Ιrciernαtiοnα| .Eοιεrnαl οf

TESTΙΙsG

o ffic i u t .Ι ο ιι r lιcι l ο.f. tΙιe Ι nt e nιιιt i rl rιcι ! k s Ι C οnιnι i s s i o li

LΑν/REΝCΕ ERLBΑUλ4 ΑSSOCΙAΤES. PιJBLΙSιΙERSλ{airιι'ah. Νeιι,Jersei' London

Ιn-TERΝΑΤΙoΝΑL ]oURΝAL oF ΤΕsTΙΝG. 2(3 &4 i. 21ι -211Cooι,right €'2ΟΟ]. Lau,renc: Εrlbauτπ Assοcιaιcs. in:

Cοnsιruct Validation οf theFaiη, Τale Τest-Standardization D ata

Carina CοuΙacoglouP s1'chο lo g1l D eραnmeιιt

Pαιιιioιι tJι.ιiνersi^' of Αthens, Greece

The concepιion of the Fairy Tale Test (FTΤ) resιs on ιhe assοciaιiοn between fairy

ta]es and unconsciοus pΙοcesses. The sιimulus materia] is deriγed fτom cΙassic fairy

ιales and in paπicular ιhe sτories of Liιιje Red Riding }Ιood and Snow White and ιhe

Seνen Dwarfs, Τhe samp}e of the stuιiy consisιed οf 80Ο Greek boys and girls 8, l0'

and 1 2 years oΙd from 3 socioeοonomic leve}s. The material consists of 7 seιs of cards

wiιh 3 picrures per seι. The FTΤ is an individua]ly adminisιered insιrumenι. whereby

the chiΙd has ιo respond tο questiοns concerning wel}-knoιιn fairy ta1e characters.

The FTΤ assesses 26 personaliιy variabies.

Cοnsιruct νaΙidity ινas deιermined in a variety of wa,νs: ιhrουgh facιor ana}ysis

and coπeΙations between ιhe FTΤ and more οbjecιive measures such ω the

ChiΙdτen.s Personality Questionnaire and the Rutιer Behaviοur Sca]es for Ρarenιs

and Teachers. Factor analysis led ιo the formaτion of 8 primar-ν facιιlrs: ReaΙity

Testing' Mother Ιmage, Asserιiveness' ora1iιy, Ρossessiveness, Aggression, FΙeΙpfu1-

nοss, and Depression. Teacbers consider ιroυbled chiΙdren ιhose \,ho eχpress Type A

or ..hosιiΙe'. aggτession. whereas pπenιs evaluate ιroubΙed children as nonheipful and

depressed. Αddiιionat οomparisons beι\νeen the FΤΤ and ιhe other 2 instrumenιs are

pΓeserΙιed.

The Fairy Tale Τesl (FTΤ; Coulacoglou, 1993, 1995' 20ω, 2003) is a personaΙiι1,

proJective test for children7 ιa L2 years old. Ιts broader puφοSe is to help the ther-

apisι assess the child's persοnality dynamics' οffering infοrmaιiοn noι just abouι

isolaιed personality variabΙes, but aΙso about ιheir interreΙations,

Ιts concepιion rests on the relation between fairy ιaΙes and unconscious prο-

cesSes (e'g.. Betteiheim' |916; De la Genardiere. |996 Γι?θS e1 al. 1989). Al.

Requesιs for reprinιs should be senτ ιο Carina CoulacogΙoυ, 4Ο Esperou sσeeζ Κfissiζ ΑιhΘns.

Gre,ce 1 4564. Ε-maiΙ: carina@ hol.gr

21r CοULΑCοGLΟL;

though fairy, ιaies haνe been empio,ved as therapy, aici.s with chiΙdren in ihe forπr ofpsychoιirama. puppeι shows, meιaDhors, and iavοriιe taies (memοry of sιοries).ιhe1, have nοι been used, at ieast in a s|anclardized forrn, in the fieΙd of personaliιvassessmeni. The theoreιical backgrοund of ιhe FΤT is a combinaιion oio.y.ho.n-aΙyιic anci ego anaiytic approaches and developmenιai ιhecΓies.

The FΤT consisιs of seνen seιs of carcis, three picιures fοr each ιesι. ιhaι presenιversions of one fairrl laΙe characιer or sοenes Γτom one tale. Τire ιhree versions dilferbasicalΙy in ιerms of expressiorι. ciothing. and age. They were cirawn τo appearlikebook il]ustrations or a reminder of Disney Γιlms. AΙthοugh ιhe characιeri are ι,veΙΙstrucιurec, the backgτoυnd is vague ornonexistentιo ΓaciΙiιateprοjecιion, Τhe chaτ-acιers draιvn are popular and sοme of ιhem can be found in more ιhan one sιory.

The ιesι consists of 2i cards thaι are presented ιo the chiΙd in sets of ιhree aι atime: Τhe firsι seι of cards consiSιs of three versions of LiιtΙe Red Riciing }lood. ιhesecond seι consisιs of ιhree versions of the WoΙi the third seι consisιs of ιh."" u,,-sions of the Dwarζ the foυrιh seι consists of three versjοns of the \\.itch. the Γrfιhseι cοnsists of three versions of the Giant, the sixth set cοnsisιs of ιhree scenesfrom the story of Little Red Riding FΙood. and the sevenιh seι consists of threescenes from the story of Snow Whiιe and ιhe Seνen Dwarfs.

Τhe child is asked to reψond ιo a number of questions that concern each sepa-raιe set of pictures. Some οf the qυesιions ινere formulated to poΙl for speciΓrc νari-abΙes. Fοr exampΙe, the question ..Which of the witches/giants scares you most.Why?,, was conceived tο assess fear of aggτession (FΑ). The naming of wiιches orgi1nω ma}. reνeal feelings tοward the mother οr father Γlgure or even about ιhechild himseΙf οr herself (e.g., ..The wiιch _ mothec, or ..Dreadful

Cathenne,,).

PΕRSoΝΑLΙΤY VΑRIABLΕS ΕXτRACΤΕD FROM TF|EFΤΤ

Responses tο the FTΤ ]ed ιo ιhe formaιion of 26 persοnaΙit.,,variabies iιienιifieithrough chiidren's Γesponses. Τhe labeling of the variabΙes uras the oυtcome οfeiaborale discussions among four child and cΙinicai osycholοgisιs concerning 60paπicipanιs' responseιi to the FTT: ambivalence (AMB); seif -esιeem (SE): desrrefor materia] things (DMΤ); desire for superiority (DS): sense of propeπl, (SΡRo):fear οf aggressioη (FΑ

) ; aggτessi on as dominance (AGR DoΜ) ; aggr.s sion Τype Α(AcR Α)' which refers ιo responses that are inιernaΙly -iustlneο, sucti as aεgressivereactΙοns attributed ιο hatred or disUke; aggression Τype B (ΑGR B). whΙΦ refersto reactions thaι are externa1Jy.iusιified or reactive aggτessron and consisιs of ag-gressiοn as defense (ΑGR DΕF)' aggression as envγ (ΑcR ΕΝvΥ), and aggres-sion as retaliaιion (ΑGR REΤ); oraΙ aggression (oΑ); οraΙ needs (oN); desιre ιοheip (D}Ι); need for proιecιiοn (ΝΡ): need 1o; affrliatiοn (ΔΙAFΙL); need fοr affec.tion (ΝΑFCΤ); sexual preoccupaιion (SΡ); moraΙiιy (M); anxieιy (ΑNX): deρres.

FΑΙR1,TΑL. TFST 21 9

sion (D); relaιiοnsΙτip ινiιh moιher (RΞLlMo1: reiaιiοnship wiιb iaιher REL/FA);adapιation ιo fairy laΙe cοnιenι (ΑFΤC); bizarres (B;: and repeιiιions (RΞΡ)'

The νariables are raιeci on a 3.pοint scaΙe ranεing from 1 (lοly,\ tc3 lhigh) or aspositive (+Ι) and negativ9 (_1) for SE, RELΛ4O, and REL/FΑ. E responses anciRΕ,Ρ are scοreci as ]. μ,hen prssenι. ΝumericaΙ raιings on each cateεory a,e τoιaleifοr alΙ seιs οf picιures. Raιv scclres can be conνerted inιo normalized Τscores (,4f =50, sD = ] 0). Τhe foΙiowing aΓe sοmΘ exampies of ιbe raιing scheme:

The gianι wants to destro1, every hoυse in the area because he is wicked.(ΑFTC=2,ΑGRΑ=2)

The ιvοlf thinks ιhat the hunιer is waιching and he ma1, kj}lhim. (ΑFΤC =2. ΑΝΧ = 3)

When compared 'μliιh other thematic ιests. the FTI differs on several aspects.The chiId is presenιed with three Sιimulus pictures insιοad οf one and is asked ιo re-spond ιo some ιiuesιions instead oi prociucing a Sιory, Making up a sιory couldproνe a difficulι or frusιraιing task for young children, especialΙy those who lackimagination or who are inhibiιed. Ιn the FTΙ the stοry aΙready exists and the childis asked ιo recοΙlecι parts ofiι.

Ιn contrast to oιher tests, the presented characters are weli.knoιvn ιo children, asthey are paπ of their everyday reaiity. Tlre association betιveen fairy taΙes and un-conscious processes has been stressed by many analysts (e.g.. Beιιelheim' 1976;Ekstein, 1983; Fromτn, 195i; Kaes et a1., 1989).

The ιechnique of the ilIυstrations diff-ers from one sΘι ιo anοιher. The raιionaie',lras that speciΓlc drawing maιeriaΙs (e.g., watercolors, pencil. and ink) intensifocertain elements that mighι faciliιate pro.|ection (i.e., absτracιness, form, expres.sions, and affects). Τhe varieτy in ιhe drawing techniques can alsο make ιhe admin-istration of the test more sιimulaιing for the child.

Ιn terms of parameters assessed, ιvhereas the vast majority of ιhematic ιesιs fο-cus mainl1, on family reΙations and inteφersonaΙ situatiοns, ιhe FTΤ assesses alarge number of personality variables, mosτ of which are scorab]e^

Ιnstrucιions concerning the rating οf the vaτiabΙes are expΙicit and numerous ex-ampΙes for each rating aΙe presented in the manuaΙ.

Sample

Τhe sample consisted of 803Τhree age groups were formeciand 1 i and 12 1,ears (n = 3'ι2\l'

MΞΤι-ΙoD

nοnclinical Greek chiidren (405 bοys' 398 girΙs)-: 7 and 8 years (π = 229 l,9 and i0 yeaΙS (η = 262),Τhese age groups were seiecιed mainiy in ιerrπs of

ZΖυ cοULΑcoG1-ot

inιeresι in fair.v taies. Eight years is an age where 1nι3Γ3sι l:-, ιi:ts i:::: :...lιe:aιureis aι iιs peak. Αι 12 l,ears. alιhough interesι has ιurnecj ιoψ.arc :nοr: ι:aiisιl: iοrmsof jiteraιure, the memοrl, οf such ιaies iS sιil] a]lνe.

Chijciιen in ιhe sample were aΙ] nonpatienιs attending primaη' ani seccnιiarypubiic schooΙs in the Αthens area. Ιn ιhis sample. tie socioeconοmic sιaιus ιvasforτnuiaιed as fοllows: 22vο 1,oν,,54.3% midd]e , and 23'8'7ι upper niiddle,

Prοcedures

Τhe children ιvere tesιed in an unused rοom in their schoo}s, After esιabiishingrappoπ ιι,ith a child, the examiner asked ιhe child ιο briefly narraιe Φe sιories οfLitιΙe Reci Riding Ι{oοd and Snow Whiιe and the Seνen Dwarfs, which are re-cor<ied verbaιim in the FlΓΙ form, (Τhis is necessaΓy to Γιnd ouι what version of thestοry the οhild is familiar with.) Τhen ιhe child is presented with ιhe firsι seι ofcards, foΙΙowed by the quesιions. ιhen the second seι of cards and the quesιions,and so on, unιiΙ all the pictures are adminisιered.

Other Measures Used

Τhe Children,s Personality Questiοnnaire and ιhe Rutter Behavior ScaΙes were Se-lecιed among other instruments as criτeriοn measures to vaΙidate ιhe findings fromthe FTΤ. Τhe CΡQ is a self-repoπ instrumenι ιhat assesses 14 personality dimen-sions or traiιs. Some of ιhese appeaΙ ιo be reΙaιed tο the FTΤ facιοrs, includingdominance, insecuriιy, anΧiety, inιeΙligence, imaginaιiοn, impυlsiviιy. and tension.The Rutter Behaι,ior Sοales fοr parenιS and teachers was chosen as a measure οfιhe chiΙd,s behaνior at home and aι school. one of its aciνanιages is that it ιakes ashoft ιime ιo compiete and has been occasiοna-iΙy οmptoyed for otber studies inGreece (e. g., PapatheoΓιΙ ou, }Ιaritakis, Kozadinos, &Theοlogo ιl, 1 992).

The Rutter Behaviοr Scales cοnsisιs οfιrvο scales, onc fοr parents and one forteachers' The purpose of boιh scales, according to Rutter (1967)' is ιo

firlfi]j a need for a reiiable aτrd νa]id shοπ quesιiοnnaire suiιabΙe tο be used wiιh chii-ciren in the middΙe range, and 'ιvhich cοuld be υsed ιο ciiscriminate between differenιtypes of behavioura.l or emotiοna] ciisοrder as welΙ as discriminaιe beιween chiΙorerrwhο shotι'a disoideτ and those who do noι. (p, 8)

The CΡQ (Poπer & CaιteΙl. 1975) is a self-repon οuesιionnaire ιhaι measures aseι,of 14 facιoriaΙΙy indepencient rjimensiοns of personaliι1, (objectiνei1. deιer.m-lned source traits). Afιer scoring the 14 primaτy facιors, iι is possib]e ιo deriveI}om these factors a seι of scores οn jusι four or fiι,e second-orιier facιors, such asexιraνersion or generaΙ anxieιy.

Τhe primary source ιΓaiιs measured by the CΡQ are the following:

F,A.ΙRΥ ΤΑΙ Ε TESΤ

Factor A: reserved ι,ersus rι,armhearιed.

Factor B: ciuiΙ versus bright.

Factor C: afΓecιod by feeiings γersus emotiοnaΙiy sιable,

Factor D; phiegmatic versus exοiιable,Facιοr E: obedienι versus donrinanι.

Facιor F: sober veΓsus enthusiasιic.Facιοr c: cxpedienι νersus conscienιious,Facιοr FΙ: sΙ:y versυs venιuresome.

Facιor Ι: ιough-minded versus tendeτ-minded-

Facιor J: zestfυ} versus circumspect indiνiduaiism,

aal

a

o

a

o

a

a

. Facιοr Ν: forthrighι versus shrewd.

. Factor o: self-assured versus guilιprone.

. Factor Q3: undiscipΙined self'conflict νersus controΙ}ed,

. Factor Q4: relaxed versus tensed-

Ιn this. invesιigaιiοn Form A was employed vzith the chiΙdren,

RESULTS

Consιrucι vaiidity was examined in a νariety of ways:

1. Τhrough facιor analysis. ouι οf the 26 variabΙes.2Ο wΘre employed in ιhe

analysis. The excluded νariables were: M, SΕ', RELIFA. Sη NΡ, and REΡ. Τhese

γariabies \peΓe noι inclu<ied because of either their low intercοrrοiaιiοns or lοw

νariabliιies. Because of the differenι ιypes of recording methods, the νalues were

recοded on a scale ranging fτοm 1 ιo 5. Ρrincipal componenι analysis was carried

ouι υsing varimax roιation, Loadings less than . 40 were noι included. The folΙοw-

ing factors v/ere extΓacted: Reality Τesιing, Mother Ιmage, Αssertiveness, oraliιy'Ρossessiveness, Aggression. }Ielpfulness, and Depressiοn (see Tab1e 1).

2. Relation of high and iow scorers on FTΤ facιor scores ιγiιh the CΡQ and ιhe

Rυιter scales. For each facιοr we defined Ιow scorers as ιhose cases wiιh facιor

scores iess than _.5 anιΙ high ScoΓers aS those cases with factor scοres greaιeΙ than

.5. This was done So ιhat the three gτoups (low. middle, and high scorers) would be

approximaιeiy equal in size. Τhese comparisons shou1d provide information οn ιhe

psychoiοgical identity olthe factors (see Tables 2-12).

3. Cοmparisοn of ιroubΙed and nontrι,lubΙοd children objοctiνely deΓιned bγ ιhe

RutteΓ scaΙes. The seΙecιion of chiΙιiren with emoιiοnal or conduct disorders b.v"

means of the A2 sca1e is a two-stage prοcedure: (a) children with a tοιai scοτe οf i ..?

or mσre are designaιed as showing some disorder, and (b) οf thesο children, ιhοse

ιvith an emotionaI score exceeιiing the conducι Score are designaιed as having an

emotional disorder, and thclse with a cοnducι score exceeding the emοιional Scοre

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711

. Βe,ation o, Η,gh anc Loιγ Scorers "nβ"ε..,

CPQPo,o,η",",.*fu-*.,FB:Bnghι ,.,Η Mro,,ro

o , nFC;Ernoιioηaij-ysιabje !.'' *''n, f -<s-759χ

FE: obcdienι 2.27 - r ,90 7.24 ι 1 '89 'c36*

FF: sober 2.44 x 1 .qs 2.57 r 1.95 ..553

Fc: Cοlrscienιious 3.]6 t Ι.89 2'66 + 1.61 ,Ο89

]tsH: venfuIesoΙn , 7 '46 + 1.g7 3.59 * 2.O5 .121

r.Ι: Tenderηiηcieo 5 '81 x 1.g7 7.27 x 1.E7 '020+

FΝ: Foπhri8bι 5'6? + 2,62 .5.73:ι ].78 .277

Fo: Confideηι 2.2i i l.7.3 'J.38 * 2.64 ,668

Ι-Q3: ConιrolΙec 2'4] ! Ι.64 2.66t i,87 .232

FQ4: Rejaxed 7'66 x 1.66 2.74 x 1.6ι 'α)7+*

3.24 - 2.15 7.2i * i.g1 .0321

il:t,,;g1i1d only on εo' λ'," "ul!.ul' i*'.

τΑBLE 4ReΙailon οf High and Low Scorers on Fττ Faοtor 2 (Mother image) With tne CPc

Lοv' Scοrers ( <.5f !]i8h Scorers (>'5f

CPQ Pαrunιeιers M*SD |vΙ + SD Twο-Tιιiled p ι Tgsτ

FA: Warmh.-aned

FB: tsrighτ

FC: Emoιionaiiy sιabie

FΙJ: ΡhΙegmaιic

FΕ: obedient

FF: Sober

FG: Cοnscientioυs

FH: Venturesome

FΙ: Tenderminded

FJ: Jestful

F1ιi: Foπhrighι

Fo: Cοnfidenι

FQ3: ControΙΙed

FQ4: Relaxed

A2 Scοle JC Ιnv' Scorers νs. High Scοrers ρ

.056

.Οοi

.852

71Γ|

.3Ο9

.351

.804

. /δ.\

,13 Ι

.003

.1'19

.lω314

.1οΙ

Νote. Chiidτen wiιh negatiνe moιher image aιe less brighι, and perceive themsοΙνes εs less zest.fuΙ, Significanι differences werc found oniy οn FB ana r,l- brq = ChiΙdren,s Ρeτsοnaliη, Quesdοn-naire.

an = 288. bn

= 197 .

τABLE 5Τotal Sοore and Subscores of Rutter A2 Scale According to Groups Defined bv Faοtor 2

(Mother lmage)

Ι.ow Scorers MiddΙe Sι:orer Ιliρh Scοrers

r.25t L.J!'1 S1 * 1 '19.

7 .16 ι 1.96

J.oJ t Ι.-\.J

3.55 * Ι.99'7.50 t 1.76

5.76 t 1.86

5.30 * 2.74

!.v! ! L,6!

176-1.'Ι1

2.4E + 1.56

/.)J t i./4

3.M =2.02

7 .66 + 1,.54

6.78 =2,197.13 + 1.8-?

,l?+lOA

2.48 + i.5911Q+,)Λ"

7ξd+1a?

5.71 t i.80

5.67 t2.54

3.42 + 1.88

2.48 t 1.93,) 71 + I 72

7.38 + 1.8Ο

3.35 t 2.0a

λ4JCΜs.εM

Total 1.52 .36

Emoιiona] \.27 .08

Conducι l.Ο9 .09

Fly1εractivity 1.41 .]0

1.90 .34

ι.41 .08

1 .17 .09

111 Λo

8.22

1.5ο

1 .-?-5

1.53

40

10

1Ο

Ι3

11t

ο66

ο53

479

Νoιe' ChiΙdτen wiιh a very n€gaιive moιι}er image are eνalυaιed b1,parents as haνing a cοnduc.disorder.

225

226 coU]-Αcc6LoU

ΤABLΞ δ

Reiation οi Fiigh anc Lov', Scorers οn ΞT.Ι Εaαol 3 (Asse,1r'νΞ1ess \,j;iΓ i.re cPQ

Ιτ,τι'Scοrers |<.5)' Ιligi: Scοre:s ι>.5

". '.Τ;iledp'!Tes|Ιl'SD Ιul = SDCPQ Pαrοιneιer:

FΑ: Warmheafleο

FB:tsright

FC: Εmoιionaliy sιab}e

FD: Phlegmaτic

FE: obedienι

FF: Sober

FG: Consclenncus

FFl: Venιuresome

FΙ: Tenιiermlndοci

FJ: Zestiut

FΝ: Forthright

FO: Confident

FQ3: ControΙΙed

FQ4: RοΙaxed

i .76 - ':.5Ο

|'Ι|ΞΙ.6ν

l'Ι.'Ξ|')l

2.26 * i.8Ο

2.41 - i.51

? ,e + 1 lQ

1.65 ! Ι '1Δ

5.71 * 1.91

5.8i + 2.58

3.21 r 1.95

2.24 =

1.70

l.)/ f Ι.oi

i.53!1.753.13 - 2.O6

.a -iιαij294

j.1δ

38j

J13

98-?

035

'ο27

1JJ

.6'ξ 1

.904

189

Noιe. ChiΙciren ιγho are very ass9niνe are brighter aτrd perceive ιhemseiι,es as ].sS ccnsclenιloι]s,

Ιesstenderπlnded,andmorezestfuI.ΝonΘoftheseresυltsweresignif;canι CPQ=Chiicren.sΡεrson.

aΙity Quesιionnaire.az

= 338. bn= 2A3.

are designaιed as having a cοnduct disorder. Τhe same Ρrocedure ιs iollowed for

th" B2 s'cute, the difference being in ιhe first stage, γ/hereb-ν chi1οr:n q,iιh a toιaΙ

,.o,. ors or more are designaιed as sho',ving son1e disorder. Τhe summecj Score for

,i.Ι. i,.*,..veη,resι]ess. has difficuiιy sιayin8 Seaιed foriong....'sαulrrn\. fidgeιy

.ι,lt.'i,.. unο ..cannoι SettΙe tο anything for more tlran a few momgns., οan be treated

as a hypeΓacιivit} ScoΓe (either separaιei,v or by cοmbining ιhe scores across the

ιwo sοaies; see Tab1ΘS 13 and 14).

DιScUSSIoΝ

Disοussion of the Eighi Primary FTΤ Factors

Τhe different iabels of factors are tΘnιatiνe, ιrying ιo grasP the naιure οf ιhe factors'

\λ," u,,,,n" that the Sca1es are vaiid for the puφoses of the discυssion. }Iοweνer. Ι

aτn quiιe a\pare ιhaι the interpretation of iactors is subjecι.iνe.

FAΙR\,TALE ΤESΤ 227

Facιor analysis ieci ιο the formaιion οf eighι primaη, facιors (Table 1). Τhe twοhighest ioadings are with AFTC anιi B, That is, ιhe Ιοvzer the scores on ΑFΤC. thehigher ιhe Scores on B. Τhis faοtοr Ψas idenιified as Realiιy Τesιing' Αccording ιο

Rycrofι ( 1995)' reaiiιy ιesting is ιhe capacity to disιingυish beιween menιaΙ imagesanιl exιerna,} percepιs, betι\,een fanιasy and exιernai realiιy, The fairy ιaie plοι-cieιermined b.ν ιhe chiΙd's narraιions-provides a framework ιο confine one,s re.sponse. Thus the fairy tale p}οt forms the externaΙ realiτy-as we have previousΙyesιablished ιhe chiid.s famiiiarity with and knowΙedge of fairy tales-againsιwhich phanιas1, and unconsοious is measured.

Deviation frοm actuai contenι may be attribuιed ιo a number of factοrs. inciud-ing negative reacιion ιo a speciΓlc ιale and the employmenι of repression or denial,inabiΙiιy to concenιΓate and ιecall, ardenι unconscious preoccupaιions or conf1icιs,and mental deficiency.

τABι-Ξ 7Relation of F{igh, Μidd|e, and Low Scorers on FTΙ Factor a (oraΙity) With lhe CPQ

ΙnwSc0rerf

MiddΙe ΙlighScοrerf Scorers

CPQ Pαrαmeιers Μ+SD M=SD Μ+SDΙ.ον'νs.

Miejdle ι Tesι

Ι:ligΙι νs'MiddΙe ι Test

FΑ: Warmheaned

FB: Brighι

FC: EmoιionaJly sιable

FD: Ρhiegmaιic

FE: obedienι

FF:Sober

FC: Conscientious

FFl: Venιuresom

FΙ: Τendermlndeιi

FJ: Zesrfυ]

FΝ: Fοπhrighι

FO: Confident

FQ3: ControlΙed

FQ4: Reiaxed

7.76 t 1.61

1 .13 !.2.05

/.Jι/ =

t.,J

).21 + i.91

3.32 * 1.95

'1.63 * 1.79

5.65 i 2.04

5.66 * 2.68

3.07 * 1.9Ι

2.2a r 1.85

2.59 !' ι '69

/.b9 1 Ι.ο.\

3.05 + 2.1 I

7.82 t 1.57

1.29 + 1.95

7 .16 ! 1.91

2.30 = 1.78

2..49 * i.49

3.26 Ξ l,8.1

7.4i * Ι-81

5.8Ο * l.85

5.70 + 2.48

3.08 t 1.73

!.31 Ξ \. ΙJ

i.)l t 1.O1

,1 .51 * i.7t)

3.28 * 2.16

7.88 * 1.46

7.56 + ι' '84

7 .07 :1.94

?.49 t2'Φ2.71 + !.56

3.58 * i.9E

7.33 - 1.98

5.83 t 1.83

5.21 + 2.75

3.O4 - 1.81

2.49 t 1 ;18

2.4i + i.53

7 .10 + 1.94

3.4i + 2.01

.ou /

)5!

.429

.567

.33,1

.i 19

.31'7

.365

.8s2

,942

.52ι)

.59Ο

.403

.209

,678

.1 l8

.571

.25 I

.lΟ9

.Ο59

.864

432

?88

.34.ζ

.4ιt8

.ω2

.017

Νοιe' Children wiιh oraΙ needs pcrceive ιhemselves as Ιess ιencierminded, less self.cοnιrοΙle<i, anι}

lcss relaxed than oraΙly aggτessive chiΙdren. Significanι differences were found only on FQ3' CΡQ =

Children's ΡersonaΙπy Quesιionnπre,.n= 246' bιι

= 297 ' .r

= 235

22E coul-Αcocιoι;

τABLE 8Rεiaτjon cf l-|igh, }'4icjdΙe. and l-ow Scorers on FΤT Facιor 6 |F.9cression) v/Ιth the cPQ

Ιιιu' MiddleScoreτf ScοrerΡ

ΙΙiρhScοrers,

CPQ Parαιneters }ξ+SD λt' SD M=SD klγ'' l's' Mid'dΙe Ι]igh νs. lΙiddie

FA: Warmheaned

FB: Brighι

FC: EnrοrionaΙly stabΙe

FF: Sober

FC: Conscienιious

FFΙ: Venturesom

FI: Tenderminded

FJ: Jestful

FΝ: ForιhΙighι

Fo: Confidenι

FQ4: ReΙaxed

/.δo * Ι.:]7.10 + I .99

/.!6=''Ι;

2.3\ * 1.99

2.3,1 ! 1.49

J,Ζδ i ].δj

'7.65 * 1;77

5.78 * 1.91

).o] Ξ l,.,,J

3.02 + 1.88

2.19 x 1.84

2.4} x ι.64'7 .54 + 1..71

3.04 t 2.09

7.84 = 1.43

'l .39 x. 't,91

7.14 * I .93

?.21 * 1.80

3.33 !2.42'l ,58 * l.'14

5.73 * 1.95

).)J A .i.bJ

3-Ο4 t 1.80

2.23 + 1.7O

2.52 x 1.64

7 .59 ι 1.70

J.1/ t i.L'.l

.7.77 * 1.7Ο

?.43 * 1.93

l.15 Ξ :'lυ

2.5| + ι.94

2.71 * 1.58

3.51 * 1.81

i.19 x.2.06

5.80 * 1.83

5.49 t'2.5'7

J.ΙJΞ |.//

2.67 * 1.94

2.56 + 1.62

7.24 Ξ1.8'7

3.60 x.2.22

93i

.09._s

4ΟΟ

1'73

.719

.671

..Ι4ο

.119

.876

.782

448

.7 44

Λ11

._56C1

837

966

.062

.059

.282

.013

,oοJ

.848

,562

.0u

. loν

.ο18

.017

Nοιe. ChiΙdren who haνe Τype B aggTession perceive themseΙves as less conscienιious, ]ess forth.right, less self-controlled' and less relaxed. Significanι dilΤerεnces were found oniy on F}i. CPQ =

Children's Ρcrsοna.liιy Quesrionnaire.an

= 216. bn = 322.'n = 241.

Τhe second factor Ιoads on RELΛ4O, FA" and AλD{. More specificaiiy, ιhemore negaιive the relaιiοn, the higher the scores on FΑ and ΑΝΧ. Τhis factor wasidentified as MoιheΓ Ιmage,

Τhe significance of the ΓeΙatiοnship between the chiid and his οr her motherfοr mentaj development is beyonci doubι' 1ι is widely accePιΘd thaι the founda-tions of heaiιhy ΘmοtionaΙ deveiopmenι are esιablished in infanc1, anci evoiγearound this uniqυe, duai relaιiοnship between the baby and his or her mother.Bowlby (1973) and others bave discussed the deι,eΙopmenι of feaΙ as a funcιtonof ιhe qυality of ιhe child'S atιachment ιo the primary cuιΙegiver. [Ιe conciudedthat a chi]d,s fear is rarely imaginar1,. ChiΙdren \γhο are prone ιo fear orobabΙyacιualΙy experienced λ Εteaι dea] of insecuriτy in ιhe attachmenι re}aιionship.W]πnicotι (i965) wrοte,..good cοndiιions in the earΙy stages lead to a sense ofsecurity, and a SΘΙSe of secιlrit\, 1eaιis οn tο self contΙol'' (p. 33l. Ιt can be saidιherefore. that anxieιy feelings aΙe ιhe resu}t οf insecure atιaοhmenι wiιh a re-jecting mother.

FAΙRYTΑLΕTESΤ 229

on the οιher hand. fear ot aggression mighι be more cΙoseiy reΙaιeci ιc a harshand punitive motheΙ. Bloch (1979), jn her bοok ιitled So the Wiιch Woιι't Εατ Me.described the chi1d.s fea,- as reactiοn ιο parenιal aggτession, as ..fear of infanti.cide.,' Ιn ιhe majoriιy οf cases she described. thc perceived threaι comes fτom themotirer. }ience. iι is nοι suφrising that a menacing moιheΙ. produces exιreme feπin ιhe chiΙd.

The third factor Ιoads on DS and AGRDOΙν1. Ιι ιvas idenιified as Asserιivenessbecause iι appeaτs tιl reflect the need to prove oneselΓ mainly ιhrough aggression.Κοhuι (1977'1 νiewed aggression aS a consιiιuent οf ιhe chiid,s asseπi\,eness.

Common expressiοns that reflect the desire ιo be superior aΙe the viish to bequeen οr king and ruie the wοr1d, or ιo exceΙ in a speciΓic ability or ιraiι such asbeauty' poweη fame, οr wiιs. Less cοmmon and perhaps more pathoΙogical are ex-pressions of omnipοtence sυch as the wish ιo be God.

We knoι,y ιhaι infanιs and young chiΙdren are ofιen ιrying ιο catch ιhe aιtenιionof their parenιs using all sons of means. Ιt is quiιe naιural for the smaΙl chiΙd ιo feelinferiοr mainly because of his or heΙ sιature in comparison ιo the suπoundingaduΙιs and because of his or her posiιiοn and status in the family (an ..ouιcasι,,).

PopuΙar fairy ιaΙe protagonists_LittΙe Red Riding Flood, Snoιv ξTιite. CindeτelΙa.

TABLΕ 9Τotal Scorε and Subsοores of Rutter A2 and 82 Scaies According to Groups Defined by

FactoΓ 6 (Αggresslon)

ittv'Scorers

MiddleScοrers

l1;oh

Scοrers

Ruιιer Scαles Μ SE MΙtlw ι's' High νs.

sE MiddΙe p Middle ρMsε

A2 ScaΙe

Τoιal 8.19

Emoιiona] 1.4a

Conducι i.30

Flyperactiι,iη" 1.52

82 ScaΙe

Tota] 6.1Ο

Emoιiona] 1.16

, Conduct i.28

F{yperacιiviιy i.6?

.+-l / -5-

.ο9 1.2i

,1 ,1 j .οE

,13 ι.?ο

44 1.62

.08 ! .1Ο

.14 0.86

'|Δ 1.Ι5

.3Ο 8.26

.08 1.52

.07 i.:3

.09 1.52

.2i 1.78

.Ο6 Ο.99

.09 0.87

.ο9 1.24

41 .096

.09 .276

, i L] 'ο8l

.1] 'ο3i

.Ο63

.029

.jιο

.029

'33 ω2 .722

.o1 .562 .305

.1Ο ,ω7 .962

.11 'ω3 .531

Νοιe. Ρσenιs and teaοhcrs dοscribe childrsn with Τyμ Α aggτession as hyperacιive. ]'eεchersa]so describe them as u-oυblec and as haνing cοnduct disorders. Ρarenκ describe childτen wiιh Τype Baggression as emoιiοnaJΙ3, troubled and hyφracτiνe.

23a CοULΑCοGLοι.

Rejation cf Ftigh and Low Scorers Jf -#

l:"".7 (iieΙΓ,fu1ness) W,tn the οPΟ

i'oτr Scοrers (<.5)" ΙΙi8iι Scorers t>'5)"

CPQ Ρarαmeτers M!St) M+SΓ) Tιιc'.Taιiec ρ ι TesιFΑ: Warmheaπed

FB: Bright

FC: Εmotionally sιabic

FD: Phlegmatic

FΕ: obedienι

FF: Sober

FG: Conscienιious

FFΙ: Venιuresome

FΙ: Tencierminded

FJ: ZestluΙ

FΝ; Fοrιiι.ighτ

FO: Confidenr

FQ3: conιrolΙed

FQ4: Relaxed

7.85 + i.^16

7 .09 x Ι.91171'11Q

2.41 + i.45'I'l1,1eR

7 .60 = i.70

5.8Ι + t.$9

51) - 1 (,1

3.15 + ι.762?Q-1 a1

2.41 t i.60

7.53 + Ι.68

? ,ξ +, nΛ

7,9Ο * i.68

7.6υ - 1'9ii,Ji Ξ 1.δ8

2.36 + i.98

2.84 + 1.64

3.68 t 2.Ο0

7.26 x i.91

5.8Ο + 1 .91

5ln., ξ,)Q1-1<1

2.46 + 1.58

ι. '36 - 1'9a

3.27 * 2.20

.70i

.025

,21Ο

.)9 t

-οο6

.o44

.036

.963

.022

.032

.794

.693

.779

.900

Νοτe. !.ery helpfu} chi}dren are bighιeη perceiνe thernseΙves ω Ιess obedient.rαoo ^,ΞΞ}::::::::::::}::iT::*.,^:":'.ξΨ:.,,,i"ss tendeλnded, and more zesdul. Significanι dif-ferences.were found only οn Fts. cΡQ = ChiΙdren's r.oo,ai'y Questionnai.reΔn

= 32C. bn = 202.

FΙanse] and Greιel, the νarious Witlings oΓ Dumiings, Jack, and Τom Thumb_-arechiΙdren who, despite adveΓse ciΙcuΙΙtsιances, manage τo οutwit rnischievous oth-ers. cοmmonly adults'.whiιe

(i963, citω in Ρine, Ι985l ciaimed ιhat ιhe child deνeΙops..feelings ofefficacy'' (the abiΙity ιο do things, ιo have an impacζ ιο maιter), gΓowing intο amore general feeling of compeιence. as he οr she exercises moιoΓ a; "ogni-.iu. ",-paciιies in expΙoration and pΙay.

The fourth facιor jοads on oΝ and oΑ anci was identified as orality, A,thoughthis factor is nοι a usuaΙ personaΙiιy constnrcι, iι is not suφΠslng thal we encοun.tered iι in the FTΤ. Faη, taie characιers such as ιhe woll the wiιch, and ιhe gianιare known fοr ιheir greeciiness and oral desires.

}Ιi-sh oΝ and oΑ resuΙl frοm earΙy oral fΓustΙaιions. Αs shown in TabΙe i, oΝand oΑ are in opposiιe d'irections (i.e., paιhology is found aι both ends). Ιt seemsιhaι we are deaiing ιviιh ιινο ιypes of p*.,o,uΙity. One expresses jιs frusιraιlonopeniy by acιing ouι, whereas the οlher keeps ιhe iττsιraιiολ ciosecΙ up i,siα., ln

Reiation of High and Low Scorers:}.# L:.,", 8 (Depressjon) Witn thε cPo

CPQ Pαraιιιeιers

Ιnw Scorers (<'5f

ιΥ! Ξ Jυ

[Ιigh Scorer5 (s'j i'

t{+SD Tn'o'Tailed p ι Ι.esιFΑ: Warmheaπe<i

FB:BrighιFC: EmodonaΙΙγ sιableFD: PhlegmaιicFΕ: o|rdienιFF: SoberFG: ConscienriousFfΙ: VenfuτesοmeFl: ΤendermindedFJ: JesdulFΙ\i: FoπhπghιFo; ConΓrdentFQ3: ControΙΙedFQ4: Relaxed

7.91 * 1.587.39 - 1.897 ]Q * Ι οf2.2-5 r 1.892.49 + 1.54i4q- Ι ο,7 .5'7 + 1.88

5.83 + 1.82

5.59 + 2.762.92 x Ι.8r

2.35 Ξ 1.48

7.66 x 1.14? 't7 +, m

7.81 * 1 .61

/.:ι| Ξ j,1.1

2.43 * 1.90

3.3Ο * 1.897.41 + 1.895.97 + 1,.84

5.48 - 2.553.ο8 t 1.65

2.51 r 1.93

2.67 + 1.66

7 .37 =

1.78i?ξ+,n'

.488

.284

.34ιι

.3ο3

.401

.37i

.407

.674

.3Ιl

.157

.ο26

.071

.JJ Ι

Νoιe' V.ryd"p,".'"d"hsignificanι- CPQ = 61114.",, Ρersοnality Quesriorιnaire,

^n = 266. bn = 219

τotal score and Subscores of R,1t", pJ::}?J,..,* Aοcording iο Grouρs Defined byFactor I (Depression)

Lιu'Scοren Middle Scοrers ΙΙigh Scοrers

Rutτer Scαleι M M.'εM.'ε .'ε Ιnw νs' Ιligh pA2 Scale

ΤoιaJ

Emotional

Conducr

F{1,μractiνiι-ν

82 Scale

Toιai

, Eπroιiοnaj

Cοnducι

Fiyμracιiνiry*

7.31

1.40

Ι, ΙΟ

r.28

4.5Ο

i.ω0.84

i.1i

.JJ

.08

.08

,i0

.28

06

Ι0

10

7.83

1 l.ι

1.2ο

1.4\

<,1a

i.16

i.ο5

.3e,

.08

.Ο9

.10

. J.J

.0i

.11

'tΟ

8.49

i -5!

ι.28

ι '49

5.37

1.0ιi

1.06

i.4l

Δi

.σ)

'Ιο

Ι2

.431

.541

'1.Ι6

173

Φ12

1-l

Ο8.ξ

+o!

17\

υ62

Nοιe' ΡaΙenιs eνajualc very. ciepressed chiΙdren as ιroubΙe<i

ι.) .

232 CοULACοGLΟL

TΑBLE 13Comoarison cf Τroub]ed Versus Νontroubied Accorcinο ιο Ruiτe. Α2 Sοai: : Scores

Trouble* Ν onιroub!ec"

FTΓ Fαcιors M-SD }γi - SD

Facιor ]

Facror 2

Facισr 3

Facιor 4

Factοr 5

Facιοr 6

Facιor 7

Facror 8

.09 - I .14

,Ο3 * i.lΟ

-.04 ! 0.92

-,Ο1 . 1-02

.06 t 1.02

-.05 + Ι.Ο2

-.l / : υ.yo

,16l1.ο9

-,0] . Ο-98

-.Ο1 . 0,95

.Ο5 * i.O'l

.Ο2 = C.99

-,Ο3 : Ο.98

.0i * 0.9τ

.02 + 0.98

-.07 t 0.9'7

.265

.695

.337

.674

.z'78

.519

.u2

.ot7

Nοιe. Parenιs evaΙuaιe Eoubled children as nonheipful and depressed. r-rr = Fau}'TaΙe Τestιn

= 129. bn = 528.

τΑBtE 14Comρarison of Troub|ed versus Νontroubied According to Rutter Β2 SοaΙe z Scores

Troubletr Νonrroubledb

FTΓ Facιοrs M+SD M+SD 't TesE p

FacιoΙ 1

Facιοr 2

Facιor 3

FactοΓ 1

Facιor.5

Faοιor 6

FΔctor 7

Factor 8

.10*1.111+ 1 1

.005 t 96

Ι) + l n1

.06 - 1.09

-.14 + i.07

-.05 * 9-1

.i2: 1.Ο6

.ω6 + 0.98

-'Οi t 0,97

-.009 * 1.01

-.Ο1 + 0.98

.Ο03 * Ο.9iζ

.045 Ξ 1,0α1

,ω.5 t Ι.01

-.03 x.4.97

.276

.8'7Δ

-1to

.5 l6

.M8

.)l)

,092

Νοte. Τeachen t:vaiuate πoυbΙed children as having Type A aggression. FτT = FaU} Τaie Τesι.ιn=Ι42'bπ=561.

τhe anaΙysis of age and sex ciifferences for each factor. jι was fοund that l,oungerchiΙdren score higheΙ in oΑ. whereas the children in the older εToup scorθ hi-sherin oΝ (p <.Ο0])' Ιt does noτ cοme as a suφΓise, ιherefore. thai yοunger parιici.Danιs adοpι the oΑ opιion to expΙess their frustration, and the οΙder ones. on thewhole more introverιed. ..choοse,, oN.

Τhe {ifιh facιοr Ιοads οn SΡRΟ. Dλ{Ι and NAFCΤ. Ιι ιι,as jιienιifjed as Ρosses.Slveness. Τhe ideas οf ..mine''

and ..noι mine'' appi1, flrst ιc the child,s own boo.'.ner.t to the parents, ιhen ιo ιransiιional οbjects, ali οi which are caι}rected narclss,.ι-ιicalΙy and with objecι love (Freud' 1966), Τhe nοιion oΓbeing depriι,ed ofor sιο-ien from is understoι:d by the chiici long before ιhe oppοsiιe λ. ii.... ιhaι ιlιhersprοperty has ιo be respecιed),

AΙthough possessiveness appears tο haνe a negaιive sιring aιιacheιi ιo iι, ca;efυlsιυdy mighι proνe oιherwise. Ρossessive behavjι:r haci noι been sιudied emptri-caΙly until the work of Furby ( 1978) shed some lighι on ιhis personaΙity characιe;..isιic (from a deνeΙopmentaΙ perspecιiνe). She noιed ιhaι pοssession-related behaι.ior is diffjcuΙt to study, parιly because iι is a muΙιifaceιeci phenomenon. Ιn across-culιuraΙ interview sιυdy, she idenιifted 27 dimeηsions οfpossessiοn,21 dii-ferenι reasons for ownership, and 4 1 categories of possessions. Ηowever, ιwo basi cιhemes emerged: one was a sense of personal competence or contro] and the oιhelιvas an assοciaιion between possessions and the sense of self.

Τhe sixth factor loads οn ΑGR A, ΑGR B (which consisιs of ΑGR REη ΑGREΝvx and AGR DΕF) and ΝAFΙL. This factor was unquestionabΙy idenιified asAggressiοn. The tι,vo typ-es o.f aggressiοn are in opposite directions (Ι.e., pathoΙogι.is found at both ends). The former type ofaggτession' hosιile aggτession, is inter-nallyjustified; the Ιaιter type ofaggression, reacιive aggression, is externaliy lusιl-fied, the motive of retaliation being ιhe most frequently reported (45%).

Ιn T}pe Α aggression. the chiid justifies his οr ner aggressive response by sa1,.-ing that the aggτessive act occurred οuι of spiιe οr because pΙeasure ,was deriνedfrom iι, For exampie, ..This giant \,r'ants to exιerminaιe u,oih., gianι because hehaιes him.', Ιn Τype B aggression, νengeance (retaliation) is repJπed as the mosιcommon motif (45vο), then enνy (29Ψa), andfinally defens e (6%). This is an inιer.esting hierarchiοaΙ orcier because we are deaiinq ιviιh chiidren.

Τhe seventh facιor loads on DH and ΑMB ind was idenιified as ΙΙeipfu,Ιness,Desire ιo heΙp is reflected in children,s respοnses in the Γorm of assistinε oιrlersvlho are in need (e.g', ..ιhe giant wants ιo help sοme people ιo cross a river-'), am-bivaΙence is mainΙy reflecιed in the form of indecision (e.g.. ..ιhe witch ,.vοnders'*,hether to harm or not ιo harm another witch',).

FΙelpfuΙness is hardlγ assessed in projecιive techniques, buι it has been expΙoredin oνeπ behaviοι and personaiity quesιionnaires in ιhο fοrm ofprosocia] behavtorsand a]ιruism (e.g., Εisenberg & Fabes, 1998).

Ambivaience' ιο a ce(ain exιenι, inciudes guilt as ιhe person has to cοDe wltl,negaιive feeΙings οr negative aspecb ofhjmself or herself (υsuaΙΙy aggressiνe). Ιι rsthe motivaιionaΙ aspecι of guiΙt ιhat prompιs the individual tο undo δe damage orιο make some form of reparation (Floffman, i 984). Αmbivaience might alsο pro.duce a discrepancy between a posiιive and negative self-image, ThJsubsequenιheΙpfulness might giι,e ιhe individual a chance to resolνe this inconsistency b.v en-hancing his or her self-esteem (Κidd & Berkowiιz' ] 976).

L.7+ coULΑCocLΟU

Αccording to some psychoanalytic theories (e.g.. Gioι,e;. Ι968) guijι' self-cie.Sτrucιlve ιendencies. and sexuaI sriνinqs may underiie a1truism. Ιn a recenι studι.of ιhe ιiefense mechanisrns expressec in ιhe FlΓΤ (Cοulacogiou eι a1., 2003 ), it wasfound that hiεh1y ambivalenι children emplo1, ιhe mechanism οΙ reacιiοn forma_tion mοre frequenιlι, than Ιou. ambjι,aienι children (ambiι,alenc: cοrnmonΙι, re-ι,ealing indeοisions οver aggτessive impulses).

The ias1 factor, Deprοssiοn, ioads on D only. Depression *,as reflecιed in re.sponSΘs thaι include thoughω about deaιh, iliness, sujcide. ciesperaιion. 1oneliness.sadness, tiredness, boredom' and disappointmenι.

A ma.ior οonceptuaΙ posiιion mainιains ιhat depression in chil<Jhoοd has differ-ent manifesιations than adulι depression. Τhe essenιia] feaιures Such as dysphοricmood mighι not be present. Rather, there is an underΙying depression displayed invarious symptοms or fοrms of psychopathology. Depression is then said to be..masked', or expressed in depressive equivalenιs, Τhe symptoms thaι aΙe consid-ered ιο mask depression inciude a large varieιy οf clinica} s.γmptοms sυch as ιem-peΙ ιanτrums. hyperactivity, disobedience, deΙinquency, phobias, sοmatic com-p]aints. or underachievement (Κovaks & Beck' 1977 \.

Discυssion of the Relation of High and Low Scorers onFTT Faclors With CPQ Parameters and the Rutter ScaiesLooking at the relation of high and ]ow scorers on the facιors to oιher scaies mayserve as good indicaιion of whaι thosο facιors ma1, be. Ι am aware ιhaι in making somany, ιests some resuiιs might be significant by chance and consequentΙy Ι;ιrn gο-ing to be cautious in the way Ι discuss ιhem' Fuπhermore' in most cases ιhe signifi-cant mΘan differences are smal] and this musι be kepι in mind in all discussions inιhis section.

Significanι difΓerences bοtv.,een high and iοrι scοrers on Factor 1, ReaΙit1,Tesιing, show the folΙowing (see TabΙe 3): FΙigh scοrers on this facto:. aΡpear ιο per-ceive themseΙι,es as Ιess warmheaπed. iess sober, iess forthi.sht, iess confident'and iess cοnιrοΙied, Τhey aΙso appear iess brighι than ιheir counleφaπs. Ιt is al-ways hard ιο Sιate wiιh confidence ιhaτ Ιι\Ψer intellecιual abiIiιy is the cause or theoutcome of emoιionaΙ problems or behavioraΙ maΙadjusιmenι. Ρerceiving ιhem-selνes as Ιess affectοthymic aΙsc implies thaι they are ]ess ready ιo coοperate. lessιΓustfu], iess adaptable, and more rigid. The1, also ιenci to perceiγe ιhemseιves asmore shrewd, FinaΙΙy, they perceive ιhemse,|ι,es as less cοnιroΙ]ed, less sοciaΙ11,cοrτecl and haνing a tendencv to foΙΙow ιheir owπ urges.

.Γhe signifiοanι differences beιween high and 1ow scorers on Factor 2. Mother Ιm-

age' show ιhe folloιγing (see Τable 4,1: }Ιigh scorers are iess bright than loψ scorers,As sιated pτeviousΙy, inιeliectuaΙ perfοrmance mighι be the cause or the outcome οfpsychoiοgicai probΙems" Ιn relation ιo ιhis facΙor, it seems possible ιhaι poorer inιel-lecιua] efl.iciency is thc c}utcome of a negaιive motheι_child reiaιionship.

FΑΙR\,TAΙ-Ε TFSΤ 235

FΙigh scorers on Facιoι 2 perceiνe themseives as iess zesιfu] than Ιομ, scοreΓs.Τhese chjlciren cio not en.jo.v grοuo acιion so much anιi aΙe rnοre inciiνi<iualisιic andιvrapped up iο tlremselves. There is aiso a ιenciency ιo feei Ιess seΙf-confidenι andiess relaxed ιhan ioιv scorers. Ιι is wideiy accepιed b1,now that a secure reiaιiοn-ship with lhe rnοιher enhances the chilc,s sense of ιrusι irr οnεself and in others(Eriksοn. 1963). Consequentl1,, an insecure relaιionship mighι affecι ιhe child,sse]f-confidence anc security and can render hini or her mοre tensed and irrrtabie.

on Ruιιer,s Α2 Scale (see Τab,e 5), chiΙdren with a neρative mott,er image (highscoreΙs) aΙe characterized as having a conduct disorder. Ιι appeaτs thaι this group ofchilιiren exhibiι aggτessive behavior only aι hοme (nοt aι schοοΙ). Αccorcilng ιoΡatιerson ( i 980j, moιhers who are coercive are more iikeiy ιo be ιhe receiνοr of cο-ercive attacks 1han oιher famiiy members. Mothers have been more directΙy in.voΙνed in ιhe fosιering of aggτessiνe chilciren than fathers. Coercion as u po*..r,tinfluence straιegy can be Ιearned by a passive child by being Γtrsι the viciim, ιhenthe counιeΓaιtacker. and finalΙy thΘ iniιiator (Ρatterson. Ljπman, & Brickeη 1967).

The usual meιhod of bringing up chiΙΦen in the Greek famiΙy inοΙudes sjct disci-pline, and parents quiιe ol::.**n ιo coφoral punishmenι lι seems tr,at |hysicai viο.ience as a way οfraising chiΙdren is sociaΙiy accepιed and iι is even ,,,p,...j to be oneοf the facιors relaιed ιo nonaccidenιa] injury to chiΙdren in Greeοe(Agathοnos-GeorgopouΙou, i997; Agathonos, Stathakopouiou, Αga, & Νakou. 1981)-The third facιor, Αsseniveness' ioads on the ΑGRDOΜ and DS varlabΙes.Kohuι (1977) explored the child's need for a mirroring οr conΓlrming responsefτom the careιaker. Ιn a schemaιic sense. through οne or anoιher behavior, tbe chi]dls saying proudly. ..Ι am me] Look whaι Ι can do! Look whaι Ι am! Lookl', Τheself.experience is οrganized in good measure aroun.d the capacity tο do. to haγe aneffect (Ρine, 1985,1,

Significanι differenοes between high and loιv scorers on ιhis factor shοw thefolΙowing (see Table 6): FΙigh scοrers appear ιo be more inteΙlecιua]lγ efficienι thanΙow scorers ι;n ιhis factor. Τhis ,intelΙeciuaI superiοriιy, which probabΙy emanaιesfrom a secure famiΙy background. might be a λοtive for the ciesiτe ιo μοve ιhem_selves in a variety of setιings. Ηigh scorers also perce.iνe τhemselνes as Ιess cοnsci-enιious. iess responsible. and less determined in their acιions. Τhey aΙso perceivethemselves as 1ess sensitive, moΓe secure (self-reΙianι), and more responsible. .Ag-*sressiveness and asseniveness are coΙτιmon and sοmetimes there appears ιo be alack οf feeling Γοr oιhers', (Rutter, |97 5 , p, 242). |Ι\ghscorers uκo pλ"i,e ti'",n-seives as more zestfu] fiikes ιo go with ιhe group, likes aιιention) thλn Ιow sοoreΓs.Ιt appears ιhaι ιhis group οf chiΙdΓen are

"o,,ι*αy seekirrg aιt'ention and admira-ιion from ιheir agemaιes,

Signifiοant differences beιween high and lοw scorers on Facιor 4. Οraiiι1,. shιlwιhe fb1Ιowing (see Τabie 7 ): Lou'Scorers reflecι high orai aggression anci high scοr-ers reflect high οraΙ needs. Ora] needs are reΙaιed1ο the suοking pεriod ofihe οraιSιagei fΓusιraιion results fτom the infanι,s lοnging tο suck aι his or her mother,s

236 couΙ-ΑcocΙ-ou

breast, ιι,hich he or she feels can neνei Saιj'Sfy hrm or he;. Τhis is iaιer reflected indisιurbances of eaιing in ,μlhich ιhe reiaιion ιo fοocj become s the οoncΓΘte expres-

sion οf some inner vlished.fο:. reΙaιionship wiιh an impοrιant person (SandΙer &Dare, 1970), Signifιcanι ιiifferences on sorne paΙameters οccurreci only' beιweenthe middle and the high scorers. Τhus, children ι,iιh high οral neecis perceive ιhem-seiνes as iess ιender-mindeci and less conιro}Ιed. Reduced self.conιrol in reΙaιiοntο middle scoreΓS and Ιoιι. scoΙers (οraI aggression) ma,v be explaineα in ιerms ofunreleased ιension. }Ιigh scorers are brighιer than jow scoΓers.

.Γhe1,. a1sο tend to

pοrceiνe ιhemselνes as Ιess obedient. Ιess Submissive, and more hosιiie than aνer-age or Ιou, scorers. Αccording to Glover (i968), disappoinιmenι in ιΙ,l9 sucking pe_

riod cou]d iead ιo the development of hοstiiiιy and dislike.There ιvere no significant differences bet\ryeen high and low scorers on Factor 5.

Ρossessiνeness. Τhere is one difference on Facιor C that cieserνes atιenιion: Lowscorers on this facιor tend ιo perceive themselves as less emotionalΙ1, sιabie. Thisfinding appears probΙematic aι firSι glance, but iι makes sense if we take intο οon-

sideratiοη its cuΙturai implications. High scorers are probably childrοn whο are

oveφroιected (spoiled) by their parents, and especial11, ιheir mothers, ιhus creaτing

a sense of securiιy in ιhe chiΙd. Secυrity enhances emοtionaΙ SιabiΙiξν.Experiences ιhat are familiar are ..mine,,, are parι of me, and haνe a consistency

wjιh ιhe ongoing experience oΓ seif (Bergman' 1980), Pine (i985) referred to..ownership'' of experience as the direction of gτowth fτom the Γrrsι monιhs of lifeinto the second year, crysιallizing as seif-awareness crystallizes. According to

Levy ( 1970), ..pure'' maιernal OverproΙection occurs in naturally mateΓnaΙ womΘn,whose behavior as mothers has been inιensiΓled by the operation of cenain psyοhicand cuΙιurai forοes.

SigniΓrοant difΓerences betινeen high and low scorers on Factοr 6, Αggression,show the foΙ1owing (see Τable 8): High scorers (AGR B and ΝAFΙL) perceiνeιhemseives as leSS cοnscienιious, less deterrnined. and Ιess moraiisιic' Second,

ιhey perceive themselνes as more shrewci than loιv scorers. Τhird. the-ν- perceiνeιhemselνes as less contrοlled. FinaiΙy. they perceiνe themselνes as lnoΓe tense than

1orl scοrers-AccordingιοreΙevanιstυdies(e.g.,French,1988)sociaI1yrejectedchiidreneΧ-

hibit muiιiple probiems. Ιn addiιion tο aggτessive behaνioι the1,, aiso exhibiι anxi-ety' poor seΙf-conιrol, and social witbdrawal. ChiΙdren,s self-evaluaιions show

more disturbance among Type B οffenders than among Type A offendeΙs. Chiidrenwith Τype Α aggression appear sΙighιly iess brighι than middle scorers and highScorΘrs. Ι now examine hovl ιhese tν/o tyΓ,es of aggτession are expressed in overibehaνior' Some inιeresting correlations appeaΙ in both the Rutιer scales, anc these

confirm the Γrnding thaι ιve are ciealrng wiιh two distincι types of aggτession wiιhdifferenι manifesιatiοns (see Τabie 9).

on the Ρaτent scaΙe (Α2) children with Τype B aggτession are evaluated aS emo-

ιiοnaΙΙ1,,ιroubled and hyperacιive. Chiidren wiιh Type A aggression are eνaluated

FΑΙR}-ΤALΞ ΤεsΤ 237

as hyperacιive on}y. on ιhe Τbache. Sca]e (B2) oni1: Τ1 pe A aggression is eνaΙuatecas both cοnducι disorder anci hyperacιiviι1,. Α numoer oi inierences can be maοefrom these findings: Firsι, chilιiren ιviιh Type Α ag-eressiοn cο noι perceive thern-seΙves as aggressive, which probabiy rs not ιrue' if ψe iοok

^. p--n.,. and ιeachers.

eνaluations: these chiΙdren are considered ιo be hyperacιiνe by both parιιes'Τeachers. in addition, raιe these chi]dren as having a conducι disοrder and ρenρr-aΙΙ1,as expressing pathoJogical bebavior (ιoιaΙ scoΓe).

We mighι Suspecι thaι aggressiνe behavior in ιhis grouο is a secondary symp-tom. Loney, Langhorne, and Ρaιernite (1978) described ιhe primary symμoms ofhyperacιivity as inatιenιion, fidgeιiness, impulsiνlιy, negaιΙνe afrecι. and Ιack o;coordinatiοn. The secοnda.ry, sympιoms are compuisiνiι),, aggressive inιeφersοnaibehaνior, conιrol deficiιs, and self-esteem deficits. Τhe five unclassifiej markersymptoms are anxiety, depression, mood liabi]iιy, speech disιurbance, and sleepdifficulties.

Τaking inιο consideraιion these chi]dren's lower inιellecιuaΙ capaciιy (atιen.ιion deficit disοrder syndrome), we can infer that aggression in this group is onitone sympιom of hyperactivity and not genuine aggression. Loeber (1985) pro-posed that hyperacιivity may be the ..driving force'' in conducι-disordered chil-dren. Responses suοh as..,ιhe giant wanιs to grab a plane and smash iι inιo precesbecause he is bad,' or..the wiιch wants to destroy a Γorest because she does noιlike beauty,'reflect aggression that is inιernaΙiy motivaιed. Αι ιhe same time, thisιype of aggression mighι a}so reflecι a discharge of frusιration (perhaps mani.Γesιed as hyperacιiνiιy),

A1ιhοugh children with TypeB aggression perceive themseives as Ιess conιrolΙecand Ιess relaxed, they probably are shrewd enough to restricι or cοvel socialΙγ lnap.propriate behaviors. Αnottrer possibiIiι), is thaι Type B aggτession is masked bi.oιherforms of aggτessive manifestations, such as οheaιing, betrayaΙ. or intbrmlng οr:peers. UnfοπunateΙy, these actions are noι mentioneci in ιhe Rυιιer scales.

Finail1,, reduced selΓ-conιrol and tensiυn might lead tιl sociaj isοlaιion and re..1ectiοn, aι ieast by peers. This coυΙd be the reason ιhat Type B aggressiοn is relaιeiwjιh ιhe need for afflliaιion.

Significanι differences between high and lοw scorers on Facιοr 7, FΙeipfuΙness.rοveal the folΙοwing (see ΤbbΙe 1O): Ι{igh scοrers on this factor perceiνe ιhemseΙνesas less obedienι, less sober, Ιess οonscienιious. less ιender-minded. and more zesιfui,Τhey are aiso brighter than Ιoιv scorers. oνeraii, this group appeaΙs more exιrovenecjand independent than Ιoq, scoΓers. Τo heΙp a person in need, one must take risks andtherefore show determinaιion aπd confi<lence (Facιor E). show enthusiasπr (FacιorF), at times disregard rules (Factοr G). and ceπainly be gτoup orienιed and ,igo.ous(Factor J). Αccording to FΙειrtup and ΚelΙer (citeci in Bryan, 1975), ιhe rende*nnε olajd reοuires a qualiιy of ouιgοingness or a lack oΓ inιeφersιlnaΙ umidit1'. The possi-bi1iιy thaιcourage in inιerpersonalre}ationships might faciΙitaιe some Γorms ofheiπ-ing is suggesιed by the findings oflFriedrich and Sιein (1973\.

23r .oU]-ΑCΟ6LoU

SigniΓrcant ciifferences between high and Ιov,. scorers οn Facιοr 8. Depression,shov', the foliou,ing: }Iigh sοorers on this facιοr perceiνe ιhemselves as less confi-denι and thus more insecure, more anxious, more self-reproachlng. more moociy,and more sensitive tο the approι,ai οr disapprονaj of oιhers than iow scοrers. Α11

these ιraiιs couid be signs of depressiοn. Severe depressioΠ iS eΧ|Γemely rare inchildren before puberty. Quesιiοns οf major inιeresι include ιhe exιenι ιc rvhichchiΙciren experience depressive sympιoms and ιhe consιel]atiοn οf syπlptoms thatdeΓlne the disorder. Ιn sιuciying depressiοn in children, develοpmenιal changesmusι be taken into accounι. Changes in affective, cogniιive. bioοhemica}. mοιonc,and other domains may be relaιed ιo ιhe manifesιation of ιiepression in chilciren(Sroufe & Rutter, 1984).

FΙigh scorers on this factor are designated as shο\νing some disorder on the ΡaΙ-ent sca]e. and as hyperactive on the Teacher Scale. ΡrοbabΙy because depressionmanifesιs iιseΙf in mulιiple ways, paΓen8 are unable ιo cΙassifu it as an emotiona]disorder.

Discυssion of the Scores on the FΤT ot ChΙldren Diagnosedas Troub|ed and Νontroubled (in an οbjective Way) byUsing the Rutter Behavior Scales

Some significanι differenοes appeared beιween tτoubled and nonιroυbled childrenon Some of ιhe FTΤ facιors, Facιors 7 and 8 discriminated the children as ιroubled.recognized by the A2 scaΙe. Ιn particuiar, ιroub]ed chiΙdren exhibiι Ιess helpful be-havior and aΙe more depressed when compared with nοntroubΙed paπicipaπts'

}ielpfuiness is assessed in ιhe FTΙ ιvhen responses reflect a desire to assist otherswho are in need. Ιι is possible that parents consideΓ a child ιo be trelpfυΙ when he orshe is compliant and obedient. FΙorvever, as Table 1 Ο shows, high scorers on this fac-tor perceive themselves as 1esS obedienι, iess conscienιious, and more seif-reliant.

Facτor 6 disιinguishes chiΙdren whο teachers regard as troubled, but at a 1o\ιieve,i oΓ significance. Troυbled children exhibit more Type A aggression thannontroubied ones: teachers consider pathological any behavior that is oνertΙy dis-ruptive. Because Τype A aggression was iound to be inιθrnalΙy mοιivated in theprojective tesι, and iοw scorers in the CΡQ appear 1ess brighι ιhan high scorers,ιhese findings suppoΓt τhe assumption ιhat Type A aggression manifests iιself ashyperacιiι,iιy with aggressiνe elements (conduct disorder).

coΝcLUsloΝ

Ιn ιhis inνesιigaιion differenι methocis οf sιudying the construct νaΙidity of the FTΤare presenteci. This ιype of vaΙidity is essenιial ιο proνide informaιion on the psy-choΙogicaΙ meaning of variabies or constΓι]cιs that ths tesι is Supposed ιo measure.

FΑΙR\,TALΞ ΤEST 239

Facιor anaiysΙs οf 20 personaiiιy νariables led ιο ιhe formaιion of eighι primar-νfaοιors, Ιn addiιion, the CΡQ and the Rutter Behaνior Scales for Ρaτents andTeachers were employed as ι,aΙidit,ν measures,

Facιor 1. Reality Τesιing. was foυnd to be affected b},age and bl,sex: The yοun-ger the chiΙd (girls), the poorer the realit1, ιesιing. Ιι alsο appears ιrJ be reiaιed ιι\ in-ιeΙiecιual immaιurity.

Faοιοr 2, Moιher Ιmage. is a significant and interesting factor because we aιgdealing wiιh children and mother-child re]ationship is in the forefronι' Mother Ιm-age is also related ιo age; the γounger the child, the more negative the mother im-age. This f.actor is aΙsο affecιed by inteΙΙigence, as children whο are less brighι havea more negaιiνe moιher image. FinaΙΙy, a negatiνe mother imagο is related ιo socio.eοonomic sιaιus, as chiΙdren who cοme fτom low sociοeconomic backgroundshave a more negative motheΓ image than chiΙdren fτom upper c1ass backgrounds,

Facιor 3. Asseπiνeness, perhaps in combinaιion with Facιor 5. coυld be used asan index οf menιal heaΙth. The child's abiliιy ιo set and claim goals. even ambitiοusones, is fundamenta] for healthy psychoΙogicaΙ deveΙopmenι.

Factor 4, oraΙity, is a psychoanalytiο concepι that is basically relaιed to fτusιra-tion expressed in the form of oraΙ aggτession οr oral needs. Ιt',vas found ιhat theyοunger children empΙoy οral aggτession-the most primitiνe form of aggres-9!9η-1η619 often than oral needs.

FacΙor 5, Ρossessiveness, reflθcιs the need for ownership and beΙοngingness.Factor 6, AggΤession, is afundamentalfactorin personaiitv deνeΙopmentand per-

sonaΙity dynamics. Facιοr anaΙysis and coπeΙatiοns ιvith ιhe οιher measures con-firmed the iniιiaΙ cΙassiΓrcaιiοn of aggression as inιernalΙy moιivated (Τype A) andexternaΙly moιivated (Type B)' These two types of moιiνaιiona.l aggression appear ιohaνe different overι manifestaιions. According to paΙenis, children with Type B ag-gτession ειre more trοubled than children with Type Α aggressiοn. on the cοnιrary..ιeachers cοnsiderchiΙdren with Type Α aggression troubied (ofιheconductιype),

Both paπies consider chiΙdren with Type Α and Type B aggression hyperacιive.Type A aggτession is more often associated wiιh the younger age group. rvhereasΤype B aggression is more often associated wiιh the older age group. Τype B ag-gressiοn sθems ιc} be assοciaιed with ]ovy socioeconomic sιatus. Τhis factor cer.tainly needs further inι,estigation.

Facτoτ.7 ' FΙelpfuiness, seems ιo be relateci ιo chi]dren,s unconscious way of cop-

ing wiιh aggτession: nameiy, ιhrough ιhe empΙoyment of reaοtion fοrmation (ex-pressed as a desire ιo οffer heip). Ιn a recenι Sιudy (CoulacogΙou et aΙ., 2003), lι wasfound lhaι most ambiνalenι expressions concern aggressiνe issues or conflicts.

Factor 8, Depression, reΙaιes ιο depressive characterisιics in οhildren. Ρarentscοnsider children with high sοores on this facιor as ιτoubied. Depression increasesas chiΙdren geι oΙder.

AΙthough these validity sιudies havc shed some iight οn ιhe psychoΙogical iden-ιiιy of the F,l-Ι faοιοrs, fuπher sιuιiies aΙe necessaη,. Tesι vaiidiιγ. as qre alΙ knοιι.

24ο COULACOGLοL.

ts a ne\,er-ending proccss ln ιesι cοnsιrυcιion. Such resear:h couic lnciude ιhe ap-plicaιiοns of οther persοnaiiι1, measur€s thaι aΙe more specific in scope, such asquesιΙonnalres ιΙ,}aι assess acgression. anXieι). or ciepression: compaΙaιive sιuciieswiιh cjinica] sampΙes: and standardizaιion οf the ιesι in other culιures,

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AΡΡLΙED Mι]LΤΙΡLE REGRΞSSΙOΝ/CORΡ€LΑΤΙΟΝ ΑΝALYSΙS FΟRTιlE BEΙJ.AVΙOFΑΙ- SCΙΕΝCESThirci Eciitionjacob CohenNeιι,. \brk Uniτ,ersiα,Ρaιricia CohenNev ΥorΙ: Srate Psγ,chiaπic Ιn'sriεute ancΙ CoΙιυnbia ['lniversirτ

Stephen G. WestΙ.eona S. ΑikenΑrizοn a S ta te [)ni ν,e rs j o'

''7y7y 61ιera![ iπpressιon is tπlnenloιιsly posiliυe, ] iοι'el ιi ρlιιt υi[! llt' li Ι, cjajs.,./

;an1ι see hοu n ρ,aι.!ιtιng rtsιιr'.h osνinoΙoζιSt nιιld D( ,,,"1!;i,T|;,.. . *.,..

Uιιυπsιty of Califomu at .as Aη8eΙ6

TneTiιiιl Εdltloπ refiecs both the curient and der,eloping sιate-o!-ιhe-ari Γrachces ln ιhe fte]d,- .- λn l...'"^'"d emphasis on graplυcs proνides gr.eater understanding οf data.. ,qn i.creased *-}h,'i' o, ih"... ol confidenie interι'als anci effect sιze measures Drovtciε mοre

information about the size and precision of reiatiorships'.

. λn ,Ξ.o^,,nγing CD cοntjis data {or mωι of thi numerrcaΙ exampies aΙοn.g n'ith the.computei

.ω"l..ΞpsΞiΞχs, ".,'J

Sγsτaτ. τi'ese comPuter scτipts car'. sen,e as temolates for the aιraΙlτis of the

student's own data..--}i,e entire}γ

^ew cλaρters are inc]uded:.ξssumΡtlons of the regresslon mocieΙ and remedls wher

,ι'* *Ξ ".iλj ιcl.' +j, Jδ."δo' -c rΙeatrnent of th; PoιenhaΙ ProbΙems of out]iers anci mυihcoΙΙureann'

iιχ 1Ol;;l;;;;"" ,",5,*'io" -odeΙs :haι may b.e us.ed when ihe dep""d."il:,..],lΙ.".,s binan, οrciereο

category, οr count ιn tοrm, lncludlng }ogistic, 6rdinaΙ lοgsnc. Ρoisson regression, anci ιhe generaiized

ii^.,T,{λa"iicr.. 1-a), muitilevel .Jd"iΞ ro, data coΙlect?d in .'oups οr ο1her clu5ters /ch 14,, and the

analvsιs o/ longitudina.l data (ct.., 15),;.*i'-"';;;;i,i;"i,iseJcι',pιe,s on juruiiinear relationships and trarιsjormations (cl...6), interactioLξ

b";;;;;;λ;;;;;;;l.* (Ch. Z, rnteraαiorιs between categonca] ma contrnuous νaΓiabies (Ch. 9).

and missing data (Ch..ι1) reflect the ιatest deveΙoΡments in these areas.. CΙear coiverage of classic issues in regτession and correΙadon with onΘ or mοre contrnuοus or

caιegorical prediαors is provided. Χ nu*

".''d-of-texi gΙδssary provides definitiοns of key tems'

. λ l'"* ]i,λ"aii t"iω.i"j J,it',t'iii sy-υols, uυbrel,ia.,oro, tests, and hlnchons serues as a hanov

rcf ercnce tool,

Appιi?d ^4uιtipιC

Regressionβoτ.re!αlioι ΑιαΙysis Jοr the,Βehιιιorai s.iεllι.Ρs seΓves as both a ιextbιrοk foι

graduate students and as a reference tool fbr r6searchers in the basic and appΙied behavioraΙ Sciences,

i;;ffi;;;η,.hJogy, educauon, heaΙth sciences, communications, buslness, sbcioΙo,,,, pοΙitical sclence,

anthΙoDοΙogy, unri ccοno:.,cs]d;i;;.;;.η knοwleοgc οf .statistics rs rel*rε- L.argeiv seii.

il}:',fi,.*d;';;.;;; ;" neid fι:r rexarchers to reier to prcvious chapters, Τhe oooι ts aπ ideaj

text for cours€s on baslc anα advanced topics in rnultipie regression and cοrreiailσnaΙ methods.

Contenε: Ρreface. Lntrοduction. Bivariate Cοriation and Regτωsiοn. MRC l{it}. Τwo or More Ιrιdφmdωt

i;;};. D,; n.uiizaεo.,Eψiοr.tioi, *a ε's*puonC}ι&king. Di'ac,'*ηΒ'η9 S"iYint R€gΙgsion Ρmb.

im 1. Data Αnal},tic SEateg1"'τ';;-JλΞ. a""^tiLti"" s..t"., ii*iti."^. R-elaεoεhips, anc Trπsfom-tir. ιntσactiσrs.ι-o^g co.b;,J.i ν,",υil. ct"εoτiτa1 oτ Νominal Sca]s as Ιndepindent Variab]s. ln-

teτactiore lnvolvirι8 Cate8orical Vari,abies, out]iers mi MulιicoΙΙineariδ,: DiaFtωng ωd SoΙι,ing Regression

Pmblens Π. Coping wΙttι vrsng ';a.

MRC anιl Causaj jγ4ΜeΙs, alteπuie Reg1ssron ModeιS: Lo,ishc,

;;;;;.#;ffii"^J ω" c-"λ"i",lifiι]."- ιaua"i. ι^ndom cefficient Regreιsδn ad Mu.ltiievel Modeis,

;;ilil?iR;;;o" ι"l"tι,J,. ιηω.iple Depωdent Variables: Set Coπeiati-οn and Cmonιca] Correiation.

O-s0"55-222}2 tc6th] i 2ω3 / 728pp' / !i'65'a)

Prices ιre subject to chLn8c υi|t|out noιte