Men on the RocksThe Formation of Nabataean Petra

Berlin 2013

Proceedings of a conference held in Berlin2–4 December 2011

M. Mouton & S. G. Schmid (editors)

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Various types of banqueting rooms, known as biclinia and triclinia, can still be seen all around the periphery of the city of Petra.1 Most often they are found in connection with large tomb complexes or open-air sanctuaries, but can also be a part of housing areas.2 Banqueting rooms in Petra are generally similar to each other, but also show a wide range of shapes. They have benches on two (biclinia) or three (triclinia) sides, can be in a rock-cut chamber of various sizes, from a small cave of just 5 x 5 m to a large hall of 12 x 12 m (Netzer 2003: 59), or in the open air as part of an open-air sanctuary. In general, all of these structures have benches cut out of the bedrock, whether they are open-air or within a rock-cut chamber.3

1. Dalman found more than 69 triclinia in Petra; Dalman 1908: 89; see also Horsefield 1938: 38. Since then, some new triclinia have been discovered; for example, a triclinium in Wadi es-Siyyagh, which was uncovered in the early 1990s; Zayadine & Farajat 1991: 278.2. Wenning (1987) provides an interesting insight into the archaeological remains of Petra. Beside tombs, niches and large architectural structures in the centre of the city he also mentioned many biclinia and triclinia in various places. See also Netzer 2003: 59. Banqueting rooms without connection to a tomb complex, like in Sîq el-Bared and on the northern slope of al-Hubta, are mentioned in Zayadine 1986a: 267-268, Wenning 1987: 274-275 and Netzer 2003: 64.3. Examples of open-air triclinia, among others, are the triclinium on the so-called High-Places and the one on the west side of al-Habis (described as a part of the second sanctuary in Dalman 1908: 233). Some well-known examples of triclinia inside rock-cut chambers are the triclinium under the Obelisk Tomb, the Aṣlaḥ triclinium, the big triclinium, BD65, near al-Hazne, and the well-known triclinium, BD235, opposite of the Soldier Tomb. Beside these triclinia, many similar rooms exist which, though already known, have not

Banqueting rooms were generally used for gatherings in which family, and cultural and funeral associations would come together for drinking and dining (Schmidt-Colinet 1980: 207; Zayadine 1986b: 474; Wenning 1997: 181; Netzer 2003: 59-60). Such use is suggested by the design of these rooms, with their benches (Hackl et al. 2003: 96), and by inscriptions found in or near to them.4 Also Strabo (Strabo Geo. 16. 4. 26), one of the most important sources on Nabataean history and culture, describes a symposium of 13 men in which the Nabataean king appears as a symposiarch (Zayadine 1986b: 472) and serves the participants. This passage is often cited to illustrate the procedure of banqueting and, therefore, the use of the numerous triclinia in Petra and also to explain the meaning of banquets in Nabataean culture. The numerous banqueting rooms in Petra does, indeed, seem to confirm the importance of banqueting for the Nabataeans. Like written before it is generally assumed that banqueting rooms normally were used during ritual or funeral activities, but the question must be asked whether all events or meetings held in these rooms had an official or cultic basis, or whether their use was divided between cultic and profane.5

been researched or accurately described until now. Schmid (2009a: 151) indicated that, as well as the preserved rock-cut structures, free-standing banqueting rooms can be supposed in Petra, especially in connection with large tomb complexes.4. One example is the inscription of a symposiarch in the Sîq al-Bared, first presented by Zayadine 1986b: 465-474. For more inscriptions see Hackl et al. 2003: 250, 340 and 402. 5. In the case of the large tomb complexes and their complexity, Schmid has already shown the blending of architecture of the

Continuity or change in use? Banqueting rooms in the so-called

Soldier Tomb complex in Petra

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It can certainly be imaged that every profane banquet began with a ritual act and that a ritual meeting might end with a profane banquet. With the exception of inscriptions and the rooms themselves, there is very little archaeological information about the use of banqueting rooms. From the inscription in the façade of the Turkmā-nīye Tomb, it is known that banqueting rooms were an important part of funeral complexes (Hackl et al. 2003: 259). Some tomb complexes, associated with structures described in that inscription, such as the banqueting room, have been identified by S.G. Schmid (Schmid 2009a: 152-161).6 So far, only a few such rooms have been studied in the past. These were mostly large triclinia associated with large tomb complexes. Excavated examples include the triclinium opposite the Soldier Tomb, which was cleared by the Department of Antiquities in 1934 (Horsefield 1938: 40), the triclinium beside tomb BD 813, the so-called ʿUneišhu Tomb, which was cleared in the 1984 by F. Zayadine (Zayadine 1986a: 229), and the Aṣlaḥ triclinium that was cleared by F. Zayadine and S. Farajat in 1990 (Zayadine & Farajat 1991: 275-276). The lack of finds is due to the reuse of the caves by the bedouin and others over the last centuries; many of the caves are full of modern rubbish as well as goat and sheep dung (Zayadine & Farajat 1991: 275; Schmid 2009b: 101). Because of the lack of publication or even the lack of stratified finds, it is very difficult to get more information about the use of banqueting rooms and, perhaps more importantly, the period of use and general chronological classifications.7

The same problems apply to the tombs in Petra. These monuments are mainly dated using stylistic and typological studies (Schmid 2009a: 139) and only rarely is there any information from archaeological work. Commonly banqueting rooms have no elaborated and decorated façade, so no stylistic and typological evidence exists.

living with that of the dead and also opened the question of whether those complexes were used only for momentous occasions or if a permanent use was also possible; Schmid 2009a: 152 and 162.6. Based on results of the research at the so-called Soldier Tomb complex, Schmid provides an overview on similar complexes in Petra.7. A general study relating to the banqueting rooms in Petra, their appearance, origins and use in the light of archaeological findings and inscriptions is still lacking. Currently K. Petrovszky is studying those complexes in her dissertation; see Petrovszky in this volume.

In general these rooms were dated according to the tomb if they were associated with tomb complexes.8

Overall there are only a few monuments in Petra that can be dated accurately, either using inscriptions or excavation results.9 One of these monuments is the Aṣlaḥ triclinium, which can be dated to the beginning of the 1st century BC by the inscription inside (Zayadine & Farajat 1991: 275-276). In recent years, the area around the Aṣlaḥ triclinium has been studied and excavated,10 however, it has not been possible to confirm the dating of the inscription through archaeological finds from either inside or outside the room. The so-called Obodas chapel and the so-called Soldier Tomb complex have also been excavated recently and both produced undisturbed archaeological contexts.11 This has allowed new interpretations regarding the dating and use of the complexes.

Below, I will discuss some results of the pottery analysis for the Soldier Tomb complex (fig. 1).12

The Soldier Tomb complex, situated in a narrow wadi about 1 km southeast of the city center of Petra, consists of a monumental tomb façade, an entrance building in the north, the large triclinium BD 235 opposite the tomb and, as discovered in 2010, rooms closing the area to the south. All these structures were arranged around a peristyle

8. E.g. the Bab es-Sîq triclinium under the Obelisk Tomb (McKenzie 1990: 34) and the triclinium beside tomb BD 813 (Zayadine 1986a: 229). One example for a triclinium with a façade carved out of the rock is the so-called Lion Triclinium. Using the façade McKenzie was able to date it to, on stylistic grounds, to the middle of the 1st century AD; McKenzie 1990: 122.9. These monuments were the starting point for McKenzie and her stylistic and typological studies of the architecture of Petra; McKenzie 1990.10. As part of the International Aṣlaḥ Project (IAP), the . As part of the International Aṣlaḥ Project (IAP), the triclinium and surrounding areas were cleaned again, but there are no new results regarding the period of use of the triclinium; see Gorgerat & Wenning 2010 and Wenning in this volume.11. About the excavation of the Obodas chapel see Tholbecq . About the excavation of the Obodas chapel see Tholbecq & Durand 2005; Tholbecq et al. 2008 and Tholbecq in this volume.12. The results are part of my master�s thesis, fi nished in . The results are part of my master�s thesis, finished in 2011. After participating in the International Wadi Farasa Project (IWFP) in 2009, I was given the opportunity to study the pottery finds as part of my master�s thesis. More than 6000 pottery fragments of fine and coarse ware were taken into account. The following presents just a few results and observations.

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Fig. 1. Soldier Tomb complex from the north (photo S. G. Schmid).

Fig. 2. Plan of the Soldier Tomb (G. Teltsch).

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courtyard with a portico on three sides.13 The complex was built in the second half of the 1st century AD (Schmid 2002: 260; Schmid 2009a: 152). Because the tomb and the triclinium had been cleaned in the 1930s by the Department of Antiquities (Horsefield 1938: 40), the present research focused on the courtyard, the entrance building and the clarification of the structure of the whole complex.

13. Already in 1921 Bachmann assumed a complex with a . Already in 1921 Bachmann assumed a complex with a peristyle courtyard, in which the monumental tomb and the triclinium belong together. See Bachmann et al. 1921: 75-94. This hypothesis was confirmed by the excavations of the IWFP. See the preliminary reports in ADAJ 2001 to 2011. A short summary of the results can be found in Schmid 2009b: 144-152.

In 2007, as part of the exploration of the area of the entrance building, a small rock-cut room on a ledge in the northwestern corner of the entrance building was excavated (Schmid 2009b: 101). This room has been known since the time of Brünnow and Domaszewski, but its function had remained unknown (Brünnow & Domaszewski 1904: n° 238; Schmid 2009b: 101). It quickly became clear that the room, measuring about 5 x 5 m, had rock-cut benches (each 1.20 m wide) on three sides, in other words, it was a triclinium (fig. 3-4).14 The benches were accessed by two flights of three

14. The following description is based mainly on Schmid . The following description is based mainly on Schmid 2000b: 101-102, but also on the excavation documentation and preliminary excavation reports.

Fig. 3. The small banqueting room after excavation (photo S. G. Schmid).

Fig. 4. Plan of the small banqueting room (S. G. Schmid).

Fig. 5. The small banqueting room before cleaning (photo S. G. Schmid).

Fig. 6. The entrance of the small banqueting room (photo S. G. Schmid).

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steps, situated one on each side of the entrance. The surface of the benches and the area between them was heavily damaged in places, which made it difficult to identify the original level of the benches. The entrance was the only opening and source of light for this room. On the northern side, two pseudo windows were scratched into the wall. With this discovery it is now known that the Soldier Tomb complex included not only the large banqueting hall opposite the tomb but also this small, undecorated banqueting room integrated into the entrance building.

As is often the case, prior to excavations the rock-cut room was filled with goat and sheep dung and recent rubbish (Schmid 2009b: 101), and the doorway was blocked by some roughly coursed stones to a height of 80–100 cm (fig. 5-6). After cleaning the remains of secondary use and discovering the rock-cut benches on three sides of the room, a layer of reddish sand appeared between the benches. Compared to other banqueting rooms, this one, and the layer of reddish sand in particular, contained a lot of pottery. Despite the reuse of this cave as a stable, it was possible to separate one undisturbed layer filled with ancient pottery. Big numbers of fragmented pots, jars and bowls were found and allowed conclusions relating to the use of the room and also a detailed study of the finds. Beside the pottery just a few fragments of bones were found. The finds from both inside and outside the room confirmed its function as a banqueting room.

As mentioned above, the rock-cut room is situated on a ledge. Cuttings into the eastern side of the ledge suggest that the ledge formed part the floor of the upper storey of the entrance building and that it can, therefore, be interpreted as the vestibule of the small rock-cut room (fig. 7). Some pottery was also found on the ledge in a layer of sand mixed with partially worked blocks of stones and some architectural fragments, such as floor slabs. Although there was very little undisturbed stratigraphy, a rapid overview of the ceramics during the excavation revealed an interesting situation (Schmid 2009: 101). The only fine ware found inside the small room consisted of two unpainted rims; there were no painted drinking cups. However, there was a large amount of coarse ware consisting of cooking pots, storage jars and bowls. The reverse situation was observed on the ledge outside the room, where many fine ware sherds, both painted and unpainted, were found along with an equally large number of coarse ware sherds (fig. 8).

The ledge

The fine ware was studied to establish a chronology. The two layers on the ledge provided only a short stratigraphic sequence. After a first study of the pottery it became clear that in both layers the mixture of pottery was similar to each other. In both, a large amount of coarse ware and fine ware was

Fig. 7. Ledge and entrance of the small banqueting room (photo M. Dehner).

Fine Ware Channel Ledge Triclinium

Rim painted 48 41Rim unpainted 370 275 3Body painted 146 131Body unpainted 976 744 9Base painted 4Base unpainted 186 78 2Handle 4LidTotal 1730 1273 14

Coarse Ware

Rim 99 128 30Body 622 1909 278Base 33 20 6Handle 25 54 17Lid 11 1Total 779 2122 332

Fig. 8. Distribution of the fine and coarse ware pottery.

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found (fig. 11-12). The quantity of pottery sherds in the upper layer was just one third of the quantity of the lower layer and the lower one contained more fine ware by percentage. Regarding the fine ware in both layers unpainted fine ware bowls of type E1c7 and E1c8 (fig. 9) were absolutely dominant.15 About 80% of the rims could be assigned to one of these two types in both layers; 56% were of type E1c7, and 25% belonged to type E1c8. The remaining rim fragments could be assigned to more than 15 different vessel types.16 Within the painted fine ware, Phase 3b was dominant (65%) compared to Phase 3c (30%) (fig. 10. B-C), and a few fragments with patterns of Phase 3a (5%).17 While the unpainted bowls of type E1c7 and E1c8 were already known in the 1st century AD and the most typical types of unpainted pottery of phase 3, the painted ware gave the determining reference for a first chronological classification of the context. The dominance of sherds of painted fine ware of Phase 3b gives an evidence for the end of the 1st century AD, but because of the relative huge number of sherds showing decor of phase it is more consequent to date the finds in the

15. Schmid�s study of the fi ne ware pottery gives the best . Schmid�s study of the fine ware pottery gives the best reference in terms of chronology and typology of Nabataean fine ware (Schmid 2000), especially for leading forms E1c8 and E1c7; Schmid 2000: 9.16. At this point a detailed description of each type will be . At this point a detailed description of each type will be avoided. No unknown type was found and only five types were represented by more than one fragment. All types are described in Schmid 2000 and date to the late 1st and early 2nd century AD. Types included are E3a2, E24b198, F5a70, F5a252, G8a119.17. The Nabataean fine ware of phase 3 is generally dated from AD 20 – AD 100 respectively the beginning of the 2nd century AD, but the end of phase 3 is not clear yet; Schmid 2000: 25. The decor phases fine ware pottery of phase 3are subdivided into following: 3a dates from AD 20 – AD 70/80; 3b from AD 70/80 – AD 100; 3c after AD 100, the end of phase 3c is also not clear yet; Schmid 2000: 38-39.

beginning of the 2nd century AD. The distribution of the fine ware types (forms and decoration) indicates an occupation at the beginning of the 2nd century AD.18

This preliminary dating was confirmed after the study of the coarse ware. In contrast to the fine ware, a large variety of coarse ware was found on the ledge. Except for fragments of the typical Nabataean cooking pot (Gerber 1997: 410, fig. 7), which is attested in Petra from the 1st to 4th centuries AD, just a few fragments of cooking pots and bowls occurred which were already known in the 1st century AD.19 One of these was a pot with a vertical rim ending in a bevelled lip and with a globular body (fig. 11: A-C; fig. 13: A-D). Though the examples from the ledge are not much larger, but they are thicker and also the vertical rims are higher and rounder than known from the examples of the 1st century AD with their sharp rim profiles.20 They have a pinkish white or a white slip on the outside (fig. 14).Beside this cooking pot type, two other vessel types were found in large numbers. The first (fig. 11: E-H) is a cooking pot with a globular body and vertical rim similar to the pot mentioned above. However, it has no bevelled lip at the end of the rim and there is a concave ridge on the outside of the rim. This pot is also known from excavations at ez-Zantur (Fellmann Brogli 1996: 242-244). However, its chronological classification is more difficult. Similar forms seemed to appear already in the second half of the 1st century AD (Gerber 1997: 409), and variations are known from contexts of the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD (Gerber 2001: 9, fig. 3: A-C). It is still found in the 4th century, but the pots are larger, with a thicker wall and a rounder rim. (Fellmann Brogli 1996: fig. 728-735; Gerber 1995: 650, fig. 2.1). The fragments found on the ledge are relatively thin-walled and show slightly sharp rims. The ridge on the outer side of the rim is round or more rectangular. The examples with

18. Also the ratio of the bowls of type E1c7 and E1c8, . Also the ratio of the bowls of type E1c7 and E1c8, sherds of bowl E1c7 are dominant to those of bowl E1c8, confirmed a later chronological classification. Relating to results of the pottery analysis on ez-Zantur, bowl E1c7 appeared later than type E1c8. See, therefore, Schmid 2000: 21.19. In relation to the development of the coarse ware pottery . In relation to the development of the coarse ware pottery see Fellmann Brogli 1996, Gerber 1996, Gerber 1997, Gerber 2005 and Gerber 2008. A comprehensive publication is still lacking.20. Compare to Gerber 2001: 11, fi g. 2. C-E, H.. Compare to Gerber 2001: 11, fig. 2. C-E, H.

Fig. 9. Unpainted fine ware bowls E 1c 8 and E 1c 7 (M. Dehner).

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a more rectangular ridge have a thicker wall. In general, these pots do not have a white or pinkish white slip but rather a grey or greyish brown colour (fig. 15).

The second example is a jar with a high vertical rim and a circular horizontal groove on the outside. This is a common type in the 4th century AD (Fellmann Brogli 1996: fig. 760-764; Gerber 2001: 9, fig. 2. O-Q). On the ledge, a wide variety of this jar was found. The majority of examples are similar to the Late Roman jars (fig. 11: L) with relatively thick walls and a deep groove. The others have a thinner wall with an indicated groove or a band on the outside of the rim (fig. 11: M-N), but in all cases, this jar belongs to the 4th century.

Beside the cooking pots and jars described above, many fragmented cooking pots, storage jars, large bowls, casseroles, cups, plates, jugs and lids were found (fig. 11-12), though often not more than one or two rims of each form. Datable comparanda exist for only a few pots and bowls (fig. 11: I, O-Q, S),21 which have been dated from the 2nd to the 4th century AD, and some bowls shown in fig. 12 which mostly belong to types known in the 4th century (fig. 12: A-B, D-E), though just two bowls are of types that span the 2nd to 4th centuries AD.22

21. Comparison: for pot fi g. 11: I, see Parker 1987: 557, . Comparison: for pot fig. 11: I, see Parker 1987: 557, fig. 29; Fellmann Brogli 1996: 348, fig. 748; Gerber 2001: 11, fig. 2. E. For pot fig. 11: P, see Fellmann Brogli 1996: 247, 747. For pot fig. 11: Q, see Fellmann Brogli 1996: 249, fig. 752-753; Gerber 2001: 12, fig. 3: G-H. For pot fig. 11: S, see Fellmann Brogli 1996: 265, fig. 747. The pot fig. 11: O was only found inside of the banqueting room; it can be compared to Gerber 2001: 11, fig. 2: E.22. Parallels for bowls in fi g. 12: A-B, D can be found in . Parallels for bowls in fig. 12: A-B, D can be found in

Most of the unknown pots and bowls are characterised by a thinner wall than known from examples of the 4th century. It is worth noting that in the upper layer, vessels of the 4th century are more represented than in the lower one, though no clear chronological sequence can be distinguished. Nevertheless, the pottery on the ledge gives a hint about the use of the area around the triclinium from the 2nd until the 4th century AD.

The rock-cuT room

The situation inside the rock-cut room is similar to that on the ledge, the main difference being the nearly complete absence of fine ware pottery. The coarse ware consists of the same types and vessel shapes as mentioned above. Fragments of the two well-known cooking pots (fig. 11: A-C; fig. 11: E-H) were also found, as were fragments of the storage jar with a circular horizontal groove (fig. 11: L-N). The cooking pots, storage jars, cups, bowls and plates belong to the period between the 2nd and 4th century AD.

After detailed study of the pottery it can be said that the banqueting room as well as the area in front were used continuously between the 2nd and

Fellmann Brogli 1996: 260-261, fig. 789, 793-794. The examples give chronological evidence into the 4th century AD. For deep bowl in fig. 12: E, no exact parallels have been found but it is comparable to Fellmann Brogli 1996: 262, fig. 796, and it shows similarities to casserole fig. 12: F, which is secured from 2nd to 3rd century AD (see Fellmann Brogli 1996: 257, fig. 773-774; Gerber 2005: 731, fig. 2.4 and Oleson et al. 2008: 338, fig. 23: 21). The same applies to bowl in fig. 12: G, which can be compared to Fellmann Brogli 1996: 262, fig. 800, and to Oleson et al. 2008: 338, fig. 23: 21.

Fig. 10. Painted fine ware including bowl E 1b 10 (M. Dehner)

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4th centuries AD. But was the small rock-cut room used as banqueting room before the 2nd century AD? After the 2007 excavations and the realisation that the room was a triclinium, some older findings were of renewed interest. In 2001, significant amounts of Nabataean pottery had been found inside a water channel directly below the ledge (Schmid 2002: 262). Until 2007, it was difficult to say where this pottery came from, but since then, it has been suggested that this material could have been swept down into or near to the

water channel when the banqueting room was being cleared out by the Nabataeans (Schmid 2009b: 102). Therefore, since this material might be connected with the banqueting room, it deserved further analysis.

The waTer channel

After analysis it was, unfortunately, not possible to determine whether the pottery from the water channel had a direct connection to the banqueting room or not. As on the ledge, the material consisted

Fig. 11. Pots and jars of coarse ware found on the ledge and in the small banqueting room (M. Dehner).

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of both fine and coarse wares for eating and drinking, but it was of different types and wares. While most of the pottery on the ledge was coarse ware, the layer inside the channel contained of more than twice the amount of fine tableware than coarse ware.

Regarding the fine ware, two significant differences were noted between this material and the material from the ledge. The first concerns the proportions of the unpainted fine ware. Like on the ledge, the two bowl types E1c7 and E1c8 (fig. 9) were dominant, comprising nearly 90% of the analyzed rims; however, more than 60% were assigned to type E1c8 and just 29% to type E1c7, making the ratio of the two types the opposite to that on the ledge.23 A similar observation could be made about the painted fine ware. The patterns on about 94% of the fragments belonged to Phase 3b and the remainder to Phase 3a. Interestingly, there were no fragments from Phase 3c. This suggests that the material in the water channel must be older than the material on the ledge. The painted and unpainted fine ware indicates a dating in the fourth quarter of the 1st century AD.

Again the analysis of the coarse ware confirmed the study of the painted and unpainted fine ware. Like the fine ware, the much less numerous coarse wares (fig. 8) found in the water channel also differed in form from those on the ledge. Altogether, just four forms had corresponding forms on the ledge (fig. 13: A, E, I, N). All four

23. As mentioned before in note 18, the ratio of the two main . As mentioned before in note 18, the ratio of the two main types of unpainted fine ware can give some indication of the chronology. Layers with many more bowls of type E1c8 seem to be older than the ones with a majority of bowls of type E1c7. Relating to results of the pottery analysis on ez-Zantur, bowl E1c8 appeared earlier than type E1c7. See, therefore, Schmid 2000: 21.

were typical vessels for the 1st century AD.24 The other pots, which had no equivalents on the ledge, could be identified as forms also of the 1st century AD on the basis of comparison with published examples.25 The dominant form, which was also found on the ledge, was the typical Nabataean cooking pot, which was represented by 66% of all vessel rims from the channel (fig. 13: A-D).26 It shows the typical shape with very thin walls, sharp rim profile and vertical rim with a bevelled lip. The clay is light red, the outside has a white slip and the ware is of very good quality (Gerber 1996: 148; Gerber 1997: 410). The inner rim can vary. The other vessel shapes are of the same quality, except for some storage vessels with thicker walls and more rounded edges (fig. 13: H, L-N). Also the few sherds of bowls found in the water channel (fig. 13. O-Q), are from very good quality.27 Thus, all the finds date to the Nabataean period, mainly the late 1st century AD.

As already stated, a direct connection to the triclinium on the ledge cannot be confirmed. The material of the two areas, water channel and

24. Compare with Gerber 1996, pl. 32 A-C, F; Gerber 1997: . Compare with Gerber 1996, pl. 32 A-C, F; Gerber 1997: 409, fig. 4 F-I; Gerber 2001: 11, fig. 2 A-D; Gerber 2005: 731, fig. 1; Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22, 5, 9-11.25. Comparison: for pot fi g. 13 B, see Oleson . Comparison: for pot fig. 13 B, see Oleson et al.: 2008: 336, fig. 22, 16. For pot fig. 13 C, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 E. For pot fig. G-H, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 G; Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22, 15, 24; Guet 2008: 87-88, fig. 24, 26. For pot fig. 13 K, see Gerber 1997: 409, fig. 4 F-L. For pot fig. 13 L, see Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22.6. For fig. 13 M, see Tholbecq & Durand 2005: 308, fig. 16; Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22.13.26. Compare with Gerber 2001: 11, fi g. 2 A-D; Gerber 2005: . Compare with Gerber 2001: 11, fig. 2 A-D; Gerber 2005: 731, fig. 1; Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22. 8-11, 17.27. Comparison: for bowl fi g. 13 O, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 L. . Comparison: for bowl fig. 13 O, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 L. For bowl fig. 13 P, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 M-O. For bowl fig. 13 Q, see Gerber 1996: pl. 32 H-I; Gerber 1997: 410, fig. 8; Oleson et al. 2008: 336, fig. 22, n° 12.

Fig. 12. Bowls of coarse ware found on the ledge and in the small banqueting room (M. Dehner).

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ledge, differ chronologically, even if the use of the pottery was the same. Whereas the pottery found on the ledge was directly connected to the banqueting room, the pottery found in the channel could equally have been used in any other area of the complex before being deposited in the channel. For example, it could just as easily have been used in the large banqueting hall during a symposium as in the smaller room on the ledge.

The cisTern

The water channel is not the only archaeological context containing undisturbed context of pottery of the 1st century AD which was dumped outside of the complex. In 2003, a cistern was located and excavated directly opposite the water channel. In this cistern a large amount of Nabataean pottery was found in the lowest 30 cm; even entire bowls were recovered (Schmid, Barmasse 2004: 333-

Fig. 13. Pots, jars and bowls of coarse ware found in the water channel (M. Dehner).

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337; Schmid 2005: 76). Analysis dated the pottery to the last quarter of the 1st century AD.28 The cistern contained a complete household repertoire, like those known from the houses on ez-Zantur, containing all types of vessels needed for storage, preparing and serving food and drinks (Schmid 2005: 76; Guet 2008). Finally, the pottery found in the cistern was the same types as those in the water channel. This suggests that at some time at the end of the 1st century or beginning of the 2nd century AD, a complete household was cleared out of the so-called Soldier Tomb complex and was dumped in the cistern and the water channel outside.

conclusions

As a result of the above studies, some general conclusions can be drawn. The small triclinium was used at least from the beginning of the 2nd century AD until the 4th century AD. After the earthquake in AD 363, it went out of use until medieval times,29 as did the rest of the complex (Schmid 2003: 476; Sinibaldi 2009: 454-458). Unfortunately it cannot be determined if the small room already existed in the 1st century AD and therefore if it was established during the first construction phase of the complex in the middle of the 1st century AD (Schmid 2009a: 152). No later than the beginning of the 2nd century, this complex had two banqueting rooms. The large one opened towards the monumental tomb façade and the smaller one was integrated into the entrance building. Finally, it can be demonstrated that from the middle of the 1st century AD until at least the middle of the 4th century, the complex and the banqueting rooms were in continuous use; maybe even until the earthquake in 363, after which the complex was probably abandoned.

The analysis of the archaeological contexts presented here indicates a change at the end of the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd century AD. It seems clear that there were major changes in the material culture of the Soldier Tomb at the end of the 1st century AD. Just one generation after the construction of the complex, the complete

28. In 2008 A. Guet studied the material from the cistern . In 2008 A. Guet studied the material from the cistern as part of her master thesis. I was able to use this thesis to compare my material with that from the cistern.29. While excavating the ledge and the rock-cut room, in . While excavating the ledge and the rock-cut room, in While excavating the ledge and the rock-cut room, in the upper layers sherds of medieval pottery were found and suggest a use of this area also in medieval times. A first study of the medieval finds in the Soldier Tomb complex were made by M. Sinibaldi (2009).

pottery repertoire of a household belonging to the last quarter of the 1st century AD was taken out of the complex and dumped into the cistern and water channel north of the entrance building. The repertoire included decorated and undecorated fine ware bowls, small jugs, pots and cups as well as coarse ware cooking pots, storage jars, plates, bowls and cups. The pottery found on the ledge, especially the coarse ware differs in form and shows different types, which were not known in the 1st century AD. Also the fine ware on the ledge indicates a later chronological classification of the pottery on the ledge. Nevertheless also on the ledge the repertoire included pots, jars, bowls, cups and also fine ware bowls in minor quantity, like they were largely known from household, e.g. on ez-Zantur. Of course the material situation in the small triclinium, on the ledge and in the water channel, in addition to the cistern, is just a small showcase and a study of the remaining pottery of the complex is not finished yet, but a change of material culture is secured.

But not only regarding the pottery changes at the end of the 1st or beginning of the 2nd century can

Fig. 14. Coarse ware found on the ledge and in the small banqueting room (photo A. Weiße).

Fig. 15. Coarse ware found on the ledge and in the small banqueting room (photo A. Weiße).

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be detected, also at the architectural changes could be assured in this time. After the construction of the complex in the middle of the 1st century a second construction phase can be detected at the beginning of the 2nd century AD.30 Several rooms of the entrance building were built or rebuilt, and the two outer doorways of the large triclinium were blocked by massive walls.31 It seems like in the Soldier Tomb complex bigger changes, in material and architecture, were undertaken in the beginning of the 2nd century AD.

Regarding to the use of the banqueting rooms in the Soldier Tomb complex, no definite answers can be given. It is possible that in the 1st century AD, the large triclinium was the only banqueting room in the complex and minor as well as major events took place there. By looking at the inventory of the 1st century AD pottery found in the cistern and water channel, it is impossible to determine if this pottery was used in one of the two triclinia or one of the other rooms of the complex. Also it can’t be said if it was used only for religious and funerary events or also for profane events of daily life. Also the pottery in the triclinium and on the ledge gives no clearly evidence if there ritual or profane events took place. As mentioned before the different vessels were also typical for household repertoire in Petra, like on ez-Zantur.32

The pottery form the water channel, the cistern as well as from the ledge and the triclinium, which included decorated and undecorated fine ware bowls, small jugs, pots and cups as well as coarse ware cooking pots, storage jars, plates, bowls and cups, underlines the multi-purpose aspect of the bigger tomb complexes in Petra, as also indicated by the multi-functional architecture (Schmid 2005: 76). Despite a strong focus on the funerary aspect,

30. More information about changes in the second construction . More information about changes in the second construction phase can be found in preliminary reports; see Schmid 2003: 476; Schmid 2004: 339; Schmid 2010: 227-228.31. Along with these changes Schmid supposed a new . Along with these changes Schmid supposed a new ownership of the complex. He assumed a terminus post quem in the late 1st century AD. Maybe those changes can be connected to the overall changes in the year AD 106. See Schmid 2010: 227-228.32. See, therefore, notes 20-22.. See, therefore, notes 20-22.See, therefore, notes 20-22.

the complex has multi-functional aspects that can be found in housing areas, such as heated rooms and luxurious interiors, and is closely related to royal villa and palace architecture of the ancient Mediterranean world (Schmid 2009a: 152 and 162).33

Some questions still remain. It was not possible to determine who used the banqueting rooms and on what occasions. Certainly some of the inscriptions (Hackl et al. 2003: 250, 340 and 402) give us insight about the use, but were the rooms always used for religious or cultic occasions? What was the exact function of the banqueting rooms within the large tomb complexes in Petra? Were the same pottery or the same vessel types used for profane as well as for religious symposia? How long were the banqueting rooms in use? Interesting new insights can be expected from the excavations in the so-called Obodas chapel and the complex around the Aṣlaḥ triclinium. Also, detailed analyses of the pottery found in and around banqueting rooms in association with the surrounding structures could be very interesting. A comprehensive study of the banqueting rooms in Petra including the inscriptions, the analysis of excavation results, the style of the various banqueting rooms and the structures around them could produce a lot of interesting results.

Marco DehnerWinckelmann-Institut

Humboldt-Universität zu BerlinUnter den Linden 6

10099 Berlin (Germany)marco.dehner@web.de

33. See also note 5.. See also note 5.

Continuity or change in use? Banqueting rooms in the so-called Soldier Tomb complex in Petra

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