Contesting and Negotiatingthe Global

in Hindi Film Song Spaces

S.M.Gietty Tambunan (S1758098)

Final Paper Globalization and Music

LWX010M10 10 ECTS

Kristin McGee

29 January 2009

1. Introduction

1.1. India and Globalization

Since the 1980s, globalization has drawn a

fascination across the world and has been a significant

part in many fields of knowledge. On one side,

globalization is considered to be a chance to form a

global community and a borderless world promising

mobility both economically and culturally. This

‘international civil society’ seemed to be the answer for

a world of peace that embraces democracy. Nevertheless,

the other side of the coin is not looking very propitious

especially for the ‘minority’ (not for the dominant actor

of the globalizing power). It becomes a ‘threat’ through

1

the hegemonic power. The utopia of the global community

is seen as a homogenizing act from the dominant power.

Many scholars have tried to explore these two opposing

sides of globalization. Some are optimistic by the

positive outputs of globalization, but most are more

skeptical in their reaction. The homogenizing aspect of

globalization is considered as a threat due to its

eradication of the world’s rich cultural diversity.

Furthermore, this will lead to a form of a wider

domination and at the end, it will only be another form

of colonization or “Western cultural imperialism.”

However, many scholars have argued that this line of

thinking is based on the assumption that globalization

supersedes locality that creates homogeneity. Besides its

homogenizing force, an oppositional effect will be the

heterogenizing thrust of globalization. Roland Robertson,

in his work “Glocalization Time-Space and Homegeneity-

Heterogeneity,” points out the relationship between these

two forces. Globalization can be a homogenizing force

since it usually “involves the triumph of culturally

homogenizing forces over all others” (Robertson, 25). He

2

also states that this kind of notion is a part of the

mythology of globalization since it ignores the

microsociological or local issues. Locality can emerge

due to globalization causing a more heteregoneous

condition as a contestation toward the dominant force of

globalization. In other words, globalization should not

only be seen as a one way process but as a more dynamic

movement of the global and local. Moreover, Robertson

also argues that “It is not a question of either

homogenization or heterogenization, but rather of the

ways in which both of these two tendencies have become

features of life across much of the late-twentieth-

century world” (Robertson, 27). To be able to understand

the complexity of this notion, we need to look at the

‘how’ question rather than the ‘whether.’ Robertson’s

argument on the importance of how globalization is

homogenizing and heterogenizing at the same time could be

seen as a way to formulate a strategy, or what he refers

to as glocalization, in dealing with the two forces.

In responding to the homogenizing force of

globalization, a total isolation from the global culture

3

is highly risky because it means a total isolation from

the global economy. Many researches have been conducted

to analyze possible solutions on how the world,

especially the ‘other’ part of the world, should react to

this supposedly over-shadowing power of globalization.

Terms like localization, hybridation and glocalization1 have been

offered as a tool to avoid the threatening outputs.

Exploring and developing the local is one way to guard

the culture from any global influence. It can also lead

to a revitalization of native cultures making it more

heterogeneous. For example, in India and Japan, the

bombarding Western-based food chain has led to the

development of fast food outlets for traditional food.

Another form of reaction is ‘alternative globalization’

or what Tulasi Srinivas, in “A Tryst with Destiny: the

Indian Case of Cultural Globalization,” refers as

‘cultural emission.’

By referring to India as a cultural emitter, Tulasi

offers a solution on how to deal with the homogenizing

force of the dominant culture. Tulasi refers to the

1 This notion of glocalization will be used as the theoretical framework of this paper.

4

Western countries as the dominant culture according to

Peter Berger’s definition of globalization, which is

“movements of goods and ideas (cultural freight) from the

West to the rest of the world” (Srinivaz, 90). To be a

cultural emitter, a country needs to reach economic

stability and gain self-consciousness as a potential

emitter. At the moment, the assumed primary cultural

emitter is the United States due to its dominant

political and economical power in the global power

balance. Tulasi also proposed that it is impossible for

all cultural emitters to be considered equally;

therefore, hierarchy of emitters may become apparent.

United States then is categorized as the ‘primary

emitter’ on a global level, meanwhile countries like

India are “secondary emitters” in other parts of the

world.

As a secondary emitter, an opportunity to negotiate

or even to contest globalization can be an answer to

balance the powerful globalizing force of the West. Asian

countries could thrive to be actors within the domination

of the Western countries. India, as a part of the ‘other’

5

part of the world, has the thrive to be a secondary

emitter through the three aspects Tulasi focuses on,

which are the food industry, religious community and

software companies. In my opinion, the Hindi film

industry could also be a part of this negotiation and

contestation toward globalization since it has the

similar characteristics like the three areas proposed by

Tulasi. The characteristics are its international

popularity, especially in the diasporic regions, the

multiple settings and shooting locations all over the

world that symbolizes the blurred borders and also in its

production, Hindi films have captured the evolving nature

of global and local interactions.

1.2. Globalizing Hindi Cinema

Hindi cinema2 is known for its distinctive style such

as the complicated plots within plots structure,

colourful costumes, three-plus hour film length,

2 I would use the term Hindi cinema throughout the paper instead of‘Bollywood’ because many scholars have stated their objection in usingthe word Bollywood. Rachel Dwyer, a Hindi film scholar, argues thatthe word reflects a simple mimicry to Hollywood.

6

incongruous locations and most of all the extensive song

and dance sequences. It is the biggest film industry in

India and also in the world. Compared to Hollywood, Hindi

cinema has produced more films and attracted more

audiences. In 2003, Hindi cinema produced 1100 films

while its counterpart, Hollywood, produced 600 films.

Furthermore, the Bombay based film industry attracts 3,6

millions viewes every year which is one million more than

Hollywood. With a loyal follower in India itself and all

over the world, both from the Indian diasporic community

and also non-Indian viewers, Hindi cinema has strived to

exist as a film industry since “The first Indian film

show was held on July 7, 1896” (Gokulsing, 13) which was

not long after the Lumière brothers first introduced the

art of cinematography in France in 1895. In its

development, the Indian film industry has turned into

India’s biggest popular culture intoxicating its audience

with its massala3 ingredients.

3 Masala is a term used to describe the blending of many elements in aBollywood movie. There can a blending of genres, for example drama,comedy and action in one movie, and a variety of narrative elements.The term massala actually comes from the spice (also known as Garam

7

Many scholars have contributed to the discussion of

Hindi cinema. Yash Chopra, one of the most renowned film

producers in Hindi cinema, uses the term ‘glamorous

realism’ to describe how Hindi films envision reality

which is glossed over to make them appear more

attractive. Film scholar Ravi Vasudevan describes Hindi

cinema as “Cinema of Attractions” to emphasize how the

repetitive and predictable narratives have become a

source of pleasure rather than boredom for the audience.

This is one of the reasons why Hindi cinema is so widely

popular not only in India but also in other parts of the

world. One might question the reason people come to the

movies and indulge themselves in the same experience, due

to the repetitive format, over and over again. Vijay

Mishra, a Hindi cinema scholar, states that Hindi cinema

has even transformed into a new religion in India.

Audience comes to the movies to worship the actors and

actresses as if they are gods and goddesses. In, Mishra’s

Masala) used in Indian cuisine which can consist of more than 100spices. (Jill Nelmes ed. An Introduction to Film Studies 3rd Edition. (USA andCanada, 1996), p. 367)

8

analyis, Hindi cinema has become India’s “Temple of

Desire.” Through its popularity and established narrative

structure, Hindi cinema not only reacts toward the social

and cultural condition of the society but also reflects

it.

In relation to globalization, Hindi films are global

in theme, setting, language, costumes and other cinematic

codes such as music. The themes in Hindi cinema have

changed as a reflection of the changing social and

cultural condition of India. In the early 1900s, the

emphasis was on religious and/or nationalist themes. The

1950s or 1960s’ films were about rural-to-urban

migration, feudal oppression and class conflicts. The

1970s, which is considered the golden era of Hindi

cinema, highlighted the angry young man figure that

articulated the social anger of deprived classes.

Afterward, in the 1980s, the theme was about violence,

corruption in society and also a change in urban life.

Finally from the 1990s until now, as a continuation of

9

India’s modernization, the films reflect the economic

liberalisation and the emergence of a globalized Indian

middle class. As an example, the main characters were

often about returning graduates of foreign universities,

and the complex issues they face including how to

reconcile their experiences abroad with society back

home. Moreover, the changing themes also influence the

other cinematic elements such as multiple shooting

locations, the development of Hinglish or Hindi-English,

costumes and even music.

1.2. Film Music in Hindi Cinema

Film songs or the song and dance sequence in a Hindi

film is a part of the formulaic device in Hindi cinema

which has become one of the key transmitters of Indian

culture. Music is a part of India’s everyday life. One

indulge themselves in a song or musical experience in

weddings, funerals, harvest celebration, love serenade or

10

a day of worship at the temple. With its roots in India’s

oral culture, “music has an expressive equivalent to

speech.” (Morcom, 2) As explained previously, it has also

become a significant part in the music industry and the

consumption of music in India. Radio and television

relies heavily upon films to produce music as

commodities. “Radio listener request programmes and a

weekly ‘top hits’ chart have determined the most popular

Hindi film songs ona regular basis since the 1950s”

(Arnold, 186). Therefore, there is a dynamic process

involving the product itself, the media (radio and

television) and the consumers to determine the popularity

of a Hindi film song. If Hollywood’s musical lost its

dominance during the 1950s, Hindi cinema still keeps its

musical ingredients even with the emergence of other

types of popular music especially with the birth of MTV.

Music seems to preserve the cinema’s existence due to its

popularity: “the sale of music rights can cover much of

the film’s budget, and pre-release songs and trailers

11

publicize the film.” (Dwyer, 36) On the other side, film

producers rely on the songs or film music to support the

films’ success.

Film music has constituted what popular music is in

South Asia for the last five decades. Despite the

expansion in the music world that has taken place since

1980s and following “the cassette boom, which has

commenced in earnest around 1980,” (Manuel, 62) film

music continously has its primary position in India’s

popular music scene. The massive sales of the film

music’s recording could even reach 1 million cassettes

for unsuccessful films and 12 millions for blockbuster

films. This does not include the pirated cassettes or CDs

that took 40% of the total market in 2001. Film music as

well as film songs have become the music of public space

in India heard at homes, buses, bazaars, department

stores and many others. The popularity of Hindi film

songs has been an enormous part of Hindi cinema’s success

in India and also other parts of the world.

12

In his work, “Popular Film Song in India: a Case of

Mass-Market Musical Eclecticism,” Alison Arnold explores

this tremendous popularity of Hindi film songs by looking

at the eclectic4 characteristics. Arnold highlights the

variety of musical inspirations adopted by the film music

composer-director ranging from indigeneous Indian genres

to Far Eastern, Latin American and Western musics. This

eclecticism provide a viable answer to the challenge of

globalization especially its homogenizing force. In her

conclusion, Arnold even suggests that “…the readiness

with which Indians have adopted film songs suggest that

this music is India’s most succesful and economically

viable answer to the confrontation with Western and other

foreign musics and cultures” (Arnold, 187). In her view,

Hindi film songs offer a space of global and local4 Eclecticism is used to describe the combination in a single work ofelements from different historical styles. It plays an important rolein critical discussions and evaluations but is somehow distant fromthe actual forms of the artifacts to which it is applied, and itsmeaning is thus rather indistinct. The simplest definition of eclecticism is thatevery work of art represents the combination of a variety of influences — is so basic asto be of little use. In this point of view, every piece of music canbe considered eclectic, because little music is based on its own.Eclecticism in music can consist of a combination of musicalstyles/genres, poetry and/or philosophy. (wikipedia.org)

13

interaction without any constraint and even economically

doable. In this paper, I would like to allude to Arnold’s

optimistic argument especially by examining the Hindi

film songs within the context of Hindi cinema in coping

with the homogenizing and heterogenizing force of

globalization.

My premilinary analysis suggests that the

development in Hindi cinema’s film music reflects the

slippery notion between the local and global. At the

beginning, the film industry only used simple musical

instruments since the most important aspects were the

content and wording. By the 1930s, Western classical

music was introduced through the Parsi and Christian

communities in Calcutta and Bombay. “…film songs were

beginning to experiment with Western instruments, harmony

and orchestration” (Morcom, 2). Moreover, in the 1940s,

film songs had begun to adapt an “exotic and eclectic

array of styles, with songs being written in jazz styles,

as waltzes, or in the style of other Western and also

14

Latin American Popular genres” (Morcom, 4). In this early

era, the film music used light classical style which was

sung in the so-called mehfil (assembly) style. A group of

musicians and a singer were present during the film

exhibition to provide the song and music. With the

development of technology and the introduction of sound

in films, Hindi cinema adapted new techniques to enhance

its musical elements. The most prominent development was

the introduction of playback singing at the end of 1940s

in which actors mime professional singers on screen.

Afterward, Hindi cinema continuously changes its musical

aspects due to globalization.

The early development of film music in Hindi cinema

was actually rooted in India’s classical music tradition.

Music directors drew upon native traditions such as

classical Hindustani music and folk music from different

parts of India. The examples of Hindi traditional

15

music used in Hindi cinema are Bhangra5, Dholak6 and

Garbha7. Furthermore, many traditional songs or even

religious ones have been adapted into the films. From the

Punjab area, one renowned song by a local musician, Wari

Shah, entitled Heer have been used in a number of films.

Moreover, S.D. Burman, one of the most renowned music

directors in Hindi cinema, brought to the films the rich

folk music from Bengal which uses Ektara, a single

stringed instrument. Besides traditional songs, the local

is also re-emphasized through patriotic songs that dated

back to the pre-independence days. They express the

songwriter’s longing for a country that is free from any

domination. All in all, the music directors mostly obtain

5 Bhangra is a form of music and dance that originated in the Punjabregion. It is commonly associated with Sikhs. Bhangra began as a folkdance conducted by farmers to celebrate the coming of Spring, a timeknown as Vaisakhi. (wikipedia.org)6 Dholak: In a lot of Indian communities, traditionally, childrensing and dance on the beat of the dholak during pre-weddingfestivities. The dholak provides an interesting accompaniment for thenaughty lyrics of teasing songs aimed at an abashed bride-to-be.(wikipedia.org)7 Garba is an Indian form of dance that originated in the Gujaratregion. Unlike other famous types of Indian dance such asbharatanatyam and odissi, garba is similar to Western social dancethan the presentational style of the other dances. The meditativecircular movement and spiraling dance of Garba has similarities toother ancient spiritual dances. (wikipedia.org)

16

their inspirations from the traditional roots of India or

a nationalist spirit from the patriotic songs.

During the development of Hindi cinema, with the

changing social and cultural context, the film industry

has evolved around these changes and has produced

numerous film songs which also reflect those changes.

This paper will explore those changes and how the global

and local interact within the musical aspects of the

films. However, I would like to propose a closer reading

of the film songs not only by comparing one film song to

another, but to see them in relation to the development

of Hindi cinema. As previously mentioned, a film song is

closely related to the film itself. So far, there have

been a number of researches that have focused on Hindi

film songs as a separate entity from the film itself. In

other words, film songs are analyzed as a separate piece

of music especially because one of the characteristics

from Hindi films is the ‘out-of-blue’ song and dance

sequence. Since film songs are usually meta-diegetic, or

17

not a part of the linear narrative, most scholars use

this as an argument to analyze the songs as a separate

entity from the films itself.

In my argument, especially in discussing the

constant interaction between the global and local in

Hindi film songs, the songs have to be put into the

context, the film and Hindi cinema in general.

Furthermore, instead of doing a comparative study with

Hollywood musicals as many most scholars have previously

done, I would like to explore Hindi film songs within

Hindi cinema’s narrative tradition to capture more

thoroughly the local or one might say the ‘native’

elements. In this paper, my main object of comparison

will be the film songs from Kal Ho Naa Ho8, a 2003 Hindi

8 Kal Ho Naa Ho: Naina Catherine Kapur (Preity Zinta) is an angry youngwoman, for more than one reason. Her father committed suicide whenshe needed him the most, leaving his wife Jennifer (Jaya Bachchan) toraise their children all alone. Aman Mathur (Shahrukh Khan) arrivesin Naina's neighbourhood and soon changes everything. Noticing thesadness of his new neighbours, he intervenes. His well-meaninginterference in their activities, his revival of their financialcondition, and his general optimism soon change their lives for thebetter. Although Naina is initially reluctant to enjoy Aman'spresence as others do and is irritated by his extroverted, overly-enthusiastic attitude, she grows to like him and eventually to lovehim. As the film progresses, Aman's health deteriorates. Amaneventually dies of his weakness, shortly after Rohit and Naina getmarried. (wikipedia.org)

18

film, which is filled with many kinds of interactions

between global and local. However, I would also use film

songs from several films especially from the 1950s,

1970s, and 1990s. These film songs will be used to

explore the global and local interaction within the

songs, and the films themselves, and to compare them with

the main corpus, Kal Ho Naa Ho, as a part of the latest

development of Hindi film songs in Hindi cinema. The

analysis will focus on four elements which are introduced

by Anne Morcom in her book Hindi Film Songs and the Cinema as

four characteristics of a Hindi film song. These elements

are the vocal melody, lyrics, instrumental accompaniment

and visual components. My main purpose is to analyze

these four elements in the chosen Hindi films songs and

how they enunciate the global and local interaction.

2. Analysis

2.1. Song and Dance Sequence as the Meta-diegetic Space

19

Hindi film songs are mostly located in the meta-

diegetic space or beyond the narrative of the film. In

some cases, the songs can be a diegetic part of the film

when the character is a singer or a courtesan performing

in front of an audience. On the other hand, it can be in

a meta-diegetic level such as in a dream sequence,

lover’s fantasy, or simply an expression of feeling that

cannot be articulated elsewhere like a declaration of

love. Another function of these meta-diegetic scenes is

to convey eroticism which cannot be utterly exposed on

the scenes.

These scenes become “out of the blue” sequences with

no connection with the space and time in the rest of the

film. However, as mentioned in the introduction, this is

not seen as a disrupting continuity since it is a part of

the predictable narrative. Rachel Dwyer, a Hindi film

scholar, states that “conventions of time and space are

suspended in the film songs, which moves freely from

20

space to space, with the characters changing their

clothes, hairstyles and other features.” (Dwyer, 54).

She also argues that the changing of locations (settings)

opens up an opportunity to escape from reality (the

‘real’ time and space of the film). As an example, in a

lover’s fantasy song and dance sequence, lovers escape to

a private space, away from their family who might

disagree of their forbidden love. During the shift from

the ‘real’ scene to the song scenes, the films permit

excesses of fantasy which are problematic elsewhere in

the film. In relation to the global and local

interaction, these song spaces could be seen as a meeting

point for the global and local in a meta-diegetic level,

and not in the ‘real’ narrative.

2.2. Representing The Global and Local in the Song Spaces

To identify the global and local elements in the

song spaces, we need to identify the important aspects in

21

a Hindi film song which are the vocal melody, lyrics,

instrumental accompaniment and visual components9. These

four aspects could be viewed as signifiers that carry

meanings, in this case the global and local elements.

The vocal melody, which is actually sung by

professional singers and mimed by the actors and

actresses, is very distinctive in a Hindi film. The

typical voice, especially for female, is the high pitch

voice, which is actually a result of the introduction of

playback singing in Hindi cinema. The early sound film

actors and actresses, who sang the songs themselves,

essentially sang in a low middle range. This way of

singing is known as ālāp, which is the “prominent vocal

melody line open-throated vocal style slides between

notes” (Arnold, 178) from the classical Indian vocal

music. An example of this type of vocal style could be

found in the movie Tansen10 from 1943. However, along

with the development of technology, when the playback

singing technique was made possible, there was a9 Anne Morcom’s notions of what constitutes a Hindi film song. 10 Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Id3WgdaCz6I

22

significant change in the vocal style of the singers. "In

the 1940s Lata Mangeshkar's light, high-pitched voice

contrasted markedly with the lower, strong vocal style

then in vogue among film actress-singers, and the success

and popularity of her songs led music directors to use

her voice in film after film" (Arnold, 533). It became a

turning point in the film industry and since then the

high pitch voice become a trade mark of Hindi film songs.

This changes reflect how the development of technology

can be a significant factor in the global and local

interaction.

The other aspects of the film song could also be

analyzed as a juncture between global and lcoal. The

lyrics in the film songs are often very poetic and

symbolical due to its roots in the Urdu literary

tradition. Meanwhile, the main instrumental

accompaniment, as mentioned in the introduction, in the

early days are usually traditional such as the string

instruments of Sarangi and Sarinda or the classic Indian

23

drum, the Dhol. Visual components are also relevant

signifiers since the film songs are an integral part of

the film, which is a visual text. That is why all four

elements need to be analyzed in order to capture the

meaning making process of the global and local.

There have been some significant changes in the four

musical elements throughout the development of Hindi

cinema. If we examine one of the film songs from the

1950s, the trace of locality is still very clear. One of

the most renowned film songs, which is now considered a

legend, is “Awara Hun”11 which means “I’m a Vagabond,”

from the film Awara in 1951. We can identify the mehfil

(assembly) of traditional instruments especially the

string instruments such as Sitar, Sarangi and Sarinda

with a strong Arabic melody. The male voice also reflects

a traditional way of singing with its melismatic tunes.

Visually, this short clip is a picturization of the song

that draws upon the content of the song.

11 youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBkTRSzokTs

24

It depicts the character’s so called profession as a

thief which is then justified by his poor economic

condition. The contrasting visualization of the city, the

rich part, and the village, the poor part, could also be

seen as a part of the song’s visualization to emphasize

the character’s validation as a ‘vagabond’. Another

important aspect of this clip is the continuing scene

which does not jump from one location to another like

what we can find in a contemporary Hindi film. The reason

for this is due to the limited resources at that time and

how filming in multiple locations was not commercially

viable. This kind of technique started to gain popularity

in the beginning of 1970s as a marketing tool. Rachel

25

Dwyer12 argues that the possibility to present a number of

beautiful locations in a song and dance sequence is a

selling point since audiences can experience the utopia

of travelling all over the world without having to move

from their seats.

If we move to the films in the 1970s, the song and

dance sequences offered some momentous adjustments

alongside technological developments. The films, which

mostly featured Amitabh Bhachan13, the ‘king’ of Hindi

cinema, depict social and cultural conditions at that

time and especially the ‘angry man’ archetypal character

that represents the working class of India. In these film

songs, the main change is on the multiple settings in one

particular song and dance sequence. The global is then

12 Rachel Dwyer is Professor of Indian Cultures and Cinema at SOAS,University of London. Professor Dwyer's main research interest is inHindi cinema where she has researched and published on film magazinesand popular fiction; consumerism and the new middle classes; love anderoticism (of the wet sari and of the kiss and saying 'I love you');visual culture (sets, locations and costumes); and is currentlyworking on religion and secularism. She has written a book about oneof the great figures of the Hindi film industry, Yash Chopra, withwhom she has worked for several years. (www.racheldwyer.com) 13 Amitabh Bachchan (born Amitabh Harivansh Bachchan on October 11,1942), is an Indian film actor. He first gained popularity in theearly 1970s and has since become one of the most prominent figures inthe history of Indian cinema. (wikipedia.org)

26

reflected through the borderless space in which a

character can move freely to one country to another. As

an example, the character can be dancing in a house in

Mumbai and then suddenly he or she is singing in the

Alps, a beach in Australia, a tulip garden in the

Netherlands and then in Mumbai. The spatial borders are

blurred or even completely eliminated. In the movie Silsila

from 1981, the song “Dekha Eik Khawab”14 depicts this

borderless concept by continuously moving from a tulip

field to the snowy mountains to the river side.

(snowy mountains) (tulip field)

Besides the visual components of the song, other elements

might not have the same significant changes. The high

pitch female voice and tenor male voice are still used14 Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpbLrEZ88Aw&feature=related

27

along with the traditional rhythm from the instruments.

We can hear the slow rhythm of the tabla15 and in one

part, the male character, is playing the sitar for the

female character. In its musical elements, the 1970s

films still have a strong local sense even though

visually there has been a more global make over.

In my opinion, this visual changes is a result of

the thematic change of Hindi cinema especially because,

as mentioned in the introduction, in the 1970s and 1980s,

there is a complex mirroring relationship between the

films as texts with reality. In the 1970s, India started

to be ‘modernized’ with the overflowing technological

development. In other words, along with the outset of

globalization, the global entered the life of Indians

through many aspects including through the cinema, which

also included the film music. These changes are captured

by the film industry to be then reflected in the films. A

15 The tabla is a popular Indian percussion instrument used in the classical, popular and religious music of the Indian subcontinent andin Hindustani classical music. The instrument consists of a pair of hand drums of contrasting sizes and timbres. The term tabla is derived from an Arabic word, tabl, which simply means "drum". (wikipedia.org)

28

preliminary conclusion out of the changes of global and

local interaction from the 1950s to 1980s films is the

mutual process between the visualization and the musical

elements. As films modified their theme and visualization

according to the reflection of society’s conditions, film

musics also experience some changes either directly or

indirectly.

As they become more visually altered, Hindi film

songs experienced more significant changes especially

since the 1990s’ films that highlight the modernization

era of India. The themes for the films underline the

emergence of a globalized Indian middle class. With the

development of musical technologies, a mehfil (assembluy)

is no longer needed. Moreover, more musical instruments

are used to satisfy the global tastes. High frequency

string instruments and high pitch voices are rarely used.

Audiences are exposed to more hybrid musics including DJ

mixing and traditional Dhol rhythms like in the

blockbuster film Kal Ho Naa Ho from 2003. In the song

29

“Pretty Woman”16 which is actually an Indian rendition of

Roy Robison’s “Oh Pretty Woman,” the global could be

identified through the sound of electric guitar or drums.

However, we could also easily identify the local side

with the sound of the Dhol and even Bhangra rhythms. In

this particular song scene, the global and local are

flowing continuously without any conflicting moments. The

visual components also reflect comfortable blending of

the global and local.

The American flag in the background, the New York

suburban setting, the hip hop costumes and dance

movements reflect the global side. Meanwhile, the local

could be also found in some of the dance movements, the

16 Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Hdjp1lEeWU

30

Dhol drom used by one of the characters, and even the

costumes.

The intertextuality in this film song also reflects

its global context. Unlike in many other Hindi cinema

productions, the film's producers complied with

international copyright laws and received the license to

the rights to Roy Orbison's "Oh, Pretty Woman" for an

extended musical sequence taking place in the streets in

New York. The film itself is about the lives of an Indian

family in New York. The intertextuality, connecting the

film with the Hollywood blockbuster, Pretty Woman (1990),

could be seen as the film’s way of contextualizing its

filmic setting in America and also to emphasize its

global side. From the production point of view, this

decision was actually a marketing strategy since this

particular scene was shot before the shooting of the

whole film. The memorable shot of Shah Rukh Khan, the

main actor, playing a guitar in front of the American

flag, is used in the promotional kit. The song and dance

31

sequence was also broadcasted before the film was

released to attract audiences.

In “Mahi Ve”17, another song and dance sequence from

Kal Ho Naa Ho, the global and local could be identified

through the musical instrumentation used. In the first 32

seconds, we can only hear the music from the DJ, which

signifies a global sound. However, the lyrics, using

Hindi language, and the vocal melody of the male

character could be read immediately as something very

local. Moreover, the visualization seems to depict a

contrasting picture from what we can hear, the music.

Instead of Western dance movement or costumes, the actors

and actresses are dancing in sarees or kurtas, Indian

traditional clothings. The dance movements are also in17 Youtube link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzs1ZoLzwMw&feature=channel_page

32

such a Hindi cinema style with the girls dancers moving

the ankle bracelets according to the DJ rhythm. After 35

seconds, we can hear the sound of the Dhol drum,

emphasizing its Indian or local aspect. Throughout the

song, audiences could see how the signifiers reflect the

fusing of something foreign and something Indian

continously without any constraint or interruption.

In the analysis above, the preliminary conclusion is

how all four elements, which are the vocal melody,

lyrics, instrumental accompaniment and visual components,

are related to one another in enunciating the interaction

between the global and local which seems to be kept in

balance. As an example, if the musical instrumentation

leans more to a global nuance, than the visual would

reflect a more local or Indian style. This constant

negotiation occurs continously without any interruption

or restriction.

The global-local interaction could be seen through

the signifiers in the song and dance sequence and how

33

they are enunciated reflect what Robertson called as

glocalization. Glocalization is actually modeled on Japanese

dochakuka18 and also Japanese business global localization,

which is “a global outlook adapted to local conditions”

(Robertson, 27). As a business jargon in the 1980s,

glocalization was first used as an economic term to

describe the “tailoring and advertising of goods and

services on a global or near-global basis to increasingly

differentiated local and particular markets” (Robertson,

27) In his argument, Robertson proposes glocalization as

a strategic manouver to go beyond the notion of

globalization. Since globalization has often been in

tension with locality and how it is used to describe “the

compression of the world … the ideologically laden notion

of world order” (Robertson, 40), glocalization can be

used strategically like what have been done by MTV or CNN

in re-emphasizing the local to enter a new market.

Robertson argues that the global and local are

actually two connected notions. “The global is not in and18 Dochakuka is the agricultural principle of adapting one’s farming technique to local conditions.

34

of itself counterposed to the local. Rather, what is

often referred to as the local is essentially included

within the global” (Robertson, 35). Globalization could

then be seen as not merely a compresion of the world as a

whole, but it also involves the “linking of

localities19.” In other words, the global and local

dichotomy might not be as black and white as it may

seems. In my opinion, Robertson’s conceptualization of

the global-local positionings and also the concept of

glocalization could be used in line with the argument

that the global evokes the emergence of localities

therefore making it a heterogenizing process.

In the analysis, I have tried to explore the

constant interactions between the global and the local in

the chosen tetxts. The global and the local or what

Robertson will claim as the universal and particular are

continually enunciated throughout the song scenes. They

can be found in the musical elements such as the musical

instruments or vocal style. They can also be read in the

19 Robertson’s conceptualization.

35

visual level which is through the picturization of the

song. The lyrics, which is based on the classical Urdu

poetry, has also been influenced by a global nuance

especially by the increasing usage of English in these

film songs. However, as argued by Robertson, the global

and local should not be seen as two separate entities. It

is a strategic choice to do so at the beginning of the

analysis to be able to see how both are enunciated in the

song and dance sequence. Nevertheless, in the analysis we

can see that the interactions are portrayed in such a

continous form without any interruption or disturbance.

If we look back the song “Mahi Ve” from the film Kal Ho Naa

Hoo, the beginning part of the song reflect this

incessant interaction between the global and local. At

the end, in my opinion, one can no longer identify which

ones are global and local. In other words, the blurring

of the binary could decosntruct the simplified polarity

which assume that “we live in a world of local assertions

againts globalizing trends” (Robertson, 29). Hindi film

36

songs, through the spaces of global and local

interactions in the song and dance sequences, no longer

enunciate the global and the local, but rather the glocal.

2.3. Producing and Consuming the Glocal in Hindi Film

Songs

One might asked who actually plays an important role

in this decision making process to highlight the glocal

elements in a Hindi film song. In a film song’s

production, the hierarchal positions are the film

producer and director, the music director, the song

writer and lastly, the singer. The starting point of a

film song is the film itself. The story idea will be

pitched to the producer and director and then they choose

who they want to do the music for the film (the music

director) and approach them. In other words, the film

producer, who deals with the business aspects including

the financing of the film, gets to decide or interfere

37

with the artistic side of the film and song making. “…the

music director and lyricist have to please the taste of

the producer and director, who are artistically in

charge” (Morcom, 29). In Kal Ho Naa Ho, the producer of the

film is Yash Johar and the director is his son, Karan

Johar. It is typical in Hindi cinema to have a producer-

director duet consisting of a father and his son. The

film industry has been a family industry for such a long

time that actors and actresses often come from a family

with the same profession.

The producer-director duet create a unifying force

that put them in the highest position in the film making

process including in the making of the film song. If a

producer or director dislikes a song already made by the

music director and lyricist or the song is considered too

expensive in its production cost, he or she can easily

dismiss the song. “Producers have become as much the

instigators of hybrid film song as music directors, for

increasing production costs force them to seek maximum

38

novelty and cultural diversity in order to draw the

widest possible audience and gain the largest financial

returns” (Arnold, 186). In some interviews about his

films, Karan Johar explains that in choosing a music

director, he always prefers a familiar face who he has

worked with beforehand. That is why he often collaborates

with Jatin-Lalit, who gained popularity in the

blockbuster movie Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge (1995), also

directed by Karan Johar. In conclusion, the producer and

director have a bigger role in anything related to the

making of the film songs including the global and local

elements.

Another important aspect of the production stage is

the audiences. “…the mass Indian audiences are the

ultimate determinants of the success or failure of a

Hindi film and its songs; they therefore indirectly

affect the songs produced” (Arnold, 186). Hindi film

songs, which is also considered as Indian popular music,

is so popular in India and also internationally,

39

especially in the Indian diasporic regions. This

popularity reflects the dynamic relationship between

Hindi cinema and its audiences, including in its musical

aspects. As explained in the introduction, radio

listeners (the consumers) request programmes and the

weekly top hits have determined the most popular Hindi

film songs since 1950s. Another example on how audiences

play a big role in Hindi film songs popularity is during

the government ban of film songs in radios from 1952 to

1957. The purpose of this ban was to help popularise

traditional and classical music by the Minister of

Information and Broadcasting. “Indian audiences turned to

a new commercial short-wave service on Radio Ceylon that

began broadcasting Indian film songs at that time”

(Arnold 186). The government’s failure in removing film

music from India’s cultural practices illustrates the

magnitude of Hindi film songs to its audiences.

A critical analysis of this phenomena, especially

related to the discussion of the glocal in Hindi film

40

songs, is to see how the glocalized music can have such a

big impact in its popularity. In other words, could the

glocal elements in the songs or music be the reason of

its attractiveness? Arnold argues that

“The overwhelming popularity of this musicsuggests that the Indian masses consider filmsong more applicable to their lives today thanmany of the more traditional forms of Indianmusic. First, film song does not renouncenative musical traditions but adapts them to anew media and to a rapidly changing world. Indoing so it modernises, simplifies anduniversalises these traditions for the Indianpublic while still maintaining the Indianethos.” (Arnold, 187).

In other words, the popularity is gained by adapting the

songs according to the development of the changing world,

which in my opinion refers to the process of

globalization. If global is said to ‘modernise, simplify

and universalise” the traditions, I would argue that this

statement is still in line with the constructed binary of

global-local and modern-traditional. This implies that

the global is a vehicle of modernity meanwhile the local

will have the opposite enforcement. I would like to refer

41

back to what have been discussed about the production and

consumption process.

In my opinion, Arnold’s argument is only partially

applicable in discussing Hindi film songs and

globalization. The globalizing process is a part of Hindi

film song’s popularity because as mentioned previously,

the more adjustable the film songs are to the real life

situation, which is changing due to the globalizing

process, the audiences can relate more to these songs.

However, as I have argued previously, the process is more

complex and requires a two-way flow. Audiences also have

their role in the evolution of Hindi film songs since

they have the power to determine what kinds of songs are

popular through the radio listener request programmes and

weekly top hits. Moreover, there are other aspects within

the production stage that formulate this global and local

interaction in the film songs. The role of the music

composer who can be as ecclectic as possible in

42

synthesizing the music should also be put into

consideration.

Moreover, another important aspect of this

discussion is the question on whether the popularity of

Hindi film songs is because the local sound is altered to

have a global taste? Or is it because the global sound is

modified by adding up a local flare so the audiences can

enjoy it according to their taste? Arnold’s argument

tends to be parallel with the first question. I would

argue that the process requires both parts. Instead of

reflecting a globalizing or localizing process, my

analysis of this phenomena substantiates that the

evolution of Hindi film songs is a process of glocalization.

3. Conclusion

In conclusion, the glocal which are reflected

through the four elements of the film songs, which are

the vocal melody, lyrics, instrumental accompaniment and

43

visual components has undergone some significant changes.

These changes are made possible due to the development of

filmic and musical technologies. As an example, the high

pitch female voice was first introduced after the

playback singing was made possible. However, when film

songs start to adapt a more global styles of music like

latin music, jazz or even hip hop, the high pitch vocal

started to fade away even though it is not removed

completely. The development of musical instruments also

reflected the changes such as moving from the mehfil

(assembly) form to a more modern use of mixing and

electric instruments that do not require a whole musical

assembly to be present at the same time. In terms of

lyrics, even though the poetic sense is still there, the

use of English which often appears in the lyrics, even in

a form of rap music, is a part of that global influence

in Hindi films. From all of the four elements, I would

argue that the visual component has experienced the most

44

prominent change especially with the multiple settings

which represent the global through the borderless space.

All of the intrinsic elements could not be analyzed

separately from the production and consumption site. In

the production site, I would argue that the music

director does not have an equal importance with the

producer-director duet. In other words, the film song is

an integral part of the film. That is why, the decision

making is not a separate entity, in the hands of the

music director, but relies heavily on the producer-

director’s vision of the film. If the music director

depends on the film producer and director, songs also

depend on the films. “…the increasing westernization of

film music as being the use of stories with more Western

situations, scenes, and locations. As song depends on

films, if the film is more Westernized, so must the songs

be.” (Morcom,14) Therefore, the global-local interaction

within the film songs are made possible due to the

evolving changes in the Hindi cinema. However, this can

45

be a two way process since the changes cannot be made

without the development in musical technology which

directly affects the Hindi film songs. The audiences, as

the consumer, also have a significant role in the

enunciation of the glocal in Hindi film songs. Instead of

focusing on how these songs are globalized or localized,

the focus should be on how the process, from all sites

such as the production, consumption and representation,

is dynamic and glocalizing.

46

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, Alison. “Popular Film Song in India: A Case ofMass-Market Musical

Eclecticism,” Popular Music, Vol. 7, No. 2, TheSouth Asia/West Crossover

(May, 1988), pp. 177-188

____________ . 1999. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. UK:Routledge

Arora, V.N., “Popular Songs in Hindi Film”, Journal ofPopular Culture, 20:2 (1986:

Fall), p.143-166

Booth, Grogory. 1995. “Traditional Content and NarrativeStructure in the Hindi

47

Commercial Cinema.” in Asian Folklore Studies,Volume 54, 1995: 169-190

Dwyer, Rachel and Divia Patel. 2002. Cinema India: the VisualCulture of Hindi

Film. London: Reaktion Books

Garwood, Ian. “The Songless Bollywood Film,” South AsianPopular Culture Vol. 4,

October 2006, pp. 169-183.

Gokulsing, K.Moti dan Wimal Dissanayake. 2004. IndianPopular Cinema: A

Narrative of Cultural Change. USA: Trentham Books

Gorbman, Claudia. “Narrative Film Music,” Yale French Studies:No.60

Cinema/Sound (1980). pp. 183-203, Yale UniversitiesPress

Jha, Priya. “Lyrical Nationalism: Gender, Friendship, andExcess in 1970s Hindi

Cinema.” The Velvet Light Trap, Number 51, Spring 2003,pp. 43-53

Kvetko, Peter. “Can the Indian Tune Go Global?” DramaReview 48, 4 (T184),

Winter 2004, New York University and theMassachusetts Institute of

Technology, pp. 183 – 191

Manuel, Peter. 1993. Cassete Culture: Popular Music and Technologyin North India.

Chicago: The University of Chicago Press

Mishra, Vijay. 2002. Bollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire. UK:Routledge

Morcom, Anne. 2007. Hindi Film Songs and the Cinema. UK: AshgatePublishing

48

Robertson, Roland. “Glocalization: Time-Space andHomogeneity-Heterogeneity.”

Featherston, Mike, Scott Lash and Roland Robertson(eds.). 1995. Global

Modernities. London: Sage Publications

Sarrazin, Natalie. 2008. “Celluloid Love Songs: MusicalModus Operandi and the

Dramatic Aesthetics of Romantic Hindi Film,” PopularMusic, volume 27/3, p.393-411

Srivinas, Tulasi. “A Tryst with Destiny: The Indian Caseof Cultural Globalization” dalam Many Globalizations:Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary World (2002), UK: OxfordUniversity Press

Suketu Mehta, 2005. “Welcome to Bollywood.” NationalGeographic February 2005

Edition

49