]).

Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed (poetry collection pub-lished [New York: New Directions, 1974]; [Lon-don, Secker & Warburg, 1975]).

In the Winter of Cities (poetry collection; published[Norfolk, Conn.: New Directions, 1956]; [Nor-folk, Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1956]; reprinted [NewYork: New Directions, 1964]).

The Knightly Quest (before 1966; published as TheKnightly Quest: A Novella and Four Short Stories(Mama’s Old Stucco House, Man Bring This UpRoad, The Kingdom of Earth, Grand) for J. Laughlin[New York: New Directions, 1966]; [London:Secker & Warburg, 1968]; as The Knightly Quest, ANovel [New York: New Directions, 1968]).

Moise and the World of Reason (before 1975; [New York:Simon & Schuster, 1975]; [London: W. H. Allen,1975]; [New York: Bantam Books, 1975]; [Taipei:Imperial Book, Sound & Gift Co., 1975]; reprinted[W. H. Allen, 1976]; [Bantam Books, 1976]).

The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (around 1950; pub-lished [New York: New Directions, 1950]; [NewYork: Ballantine Books, 1950]; [London: Secker &Warburg, 1950]; [London: J. Lehmann, 1950];[New York: Bantam Books, 1950]; [New York:New American Library, 1950]; [London: Vintage,1950]; [St. Albans, Panther, 1950]; [Har-mondsworth, England: Penguin, 1950]; [London:English Library Ltd., 1960]; [Hollywood, Calif.:Warner Bros. Pictures, 1961]; reprinted [NewYork: New American Library, 1952, 1959, 1961];[London: Secker & Warburg, 1957, 1971, 1972];[Penguin, 1969]; [New York: New Directions,1969, 1993]; [Bantam Books, 1976]; [St. Albans:Panther, 1976]; [New York: Ballantine Books,1985]; [London: Vintage, 1999]).

27 Wagons Full of Cotton and Other One-Act Plays(before 1945; published [New York: New Direc-tions, 1945]; reprinted [New York: New Direc-tions, 1949, 1953, 1954, 1966, 1992]).

Where I Live (collection of essays; published [NewYork: New Directions, 1978]).

Memoirs (before 1975; published by Doubleday [Gar-den City, N.Y., 1975]; Bantam Books [New York,1975]; Star Books [London, 1975]; W. H. Allen[London, 1976]; reprinted Bantam Books [NewYork, 1976]; W. H. Allen [London, 1977]; StarBooks [London, 1977]; Doubleday [Garden City,N.Y., 1983].


Short Stories“The Accent of a Coming Foot” (1935; first published

in Collected Stories, [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1986]; reprinted Collected Stories [NewYork: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“The Angel in the Alcove” (1943; first published inthe short story collection One Arm: and Other Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1948]; reprintedin Three Players of a Summer Game and Other Sto-ries [London: Secker & Warburg, 1960]; CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; TheNight of the Iguana and Other Stories [London: J. M.Dent, 1995]).

“Big Black: A Mississippi Idyll” (1931–32; publishedin Collected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; reprinted in Collected Stories [New York:Ballantine Books, 1986]).

“Chronicle of a Demise” (1947; first published in thecollection One Arm, and Other Stories [New York:New Directions, 1948]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted inOne Arm, and Other Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1967]; Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1994]).

“The Coming of Something to Widow Holly” (around1943; published in New Directions in Prose andPoetry, (Vol. 14) [New York: New Directions,1953]; in Hard Candy, A Book of Stories [New York:New Directions, 1954]; in The Kingdom of Earthwith Hard Candy: A Book of Stories [New York:New Directions, 1954]; in Hard Candy, A Book ofStories [Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1954]; inThree Players of a Summer Game: and Other Stories[London: Secker & Warburg, 1960]; in Three Play-ers of a Summer Game, and Other Stories [London:J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: Ballantine Books, 1986]; in The Night of theIguana and Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent,1995]; reprinted in Hard Candy: A Book of Stories[New York: New Directions, 1959, 1967];reprinted in Three Players of a Summer Game andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1984];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]).

“Completed” (1973; published in Eight Mortal LadiesPossessed [New York: New Directions, 1974]; inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Ballantine

Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1994]).

“The Dark Room” (around 1940; published in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Ballantine Books,1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1994]).

“Das Wasser ist kalt” (1973–79; published in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Ballantine Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]).

“Desire and the Black Masseur” (1942–46; publishedin New Directions in Prose and Poetry, (Vol. 10)[New York: New Directions, 1948]; in the collec-tion One Arm, and Other Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1948]; in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted in OneArm, and Other Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1967]; Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“The Field of Blue Children” (1937; published in Storymagazine [Vol. 15, no. 79 (September–October1939); pp. 66–72]; in the collection One Arm, andOther Stories [New York: New Directions, 1948];in Housewife magazine [Vol. 14, no. 10 (October1952) pp. 38, 83, 85–86]; in Three Players of aSummer Game, and Other Stories [London: Secker& Warburg, 1960]; in Three Players of a SummerGame, and Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent,1960]; in Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Ban-tam Books, 1986]; reprinted in One Arm, andOther Stories [New Directions, 1967]; CollectedStories [New York; Bantam Books, 1994]); in TheNight of the Iguana and Other Stories [London: J. M.Dent, 1995]).

“Gift of an Apple” (1936; published in Collected Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“Grand” (around 1964; published in The KnightlyQuest: A Novella and Four Short Stories (Mama’s OldStucco House, Man Bring This Up Road, The King-dom of Earth, Grand) [New York: New Directionsfor J. Laughlin, 1966]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).


“Happy August the Tenth” (1970; published inAntaeus no. 42 (1971) pp. 22–23; in Eight MortalLadies Possessed [New York: New Directions,1974]; in Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Bal-lantine Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1994]).

“Hard Candy” (1953; published in Hard Candy, aBook of Stories [New York: New Directions, 1954];in Hard Candy, a Book of Stories [Norfolk, Conn.: J.Laughlin, 1954]; in The Kingdom of Earth withHard Candy: A Book of Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1954]; [Tokyo: Kinseido, 1961]; inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BallantineBooks, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1994]).

“The Important Thing” (1945; published in Storymagazine 27, no. 116 (1945) pp. 17–25; One Arm,and Other Stories [New York: New Directions,1948]; in Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Ban-tam Books, 1986]; reprinted in One Arm, andOther Stories [New York: New Directions, 1967];Collected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994];in The Night of the Iguana and Other Stories [Lon-don: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“In Memory of an Aristocrat” (1940; published in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“The Interval” (1945; published in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Sto-ries [New York: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted inCollected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“The Inventory at Fontana Bella” (1972; published inPlayboy, no. 172 (1973) pp. 76–78; in Eight MortalLadies Possessed [New York: New Directions,1974]; Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Ban-tam Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“It Happened the Day the Sun Rose” (before 1981;published [Los Angeles: Sylvester & Orphanos,1981]).

“The Killer Chicken and the Closet Queen” (1977;published in Christopher Street, 3, no. 1 (1978) pp.17–26; in Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: Ban-tam Books, 1994]).

“The Kingdom of Earth” (1942; published in TheKingdom of Earth with Hard Candy: A Book of Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1954]; in TheKnightly Quest: A Novella and Four Short Stories(Mama’s Old Stucco House, Man Bring This UpRoad, The Kingdom of Earth, Grand) [New York:New Directions for J. Laughlin, 1966]; in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“A Lady’s Beaded Bag” (1930; published in Columns,University of Missouri literary magazine, 1, no. 3(May 1930) pp. 11–12; in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“The Malediction” (before 1945; published in OneArm, and Other Stories [New York: New Directions,1948]; in Three Players of a Summer Game, andOther Stories [London: Secker & Warburg, 1960];in Three Players of a Summer Game, and Other Sto-ries [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in CollectedStories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprintedin One Arm, and Other Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1967]; Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1994]; in The Night of the Iguanaand Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“Mama’s Old Stucco House” (before 1965; publishedin Esquire 62, no. 1 (January 1965) 87–90; in Week-end Telegraph, no. 33, (7 May 1965) pp. 49–54; inThe Knightly Quest: A Novella and Four Short Stories(Mama’s Old Stucco House, Man Bring This UpRoad, The Kingdom of Earth, Grand) [New York:New Directions for J. Laughlin, 1966]; in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“Man Bring This Up Road” (1953; published in Made-moiselle, 49, no. 3 (July 1959) pp. 56–61; in Interna-tional, 1, no. 2 (spring 1965) pp. 61–65; in TheKnightly Quest: A Novella and Four Short Stories(Mama’s Old Stucco House, Man Bring This UpRoad, The Kingdom of Earth, Grand) [New York:New Directions for J. Laughlin, 1966]; in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).


“The Mattress by the Tomato Patch” (1953; publishedin The London Magazine, 1, no. 9 (October 1954)pp. 16–24; in The Kingdom of Earth with HardCandy: A Book of Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1954]; in Hard Candy, A Book of Stories[Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1954]; in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“Miss Coynte of Greene” (1972; published in EightMortal Ladies Possessed [New York: New Direc-tions, 1974]; in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Ballantine Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1994]).

“Mother Yaws” (1977; published in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in CollectedStories [New York: Ballantine Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]).

“The Mysteries of Joy Rio” (1941; published in TheKingdom of Earth with Hard Candy: A Book of Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1954]; in HardCandy, A Book of Stories [Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laugh-lin, 1954]; in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Ballantine Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1994]).

“Night of the Iguana” (1946–48; published in OneArm, and Other Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1948]; in Three Players of a Summer Game,and Other Stories [London: Secker & Warburg1960]; in Three Players of a Summer Game, andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in HardCandy, A Book of Stories [Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laugh-lin, 1954]; in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“One Arm” (1942–45; published in One Arm, andOther Stories [New York: New Directions, 1948];in Three Players of a Summer Game, and Other Sto-ries [London: Secker & Warburg, 1960]; in ThreePlayers of a Summer Game, and Other Stories [Lon-don: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Hard Candy, A Book ofStories [Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1954]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]; in The Night of the Iguana and OtherStories [London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“Oriflamme” (1944; published in Eight Mortal LadiesPossessed [New York: New Directions, 1974]; inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BallantineBooks, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1994]).

“The Poet” (before 1948; published in One Arm, andOther Stories [New York: New Directions, 1948];in Collected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BallantineBooks, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1994]).

“Portrait of a Girl in Glass” (1942; published in OneArm, and Other Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1948]; in Three Players of a Summer Game,and Other Stories [London: Secker & Warburg,1960]; in Three Players of a Summer Game, andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Ballantine Books,1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1994]; in The Night of the Iguanaand Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“A Recluse and His Guest” (early 1970s; published inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BallantineBooks, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: New Directions, 1994]).

“The Resemblance between a Violin Case and a Cof-fin” (1949; published in Flair New York City, 1, no.1 (February 1950) pp. 40–41, 126–128; in The BestAmerican Short Stories of 1951 [Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 1951]; in Hard Candy, A Book of Stories[Norfolk, Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1954]; in The King-dom of Earth with Hard Candy: A Book of Stories[New York: New Directions, 1954]; in Three Play-ers of a Summer Game, and Other Stories [London:Secker & Warburg, 1960]; in Three Players of aSummer Game, and Other Stories [London: J. M.Dent, 1960]; in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted in One Arm, andOther Stories [New York: New Directions, 1967];Collected Stories [New York: Bantam Books,1994]); in The Night of the Iguana and Other Stories[London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“Rubio y Morena” (before 1948; published in PartisanReview, 15, no. 12 [1948] pp. 1293–1306; in NewDirections in Prose and Poetry, 15, no. 12 (1949); inHard Candy, A Book of Stories [Norfolk, Conn.: J.Laughlin, 1954]; in The Kingdom of Earth withHard Candy: A Book of Stories [New York: New


Directions, 1954]; in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted in CollectedStories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“Sabbatha and Solitude” (1973; published in Playgirl,1, no. 4 (1973); in Eight Mortal Ladies Possessed[New York: New Directions, 1974]; in CollectedStories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: Ballantine Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]) 6 pages in various pagings.

“Sand” (before 1976; published in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in CollectedStories [New York: Ballantine Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]).

“Something About Him” (before 1946; published inMademoiselle, 23, no. 2 (1946) pp. 168–169,235–239; in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Ballantine Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1994]).

“Something by Tolstoi” (1930–31); published in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inSunday Times (London, England), August 3, 1986,pp. 26–28 in Collected Stories [New York: Ballan-tine Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1994]).

“Ten Minute Stop” (around 1936; published in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Ballantine Books,1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [New York:New Directions, 1994]).

“Tent Worms” (1945; published in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in CollectedStories [New York: Ballantine Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1994]).

“Three Players of a Summer Game” (1951–52); pub-lished in Hard Candy, A Book of Stories [Norfolk,Conn.: J. Laughlin, 1954]; in The Kingdom of Earthwith Hard Candy: A Book of Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1954]; in Three Players of a SummerGame, and Other Stories [London: Secker & War-burg, 1960]; in Three Players of a Summer Game, andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985];in Collected Stories [New York: Bantam Books,1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1994]; in The Night of the Iguana andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).

“Twenty-seven Wagons Full of Cotton” (1935; pub-lished in Collected Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1985]; in Collected Stories [New York:Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories[New York: Bantam Books, 1994]).

“Two on a Party” (1951–52); published in HardCandy, A Book of Stories [Norfolk, Conn.: J.Laughlin, 1954]; in The Kingdom of Earth withHard Candy: A Book of Stories [New York: NewDirections, 1954]; in Three Players of a SummerGame, and Other Stories [London: Secker & War-burg, 1960]; in Three Players of a Summer Game,and Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; inCollected Stories [New York: New Directions,1985]; in Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1986]; reprinted in Collected Stories [NewYork: Bantam Books, 1994]; in The Night of theIguana and Other Stories [London: J. M. Dent,1995]).

“The Vengeance of Nitocris” (1928, published inWeird Tales, 12, no. 2 (1928) pp. 253–260; in ThePulps: Fifty Years of American Pop Culture [NewYork: Chelsea House, 1970]; in Collected Stories[New York: New Directions, 1985]; in Master-pieces of Terror and the Supernatural [New York:Doubleday & Co., 1985]; in Collected Stories [NewYork: Bantam Books, 1986]; reprinted in CollectedStories [New York: Bantam Books, 1994]; First Fic-tion: An Anthology of the First Published Stories byFamous Writers [Boston: Little, Brown, 1994]; andInto the Mummy’s Tomb [New York: Berkley Books,2001]).

“The Vine” (1939–44; published in Mademoiselle, 39,no. 3 (July 1954) pp. 25–30; Hard Candy, a Book ofStories [Norfolk, Conn.: Laughlin, 1954]; in TheKingdom of Earth with Hard Candy: A Book of Sto-ries [New York: New Directions, 1954]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]).

“The Yellow Bird” (before 1947; published in OneArm, and Other Stories [New York: New Direc-tions, 1948]; in Three Players of a Summer Game,and Other Stories [London: Secker & Warburg,1960]; in Three Players of a Summer Game, andOther Stories [London: J. M. Dent, 1960]; in Col-lected Stories [New York: New Directions, 1985]; inCollected Stories [New York: Bantam Books, 1986];reprinted in Collected Stories [New York: BantamBooks, 1994]); in The Night of the Iguana and OtherStories [London: J. M. Dent, 1995]).


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413

INDEX

Page numbers in bold-face indicate mainentries. Page num-bers in italic indicatephotographs.

Aabandonment

“Das Wasser istkalt” 75

“The Vine” 326Abbey, Mrs. 50–51, 53Abbott, Kirk 82–83Abdullah 44Abhfendierocker, Lady

114, 117abused wives

“The Interval” 107“Mother Yaws”

165–166“Accent of a Coming

Foot” 19Ackerman, Robert

Allan 234Actors’ Laboratory

Theatre 212Actress Invicta 157,

160, 163Adams, Tim 50, 51, 53Adamson, Eve 251Addy, Wesley 38adoption 334Aehle, Miss 223–224

aging The Frosted Glass

Coffin 84Hello from Bertha

101“The Interval”

106–108In the Bar of a Tokyo

Hotel 109“The Inventory at

Fontana Bella”112

The Last of My SolidGold Watches 135

Life Boat Drill135–136

A Lovely Sunday forCreve Coeur 144

“Man Bring This UpRoad” 148

The Milk TrainDoesn’t Stop HereAnymore 154

A Perfect AnalysisGiven by a Parrot204–205

The Roman Spring ofMrs. Stone 233

“Sabbatha andSolitude” 244

“Sand” 244A Streetcar Named

Desire 274

Sweet Bird of Youth292–293

This Is the PeaceableKingdom or GoodLuck God303–304

The TravellingCompanion310–311

Ahmed 114–116Albee, Edward 339alcohol and drug use

12–13, 219Alden, Hortense 253,

283Aldredge, Tom 299,

325Alfieri, Richard 325alienation. See also iso-

lation; outcastsThe Glass Menagerie

88–89“Mother Yaws”

165–166“Something About

Him” 248alienation effect

88–89All Gaul Is Divided

19–22characters 22commentary 21synopsis 19–21

Alliance Theatre 308Alma. See also

Tutwiler, Alma;Winemiller, AlmaStairs to the Roof

257, 259, 260Suddenly Last

Summer 284–287Alving, Mrs. 232Amanda 242, 243.

See also Wingfield,Amanda

The American 6, 339

American Academy ofArts and Letters339

American Blues 22, 55,74, 139

American Scenes 305American Shakespeare

Theatre 62American South. See

South, U.S.Anderson, David 36,

38Androgyne, Mon Amour

23And Tell Sad Stories of

the Death of Queens23–26characters 25–26commentary 25

And Tell Sad Stories ofthe Death of Queens(continued)compared to The

TravellingCompanion 310

synopsis 23–24“The Angel in the

Alcove” 26–27,168, 324

Antaeus 75antagonist 339–340ANTA Theatre 62antiheroes ix, 340Antonijevic, Predrag

“Gaga” 176Apparition 329, 330Apparition of Father

O’Donnell 265Ariadne (Spinster)

139–140Arkadina 185–187,

188–189artists in isolation/as

outcasts 12At Liberty 28Battle of Angels

38Clothes for a Summer

Hotel 67, 68Crane, Hart, and

263“In Memory of an

Aristocrat”105–106

In the Bar of a TokyoHotel 109

“The Poet”208–209


Ashe, Stephen117–118, 119

Ashley, Elizabeth 61,62, 340

Assunta 236–238, 240

Atkinson, Brooks 139,239

At Liberty 27–29August 250–251Augusta 106, 108Aunt Addie 141Aunt Ella 71Aunt Nonnie

289–291, 294Aunt Rose 138–139autobiographical works

The Angel in theAlcove 26

The Glass Menagerie90–91

“Grand” 97–98Moise and the World

of Reason162–163

The Night of theIguana 173

“The ResemblanceBetween a ViolinCase and aCoffin” 224

“Rubio y Morena”243


Something Cloudy,Something Clear251

The Strangest Kind ofRomance 267

Suddenly LastSummer 281

The Two CharacterPlay 316

Vieux Carré 324autobiography

(Memoirs) 162, 239,351

Auto-Da-Fé 29–30,118

awards 8, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 340

BBaby Doll 30–34, 31,

32characters 33–34commentary 33The Long Stay Cut

Short and 138public response to

12, 33synopsis 30–33Tiger Tail and 30827 Wagons Full of

Cotton and 312,313

Bacall, Lauren 366Bachardy, Don 162Baddeley, Hermione

154Baker 214–215Baker, Caroll 31, 32, 33Banfield, Raffaello 140Bankhead, Tallulah

154, 250, 252, 341Barbara 74–75Barman 108–109,

109–110Barnes, Clive 109Barrymore Theatre 276Bassett, Mrs. 285, 286,

287Bassett, Mrs. Nancy

80, 81Bates, Dorothy

206–208Bates, Ralph 206–208Battle of Angels 34–41

The Case of theCrushed Petuniasand 55

characters 38–41commentary 38compared to The

Kingdom ofHeaven, or TheSeven Descents ofMyrtle 125

Orpheus Descendingand 199–200

response to premiereof 8, 38

synopsis 34–38Webster, Margaret,

and 376Baudelaire, Charles

342Baugh, Doctor 57, 63Baxley, Barbara 207Bea 191–193Beatty, Warren 234Beau 310–311Beauty Is the Word 5,

41–42Beckett, Samuel 118,

221, 317, 341Becky 67Bedford, Brian 125Bel Geddes, Barbara

56, 59belladonna 233Bennie 36, 39Berkman, Leonard 274Bernie 166, 167, 168Bertha

Hello from Bertha101

I Rise in Flame, Criedthe Phoenix112–113

Stairs to the Roof258, 259, 260

Bessie 237, 240Beulah 35–37, 39Big Black 42–43“Big Black: A

Mississippi Idyll”42–43

Big Daddy 56–62,63–64

Big Edna 127, 131Big Lot 157, 163Big Mama 57–60, 62,

64


Bill Confessional 71–72,

72The Long Goodbye

137Billy 318The Billy Rose

Theatre Collection(New York PublicLibrary for thePerforming Arts)387

Binnings, Beulah 196,201

Binnings, Pee Wee196, 201

Birch, Thora 176Bird Girl 166, 168Birmingham Red

50–51, 53Bishop, Meg 225, 232,

234Black, James 183Blackie 150–154, 155Black Male Singer 67Black Masseur 77–78,

79Bland, Dolly 35–37,

39Bloom, Claire 220Blue Mountain Ballads

43, 342boardinghouse dramas

26, 168Bobby

Confessional 71–72“The Interval” 107,

108Small Craft Warnings

246, 247Bodenhafer, Beulah

19–21, 22Bodenhafer, Bodey

142–145Bodenhafer, Buddy

19–21, 22

body vs. soul (spiritualvs. physical) The Demolition

Downtown 75The Night of the

Iguana 174, 176Suddenly Last

Summer 286“Tent Worms” 302“The Yellow Bird”

332You Touched Me! 334

Boo-Boo 66, 67–68Boom! 155Booth Theatre 334Borin, Anne 105Boss Finley 289–292,

293, 294Boss Whalen 177–182,

183–184Boston (Massa-

chusetts) 38Bouwerie Lane Theatre

251Bowden, Charles 176Bowles, Jane 341–342Bowles, Paul 43, 78,

93, 342Bowles, Sonny 156Bowman, Archie Lee

138–139Bowman, Baby Doll

138–139Boy 221–223Brando, Marlon 38,

271, 276, 276, 342,342

Bray, Robert 163, 324Brecht, Bertolt 88–89Breton, André

342–343The Bridge (Crane)

261–264Brinda 147–148Brinda’s Mother

147–148

Bristol, Mrs. 177, 178,184

Brodsky, Bugsy 250,252

Brodzky, Jacob 249Brodzky, Lila 249–250Brodzky, Mr. 249, 250Brooks, Richard 294Brooksmire, Helena

142–145Bruno 167, 168Buchanan, Dr. John

284–286, 287Buchanan, John

79–81, 81Buchanan, John, Jr.

192–193, 284–286,287–288

Buchanan, Mrs.79–80, 82

Buggersmythe, Lord114, 116, 117

Burns, Anthony 46,77–78, 79, 146

Burton, Richard 155,176

Butterfield, Gloria128, 131

Byron, Lord. See LordByron

CCairo! Shanghai!

Bombay! 7, 43Camino Real 43–49

characters 48–49commentary 46–47compared to Stairs

to the Roof 260response to 12synopsis 43–46Ten Blocks on the

Camino Real and299

Campbell, Mrs. Patrick66–67, 68

Canary Jim 177–184“Can a Wife Be a Good

Sport?” 5Candles to the Sun

49–54characters 53–54commentary 52–53synopsis 49–52

cannibalism 281capitalism 47Capote, Truman 344Carl 105, 106Carollers 167–168Casanova, Jacques

Camino Real 43–46,48

Ten Blocks on theCamino Real 297,298, 299

The Case of the CrushedPetunias 54–56, 215

Cash, Dr. J. Planter264, 265

Cassidy, Claudia 10,92, 93, 344

Catharine 19Catherine of

Alexandria 282–283Cat on a Hot Tin Roof

56, 56–65, 59, 60,63, 64awards 12, 62characters 63–65commentary 60–62endings 60–61film version 60,

62–63, 64production history

62–63synopsis 56–60Taylor, Elizabeth, in

60, 64, 372, 373“Three Players of a

Summer Game”and 306

Celeste 166–169

Index 415

Chaplain 179, 180,184

Charlie 158, 160, 163Charlus, Baron de

Camino Real 44, 46,48

Ten Blocks on theCamino Real 297,299

Chekhov, Anton344–345The Notebook of

Trigorin and187–188

A Streetcar NamedDesire and 274

“The Vine” and326

chemical dependency12–13, 219

Chicken 119–126Christopher Street 311“Chronicle of a

Demise” 65–66chronology of life and

works 383–386Cincinnati Playhouse

in the Park 188Circle in the Square

Theatre 287Civic Theatre

(Chicago) 93Clare

Something Cloudy,Something Clear250, 252

The Two CharacterPlay 314–318

Clift, Montgomery 334Clothes for a Summer

Hotel 66–69characters 67–69commentary 67synopsis 66–67

Clove 117–118, 119Clown 198, 201

Clurman, Harold 200,345

coal-mining families52–53

Coburn, James 134Cocaloony Bird

95–96Coconut Grove

Playhouse 207Coffin, Isabel (grand-

mother) 3Coglan, Sheriff 308Collected Stories 375Collins, Miss Lucretia

210–212Collister, Judge 215,

218, 220Colton, Mr. Charlie

134–135Columbia University

Library 387Come Back, Little Sheba

(Inge) 352“The Coming of

Something toWidow Holly”69–70, 168

Companion 229, 234“Completed” 70–71,

215Complete Little Citizen

of the World 99,100

compromise 86, 244Confessional 71–73

compared to LifeBoat Drill 136

compromise astheme of 86

and Small CraftWarnings246–247

conformity vs. noncon-formity Battle of Angels 38Camino Real 47–48

“The ImportantThing” 104

Stairs to the Roof260

Conjure Man Battle of Angels

35–38, 39Orpheus Descending

197–199, 201Conley, Mark

108–109, 110, 367Conley, Miriam

108–109, 110connection. See also

alienation; isolationI Can’t Imagine

Tomorrow 102“The Malediction”

144“The Mysteries of

the Joy Rio” 169Small Craft Warnings

247Constantine 185–187,

188–189Contessa 225–226,

230, 234–235Cop 166, 168Cora 318corruption

Baby Doll 33“The Malediction”

146Cort Theatre 67Cosmos, Christopher

70cotton 313Cousin (“Chronicle of

a Demise”) 65, 66Cousins (“Hard

Candy”) 99–100Coward, Noel 155Coynte, Miss Valerie

115–116, 156–157Crane, Eva 177–182,

183, 184

Crane, Grace Hart261–262, 264

Crane, Hart 209,261–264

Creve Coeur 73, 144Crewcut 215–216, 220Critchfield, Esmerelda

254, 255Critchfield, Heavenly

compared to AlmaWinemiller 81

compared to FisherWillow 141

Spring Storm254–256

Critchfield, Lila 254,256

Critchfield, Oliver254, 256

Cronyn, Hume 212Cukrowicz, Doctor

279–281, 282–283Cutrere, Carol

197–199, 200, 201Cutrere, David 197,

198, 201

DDakin, Rosina Otte

(grandmother) 3,347“The Angel in the

Alcove” and26–27

“Grand” and 97–98The Long Stay Cut

Short and 138Vieux Carré and

324Dakin, Walter Edwin

(grandfather)346–347death of 12in New Orleans 11The Night of the

Iguana and 173


tour of Europe 5Williams’s child-

hood 3, 4Daly, James 207Danner, Blythe 81Dante’s Inferno 46“The Dark Room”

(short story) 73–74

The Dark Room (one-act play) 55, 74

“Das Wasser ist kalt”74–75

Davies, Howard 62Dawson, Leona 246,

247death

The Frosted GlassCoffin 84

“Grand” 97“The Inventory at

Fontana Bella”112

I Rise in Flame,Cried the Phoenix113


The Long Stay CutShort 138

A Lovely Sunday forCreve Coeur 144


“Oriflamme” 196Something Cloudy,

Something Clear251

Death of a Salesman(Miller) 363

Debusscher, Gilbert262, 263, 282

decay Cat on a Hot Tin

Roof 61

I Rise in Flame, Criedthe Phoenix 113

Sweet Bird of Youth293

deformity and mutila-tion The Mutilated 168One Arm (screen-

play) 194“One Arm” (short

story) 194The Remarkable

Rooming-House ofMme. Le Monde222

Delaney, Jim 209, 210Delany, Candy 23–24,

25De Leo, Father 236,

237, 240Del Lago, Alexandra.

See PrincessKosmonopolis

Delle Rose, Rosa236–238, 240

Delle Rose, Rosario236, 237, 240

Delle Rose, Serafina236–241Magnani, Anna, as

239, 360Stapleton, Maureen,

as 370, 371The Demolition

Downtown 75–77depression

Cat on a Hot TinRoof 61–62

Vieux Carré 324“Desire and the Black

Masseur” 77–79,86, 148

Devoto, Clare202–204

Devoto, Felice202–204

De Winter, Regis 70Di Cintio, Matt 162Di Leo, Conte Paolo

225–230, 232–233,235

disease Cat on a Hot Tin

Roof 61–62“Grand” 97–98“Mother Yaws”

165–166“Oriflamme” 196

Dobyne, Jimmy The Loss of a

Teardrop Diamond140–142

“Man Bring This UpRoad” 148–149

Doc Confessional 71–73Small Craft Warnings

246, 247Doctor John 33–34Doctor Sugar (Doctor

Cukrowicz)279–281, 282–283

Domingo, Florence 70Donald 326Doremus, Roger

The Eccentricities ofa Nightingale 80,81, 82

Suddenly LastSummer 285, 288

Dorn 186, 187, 189Douglas, Kirk 176Dowling, Eddie 9, 89,

93, 347Dragon Country 85Dramatists Guild 347Draya, Ren 78, 146Dreamer 44, 48A Dream Play

(Strindberg) 251drifters/fugitives

Battle of Angels 41

“The Gift of anApple 86

“The Malediction”146


drug and alcohol use12–13, 219

Dubinsky, Mr.Battle of Angels 35,

39Orpheus Descending

201DuBois, Blanche

268–278Bankhead, Tallulah,

as 241compared to Bertha

(Hello FromBertha) 101

compared to Clare(The TwoCharacter Play)316

compared toLucretia Collins(Portrait of aMadonna) 211

compared toMadame LaSorcière (“ItHappened theDay the SunRose”) 115–116

Leigh, Vivien, as358–359

St. Just, MariaBritneva, Lady, as368

Tandy, Jessica, as372, 372

Duff-Collick, SabbathaVeyne 243–245, 310

Duff-MacCormick,Cara 317

Index 417

Dugan, Trinket166–169, 310

Dull, Mrs. 54, 55Dullea, Keir 62Dunnock, Mildred 33,

62, 64Duricko, Erma 83Duvenet, Eloi 29–30,

214Duvenet, Madame

29–30Duvernoy, Prudence

43–44, 48

EE, Mr. 259, 260Eastside Playhouse 109The Eccentricities of a

Nightingale 79–82characters 81–82commentary 81synopsis 79–81“The Yellow Bird”

and 332Edouard 66–67, 68Eight Mortal Ladies

Possessed: A Book ofStories 82

Eldridge, Mrs. 329,330

Elena 212–214Elevator Boy 210–211,

212Elphinstone 98–99Emiel 245Endgame (Beckett)

118Ensemble Studio

Theatre 255entrapment. See also

liberation and free-domAt Liberty 28The Loss of a

Teardrop Diamond141

The Night of theIguana 175–176

Out Cry 203The Red Devil

Battery Sign 219Stairs to the Roof 260The Strangest Kind of

Romance 267Talk to Me Like the

Rain and Let MeListen 296


“The Yellow Bird”332

Erlanger Theatre 239Esmeralda


Ten Blocks on theCamino Real 297,298–299

Esquire 76, 96, 97,102, 120, 205, 207,302, 344

essays (Where I Live)327

Esslin, Martin373–374

euthanasia 306Ewell, Nellie 285, 286,

288exaggeration 78, 112existentialism 317expressionism 348. See

also plastic theatreCamino Real 47Pollock, Jackson,

and 366Something Cloudy,

Something Clear251


Ten Blocks on theCamino Real 299

Ffantasy vs. reality

The Case of theCrushed Petunias54–55

“Chronicle of aDemise” 66

“The Coming ofSomething toWidow Holly”69–70


The GnädigesFräulein 96

The Night of theIguana 173, 175

Farther Off from Heaven(Inge) 352

Father 212–213, 214Faulk, Maxine

171–172, 173–174,176

fear A Perfect Analysis

Given by a Parrot204–205


Federal Theatre Project7, 182

Federal Writers’Project (WorksProgress Admin-istration) 7–8, 381

Felice 314–318Fellowes, Miss Judith

171, 172, 174feminine sexuality

“It Happened theDay the SunRose” 115–116

The Kingdom ofEarth 122

“The Mattress bythe TomatoPatch” 149

“Miss Coynte ofGreene” 156–157

The Rose Tattoo238–239, 241

Ferrabye, Mrs.133–134

festivals 14, 388Fiddler, Celeste 250,

252Fiddler, Maurice 250,

252“The Field of Blue

Children” 82–84Finley, Boss 289–292,

293, 294Finley, Heavenly

289–292, 293, 294Finley, Tom, Junior

290, 291, 292, 294First Man (Battle of

Angels) 36, 39First Young Man (Now

the Cats with JewelledClaws) 191–193

Fisher, Aunt Cornelia140–142

Fitzgerald, F(rancis)Scott 66–67, 68

Fitzgerald, Zelda Sayre66–67, 68

Five Young AmericanPoets 358

Flanders, Chris150–155

Flanner, Janet 348Flora

“The ImportantThing” 103–105

The Rose Tattoo237, 241

Fonda, Jane 207Foxhill, Miss 279, 280,

283


Foxworth, Billy301–302

Foxworth, Clara301–302

Franciosa, Tony 207Frank 250, 252freedom and liberation

Camino Real 47The Case of the

Crushed Petunias54–55




French Club Instructor329, 330

Frisbie, Leonard 109,110

The Frosted Glass Coffin84–85compared to Life

Boat Drill 136compared to This Is

the PeaceableKingdom 304

The Fugitive Kind 85Battle of Angels and

38Magnani, Anna, in

360Orpheus Descending

and 200fugitives/drifters

Battle of Angels 41“The Gift of an

Apple 86“The Malediction”

146The Milk Train

Doesn’t Stop HereAnymore 155

“Ten Minute Stop”301

GGallaway, Dorothea

142–145García Lorca, Federico

213, 238, 348Garden District 253,

283Gardner, Ava 176Gardner, Elyssa ixGatlinburg Doctor

165, 166Gautier, Marguerite



Gazzara, Ben 56, 62, 63The Gentleman Caller

9–10, 88George 169, 170Ghost of Vincent Van

Gogh 327, 330Ghosts (Ibsen) 232,

352Ghost Sonata

(Strindberg) 251“The Gift of an Apple”

85–86, 148Gilman, Richard 13,

265Giovanni 244, 245Girl

Battle of Angels 36,39

Hello from Bertha101

Stairs to the Roof258–259,260–261

Gladys The Knightly Quest

127, 128, 131“The Mysteries of

the Joy Rio” 169,170

The Glass Menagerie86–94, 89. See alsoWingfield, Amanda;Wingfield, Laura;Wingfield, Tomcharacters 93–94commentary 88–93compared to The

Mutilated 168compared to Stairs

to the Roof 259,260

compared to StepsMust Be Gentle262

Great Depressionand 183

The Long Goodbyeand 137

The Night of theIguana and173–174

“Portrait of a Girl inGlass” and209–210

production history9–10, 93

The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Mondeand 222

synopsis 86–88Taylor, Laurette, in

89, 373Vieux Carré and

324Glenville, Peter 317Gloria

Stopped Rocking264, 265

Will Mr. MerriwetherReturn fromMemphis?327–329, 330

Gluck, Sophie142–145

Gnädiges Fräulein95––97

The Gnädiges Fräulein95–97characters 96–97commentary 96Key West (Florida)

and 357The Mutilated and

168synopsis 95–96

Goforth, Mrs. Flora “Man Bring This Up

Road” 148–149The Milk Train

Doesn’t Stop HereAnymore150–155

Goldie 101Gonzales, Pablo 169,

170Gonzales, Papa 286,

288Gonzales, Rosa 285,

286, 288Goodall, Charlotte

171, 172, 174Gothic style 165–166Grand

“The Angel in theAlcove” and 324

“Grand” 97, 98“The Resemblance

Between a ViolinCase and aCoffin” 223–224

“Grand” 97–98Great Depression

Not AboutNightingales 182,183

Works ProgressAdministration(WPA) 381

Greaves, Horace 126,130, 131

Index 419

Grecco, Stephen303–304

Greene, Gloria Bessie27–29

Greenwich Village 162Gretchen 75,

106–107, 108Grey, Dr. 305, 306Grey, Isabel 305–306Grey, Mary Louise

305–306Griffin, Alice 62, 67,

238Griffin, Mr. 215–217,

220The Group Theatre

55, 165, 348–349Groves Theatre Guild

145Guardino, Harry 125Guilo 148, 149Guitar Player

The Purification212–213, 214

Ten Blocks on theCamino Real297–299, 300

Gum, Mr. 257, 261Gutman, Mr.



Gwynne, Fred 62Gypsy



HHack, Keith 144, 325Hale, Allean 260Hall 221–223

Hamilton, Bud 19Hamlet 316Hamma, Dog 196, 201Hamma, Dolly 196, 201Handsome Youth

327–329, 330–331“Happy August the

Tenth” 98–99, 253,362

“Hard Candy”99–100, 169

Hardwicke-Moore,Mrs. 132–133

Harmon, Mark 294Harper, Bob 134–135Harry Ransom

HumanitiesResearch Center(University of Texasat Austin) 387–388

Haskell 248Haverstick, George

206–208Haverstick, Isabel

206–208Hawaiian Lady 109,

110Haydon, Julie 89, 93Hazel 250, 252Heckler 291, 294–295Helen 257, 261Helen Hayes Theatre

207Hellman, Lillian 350Hello from Bertha

101–102, 305Hemingway, Ernest 67,

68–69Hemingway, Hadley

67, 69Henry 166, 169Hepburn, Katharine

283Herlie, Eileen 204heroes ix, 42, 129,

139, 340

Hewes, Henry 109,113

Higginbotham, Bessie204–205

Hill, George Roy 207Hingle, Pat 62Hitchhiker 85–86, 146Hoffman, Hans 366Hohengarten, Estelle

236, 237, 241Hohenzalt-Casalinghi,

Principessa Lisabettavon 111–112

Holland, Willard 363Hollis, Stephen 188Holly, Catharine

279–283Holly, George

280–281, 283–284Holly, Isabel 69–70, 70Holly, Mrs. 280–281,

284Holmesburg Prison

Strike 53, 182The Homecoming

(Pinter) 222homosexuality

350–351And Tell Sad Stories

of the Death ofQueens 23–26

“The Angel in theAlcove 26–27

Auto-Da-Fé 29–30“Desire and the

Black Masseur”77–78

“Happy August theTenth” 98–99

“Hard Candy”99–100

“The Interval”106–108

“The Killer Chickenand the ClosetQueen” 117–119

“Mama’s Old StuccoHouse” 147–148

“Miss Coynte ofGreene” 156

Moise and the Worldof Reason 162

“The Mysteries ofthe Joy Rio”169–170

Now the Cats withJewelled Claws192

poetry and 23Something Cloudy,

Something Clear251

Something Unspoken253

Steps Must Be Gentle262

A Streetcar NamedDesire 274, 277


The TravellingCompanion 310

honorary degrees 13,340

Hooks, Robert 134hopelessness 296Hopkins, Miriam 38Horne 98–99Hot Milk at Three in the

Morning 102, 164Howard, Ron 150Hubbell, Eunice

268–273, 278Hubbell, Steve 269,

278Hudson Guild Theatre

144hunger and satisfaction

“The Gift of anApple” 86





Hunt, William 72Hunter, Jack 237, 238,

241Hunter, Kim 276, 351Husband (Winston

Tutwiler) 139, 140Huston, John 176Hutton, Jim 207

IIbsen, Henrik 6, 232,

352, 364I Can’t Imagine

Tomorrow 102–103,296

Ida 242, 243illness

Cat on a Hot TinRoof 61–62

“Grand” 97–98“Mother Yaws”

165–166“Oriflamme” 196

“The Important Thing”19, 103–105

Indian Joe 95–96, 97Inge, William 339,

352inheritance and legacy

Cat on a Hot TinRoof 62

“The Kingdom ofEarth” 120

“In Memory of anAristocrat”105–106

Intern 67, 69International Shoe

Company 4, 5–6,91, 135, 259,352–353

Internet resources387–388

“The Interval”106–108, 326

In the Bar of a TokyoHotel 108–110Beckett, Samuel,

and 341characters

109–110commentary 109Pollock, Jackson,

commemorated in367

synopsis 108–109In the Winter of Cities

110–111“The Inventory at

Fontana Bella”111–112

Ionesco, Eugene 221Irene 105–106Irenée (Old Woman)

139–140I Rise in Flame, Cried

the Phoenix112–114

Irish Repertory Theatre311

Irma 85–86Isherwood, Christopher

162, 353isolation

At Liberty 28The Dark Room 74“Hard Candy” 100I Can’t Imagine

Tomorrow 102A Lovely Sunday for

Creve Coeur 144The Mutilated 168“The Mysteries of

the Joy Rio” 169Now the Cats with

Jewelled Claws192

“The Poet”208–209

“A Recluse and HisGuest” 215

The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde221–222

Steps Must Be Gentle263

This Property IsCondemned 305

Italy 11, 239, 362“It Happened the Day

the Sun Rose”114–117

Ivanhoe Theatre 204Ives, Burl 56, 59, 62,

63, 64

JJack in Black 167,

168, 169Jacobus, Jackie 105Jane

Battle of Angels(Second Girl) 35,39–40

Moony’s Kid Don’tCry 164, 165

Jelkes, Hannah171–173, 175, 176

Jelkes, Miss Edith170–171

Jim Not About

Nightingales(Canary Jim)177–184

Stairs to the Roof257, 259, 261

Jimmie (“TheInterval”) 106–107,108

Joe Battle of Angels 39

The Long Goodbye137

Not AboutNightingales178–181, 184

John 103–105John F. Kennedy

Center for thePerforming Arts 25

Johnson, Jerry 23–24,25

Johnson, Karl 325Johnstone, Anna Hill

294Jones, Agnes 167, 169Jones, Jack 156, 157Jones, Margo 354,

354–355The Glass Menagerie

93The Last of My Solid

Gold Watches 135The Purification 214Stairs to the Roof

260Suddenly Last

Summer 287You Touched Me!

334Jordan, Glenn 102Judge 212, 213, 214Judge Collister 215,

218, 220Julie 140–141, 142

KKahn, Michael 25, 62Kamrowski 242, 243Kane, Gladys 76–77Kane, Mr. 75–76, 77Kane, Mrs. 75–76, 77Kane, Richard 325Kane, Rosemary 76,

77Kaplan, Mark 105Karl 23–24, 25

Index 421

Kazan, Elia 356Baby Doll 33on Blanche DuBois

275Camino Real 48Cat on a Hot Tin

Roof 61Death of a Salesman

(Miller) 363A Streetcar Named

Desire 277, 294Sweet Bird of Youth

294Keathley, George 204,

294Keats, John 179, 182Kedrova, Ernie 149Kedrova, Olga 149Keener, Lucinda

20–21, 22Kelsey, Mr. 84, 85Kennedy Center for

the Performing Arts25

Kerr, Deborah 176Key West (Florida)

356–357, 362, 388Kiernan, Kip 8, 173“The Killer Chicken

and the ClosetQueen” 117–119

Kilroy Camino Real 44–47,

48–49Ten Block on the

Camino Real297–299, 300

Kimball, Anna 196King del Rey

215–220“The Kingdom of

Earth” (short story)119–120

The Kingdom of Earth(one-act play)120–122

The Kingdom of Heaven,or The SevenDescents of Myrtle122–126characters 125–126commentary

124–125synopsis 123–124

Kip 250, 252Klaus 74–75, 214–215The Knightly Quest

126–132characters 131–132commentary

129–131synopsis 126–129

The Knightly Quest andOther Stories 97

Knight, Shirley 144Kolin, Philip 84, 108Kowalski, Stanley

268–276, 278–279Brando, Marlon, as

271, 276, 342compared to

Chicken (TheKingdom of Earth)120

Kowalski, Stella268–273, 276, 279,351

Kramer, Archie 286,288

Kramer, Hazel 83, 245Kramer, Richard E. 366Krasner, Lee 109Krenning, Alvin

23–24, 25–26Krenning, Jimmy

147–148Kroger, Emiel 169, 170Krupper, Mr. 99–100

LLady Abhfendierocker

114, 117

The Lady of LarkspurLotion 132–133, 324

“The Lady’s BeadedBag” 133–134

Lakeside SummerTheatre 253

La Madrecita de LasSoledades Camino Real

44–46, 49Ten Blocks on the


Lambert, Gavin 116Lancaster, Grace

253–254Lance 158, 159,

163–164Landau, Jack 299landladies 8

“The Angel in theAlcove 26, 27

“The Coming ofSomething toWidow Holly” 70

The Lady of LarkspurLotion 132, 133

“The Malediction”146–147

The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde222

The Strangest Kind ofRomance266–268

Lane, Mr. 76, 77Lane, Mrs. 76, 77Langella, Frank 81Lanier, Sidney 358La Niña 218–219, 220La Sorcière, Madame

114, 116, 117The Last of My Solid

Gold Watches134–135

The Last of the MobileHot Shots 120, 134

Laughlin, James 339,358

Lawrence, D. H. I Rise in Flame, Cried

the Phoenix112–113

You Touched Me!334

Lawrence, Frieda112–113

Lawrence, Jane 162Leachman, Cloris 150Lee, Sherri Parker 183legacy and inheritance

Cat on a Hot TinRoof 62


Leigh, Vivien 234,277, 358–359

Leighton, Margaret176

Le Monde, Madame221–223

Lena 101Lenya, Lottie 299Leona 71–72, 73Leonard, Olive 162Leverich, Lyle x, 14,

41–42, 245Levin, Lindy 174liberation and freedom

Camino Real 47The Case of the





Librarian 328, 331libraries 387–388



Lightfoot, Ruby 307,308–309

Lindfors, Viveca 113Lisabetta 111–112living newspaper style

182Lolly’s Theatre Club

296Londré, Felicia

Hardison 74loneliness. See also

alienation; isolation“The Coming of

Something toWidow Holly” 70

Confessional 72“Hard Candy” 100Hello from Bertha

101A Lovely Sunday for

Creve Coeur 144“Mama’s Old Stucco

House” 147The Mutilated 168“The Mysteries of

the Joy Rio” 169Small Craft Warnings

247“Something About

Him” 248Steps Must Be Gentle

263The Strangest Kind of

Romance 267The Two Character

Play 317“Two on a Party”

318Vieux Carré 324“The Vine” 326

Longacre Theatre 96,168

The Long Goodbye136–138

The Long Stay CutShort, or theUnsatisfactory Supper33, 138–139, 313

Loon 36, 39Lord Buggersmythe

114, 116, 117Lord Byron (George

Gordon, Lord Byron)45, 46, 49, 140

Lord Byron’s Love Letter139–140, 215

The Loss of a TeardropDiamond 140–142

Lot 119–126Louise 327–329, 331,

366love

as commodityPeriod of

Adjustment207

The TravellingCompanion310

deceptions of“The Interval”

107the quest for

“Happy Augustthe Tenth”98–99

Now the Cats withJewelled Claws192–193

The Roman Springof Mrs. Stone232

Ten Blocks on theCamino Real299, 300

A Lovely Sunday forCreve Coeur142–145and All Gaul Is

Divided 21

characters 144–145commentary 144synopsis 142–144

Lowry, Jane 144Lucca, Mrs. 73Lucio 146–147Lucretia 302–304Ludlam, Edward 313Luisa 212, 213, 214Luke 301Lullo, Dr. 150, 155Lumet, Sidney 134Lyceum Theatre 317Lynch, Finbar 183Lyons, Sue 176

MMabie, Edward Charles

7, 255, 360MacDonald, Pirie 55Machiz, Herbert 109,

154, 253, 283Madame La Sorcière

114, 116, 117Madden, Donald 109,

204Mademoiselle 248, 326Madge


Stopped Rocking264, 265

Maggie the Cat. SeePollitt, Margaret(Maggie the Cat)

magical realism “Chronicle of a

Demise” 66“The Coming of

Something toWidow Holly” 70


A Streetcar NamedDesire 277

The Magic Tower 145Magnani, Anna 38,

239, 360, 361, 365Mahler, Franz 246Maine Theatre Arts

Festival 72, 247Maitre 244, 245Malden, Karl 33“The Malediction”

145–147“Mama’s Old Stucco

House” 147–148Man (Talk to Me Like

the Rain and Let MeListen) 296

Manager 191–193“Man Bring This Up

Road” 148–149, 154Mangiacavallo, Alvaro

237–238, 241–242Manhattan Theatre

Source 83Manuscript 312Margo Jones Theatre

354marriage

“The Interval” 107“Mother Yaws”

165–166Period of Adjustment

207Spring Storm 255

Martin, Nan 113Martin Beck Theatre

48, 200, 239, 294Mary Maude 320, 321,

325Masha 185–187, 189Matron 139, 140“The Mattress by the

Tomato Patch” 149Maxie 166, 169McBurney, Clark Mills

7, 150McCabe, Terrence

218–219, 220

Index 423

McCarthyism 129McClintic, Guthrie

334McCool, Rosemary

70–71McCool, Sally 71McCool, Tye 320–323,

324–325McCorkle, Aunt Rose

Comfort Baby Doll 31–33, 34Tiger Tail 307, 308,

309McCorkle, Barle

165–166McCorkle, Bill 246,

247McCorkle, Tom

165–166McCorkle, Vinnie 141,

142McCullers, Carson 10,

360–362McCullers, Reeves

361McGillicuddy, Mr. 206,

208McGillicuddy, Mrs.

206, 208McIlhenny, Julia 229,

235Me, Vashya 149–150Meacham, Anne 109,

283Medea 174–175Medvedenko 185–187,

189–190Meighan, Archie Lee

Baby Doll 30–33,34

Tiger Tail 307–308,309

Meighan, Baby Doll Baby Doll 30–33, 34Tiger Tail 307–308,

309

Meighan, Flora312–313

Meighan, Jake312–314

Meighan, Mrs. Jake311–312

Melton, Fred 380Melton, Reverend

Guildford 333–334Memoirs 162, 239,

351mental illness. See

Williams, Rose Isabel(sister)

Merchant Seaman250, 252

Mère 156, 157Merlo, Frank 11, 12,

362“Happy August the

Tenth” and 99The Milk Train

Doesn’t Stop HereAnymore and154

The Rose Tattoo and239

Merrick, David 369Merriweather, Flora

204–205Merriweather, Mr. 327,

329, 331Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

(MGM) 9, 88,362–363

Mexico 173MGM. See Metro-

Goldwyn-Mayer Michele Moon 116,

156, 157A Midsummer Night’s

Dream(Shakespeare) 118

Mielziner, Jo 62, 294,363

The Migrants 150

Mike 156, 157Miles, Dick

compared to Fisher Willow(The Loss of aTeardropDiamond) 141

Spring Storm254–255, 256

Miles, Richard223–224

Miles, Sylvia 325The Milk Train Doesn’t

Stop Here Anymore150–155characters 155commentary 154synopsis 150–154

Miller, Arthur 363Mills, Clark 7, 150Minister 194Mint 221–223Mirren, Helen 234Miss Carrie 320, 321,

325“Miss Coynte of

Greene” 156–157Mississippi 3–4, 5Mississippi Writers Page

Online 388Miss Lucy 290, 291,

292, 295Mitchell, Harold

(Mitch) 268–273,274, 275, 279

Moise 157–158,160–162, 164

Moise, Matt H. 162Moise and the World of

Reason 157–164characters

163–164commentary

162–163synopsis 157–162

Molly 95–96, 97

Monk Confessional 71–72,

73Small Craft Warnings

246, 247–248Moon 156, 157Moony 164, 165Moony’s Kid 164,

165Moony’s Kid Don’t Cry

55, 164–165Moore, Charlotte

144Morgan, Miss 73–74Morosco Theatre 62,

81Mother

At Liberty 27–29,29


“Portrait of a Girlin Glass209–210

The Purification213, 214

mother-son relation-ships The Eccentricities of

a Nightingale 81,82

“The Killer Chickenand the ClosetQueen” 118

Moise and the Worldof Reason 163

The Notebook ofTrigorin 188–189

Steps Must Be Gentle261–262

“Mother Yaws” 164,165

A Moveable Feast(Hemingway) 67

The Mummers 52,183, 363, 368–369


Murphy, Ben 257–260,261

Murphy, Gerald 66,69

Murphy, Sara 66, 69Murray, Natalia Danesi

348Murray, Peg 144Musso 266–268The Mutilated

166–169mutilation and defor-

mity The Mutilated 168in One Arm (screen-

play) 194in “One Arm”

(short story) 194The Remarkable

Rooming-House ofMme. Le Monde222

“My Grandmother’sLove Letters”(Crane) 263

Myra. See alsoTorrance, Myra“The Field of Blue

Children” 82–83,83–84


Myrtle 119–126“The Mysteries of the

Joy Rio” 100,169–170

Nnames of characters,

lack of 84Narrator

“The Angel in theAlcove 26, 27

“In Memory of anAristocrat” 105,106

Moise and the Worldof Reason157–164

“The ResemblanceBetween a ViolinCase and aCoffin” 223–224

narrator, second person249

Nazimova, Alla 6, 352,364

Neilson, Hertha 254,256

Nelson, Benjamin 207Nettleton, Lois 207Nevrika 214–215New Dimensions 113New Directions 339,

358New Directions in Prose

& Poetry 70, 78,243

Newman, Paul 62, 64,292, 294

New Orleans (Louisi-ana) 7–8, 10, 11,364And Tell Sad Stories

of the Death ofQueens 25

“The Angel in theAlcove 26

Auto-Da-Fé 29The Lady of Larkspur

Lotion 132A Streetcar Named

Desire 274Vieux Carré 324

New Orleans LiteraryFestival 388

New School for SocialResearch 305

New Theatre (NewYork) 247

New York City 8, 162New Yorker 306, 348

New York PublicLibrary for thePerforming Arts 387

New York Times350–351

Nightingale 320–323,324, 325

The Night of the Iguana(play) 171–177awards 12characters

176–177commentary

173–176Crane, Hart, and

263production history

176synopsis 171–173

“The Night of theIguana” (short story)170–171

Nina 185–187, 190Nitocris 319, 320nonconformity vs. con-

formity Battle of Angels 38Camino Real 47–48“The Important

Thing” 104Stairs to the Roof

260Nonno 171–172, 173,

176–177Nora 327–329, 331Not About Nightingales


182–183synopsis 177–182

The Notebook ofTrigorin 185–191characters 188–191commentary

187–188

compared to TheTwo CharacterPlay 316

synopsis 185–187novella

The Knightly Quest126–132

novels Moise and the World

of Reason157–164

The Roman Spring ofMrs. Stone224–236

Now the Cats withJewelled Claws191–194characters 193–194commentary

192–193Merlo, Frank, and


Nunn, Trevor 183Nurse Porter 198, 199,

201Nursie 320, 323, 325nursing homes

303–304

OO’Brien, Margaret 9O’Connor, Jim 87–88,

90, 91–92, 93–94O’Donnell, Father 265O’Fallon, Butch

178–182, 184Officer

Camino Real 44, 49Ten Blocks on the

Camino Real 297,300

Older Writer 170–171Old Man 267, 268Old Woman (Irenée)

139–140

Index 425

Oliver (Battle ofAngels) 35, 39

Ollie Not About

Nightingales178–179, 184

One Arm (screen-play) 195

One The Frosted Glass

Coffin 84, 85I Can’t Imagine

Tomorrow 102The Milk Train

Doesn’t Stop HereAnymore 150,152, 153, 155


One, Mrs. (The FrostedGlass Coffin) 84, 85

One Arm (screenplay)195

“One Arm” (shortstory) 194

One Arm (short storycollection) 27, 66,78, 83, 105, 194

O’Neill, Eugene 364oppositions (opposing

forces) “Desire and the

Black Masseur”78

“Tent Worms” 302“Twenty-seven

Wagons Full ofCotton” 311–312

“Oriflamme”195–196

Orpheus Descending196–202artist as outcast in

12

Battle of Angels and38

characters 201–202commentary

199–200compared to The

Kingdom ofHeaven 125

production history200

Stapleton, Maureen,in 370

Sweet Bird of Youthand 293

synopsis 196–199Orpheus myth 200otherness 78outcasts 12. See also

alienation; artists;isolationAnd Tell Sad Stories

of the Death ofQueens 25


The Kingdom ofHeaven 122–126


The Mutilated 168“The Poet” 209

Out Cry 202–204Beckett, Samuel,

and 341The Two Character

Play and 317

PPage, Geraldine 365,

365–366Summer and Smoke

287, 287, 365Sweet Bird of Youth

292, 294, 365Paige, Mr. 20, 22Palmer, Barton 33

Palmer, Betsy 81Panza, Sancho



Parsons, Estelle 125Partisan Review 243Pasadena Playhouse

260past and present, coex-

istence of Camino Real 46Clothes for a Summer

Hotel 67The Long Goodbye

137Something Cloudy,

Something Clear251

Will Mr. MerriwetherReturn fromMemphis? 330

The Past, the Present,and Perhaps 182

Patten, Susie 70PBS 81, 102Peacock, Eddie 19–20,

22Pearce, Braden

126–129, 130, 131Pearce, Gewinner

126–131Pearce, Nelly 126–128,

131Pearce, Violet

126–131Peasant 297, 300A Perfect Analysis Given

by a Parrot 204–205Period of Adjustment; or

High Point over aCavern, A SeriousComedy 206–208

Perla 217–220

Permanent Transient95, 97

Perrine, Valerie 294Pharaoh 318–319, 320Phillips, Williams and

Owen 207Phoebe 333, 334–335Pictorial Review

Magazine 366Pilcher, Bram 50–52,

53Pilcher, Fern 50–52,

53–54Pilcher, Hester 50–51,

54Pilcher, Joel 50–52,

54Pilcher, Luke 50–52,

54Pilcher, Star 50–52, 54Pinter, Harold

221–222, 366Pirandello, Luigi 317plastic theatre 366

The Glass Menagerie92

The Notebook ofTrigorin 188


Playboy 112–113, 156,215

Playgirl 244Playhouse Theatre

(New York) 93, 212,313

Playhouse Theatre(Nottingham) 325

plays. See also plays,one-actBattle of Angels

34–41Camino Real 43–49Candles to the Sun

49–54


Cat on a Hot TinRoof 56, 56–65,59, 60, 63, 64

Clothes for a SummerHotel 66–69

The Eccentricities ofa Nightingale79–82

The Glass Menagerie86–94, 89

The Kingdom ofHeaven, or TheSeven Descents ofMyrtle 122–126

A Lovely Sunday forCreve Coeur142–145

The Milk TrainDoesn’t Stop HereAnymore150–155

The Mutilated166–169

The Night of theIguana 171–177

Not AboutNightingales177–185

The Notebook ofTrigorin185–191

Orpheus Descending196–202

Out Cry 202–204Period of Adjustment;

or High Point overa Cavern, ASerious Comedy206–208

The Red DevilBattery Sign215–221

The Rose Tattoo236–242

Small Craft Warnings246–248

Something Cloudy,Something Clear250–253

Spring Storm254–256

Stairs to the Roof256–261

A Streetcar NamedDesire 268–279

Suddenly LastSummer284–289

Sweet Bird of Youth289–296

Tiger Tail 307–309The Two Character

Play 314–318Vieux Carré

320–326Will Mr. Merriwether

Return fromMemphis?327–331

You Touched Me!332–335

plays, one-act American Blues (col-

lection) 22And Tell Sad Stories

of the Death ofQueens 23–26

At Liberty 27–29Auto-Da-Fé 29–30Beauty Is the Word

41–42The Case of the


Confessional 71–73The Dark Room

74The Demolition

Downtown75–77

The Frosted GlassCoffin 84–85

The GnädigesFräulein 95–97

Hello from Bertha101–102

Hot Milk at Three inthe Morning 102

I Can’t ImagineTomorrow102–103

In the Bar of a TokyoHotel 108–110

I Rise in Flame, Criedthe Phoenix112–114

The Kingdom ofEarth 120–122

The Lady of LarkspurLotion 132–133

The Last of My SolidGold Watches134–135



The Long Stay CutShort, or theUnsatisfactorySupper 138–139

Lord Byron’s LoveLetter 139–140

The Magic Tower145

Moony’s Kid Don’tCry 164–165


A Perfect AnalysisGiven by a Parrot204–205

Portrait of aMadonna210–212

The Purification212–214


Something Unspoken253–254

The Strangest Kind ofRomance266–268

Suddenly LastSummer279–284

Talk to Me Like theRain and Let MeListen 296

This Is the PeaceableKingdom or GoodLuck God302–304

This Property IsCondemned304–305


27 Wagons Full ofCotton 312–314

27 Wagons Full ofCotton and OtherOne-Act Plays(collection) 314

play within a play 204,317

playwright characters The Notebook of

Trigorin 188–189Out Cry 203–204Something Cloudy,

Something Clear250–251

Pocciotti, Mrs. 74Pocciotti, Tina 74Poe, James 287Poet 208–209“The Poet” 208–209

Index 427

poetry Androgyne, Mon

Amour 23Blue Mountain

Ballads 43In the Winter of

Cities 110–111Police Officer

The Case of theCrushed Petunias54, 55

Confessional 72, 73Polina 186–187, 190Pollitt, Brick

Cat on a Hot TinRoof 56–62, 64

“Three Players of aSummer Game”305–306

Pollitt, Gooper 57–60,64–65

Pollitt, Mae 56–60, 65Pollitt, Margaret (Mag-

gie the Cat) (Cat ona Hot Tin Roof )56–62, 65compared to

Madame LaSorcière (“ItHappened theDay the SunRose”) 115–116

compared toMargaret Pollittin “Three Playersof a SummerGame” 306

Taylor, Elizabeth, as372, 373

Pollitt, Margaret(“Three Players of aSummer Game”)305–306, 307compared to Maggie

the Cat (Cat on aHot Tin Roof) 306

Pollock, Jackson 109,366–367

Polly 95–96, 97Porter 210–211, 212“Portrait of a Girl in

Glass” 209–210The Glass Menagerie

and 88, 209“The Resemblance

Between a ViolinCase and aCoffin” and 224

Portrait of a Madonna210–212

poverty Candles to the Sun

52–53“The Lady’s Beaded

Bag” 133–134The Two Character

Play 316Vieux Carré 324

A Prayer for the Wild ofHeart That Are Keptin Cages 256

Prescott, Orville 231Princess Fatima 114,

117Princess Kosmonopolis

(Alexandra DelLago) 289–292,293, 295, 365

Proust, Marcel 46Provincetown (Massa-

chusetts) 251Public Broadcasting

Service (PBS) 81,102

The Purification212–214characters 214commentary

213–214Sweet Bird of Youth

and 293synopsis 212–213

QQuaigh Lunchtime

Theatre 205Queen 178–181, 184Quentin 246, 248Quinn, Anthony 220Quintero, Jose 67,

125, 234, 287Quixote, Don


The Knightly Quest129


Rrace

Battle of Angels34–41

“Big Black: AMississippi Idyll”42–43

“Desire and theBlack Masseur”77–79


The Kingdom ofEarth 122,124–125

“Mama’s OldStucco House”147–148

“Miss Coynte ofGreene”156–157

Rachel 326Rag Picker 133–134Ralston, 302–304Rancher from Casa

Roja 212–213, 214rape


Portrait of aMadonna 211

A Streetcar NamedDesire 168

Rasky, Harry 308realism 366reality vs. fantasy

The Case of theCrushed Petunias54–55

“Chronicle of aDemise” 66




The Night of theIguana 173, 175

“A Recluse and HisGuest” 214–215

The Red Devil BatterySign 215–221characters 220commentary

219–220The Knightly Quest

and 129–130synopsis 215–219

Redfield, William 102Redford, Robert 305Redgrave, Corin 183Redgrave, Lynn 134,

188Redgrave, Vanessa

182, 183, 367Regan, Mrs. 37, 39religion

“Chronicle of aDemise” 65–66

The Rose Tattoo 238Suddenly Last

Summer 281–283


The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde168, 221–223

Renato 225–226, 235repressed sexuality

Auto-Da-Fé 29–30Baby Doll 33Battle of Angels 38“The Killer Chicken

and the ClosetQueen” 118

Orpheus Descending199–200


research libraries387–388

“The ResemblanceBetween a ViolinCase and a Coffin”11, 223–224

revenge Baby Doll 33“The Vengeance of

Nitocris” 319Reverend (Not About

Nightingales) 180,185

Reverend Tooker 57,59, 65

Rimbaud, Arthur 163,329, 331, 342

Rimbaud, Isabel 329,331

Ripley, Patricia 253Roberts, Meade 287Robertson, Cliff 200Rockley, Captain

Cornelius 333, 334,335

Rockley, Emmie333–334, 335

Rockley, FlightLieutenant Hadrian333–334, 335

Rockley, Matilda333–334, 335

Rodriguez Gonzalez,Pancho 243

Roman CatholicChurch 12, 13, 33

The Roman Spring ofMrs. Stone 224–236characters 234–236commentary

231–234hunger as theme in

86, 148Leigh, Vivien, in


Rosalio 212–213, 214Rose (“Sand”) 245Rose, Miss (“Some-

thing About Him”)248, 249

Rosemary The Eccentricities of

a Nightingale 80,82

Suddenly LastSummer 285–288

The Rose Tattoo236–242, 371Magnani, Anna, in

239, 360and Merlo, Frank

362and A Perfect

Analysis Given bya Parrot 205

Ross, Anthony 89, 93Royale Theatre 176Royal National Theatre

183Rubber, Viola 176“Rubio y Morena” 215,

242–243Rudy 150–151, 153,

155Ryder, Alfred 113

S“Sabbatha and

Solitude” 243–245Sailor Jack 177, 178,

185Saint (“Chronicle of a

Demise”) 65–66Saint Catherine

282–283Saint James Theatre

325St. Just, Maria

Britneva, Lady 368Saint Louis (Missouri)

4–5, 7, 368–370The American 6,

339International Shoe

Company 4, 5–6,91, 135, 259,352–353

The Mummers 52,183, 363,368–369

The Strangest Kind ofRomance 267

WashingtonUniversity 7,149–150, 376

Saint Sebastian281–282

Salesman 237, 242“Sand” 245satisfaction and hunger

“The Gift of anApple” 86




Savran, David 162Schneider, Alan 96,

168

Schubert Theatre 220

Schultz 178, 180, 181Scott, Cornelia

253–254screenplays

All Gaul Is Divided19–22

Baby Doll 30–34,31, 32

The Loss of aTeardrop Diamond140–142

The Migrants 150One Arm 195Senso, or The

Wanton Countess245–246

Stopped Rocking264–266

The Seagull (Chekhov)187–191, 274, 345

Second Girl (Jane) 35,39–40

Second Man (Battle ofAngels) 36, 40

second person narrator249

Second Young Man(Now the Cats withJewelled Claws)191–194

seduction Baby Doll 33“Twenty-seven

Wagons Full ofCotton” 311

“Two on a Party”318

Seidelman, ArthurAlan 325

Selby, David 81Senso, or The Wanton

Countess 245–246Serpieri, Livia 246

Index 429

The Seven Descents ofMyrtle 125, 246

sexuality. See alsohomosexualityand conformity

“The ImportantThing” 104

as expression of life“The Inventory

at FontanaBella” 112

“The Kingdom ofEarth”119–120

feminine“It Happened the

Day the SunRose” 115–116

The Kingdom ofEarth 122



The Rose Tattoo238–239, 241

“The YellowBird” 332

incestThe Purification

213male/female antago-

nism and attrac-tion 113

as remedy for isola-tionConfessional 72At Liberty 28

repressedAuto-Da-Fé

29–30Baby Doll 33Battle of Angels

38, 199–200

“The KillerChicken andthe ClosetQueen” 118

Orpheus Descend-ing 199–200


virginitySpring Storm 255

Shackelford, Dean 29,30

Shakespeare, William118

Shamrayev 186, 190Shannon, Arthur

254–255, 256Shannon, Reverend T.

Lawrence 171–177Shapiro, Bernice

302–304Shapiro, Dorothy

Bernice 7Shapiro, Saul 302–304Shaw, Irwin 276Sheen, Martin 299Shelterhouse Theatre

55Sherin, Edwin 220Sherwood, Madeleine

62short stories

“Accent of aComing Foot”19

“The Angel in theAlcove 26–27

“Chronicle of aDemise” 65–66


“Completed” 70–71“The Dark Room”

73–74

“Das Wasser ist kalt”74–75

“Desire and theBlack Masseur”77–79

Eight Mortal LadiesPossessed: A Bookof Stories 82

“The Field of BlueChildren” 82–84

“The Gift of anApple” 85–86

“Happy August theTenth” 98–99

“Hard Candy”99–100


“In Memory of anAristocrat”105–106

“The Interval106–108

“The Inventory atFontana Bella”111–112

“It Happened theDay the SunRose” 114–117

“The Killer Chickenand the ClosetQueen”117–119

“The Kingdom ofEarth” 119–120

“The Lady’s BeadedBag” 133–134

“The Malediction”145–147

“Mama’s Old StuccoHouse” 147–148

“Man Bring This UpRoad” 148–149



“The Mysteries ofthe Joy Rio”169–170

“The Night of theIguana”170–171

“One Arm” 194“Oriflamme”

195–196“The Poet”

208–209“Portrait of a Girl in

Glass” 209–210“A Recluse and His

Guest” 214–215“The Resemblance

Between a ViolinCase and aCoffin” 223–224

“Rubio y Morena”242–243

“Sabbatha andSolitude”243–245

“Sand” 245“Something About

Him” 248–249“Something by

Tolstoi”249–250


“Tent Worms”301–302

“Three Players of aSummer Game”305–307

“Twenty-sevenWagons Full ofCotton”311–312

“Two on a Party”318


“The Vengeance ofNitocris”318–320

“The Vine” 326“The Yellow Bird”

331–332Shubert, Lee 334Shukri, Muhammad

116Sicilian culture 239,

362Silva 136–137, 138Simple, Dorothy

54–55, 215Singer (Ten Blocks on

the Camino Real)300

Sister 223–224Sister Felicity 279,

280, 284Sister Grace 264, 265,

266Sister Grim 264, 265,

266Sister One 66, 69Sister Two 66, 69Skates, Miriam

157–160, 164Sky 322, 323, 325Slapstick Tragedy 168,

246Slim 167, 169Small Craft Warnings

246–248compromise as

theme of 86and Life Boat Drill

135–136Smith, Oliver 176Smith, Tony 162Smythe, Jimmie 117,

119“Something About

Him” 248–249“Something by Tolstoi”

249–250

Something Cloudy,Something Clear250–253, 362

Something Unspoken253–254, 354

Son (The Purification)212–213, 214

Sonny (Battle of Angels)36, 40

Sons of Mars (Sons ofConfederateVeterans) 205

Sophie 264, 265, 266Sorin 185–187, 190South, U.S. x, 370

Battle of Angels 38“Big Black: A

Mississippi Idyll”42

Hellman, Lillian350

The Loss of a Tear-drop Diamond141

Orpheus Descending200

Spring Storm 255A Streetcar Named

Desire 27527 Wagons Full of

Cotton 313“Twenty-seven

Wagons Full ofCotton” 312

Southern Gothic165–166

Spacek, Sissy 150Spangler, Billy

126–129, 130, 131Sparks, Jane 320–324,

325–326Spellman, Francis

Cardinal 12, 33Spinster (Ariadne)

139–140spinsterhood 141, 255

spiritual vs. physical(body vs. soul) The Demolition

Downtown 75The Night of the

Iguana 174, 176Suddenly Last

Summer 286“Tent Worms” 302“The Yellow Bird”

332You Touched Me!

334Spoleto Festival 144,

154Spoto, Donald 93, 99,

173, 213, 243, 318,362

Spring Storm 254–256Stairs to the Roof


259–260synopsis 257–259

Stallcup, Homer82–83, 84

Stanley, Kim 102Stapleton, Maureen

200, 239, 313, 370,371

Stark, Ray 176Starling, Jenny 19–21,

22State University of

Iowa (University ofIowa) 7, 182, 183,255, 360, 370–371

Steed, Harry 19–21,22

Stein, Roger B. 92Steps Must Be Gentle


261–262

“The Killer Chickenand the ClosetQueen” and 118

synopsis 261Steve

Confessional 71–72,73

Small Craft Warnings246, 248

Stevens, Ashton 93Steward 135–136Stewardess 135–136Stone, Karen 225–235

compared to TheTravellingCompanion 310

Leigh, Vivien, as359

Stone, Tom 227–228,232, 235

Stopped Rocking264–266

Story (magazine) 83The Strangest Kind of

Romance 266–268A Streetcar Named

Desire 10, 268–279,342Bankhead, Tallulah,

in 241Brando, Marlon, in

271, 276, 276,342, 342



Kingdom ofHeaven 125

Crane, Hart, and263

DuBois, Blanche10, 268–278Bankhead,

Tallulah, as241

Index 431

A Streetcar NamedDesire (continued)

compared toBertha (HelloFrom Bertha)101

compared toClare (TheTwo CharacterPlay) 316

compared toLucretiaCollins (Por-trait of aMadonna) 211

compared toMadame LaSorcière (“ItHappened theDay the SunRose”)115–116

Leigh, Vivien, as358–359

St. Just, MariaBritneva, Lady,as 368

Tandy, Jessica, as372, 372

Hunter, Kim, in351

premiere of 11production history

276–277synopsis 268–273

Streetcleaners Camino Real 44–45,

49Ten Blocks on the


Strindberg, August251, 330

Stuart 264–265, 266Studio M Playhouse

294

Stuff 331, 332Suddenly Last Summer

279–284artist as outcast in

12characters 283–284commentary

281–283compared to Auto-

Da-Fé 30Crane, Hart, and

263“The Killer

Chicken and theCloset Queen”and 118

synopsis 279–281Summer and Smoke



Eccentricities of aNightingale 81

Crane, Hart, and263

Page, Geraldine, in365

production history11, 287

synopsis 284–286Sunter, Ethel 51, 54surrealism 46, 342–343Survivor 44, 49Susie 206, 208Svenson, Janet

264–265, 266Svenson, Olaf

264–265, 266Sweet Bird of Youth

289–296artist as outcast in

12Crane, Hart, and

263

Page, Geraldine, in365

Pinter, Harold, and366

Swifty 178–181, 185Syndicate Plantation

Manager 311–312

TTalbot, Sheriff 198,

199, 201Talbot, Sheriff Jim

36–37, 40Talbot, Vee

Battle of Angels35–37, 40

Orpheus Descending197, 198, 201

Talk to Me Like the Rainand Let Me Listen296

Tallulah 250, 252Tandy, Jessica 48, 212,

276, 342, 372, 372Tangier (Morocco)

116Tappan Zee Playhouse

81Taske, Mr. E. Long

135–136Taske, Mrs. Ella

135–136Taubman, Howard

173, 339, 350–351Taylor, Elizabeth

372–373, 373Cat on a Hot Tin

Roof 59, 62, 64,372, 373

The Milk TrainDoesn’t Stop HereAnymore 155, 283


Sweet Bird of Youth294

Taylor, Laurette 9–10,89, 93, 365, 373

Taylor, William E. 111teachers 75, 107Temple, Blanch 35, 38,

40Temple, Eva

Battle of Angels 35,38, 40

Orpheus Descending197, 201

Ten Blocks on theCamino Real297–300


Tennessee 3Tennessee Williams in

Morocco (Shukri)116

Tennessee Williams/New Orleans LiteraryFestival 388

Tennessee WilliamsPerforming ArtsCenter 330

Tennessee WilliamsReads Hart Crane263

“Tennessee Williams’sFiction” (Wolter)116

Tennessee WilliamsSociety 388

“Tent Worms”301–302

Thatcher, Mr. B.Warren 257, 258,259, 261

theater, plays about203, 317

theater of the absurd373–374Beckett, Samuel,

and 341



I Can’t ImagineTomorrow 102

Now the Cats withJewelled Claws192

Pinter, Harold, and366



Theatre ’47 287, 354Theatre de Champs

Elysees 267Theatre de Lys 113The Theatre of Tennessee

Williams 304themes 38, 316. See

also specific themesThird Girl (Battle of

Angels) 35, 40Third Man (Battle of

Angels) 36, 40This Is the Peaceable

Kingdom or GoodLuck God 302–304

This Property IsCondemned304–305

Thompson, Miss 230,235–236

Three The Frosted Glass

Coffin 84, 85Will Mr. Merriwether

Return fromMemphis?328–329, 331

“Three Players of aSummer Game” 61,305–307

three-tiered writingmethod 73, 308

Tiger 167, 169Tiger Tail 307–309,

312, 313Time 33, 176time, coexistence of

past and present Camino Real 46Clothes for a Summer

Hotel 67The Long Goodbye

137Something Cloudy,

Something Clear251


Tischler, Nancy 263Tom 304–305Tony 246, 248Torrance, Jabe

Battle of Angels35–37, 40–41

Orpheus Descending197–199, 201

Torrance, Lady197–199, 200, 202Magnani, Anna, as

360Stapleton, Maureen,

as 370Torrance, Myra 35–37,

41transvestism

And Tell Sad Storiesof the Death ofQueens 23–26

Lot in The Kingdomof Heaven 125

Traveling Salesman81, 82


Trigorin 185–187, 188,191

Trout, Alicia 264–265,266

Truck and WarehouseTheatre 162, 247

Tufts, Deputy 308, 309Tulane University 313Turner, Lana 9Tutwiler, Alma

331–332Tutwiler, Mrs. 331–332Tutwiler, Reverend

Increase 331, 332Tutwiler, Winston

(Husband) 139, 14027 Wagons Full of

Cotton (one-actplay) 312–314

“Twenty-seven WagonsFull of Cotton”(short story)311–312

27 Wagons Full ofCotton and OtherOne-Act Plays 314

Two The Frosted Glass

Coffin 84, 85I Can’t Imagine

Tomorrow 102,103

The Milk TrainDoesn’t Stop HereAnymore 150,152, 153, 155


Two Bits 307, 308, 309The Two Character Play

314–318Beckett, Samuel,

and 341characters 317–318

commentary316–317

Out Cry and 203synopsis 314–316

“Two on a Party” 318Two Sons of Mars

204–205two-tiered writing

method 73Tynan, Kenneth 363

UUncle Pleasant

197–199, 202University of Delaware

Library 388University of Iowa. See

State University ofIowa

University ofMississippi 388

University of Missouri5, 13, 133, 134, 375

University of Texas atAustin 387–388

Upstairs Neighbor 21,22

VVacarro, Silva

312–314Vaccaro, Marion Black

318Vaccaro, Silva

Baby Doll 31–33, 34Tiger Tail 307–308,

309Van Gogh, Vincent,

Ghost of 327, 330Van Laan, Thomas

282Venable, Violet

279–281, 282, 284“The Vengeance of

Nitocris” 183,318–320

Index 433

Vernon 80, 82Vidal, Gore 120, 350,

375Vieux 310–311Vieux Carré 320–326


324–325synopsis 320–324

“The Vine” 326Violet


Small Craft Warnings246, 248

virginity 255Visconti, Luchino 245

WWaiter 204, 205Waiting for Godot

(Beckett) 317, 341Waitress 191–192,

194Wales, Caroline 250,

252–253Wallace, Mrs. 50, 54Wallach, Eli 31, 33,

48, 371war

The DemolitionDowntown 76


The Red DevilBattery Sign 219

Washington University(St. Louis) 7,149–150, 376

Waterfront Playhouse84, 205

Wayne, Chance289–293, 295

Webber, Robert 207Webster, Margaret 38,

376

Webster, Maude117–118, 119

Webster, Nat 117–118,119

Weird Show 215Weird Tales 319Whalen, Boss

177–182, 183–184Where I Live 327white 273White Barn Theatre

296Whiteside, Cassandra

35–38, 41compared to

Dorothy Simple55

compared to GloriaBessie Greene 28

Who’s Afraid of VirginiaWoolf? (Albee) 339

Wilbur Theatre 38Williams, Cornelius

Coffin (father) 3–5,376–377The Glass Menagerie

and 90, 91The Last of My Solid

Gold Watches and135

The Long Stay CutShort and 138

The Purification and213

“The ResemblanceBetween a Violinand a Coffin” and11

Williams, EdwinaEstelle Dakin(mother) 3–5, 10,377, 377–378The Glass Menagerie

and 90, 91Steps Must Be Gentle

and 262

Suddenly Last Sum-mer and 286–287

Taylor, Laurette, and373

Williams, Rose Isabel(sister) 377,378–379birth 4Clothes for a Summer

Hotel and 67“Completed” and 71electric shock

therapy 7The Glass Menagerie

and 90, 91institutionalization

of 6The Night of the

Iguana and 173“Portrait of a Girl in

Glass” and 210The Purification and

213–214“The Resemblance

Between a ViolinCase and aCoffin” and 224

royalties for care of11–12

“Something AboutHim” and 248

Stopped Rocking 265Suddenly Last

Summer and 281The Two Character

Play and 316Williams, Tennessee

(Thomas LanierWilliams III) 3–15,92, 161, 280, 323,356, 361, 369, 380acting debut 247autobiographical

worksThe Angel in the

Alcove 26

The GlassMenagerie90–91

“Grand” 97–98“The Mattress by

the TomatoPatch” 149

Moise and theWorld of Reason162–163

The Night of theIguana 173

“The Resem-blanceBetween aViolin Caseand a Coffin”224

“Rubio yMorena” 243


Something Cloudy,SomethingClear 251

The StrangestKind ofRomance 267



Vieux Carré 324autobiography

(Memoirs) 162,239, 351

awards 8, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 340

birth 3, 4childhood 4–5, 90,

377chronology of life

and works383–386

death 14


drug and alcohol use12–13, 219

European tour 5first dramatic work

5, 41–42first essay published

5first performed dra-

matic work 43health 4, 7, 8honorary degrees

13, 340International Shoe

Company and5–6, 91, 135, 259,352–353

Italy, trip to 11at Metro-Goldwyn-

Mayer (MGM) 9,88, 362–363

in Mississippi 3–4,5

in New Orleans7–8, 10, 11

in New York City 8partners

Inge, William339, 352

Kiernan, Kip 8,173

Merlo, Frank 11,12, 99, 154,239, 362

RodriguezGonzalez,Pancho 243

revival of interest inix, x, 14

in Saint Louis 4–5,5, 7, 368–370

at State Universityof Iowa 7,370–371

in Tennessee 7at University of

Missouri 5, 375

Williams, Walter Dakin(brother) 5, 13, 14,379–380

Willie 304–305Will Mr. Merriwether

Return fromMemphis? 327–331,366

Willow, Fisher140–142

Windham, Donald380, 380–381on The Roman

Spring of Mrs.Stone 231

You Touched Me!334, 380

Winemiller, Alma compared to Clare

(The TwoCharacter Play)316

compared to FirstYoung Man (Nowthe Cats withJewelled Claws)192–193

compared to GloriaBessie Greene (AtLiberty) 28, 29

The Eccentricities ofa Nightingale79–81, 82

Page, Geraldine, as365

Suddenly LastSummer 284–289

Williams, Edwina,and 378

Winemiller, Mrs. The Eccentricities of

a Nightingale79–80, 82

Suddenly LastSummer284–286, 289

Winemiller, Oliver 194Winemiller, Reverend

The Eccentricities ofa Nightingale79–80, 82

Suddenly LastSummer284–286, 289

Wingfield, Amanda compared to

Arkadina (TheNotebook ofTrigorin) 188–189

compared toMadame LeMonde (TheRemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde)222

compared toMaxine Faulk(The Night of theIguana) 173–174

The Glass Menagerie86–88, 91–92, 94

Taylor, Laurette, as373

Wingfield, Laura compared to Hannah

Jelkes 173compared to Mint

(The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde)222


“Portrait of a Girl inGlass” 209–210

Wingfield, Maggie 5Wingfield, Tom

as antihero 340compared to Ben

Murphy (Stairs tothe Roof) 260

compared to Boy(The RemarkableRooming-House ofMme. Le Monde)222

compared to Joe(The LongGoodbye) 137,138

compared toReverend T.LawrenceShannon (TheNight of theIguana) 173


“Portrait of a Girl inGlass” 209–210

Winnicott, D. W. 162Wire, Mrs. (Vieux

Carré) 26, 320, 322,323, 324, 325, 326

Wire, Mrs. Louise(New Orleans land-lady) 8

Wire, Mrs. Louise(The Lady ofLarkspur Lotion) 26,132–133

Witch of Capri 150,151, 155

Wolter, Jürgen C. 116Woman

Battle of Angels 35,41

Orpheus Descending197, 202

Talk to Me Like theRain and Let MeListen 296

Woman Downtown215–220

women’s liberation 156

Index 435

Wood, Audrey 11, 93,299, 381

Wood, Natalie 305Woods, Gregory 350working-class people

Candles to the Sun52–53

The Darkroom 74International Shoe

Company 6, 353“The Lady’s Beaded

Bag” 134Moony’s Kid Don’t

Cry 165Works Progress

Administration(WPA) FederalWriters’ Project 7–8,381

Writer The Lady of Larkspur

Lotion 132–133Vieux Carré

320–324, 326writing, the act of

163

XXavier, Valentine 358

Battle of Angels35–38, 41

Orpheus Descending199–200, 202

YYacowar, Maurice

62–63, 294Yakov 191

“The Yellow Bird” 81,286, 331–332

Yerma (García Lorca)238

York, Michael 317York, Miss 237, 242York Theatre 253, 283Young Artist 26, 27Young Man

Baby Doll 31, 34The Case of the

Crushed Petunias54, 55–56


The Roman Spring ofMrs. Stone224–231,233–234, 236

Young Negro 301You Touched Me!

332–335characters 334–335commentary 334Crane, Hart, and

263premiere of 10synopsis 333–334Windham, Donald,

and 334, 380

ZZeller, Dr. 66, 69


Critical Companion to Tennessee Williams

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