Contributions regarding the application of fuel cells in the passive houses domain

Investeşte în oameni! Proiect cofinanţat din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaţional Sectorial pentru Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 – 2013 Axa prioritară: 1 „Educaţia şi formarea profesională în sprijinul creşterii economice şi dezvoltării societăţii bazate pe cunoaştere” Domeniul major de intervenţie: 1.5 „Programe doctorale şi postdoctorale în sprijinul cercetării” Titlul proiectului: „Parteneriat interuniversitar pentru excelenţă în inginerie - PARTING” Cod Contract: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137516 Beneficiar: Universitatea Tehnică din Cluj-Napoca

BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Eng. Raluca - Andreea FELSEGHI

PhD THESIS

- Extended Abstract -

CONTRIBUTIONS REGARDING

THE APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELLS IN

THE PASSIVE HOUSES DOMAIN

Scientific Coordinator,

Prof. PhD. Eng. Gheorghe BADEA

PhD thesis evaluation commission:

Prof. PhD. eng. Daniela MANEA - Technical University of Cluj - Napoca

Prof. PhD. eng. Gheorghe BADEA - Technical University of Cluj-Napoca

Prof. PhD. eng. Ioan BORZA - “Politehnica” University of Timisoara

Prof. PhD. phy. Ioan ŞTEFĂNESCU - ICSI, Râmnicu Vâlcea

Prof. PhD. eng. Tudor POPOVICI - Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.

2015

THESIS ABSTRACT

FELSEGHI RALUCA - ANDREEA 1

EXTENDED ABSTRACT

Thesis title: "Contributions regarding the application of fuel cells

in the passive houses domain".

Scientific and technical objectives. Brief presentation:

In the present PhD thesis, for the first time in Romania are simultaneously and

interdisciplinary addressed, two different concepts with an important role in energy efficiency

and decarbonisation of the residential sector for sustainable development: passive house and

power generation systems based on hydrogen and fuel cells.

PhD thesis addresses the following issues:

Thorough studies regarding the possibilities of the implementation of fuel cell energy

systems in the field of residential buildings;

Identifying solutions of use, practicability of fuel cells and analyse of energetic,

economic and ecological performances of fuel cell power generation systems , simulated

virtual in different conditions and possibilities of use, in order to highlight the energy

efficiency of hydrogen based fuel cell of supporting the energy passive house;

Demonstrating the utility of the fuel cell in the energy support of the passive house in the

assumption of integration this technology within a system for generating electrical energy

from primary renewable sources, like an energy reserve to cover peak load of

consumption and intermittent, due to weather conditions, by exploitation of available

renewable sources and storage of this available through electrolytic hydrogen produced

locally within the system;

Demonstrating the utility of the fuel cell in the energy support of the passive house in the

assumption of integration this technology within a hybrid system that uses as resources

solar energy and hydrogen provided through distribution network into a future economy

based on hydrogen, in which case hydrogen production is outsourced and independent of

power generating system;

Demonstrating the utility, capability and energy efficiency of the fuel cell in energy

support of a passive house in the assumption of integration this technology as first and

only generated source of power into a future economy based on hydrogen;

Establishing general criteria for multi-objective optimization of these energy systems.

Keywords: passive house, hydrogen - energy carrier, fuel cell, power system,

sustainability and durability.

THESIS ABSTRACT


Thesis structure

Chapter 1 – General considerations

The first chapter presents an overview of national and international general context of

this research, being approached the subject linked to providing the necessary of energy for the

residential sector in compliance condition of natural environment protection and satisfy

economic and social restrictions in the context of multidisciplinary and complex concept of

sustainable development.

In this context, passive house buildings, as a standard of energy efficiency in buildings

area, sustained energetic by hydrogen, environmentally friendly energy carrier together with its

conversion technology - fuel cell, can play an important role in the efficiency and

decarbonisation systems power generation in stationary applications field.

Chapter 2 - Hydrogen energy and fuel cells - considerations regarding the current state

of art - critical analysis and research objectives

In the second chapter are presented general concepts that define the hydrogen like as a

secondary ecological energy carrier in a future age, post fossil fuels economy, being made a

comparison of the energy properties to highlight the advantages that has hydrogen, compare to

other fuels currently used. Then are reviewed the technologies for obtaining hydrogen, in

particular those using renewable resources for its production, in the same time was synthesized

information to highlight complexity unite hydrogen-based economy being analyzed the main

aspects related of the production, transportation, distribution, storage and use of hydrogen.

In addition, in this chapter have been presented general concepts that define the hydrogen

conversion technology in electricity or fuel cells, being synthesized information regarding on the

operating principle, as thermodynamics, energy and fuel cell electrochemistry. The main types of

fuel cells have been classified, are described briefly the main characteristics of each typology,

and then were discussed issues of current state of the art, power generation capability and

applications of this equipment in the stationary field on a worldwide level.

All this information was summarized and discussed critically, and from this analysis it

was concluded for the consumer passive house is preferable to use a fuel cell proton exchange

membranes which has a high efficiency in energy production, very low level harmful emissions,

the possibility of local production of electricity, aspects that make fuel cell one of the

alternatives for energy production, which aims to encourage smart growth based on knowledge

and innovation, durable and sustainable. Hydrogen and fuel cell represents an immediate

solution to solve publicized problems for the stationary power generation. As a result of critical

analysis on the current state of knowledge in the field were identified solutions use and

applicability of fuel cells, but not conditions of use, in order to highlight and demonstrate the

importance of fuel cell hydrogen energy in supporting passive house. Worldwide, this area still

faces significant challenges - technical, commercial and structural - that must be overcome

before fuel cells to realize the full potential that are capable.

THESIS ABSTRACT


As solutions use in power generation through the heating fuel cell hydrogen energy to

support the passive house were identified and traced for thesis research directions, such as the

case study for the completion of three situations:

Fuel Cell generates electricity from hydrogen based fuel that is produced electrolytically

by exploiting local renewable sources with back-up power role (stand-alone system);

The fuel cell generates electricity using hydrogen fuel that is produced outside the system

and delivered to the system via a distribution network, with part of the first power supply

with photovoltaic panels (hybrid system);

The fuel cell generates electricity using hydrogen fuel that is produced outside the system

and delivered to the system via a distribution network having first and unique role of

energy source.

Chapter 3 - Elements of energy efficiency in residential buildings. Particularity energy

performance of the passive house

In this chapter were synthesized conceptual aspects that define standardized passive

house, as summarized five basic conditions to be met simultaneously to obtain finally

construction with superior energy efficiency: insulation efficiency eliminate thermal bridges, tire

seal, ventilation heat recovery and last but not least, orientation and shading the building.

In order to create conditions for the realization of the case-study on passive house energy

sustaining fuel cell components, defined energy-related energy demand of such construction. In

this regard, the assumption that all energy needs will be provided with electricity, determined

energy needs of a building of 4 person (residents), with a surface of 160.00 m², located in Cluj -

Napoca, according to calculation methods specific to each operation, based on standards,

regulations and legislation.

The calculations have obtained the following data values: total energy required for

building is 6759 kWh / year, of which the energy required for space heating to 2106 kWh / year

is 31.15%, energy consumption for water heating is 2020 kWh / year is 29.90%, the energy

required for lighting installation and appliance consumption is 2088 kWh / year is 30.90% and

the calculated energy consumption of auxiliary equipment is 545 kWh / year, represent 8.05% of

the total energy requirements.

The building configured and subjected analysis in this chapter is energetic parameter

values in accordance with conditions imposed by the Passive House Institute certification,

Passive House Institute Darmstadt, Germany, which defined and standardized in terms of the

concept of peak energy efficient construction and performance building energy fall in energy

value for the passive house standard, namely: the need for heating energy ≤ 15 kWh / m² ∙ year,

and total energy need ≤ 120 kWh / m² ∙ year.

Chapter 4 - Performance analysis on power generation systems with hydrogen powered

fuel cell electrolytically produced locally by harnessing renewable energy sources

This chapter addresses one of the solutions for the use of fuel cells in sustaining power of

passive houses, namely the assumption that technology integration in a system for generating

electrical energy from renewable primary sources, within which takes over the function of power

reserve (back- up) to cover peak load and flicker due to weather conditions. Fuel cell technology

THESIS ABSTRACT


converts hydrogen (secondary source of energy) into electricity, hydrogen is produced

electrolytically in the system by exploiting local renewable sources available, so electricity

storage obtained from solar and wind primary sources being provided through hydrogen.

In the first part of the chapter was described the virtual environment of the study case, which

provides the overall data input the detailed information and special features on energy demand,

availability of renewable and energy conversion devices that were taken into account for setting

energy generation systems, and have been establish conditions were the simulations are carried

out by establishing the type of multi-objective optimization and control strategies of power

generation systems.

The second part of the chapter was devoted to the case study, here are configured,

simulate and analyze operational performance of the three energy systems in various conditions,

such as:

Energy system Solar Hydrogen Production electrolyte: SE - HS.

Energy system electrolytic production of hydrogen Wind: SE - HE.

Energy system electrolytic production of hydrogen Solar and Wind: SE - HSE.

The simulation results were summarized tabular and graphical form and discussed in an

analysis of the performance parameters recorded for each of the three energy systems. To

establish the optimal configuration to ensure a high degree of autonomy in operation and energy

efficient of the system was performed a comparative analysis of performance parameters, which

were discussed in parallel results in virtual simulations of the three types of system-HS, SE-HE

and SE-HSE. For consumer passive house located in Cluj Napoca configuration and ensures

optimum efficiency a power generation system using both types of renewable energy systems

electrolytic production of hydrogen Solar and Wind: SE - HSE. This system performs the

following parameters:

- Degree of autonomy from the national electricity distribution network by 99.8 %, and if

that solves the problem of ensuring local energy starting this type of system equipment can

operate decentralized 100 %;

- High use of renewable energy sources in total energy generated from solar and wind

38.3 % is used to support energy consumer, and 61.7 % is recovered by electrolysis into

hydrogen production;

- Fuel cell generates over a year of operation a total of 1883 kWh / year, respectively

11.76 kWh / m2 year, representing 27.70 % of the required annual building;

- Production of hydrogen in the system has a total annual value of 180.20 kg / year or

1.13 kg / m2 year is produced by the electrolyzer, which were used only 141.80 kg / year,

respectively 0.88 kg / m2 year for conversion into useful electrical energy consumer, the

difference can be used either to generate green energy to be injected into the national distribution

network, be valued as such in other applications;

- Carbon footprint is 978 kg CO2 / year, which is 6.12 kg CO2 / m2 year, by 81.3 %

lower than a traditional energy system that services standard consumer.

In the comparative study were set a series of analytical criteria detailed investigations

energy performance, economic and environmental aspects of systems for making decisions based

ranking systems capability and feasibility of each energy consumer support, custom criteria in

this study case, but can be used generally in various analyzes of similar energy systems for

various other applications such as stationary. Also, the model simulation setup and operation

described in the case study can be useful in the design and technological and economic design of

THESIS ABSTRACT


such energy systems that can be implemented in various applications such as stationary on the

residential, tertiary and industrial area.

Chapter 5 - Simulations regarding energy production of a hybrid system with

photovoltaic panel and fuel cell supplied with hydrogen of centralized distribution network

This chapter meets a future hydrogen-based economy, which ensures fuel hydrogen, fuel

cell operation required through a centralized distribution infrastructure. As a solution to support

energy passive house in this case was analyzed assuming a hybrid system that integrates

photovoltaic equipment for converting solar energy and fuel cell that consumes hydrogen

supplied through the distribution network for electricity generation, in which production

hydrogen is outsourced and independent energy system.

Computational simulations based on multi-criteria optimization methods in evolutionary

computation - used genetic algorithms as optimization criteria and conditions of minimal global

issues relating to the supply of energy in the context of minimizing the total energy demand

covered, and the excess energy, minimize emissions carbon dioxide and costs, and optimal

configuration of the system components are integrated into the composition chosen a minimum

of energy conversion equipment characteristics and minimum rated power so that energy

demand is covered. Assuming the system studied in this chapter - PV + FCH_R configured

optimally supports 100% consumer passive house that is study generating carbon dioxide

emissions by 11.72 % of the average value calculated for a classic power system serving a

standard residential building, photovoltaic panels achieving 32 % of the annual production of

electricity and fuel cell generates 68 % of total annual production system energy with hydrogen

consumption 403.5 kg / year, operating 7720 hours / year. It was concluded that fuel cell

technology is a promising solution to support the consumer passive house with high efficiency

and low emissions of carbon dioxide in a future hydrogen-based economy. Implementation and

public acceptance of hydrogen technology depends largely on the development of the technology

and infrastructure necessary to the functioning and safe operation, but also by lower global cost

of this type of alternative energy.

Chapter 6 - Simulation regarding the functioning of power generating systems with

fuel cells by different powers supplied with hydrogen from outside systems

This chapter completes the series to use technology solutions for converting hydrogen

into electrical energy in support of passive houses with energy, with a comparative study of five

cases in which fuel cells have different rated power (1 kW and 2 kW 3 kW, 4 kW, 5 kW) study

investigating the capability and efficiency of equipment, if its use as the first and only source of

electricity generation in a future hydrogen-based economy. Simulations fuel cell energy systems

of different powers were performed separately for each of the five proposed types and

computational simulation results were presented in comparative diagrams showed that the

optimum equipment is 3 kW fuel cell. For scientific substantiation of this decision was made a

multi-criteria analysis based on linear analysis elements, which expanded the conditions

according to which the ranking is studied variants, so in this analysis global optimization criteria

refer to: uncovered required, the energy generated by the fuel cell, energy excess hydrogen

THESIS ABSTRACT


consumption, investment cost, total cost of the system, the unit price of energy, CO2 emissions.

This determined system to be optimal realizes the following parameters:

- Degree of autonomy from the national electricity distribution network of 100%;

- Fuel cell generates over a year of operation a total of 7680 kWh / year, after converting

DC to AC ensure complete energy needs by 6759 kWh / year of the building ,or 42.24 kWh / m2

year;

- Consumption of hydrogen in the system has a total annual value of 549 kg / year,

respectively 3.43 kg / m2 year;

- Carbon footprint is 578 kg CO2 / year, which is 3.61 kg CO2 / m2 year, being lower by

88.95% than a traditional system that deserves a standard consumer.

From the analytical and comparative presentation of the results obtained from the

simulations were obtained reasoned conclusions of pro and against, for each of the five analysed

systems. Aspects of rated power and capability integrated fuel cell technologies in energy

systems designed first and only source of electricity generation in a future hydrogen-based

economy, directly influence the efficiency of these systems to ensure energy demand consumer

passive house under review.

Chapter 7 - General conclusions. Original contributions. Trends and prospects

for research

This chapter contains the presentation summary of the major findings of this study,

emphasizing the main contributions of the author and highlighting ways to capitalize the results,

and future directions of research in fuel cell hydrogen energy supporting stationary applications.

Some final conclusions resulting from the studies in the thesis is remember the following:

- Using hydrogen technology in electricity generation can get a 100 % degree of autonomy

respect to centralized network national electricity supply;

- Hydrogen and fuel cell provides power to the consumer 100%, with uncovered energy demand;

- Excess energy resulting from the operation of hydrogen can be exploited via either green

energy electricity exported to the centralized network, be useful as a fuel other types of

applications;

- Renewables can be valued higher by total removal of the weaknesses in the intermittents

weather and the issues of storage batteries, eliminating losses associated with these

inconveniences total hydrogen technology or electrolytic hydrogen production based on

renewable energy and its storage through hydrogen secondary energy carrier, which will release

the stored energy by electrochemical conversion of the fuel cell;

- Electrolytic hydrogen production is directly influenced by the availability of renewable energy

resources available, with variable character during a year, which implicitly influence and power

generation fuel cell, which is also directly proportional to hydrogen fuel availability;

- Carbon dioxide emissions for fuel cell power systems that support passive house are much

lower, registering an average 80% decrease compared to conventional energy systems that

support standard construction;

- Costs equipment’s of hydrogen energy systems technology and hydrogen fuel procurement

costs have a higher percentage in the total costs of these systems diagram, but the technology for

generating electricity and hydrogen production methods, storage and distribution of hydrogen are

THESIS ABSTRACT


subject to continued research and development, and while a number of pilot projects currently

underway in this area will validate, which will influence and lead to reduced costs in the near

future and these devices but also hydrogen fuel will be competitive with conventional

technologies the production and storage of energy.

Original contributions

Theoretical research and case studies contained in this paper are supported processing,

analysis and synthesis of a large volume of scientific and technical data and information obtained

from the literature, including: articles, magazines, books, manuals, papers presented in national

conferences and international professional associations documents and reports in passive houses,

hydrogen and fuel cells, standards, normative design, regulations and legislation in force at

national and international level.

Their main contributions in theoretical research:

Synthesis, analysis, processing and interpretation of information critical documentary

about the use of fuel cells to produce electricity;

Comparative analysis of the properties of hydrogen energy relative to conventional

energy resources and traditional fossil fuels;

Analysis of energy conversion equipment renewable resources;

Synthesis and description of mathematical elements of the methodology for calculating

the energy needs of the consumer passive house;


the power generated by photovoltaic panels depending on hourly solar irradiation;


the power generated by wind turbines depending on wind speed and power curves

characteristic of this type of equipment;

Synthesis and description of mathematical elements concerning the calculation of

electrolytic hydrogen production based on renewable energy sources and energy

efficiency level of a electrolyzer;


the nominal and re al power generated by the fuel cell;


the hydrogen consumption in the production of electricity;

Establishing virtual simulation conditions functioning of the electricity generation fuel

cell;

Setting conditions to minimize the parameters in the context of a multi-objective

optimization of energy generation systems with fuel cell energy supporting passive

house;

Establishing general criteria to assess overall performance achieved by energy systems:

according to the hypothesis studied.

THESIS ABSTRACT


The main contributions in their experimental research are the results from carrying out

case studies, namely:

Simultaneous and interdisciplinary approach for the first time in Romania, the two

concepts important role in the efficiency and decarbonisation of energy generation

systems for residential consumers: hydrogen and passive house technology;

Calculation and energy analysis on the total annual energy building subject of the case

study, interpretation of graphical drawing energy demand and energy consumption

chronogram daily passive house;

Characterization of solar and wind energy available for the site studied in Cluj - Napoca

and evaluation of local potential recovery for the supply of electricity to consumers

passive house also was evaluated and the potential to exploit local energy sources

renewable by local electrolytic production of hydrogen;

Selection and analysis equipment conversion and recovery performance of different types

of energy (solar panels, wind turbines, fuel cells, electrolyzers, inverters) for use in

generating electricity used by the passive house;

Determination of optimal configurations by computational simulations for power

generation systems that support consumer passive house located in Cluj - Napoca in

various situations;

Evaluation, analysis and demonstration of capability, performance and feasibility of

different options to use with fuel cell energy generation systems defined and configured

in virtual simulations;

Demonstration influence on the availability of renewable energy systems optimal

configuration, electrolytic production of hydrogen and electricity generated by default on

fuel cell;

Demonstrating the importance of fuel cells, the role of energy reserves in the use of

renewable energy available to support local passive house;

Demonstrating the importance of fuel cells, the role of primary source of energy with

photovoltaic panels, in providing electricity to the consumer;

Demonstrate proficiency fuel cells, the role of the first and only source of energy

generation, energy supporting passive house;

Demonstration influence on aspects of rated power and capability integrated fuel cell

technologies in energy systems designed first and only source of electricity generation in

a future hydrogen-based economy, the overall energy efficiency of the systems in

ensuring energy demand consumer;

Demonstrating the usefulness of using hydrogen technology in decentralized power

generation and energy in support of an autonomous consumer;

Technical analysis - economic and ecological of each type of system studied to

demonstrate the overall performance of hydrogen technology in the production of

electricity by removing deficiencies due to centralized energy consumption, arguments

supported by the following coordinates: energy efficiency, sustainable systems to support

renewable energy and alternative, lower emissions of carbon dioxide to reduce losses due

to energy storage in the battery and produced in excess.

THESIS ABSTRACT


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THESIS ABSTRACT


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CONTENTS

LIST OF THE MAIN ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THESIS……..………...………….…vii

LIST OF THE MAIN SYMBOLS USED IN THESIS............................................................ x

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... xv

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................ xx

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................... 1

1.1. General context of the thesis .......................................................................................... 1

1.2. The international and national context in the proposed topic.................................... 3

1.2.1. Energy strategies for sustainable development ......................................................... 3

1.2.2. Passive house ................................................................................................................ 6

1.2.3. Hydrogen and fuel cell ................................................................................................. 7

1.3. Opportunity and the actuality of the theme ................................................................ 8

1.4. Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 9

1.5. Thesis plan ..................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 2. HYDROGEN ENERGY AND FUEL CELL - CONSIDERATIONS

REGARDING STATE OF THE ART - CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................. 11

2.1. General aspects ................................................................................................................. 11

2.2. Hydrogen - vector energy in a sustainable energy system………………...……….....12

2.2.1. Hydrogen - energy carrier and synthetic fuel ......................................................... 13

2.2.2. Hydrogen economy……………………………….……………………….........…..16

2.2.3. Partial conclusions ..................................................................................................... 26

2.3. Fuel cells - hydrogen conversion technology .................................................................. 27

2.3.1. Brief history ............................................................................................................... 28

2.3.2. General aspects........................................................................................................... 30

2.3.3. Component elements .................................................................................................. 31

2.3.4. The operating principle…………………………………………………………….33

2.3.5. Fuel cells energy. Characteristic sizes. Efficiency. .................................................. 35

2.3.6. The main constructive types of fuel cell ................................................................... 38

2.3.7. Fuel cell applications in the stationary domain ....................................................... 42

2.4. Critical analysis of the current state of research ........................................................... 52

2.5. Research directions for thesis .......................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER 3. THE ELEMENTS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS. PARTICULARS OF ENERGY PERFORMANCE FOR PASSIVE HOUSE

....................................................................................................................................................... 56

3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 56

3.2. The methodology for calculating the energy needs of residential building ................. 59

3.2.1. Initial data for calculation ......................................................................................... 60

3.2.2. Calculation of energy needs. Methodology for building and customizing studied

................................................................................................................................................ 65

3.3. Total energy needs. Performance evaluation of energy regarding building

analyzed… ................................................................................................................................ 70

3.4. Conclusions........................................................................................................................ 72

CHAPTER 4. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS SYSTEMS POWER GENERATION FUEL

CELL SUPPLIED WITH HYDROGEN PRODUCED ELECTROLYTIC LOCAL BY

HARNESSING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES .......................................................... 73

4.1. General considerations ..................................................................................................... 73

4.2. The principle of evolutionary computation used in computational simulation .......... 73

4.3. Description virtual medium of simulation in functioning of power generation

systems......................................................................................................................................75

4.3.1. General information .................................................................................................. 76

4.3.2. Types of optimizations available............................................................................... 93

4.3.3. Control strategies ....................................................................................................... 94

4.3.4. Financial data ............................................................................................................. 95

4.3.5. Results ......................................................................................................................... 96

4.4. CASE STUDY – SIMULATION IN OPERATION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEMS

WITH FUEL CELL POWERED WITH HYDROGEN ELECTROLYTE LOCALLY

PRODUCT THROUGH THE USE OF RENEWABLE SOURCES AND ENERGY

EFFICIENCY ANALYSIS ..................................................................................................... 97

4.4.1. Energy system electrolytic with production of hydrogen solar SE- HS ................ 99

4.4.2. Energy system electrolytic with production of hydrogen wind SE- HE ............. 104

4.4.3. Energy system electrolytic with production of hydrogen solar -wind SE- HE .. 109

4.4.4. Comparative analysis of the results........................................................................ 114

4.5. Conclusions ...……………………..…………………………………………………...122

CHAPTER 5 – SIMULATIONS REGARDING ENERGY PRODUCTION OF A HYBRID

SYSTEM WITH PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL AND FUEL CELL SUPPLIED WITH

HYDROGEN OF CENTRALIZED DISTRIBUTION NETWORK................................... 126

5.1. General considerations ................................................................................................... 126

5.2. Configuring the energy system ...................................................................................... 127

5.3. Performance indicators on energy efficiency and CO2 emissions .............................. 128

5.4. Financial indicators ........................................................................................................ 133

5.5. Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 135

CHAPTER 6 – SIMULATION REGARDING THE FUNCTIONING OF POWER

GENERATING SYSTEMS WITH FUEL CELLS BY DIFFERENT POWERS SUPPLIED

WITH HYDROGEN FROM OUTSIDE SYSTEMS ............................................................ 136

6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 136

6.2. Results simulations ......................................................................................................... 138

6.2.1. Fuel cell nominal capacity 1 kW ............................................................................. 138




6.2.5. Fuel cell nominal capacity 5 kW ............................................................................ 155

6.3. Comparative analysis of the results .............................................................................. 159

6.3.1. Comparative analysis in charts............................................................................... 159

6.3.2. Analysis by methods comparative multi-criteria .................................................. 164

6.4. Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 169

CHAPTER 7 – GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTIONS. TRENDS

AND PROSPECTS FOR RESEARCH .................................................................................. 170

7.1. Conclusions...................................................................................................................... 170

7.2. General conclusions .......................................................................................................176

7.3. Original contributions .................................................................................................... 178

7.4. Trends and prospects for research................................................................................ 181

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 182

Contributions regarding the application of fuel cells in the passive houses domain

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