“Conservation of Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritages of Upper

Mustang”

Umesh Regmi

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Table of Content Contents Page No.

Acknowledgements

Table of Content

Introduction 1

Scope of the Paper 3

Methodology 4

An Outline of Mustang in Brief 4

Conservation Activities in Upper Mustang 7

Upper Mustang: Tangible Cultural Heritage 8

Mentsun Lhakhang, Tshugsang 11

Chosde Monastery, Lo Manthang 12

Jampa Lhakhang, Lo Manthang 13

Thubchen Lhakhang, Lo Manthang 14

Tashi Lundrub Ling - Lo Manthang Palace 16

Wall of Lo Manthang 18

Upper Mustang: Intangible Cultural Heritage 19

Tiji Festival 21

Yar Tong Festival 23

Lo Manthang Amchi Museum 25

Cultural Heritage of Choser Village 27

Gar Phug Monastery, Choser 28

Nub Chog Ling, Choser 28

Dzong Phug (Cave), Choser 29

Cultural Heritage of Tshonub Village 30

Namgyal Monastery 30

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Cultural Heritage of Tsarang Village 32

Tsarang Palace 32

Lo Gekar Gonpa 34

Cultural Heritage of Gami-Gilung Area 35

Mani Wall of Gami 36

Cultural Heritage of Yara Gara Dhi Area 36

Luri Cave Monastery 37

Cultural Heritage of Dhe Tangye Area 38

Conclusion 38

Bibliography 41-45

Appendices 46-54

Abridged Itinerary 46-47

Photos of the Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritages of Upper

Mustang 48-54

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Introduction

The Kingdom of Lo is commonly known as Mustang and is located with in the border

of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. Mustang is one of the 75 district

administration divisions of Nepal for the smooth functioning of the governmental

activities. It is located in the trans-Himalayan region of the Dhaulagiri Mountain

adjoining to Tibetan Autonomous Region of China in the north. In the ancient days

this was one of the important trade routes to Tibet. Mustang is unique in its climate

and geographical outlook. It is a cold desert with greenery in the areas of settlement in

the corner oases of the Kali Gandaki River bank. Kali Gandaki River flows from

Mustang from north to south with its small tributaries making the biggest gorges,

passes, and rocky hills on the way. Mustang is populated by the Tibetan origin people

known as Lo-pa in the north, She-rib-pa in Baragaule area in the middle and Thakali

in the south along with some migrants from south part living in the southern region of

Mustang. According to the National Population and Housing Census of 2011, the total

population of Mustang is 13,452 in 3,354 households. The Tibetan origin people,

Baragaunle people, Thakali people are the people historically linked to Mustang. The

population of Lo-pa people living in Lo-tsho-dun is 2,512 but in the same area some

people have kept their surname Gurung but they are Lo-pa community people and

their population is 2,885. The Thakali population is 2,535.1

Mustang is divided into two broader cultural and geographical categories: Lo (Upper

Mustang) and Lo-smad (Lower Mustang). The district headquarter of Mustang is

Jomsom located in the Lower Mustang but the ancient kingdom of Lo incorporated

both lower and upper Lo with the capital situated at glo-smos-thang (Lo Manthang) in

1 The population of Mustang District as a whole and the ethnic group is taken from the “The National Population and Housing Census 2011 (Village Development Committee/Municipality) Vol. 02, NPHC 2011 and National Population and Housing Census 2011 (Caste/Ethnicity and language) NPHC 2011”.

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Upper Mustang. Lo Manthang is the central settlement of Lo Tsho Dun within the

Medieval Walled City known as the Kingdom of Lo.

There are seven major settlements in Upper Mustang known as Lo Tsho Dun in

Tibetan language with local Lo skad2 as the regional dialect. The settlements of Lo

Tsho Dun are: glo-smos-thang (Lo Manthang), Tsarang, Chonup, Tsho-shar, Yar-ra

Gara Dhi, Dhe Tangye and Gami Gilung. The settlements are the medieval type of

settlement with some modernization in living buildings, food, lifestyle, road and

transportation due to the opening of the restricted area of Upper Mustang for tourists

in 1992. Tourism has brought both positive and negative impacts in the conservation

and preservation of the tangible and intangible cultural heritages of the Kingdom of

Lo. The settlements of Mustang are compact and dense in style with flat roofed

buildings to suit the climatic condition of the region. The buildings are made up of

ramped mud and wood as an adjustment with the nature and natural elements. The

architectural designs of the buildings are directly harmonious with the nature. The

settlements are accompanied by forts known as rDzong, rChod rTen (Chortens), mani

walls, Kangnyis (Lhamgos), dGonpas, Caves, Lhakhangs, etc., which are the elements

of the living heritage of the Himalayan region with the practice of Buddhism related

to Tibetan cultural geography. The cultural heritages both tangible and intangible are

ruined due to their regular clash with the impacts of globalization and global warming

with environmental changes taking place. These tangible and intangible heritages

must be preserved to sustain them for the future generation as the gift of the ancestors

who created these cultural elements and practiced in their lifestyles.

2 Lo skad is the local language of the Kingdom of Lo-Mustang spoken by the Tibetan origin Lopa communities living in Lo and the surrounding villages.

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Scope of the Paper

This paper is related to the conservation activities related to the cultural heritages of

Upper Mustang in general and Lo Tsho Dun in particular in reference to the case

studies of Lo Manthang, Tsarang, Tsho Sar and Tsho nub (Chonub), Dhe Tangye,

Gami-Gelung and Yar-ra Gara Dhi villages of Lo. These villages are selected for this

paper due to their antiquity of history and the Buddhist cultural practice of Tibetan

Buddhism with their linguistic similarity. This paper is based on the travel made by

the researcher under the grant of HimalAsia Foundation while participating in a

sequel of the International Symposium/ Workshop on “Safeguarding Lo Manthang

and the Cultural Heritage of Upper Mustang” being organized regularly by HimalAsia

Foundation under UNESCO and Department of Archaeology for last three years. This

workshop was conducted as the third workshop under the theme of Mustang and a

continuation of the previous workshop/ Seminars, which is related to the conservation

of the tangible and intangible cultural heritages of Upper Mustang. This seminary

work is an important activity for the understanding of the nature of conservation and

preservation of the cultural heritage of Mustang and Lo Manthang.

The workshop team comprised of conservation experts, representatives of the

conservation agencies, wall painting restorators, metal experts, art collectors, art

professors, students specializing in Himalayan Cultural Studies, local (Lopa) young

students studying various disciplines and the nuns from Tsarang. The workshop

aimed to create a modality suitable for the conservation of the Cultural Heritage of Lo

Manthang and Upper Mustang by visiting the historically important tangible and

intangible cultural heritage sites of the area. The workshop also prioritized discussion

with the local communities, responsible authorities, monks, and heritage concerned

people of Lo Manthang and Upper Mustang. Therefore, this paper is an outcome of

7

the rigorous travel, excessive discussions, planning, and the development of future

methodologies for the conservation of the tangible and intangible heritages of

Mustang and Lo Tsho Dun.

Methodology

The methodology of this paper is based on the fieldwork conducted in Upper Mustang

and Lo Manthang for the collection of primary data of the tangible and intangible

cultural heritage of Upper Mustang. The fieldwork was accompanied by interpretation

and commentary from the subject experts so as to make detailed analysis and

understanding of the history, context, style and the cultural connection of Mustang to

the Ngari Region of Western Tibet. The discussion with the local communities,

authorities, youths, monks, conservators, nuns and the agencies involved in Lo

Manthang was an important tool of gathering the information and making the research

lively and inclusive with participatory approach. The collected information are

interpreted and later further supported by the secondary sources related to Mustang.

The books, articles, internet websites published before the initiation of this paper are

instrumental for the completion of the paper.

An Outline of Mustang in Brief

Mustang, historically referred as the Kingdom of Lo, is one of the Himalayan districts

of Modern Nepal located in the bordering areas of Tibet geographically but the

cultural geography is totally Tibetan in nature. The communities living in this region

have been practicing their way of life for centuries. Mustang came to exist as an

independent state only after 1440 AD, when the then head of the army and the local

chieftain A-ma-dpal declared free from Gung-thang. The territory has always been a

place under the control of various ruling centres of the Tibetan regions. According to

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various scholars studying the history of Mustang, Mustang is as ancient as the other

Himalayan territories. According to Ramesh Dhungel in his book, “The Kingdom of

Lo (Mustang)”,3 the existence of the region gets connected to seventh century AD

under the greater Zhang-Zhung territory. As Dhungel further supports his argument in

reference to various works of scholars like A H Francke, David Jackson, Sharat

Chandra Das, etc. According to the scholars like Roberto Vitali4 and Ramesh

Dhungel, Mustang including the southern part of Thak Khola region and the present

Baragaun area was under the Western Tibetan Empire, mNga’ris sKor gSum area.

This area has been referred to some of the major events of 705 AD and 709 AD in

reference to the Southern Sheribpa as mentioned in the Dun Huang Annals. Mustang

has always remained under the Tibetan cultural region since its history where it was

under the practice of Shamanistic tradition known as Bon, the pre-Buddhist practice

of whole Zhang Zhung and later after the propagation and the expansion of Buddhism

in the 8th century and after it turned to practice Buddhism. This can be supported by

the documents discovered in various caves of Mustang and the rituals performed by

the Lopa, Sheribpa and Thakali communities living in the district. The oral records

mention the visit of great master Padhmasambhava from Uddiyana to consecrate the

land for the propagation of Buddhism in Mustang and Tibet. The oral stories record

that Padhmasambhava consecrated the land and controlled the local spirits, deities and

turned them to the protector of the Dharma by subjugating them. Mustang was one of

the important areas of the control of the Tibetan empire up to the tenth century until

Tibet fragmented into smaller territories but it came under the Guge-Puhrang centre

of Western Tibet (Richardson 1984:29-30, as quoted in Dhungel).

3 Ramesh K Dhungel. 2002. The Kingdom of Lo: A Historical Study. Kathmandu: Jigme S.P.Bista for Tashi Gephel Foundation. 4 Roberto Vitali. 2012. A Short History of Mustang (10th-15th century). Dharmasala: Amnye Machen Institute.

9

The travels of Atisha Srijnana in the mid 11th century, Lama Sange, Lotsawa Rinchen

Zangpo, Tulku Lato Marpo and the Yogi Milarepa and various other Tibetan

practitioners like Lama Rong-gom, who was the disciple of Sa-Chen Kunga sNying

Po visited Mustang. In another document of the 13th century, the visit of Mahapandita

Shakyashribhadra of Kashmir is described. In the documents of the 13th century, the

local influential figure from Lo, Lama Sherab Rinchen is described elaborately. In the

time between 11th to 14th centuries, Mustang came under the territory of Ngari,

Khasa, Gungthang of Tibet and in the Mid 15th century it emerged as an independent

state but again after in the late 18th century it came under the territory of Modern

Nepal when Jumla was conquered during the unification of Nepal. Mustang being a

part under Jumla came automatically under Nepal.

The communities living here started following the Tibetan cultural practice due to

their origin, history, linguistic and religious similarity. The people started building the

important cultural heritages for the continuation of their life in harmony with the

nature. They started to construct important buildings for their living, walls for

security, dzongs for the safety and ruling, palaces for the king. They also started to

enjoy their cultural practice through certain cultural festivals like: Tiji and Yartong.

They also started to construct Buddhist institutions like: rDzong, rChod rTen

(Chortens), mani walls, Kangnyis (Lhamgos), dGonpas, Caves, Lhakhangs,

Phodrangs, Cave Monasteries for the practice and preservation of cultural lineage in

various forms of Tibetan Buddhism. Those important cultural spaces after a long

continuation have turned out to be the cultural heritages since they represent their

history of the medieval society and it is therefore the duty of the present generation to

preserve these important monuments for the future generation. It is good that the

conservation activities are taking place in different places of Mustang for the

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renovation of the various cultural heritages due to the excessive damage and ruined

condition of those places due to exposure and regular tussle with the natural forces.

The conservation activities taking place at various cultural heritages are noteworthy

for their effort in making the life of the old historical artefacts living for generations.

There are many conservation agencies involved in the conservation of Mustang and

among them some are important.5

Conservation Activities in Upper Mustang

The prospects, challenges and the methods of conservation of Cultural Heritage of

Upper Mustang is very important issue due to the remote location of the district, the

responsibility of the contemporary generation and the conservation of the cultural

heritage for the future generation. The most important issue is related to the

conservation activity-taking place in Mustang in reference to the standard values of

cultural heritage conservation. The standard practice of the conservation is to handle it

in harmonious manner with the geography, community, society, culture, ecology and

environment. The conservation activity should take place hand in hand with the local

people by training them about their responsibility for the conservation. The idea of

conservation should be handled in reference to the historicity, originality and

authenticity of the tangible and intangible heritages of the societies. Therefore, the

conservation activity without historicity and originality looses its authenticity of being

the cultural heritage of the world.

Another important issue of the conservation is the perpetual and inevitable quality of

change, which always occurs in cultural heritage sites, thus no societies and

conservation organizations could stop change. Therefore, the conservation could be

done by keeping in mind the idea of development and modernity. Therefore, cultural 5 The conservation Agencies are American Himalayan Foundation, HimalAsia Foundation, John Sandy Associates, etc.

11

heritage must be connected to through the present condition with the ancient history,

practice, culture, society and religion by incorporating the idea of its history and

originality along with the modern management in collective manner by the native

people living in the society in the surrounding. Finally, the aim of the conservation is

to preserve the cultural heritage both tangible and intangible for the future generation.

It is the sincere duty of the contemporary generation to preserve the cultural heritage

for the present generation and future generation because these cultural spaces can

really try to create the comfort zone for the people of this generation. This “comfort

zone” might remain the same for the future generations or it might change due to the

inevitability of the change in the global context.

Annapurna Conservation Area Project

Annapurna Conservation Area Project is one of the agencies involved in the

conservation activities of Annapurna Region including Mustang. This institution has

been working directly with the Government of Nepal and the international agencies

on the safeguarding of the cultural and natural heritages of Mustang. The institution is

responsible for the conservation activities being carried out in Mustang therefore any

institution that wants work in the conservation, preservation and restoration activities

related to Mustang and Lopa people has to work in coordination with ACAP.

Upper Mustang: Tangible Cultural Heritage

The International agency involved in the protection of the cultural heritage of the

world is United Nation’s UNESCO which defines cultural heritage in a broader sense

linking to different categories of monuments, groups of buildings, and sites.

UNESCO defines monuments as,

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architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting,

elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave

dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding

universal value from the point of view of history, art or science; groups

of buildings are groups of separate or connected buildings which,

because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the

landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of

history, art or science; and sites are the works of man or the combined

works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites

which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic,

ethnological or anthropological point of view.6

Therefore the cultural heritage is the cultural symbol related to a group or society in

the form of physical features and intangible characteristics transferred from

generations to the present generation by practice hence must be handed for the benefit

of future generations. This act of handing over safely the ancestral cultural heritage to

the future generations is the main objective of the safeguarding and conservation of

the cultural heritages.

The tangible cultural heritage includes buildings and places, monuments, artifacts,

etc. with their historical, cultural, traditional connection to a particular group of

people. These include innovative, traditional and ethno knowledge in the form of

archaeology, architecture, science or technology related to the specific culture.

The tangible cultural heritage artefacts are in a constant risk of being threatened due

to the globalization, modernization and industrialization in this rapidly changing 6 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972).

13

world. Therefore, understanding of the tangible cultural heritage of different

communities helps with intercultural dialogue, and encourages mutual respect for

other ways of life.

The importance of tangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself but

rather the wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from one

generation to the next. The tangible cultural heritage represents both inherited

traditions from the past along with the contemporary rural and urban world in the

form of physically existing objects. These tangible elements of the cultural heritage

contribute to social cohesion, encouraging a sense of identity and responsibility which

helps individuals to feel part of one or different communities and to feel part of

society at large by connecting themselves to these physical artefacts.

There are certain modalities for the safeguarding of tangible cultural heritage for

making them relevant to cultures practiced within communities from generations to

generations. There are various international institutions involved in maintaining the

cultural diversity through the safeguarding of the tangible cultural heritage through

international cooperation. The international agency of United Nations working for the

conservation and safeguarding of the tangible cultural heritage under UNESCO has

formulated a Convention through the General Conference of UNESCO “Convention

Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972”, which

establishes unique international parameters for recognizing and protecting both the

cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value. Later in 1992 this

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Convention became the first international legal instrument to protect cultural

landscapes and later the World Heritage Site became powerful in the world.7

Mentsun Lhakhang, Tshugsang

Mentsun Lhakhang is the cave monastery located at Tshugsang area constructed at

around 10th/11th century AD by a Lama Mentsun from Braka, Manang. The Cave

Monastery is of three-storied structure with traditional stairs of wood log. Mentsun

Lhakhang has the mages and the Buddhist paintings painted and created in Kashmiri

style found in other cultural heritages of the Ngari Region of Western Tibet of the

10th and 11th century. The temple has the clay idols of Vairochana Buddha,

Avalokiteswara, Tathagatas and some other deities. The cave temple is of two storied:

ground floor- cave/first floor- cave with places for lamas to stay for retreat and the

third floor for the main idol and the monastery. According to Susanne von der Heide

in her article in Orientations, this monastery dates back to 11th/12th century and she

further writes,

The altar room of Mentsün Lhakhang lies on the second storey of a rock

complex and is entered from a wide anteroom (height: 3.1 m; width: 10.1 m;

depth: 5 m). The altar room (height: 3.5 m; width: 3.05 m; depth: 2.9 m) is

surrounded by an ambulatory. The central cult figure, at the front of the altar

room, is a 1-metre-high clay sculpture of the crowned tathagata Buddha

(meditative Buddha) Vairochana. The rather coarse white colouring of the

body derives from later repainting. Seated on a throne, borne by two lions, he

is surrounded by an elaborate, three and small noses. The jewellery of the

figures also seems to consist of moulded elements.

7 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO 1972).

15

On either side of the entrance to the anteroom, facing inwards, stand

ferocious-looking bodhisattvas, represented as yidam (meditational deities as

protectors), both about 90 centimetres tall. To the left is Vajrapani and to the

right is a blue Hayagriva. These images appear to have undergone several

repairs and repaintings.8

The Lhakhang is going through its restoration works for the conservation of the art,

architecture, paintings and the sculptural works of the cave monastery. HimalAsia

Foundation is conducting the conservation activity by preserving the historicity and

originality with the help of the international conservation and restoration experts. The

conservation has been taking place by studying the complete documents related to the

cultural history and the design of the construction of the cultural heritage of Mentsun

Lhakhang as told by Susanne Von Der Heide, the director of HimalAsia Foundation

in an interview.9

Choede (Chos-de) Monastery, Lo Manthang

Choede Monastery is located in the northwestern part of the walled city of Lo

Manthang. This monastery belongs to Ngor Sakya clan of Tibetan Buddhism. This

monastery is historically linked to the propagation of Buddhism in the 17th century

when the then king Sabdung Rabten invited his religious teacher Jamgon Ngawang

Kunga Sonam to Lo (Mustang). Kunga Sonam stayed in the stayed in the monastery

of the lamas and introduced the popular festival ritual of Tiji (Ten Chihi Rimdo). The

monastery runs a monk school, monastery activities and antique Museum. The

Museum needs restoration and preservation to conserve the antique objects from

8 Susanne von der Heide, “Hidden Gems Revealed: Clay Statues and Mural Paintings at the Mentsün Lhakhang Cave-temple in Mustang, Nepal”. Orientations, June 2011. 9 Interview with Susanne Von Der Heide, the director of HimalAsia Foundation on the issue of conservation of cultural heritage of Mustang.

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being destroyed. The Museum is rich in collection of the antiquity of the arts,

sculptures, scriptures, copper wares related to the ancient civilization of Lo and whole

Mustang. The monastery must undergo some important restoration activities for the

conservation and preservation of the Museum objects, monastery itself and some

other tangible and intangible cultural heritage linked with this monastery.

Jampa (Byams-pa’i dgonpa) Lhakhang, Lo Manthang

Jampa Lhakhang (Byams pa’i lha khang) is located in the Jampa Thang area in the

walled city of Lo Manthang. It is one of the oldest Buddhist temples of Lo Manthang

constructed in between 1447 and 1449 AD by Agon Zangpo and consecrated (Rabne)

by Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo during his third visit. According to Roberto Vitali,

“Jampa Lhakhang and the royal castle were the nucleus of the Walled City of Lo

Manthang”(Vitali)10. Later in the 17th century (1663) 8th king of the dynasty Samdrub

Palwar renovated it. This temple has the throne of Maitreya Buddha (the future

Buddha) so is also known as Maitreya Vihara. The temple complex is three-storied

complex with mandala paintings on the wall. The wall paintings were done by the

masters (Newar artists) from Kathmandu and Dolpo and the temple was completed

under the donations of the chieftains of Gungthang. Among them the most important

artists is Rupa Teja Pala from Manjushri Nakabahi Vishwokarma Mahavihara, who

worked in this temple and also artistically wrote the Asta Sahasrika Prajna Paramita

text. His name is mentioned in the inscription of the temple. This temple belongs to

the Ngor clan of Sakyapa school of Tibetan Buddhism. American Himalayan

Foundation is conducting the restoration activities.

The courtyard is full of open space and corridor in all the directions supported by

wooden pillars. The pillars are well decorated in Ranjana script: “Om Namah Ratna 10 Vitali, Roberto. “On Byams pa and Thub chen lha khang of Glo sMos thang”. The Tibet Journal, Vol.XXIV No.1 Spring 1999.

17

Traya” standing for the three jewels of Buddha’s teachings: the Buddha, the Dharma

and the Sangha. The entrance gate leads to the courtyard and the covered corridor

with wooden pillars carved in Tibetan and Newari style. The Dukhang is located in

the center of the temple, which indicates that this monastery was constructed in

Nepalese style. In the inner shrine room known as Bar Khang has four sections: main

teaching hall, kitchen, and two storerooms. The walls are painted with beautiful

paintings.

The Lhakhang is one of the important cultural heritages of whole Himalayan region

including Tibet therefore the ruined condition of the inner walls and the wall paintings

including the statues and other important of Himalayan Buddhism must be conserved.

The conservation activity must try to appropriately preserve the antiquity of the

temple by historically conducting the restoration and conservation activities.

Thubchen dGonpa (Lhakhang), Lo Manthang

Thubchen Lhakhang is located in the Potling area of Lo Manthang. This temple was

constructed during the time of the 3rd King of Lo Tashi Gon. Thubchen Lhakhang was

built 25 years after the construction of Jampa Lhakhang in the 1470s. The evidence of

the reference of the great religious council organized in 1472 states that this temple

was already constructed in this date. This is one of the important cultural heritages of

Lo with its collection of art, architecture and paintings. The temple is a single storied

building complex with some attached rooms and halls for various purposes of the

temple. 49 pillars support the temple. The inner pillars are decorated with various

paintings and religious mantras. Similarly, the murals are well painted and the walls

are decorated with Kalachakra and various other Sanskrit mantras and protecting

lions.

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The temple is going through its restoration activities under American Himalayan

Foundation. American Himalayan Foundation is conducting the conservation of the

temple and its inner wall paintings by training the local people under the leadership of

Mr. Luigi Fieni, who has been working for last 16 years in the restoration activities of

Lo Manthang. In an interview with this paper writer Mr. Fieni elaborated the

techniques of restoration applied in Upper Mustang. The new modality of the

restoration and conservation is unique and tries to bring forward the contemporary

vernacular art by yet preserving the originality and historicity in the wall paintings.

The team is working rigorously for the conservation by training the local painters and

the skilled painters of the Himalayan region and trying to paint on the ruined spaces

and retouch the places where there are traces of ancient paintings in the walls.

The art seems to have been created in Newari Style developed in the late 14th and 15th

century. The restoration activity is carried out by American Himalayan Foundation

under Luigi Fieni, the Director of the project. Luigi explained that the program was

initiated with the cleaning of the wall paintings that were in ruined condition. They

started with the architectural reconstruction. The temple is full of the detailed

mandalas painted exclusively on the walls. The restoration at this temple as Mr. Fieni

explained, also created some alterations to the ancient styles in order to fill up the

vacant spots of the wall where the wall paintings were destroyed. Mr. Fieni further

stated that in the past he looked from the western standard perspective but at present

he though in local way to the conservation activities being carried out. For him this

method opened up the possibility of incorporating the local participants for the

conservation activities. He also said he is open to the criticism. According to him, this

19

is the example of new approach of participatory conservation where the locals are

trained to conserve their cultural heritage.11

Tashi Lundrub Ling (bKra-shis-lhun-sgbrab-gling) - Lo Manthang Palace

Mustang is historically very important heritage of the whole Himalayan region.

Though Mustang is located in the Nepalese political geography, it is culturally linked

with the northern adjoining part Tibet. There are the cultural factors of Tibetan

Buddhism and Buddhist life styles in the whole region. The buildings, culture,

lifestyle, rituals, festivals all are culturally linked to the Tibetan cultural region in

every sense. The royal palace is known as Phobrang in Tibetan terminology. It is also

called Khar, Gyalkhab, etc. There are many royal palaces in Mustang like: Monthang

Phobrang, Tsarang Phobrang, Gami Phobrang, Thenkar Palace, Bamkhar (Peyul

Bamkhar above Thenkar), Gilung Khar, etc. Among them the most important palaces

are: Monthang Phobrang and Tsarang Phobrang. These phobrangs are historically

very old and represent the Medieval cultural value therefore they represent the typical

ancient architectural features.

Tashi Lundhub Ling of Lo Monthang is also known as Monthang palace, which was

constructed by the first King of independent Mustang, Ame Pal in 1440 AD after

declaring the independent kingdom annexing from the greater kingdom of Ngari. It

was constructed after he transferred the capital from Tsarang to Lo Monthang. This

has been recorded in the Jampa Karchag and other sources of Mustang’s historical

documents.

This palace faces towards the east. This palace is five-storied building complex. The

roof of the palace is flat in Tibetan style to suit the geographical location of the area.

11 Interview with Conservator Mr. Luigi Fieni on the conservation and restoration modality and the conservation activity.

20

The whole roof is circled by 3ft high wall on all the sides and the wall is covered by

stone slabs and mud slabs. These walls are called Nya Gab.

The outer part of the palace wall is painted in white colour with White mud. There are

many small beautiful niches carved in the wall of the roof. The above part is coloured

in black colour mud. This is symbolically the sign of the King. The main entrance is

open with two wooden pillars on both sides. There is locking flat door just above the

ladder steps on every floors. The rooms upto the third floor are not used. The fourth

floor has a hall with the Kangyurs, Tengyurs, Asta Sahasrika Prajnaparamita (copied

by Rupa Teja Pala Pita Putra, monk artists from Naka Bahi of Kathmandu valley in

the 15th century) and is known as Kangyur Lhakhang. There are also the images of

Buddha Sakyamuni, Vajradharas, Padhmasambhava, Lokesworas, etc. Different

religious festivals and worshipping are conducted in this hall like Tiji festival begins

from this room and other important festivals of Guru Rinpoche are also conducted

here.

In the fifth floor of the palace there is the main reception hall of the king, bedrooms,

storerooms and kitchen for the royal family. In this floor there are the images of

Buddha Shakyamuni, Maitreya, Tara, Bhutadamar, etc.

In the backside of the Lhakhang, there is the Gon Khang of the palace where the

tutelary ancestral deities and ancestors of the King Walse Dungmar and Cheumar are

symbolically kept secretly. The main priest of the shrines of the palace is the Sakyapa

monk of Tibetan Buddhism and the Dungmar is worshipped by the Nyingma Lamas.

The top part of the wall above the roof has different symbols of Tibetan Buddhism

like: lungta, hair of the Yak, many horns and the bones of different animals found in

the region.

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The palace is one of the important cultural heritages of Upper Mustang as it

represents the ancient connection and the history of the establishment of the Kingdom

of Lo.12 The southern wing of the palace where the royal members reside is in better

conditions but other portions are in ruined state and they need the restoration for the

conservation of the tangible cultural heritage of the region.

Wall of Lo Manthang

The wall surrounding the medieval settlement of Lo Manthang is one of the most

unique cultural heritages of the whole Himalayan region. The wall surrounds the

whole settlement of Lo Manthang therefore this medieval city is also referred as the

Walled City. The wall was constructed to fortify the whole settlement including the

controlling of the cold wind blowing inside. The wall was constructed of rammed

earth with 6ft height and huge 11 dzongs and a single entrance towards the east. But at

present there are many entrances opened up in various places and this activity has

reduced the value of the wall. The wall is surrounded by many mani chortens. The

wall of Lo Manthang was constructed during the 16th century when Jumla was

invading the Kingdom of Lo.13 In the beginning the wall was in square shape but in

the 18th century due to the construction of Chosde Monastery and the northern

extension of the settlement, the wall became in L shape.

The unique cultural heritage of whole Himalayan region needs conservation by

stopping the openings of many entrances in various points of the wall. The originality

and the historicity must be kept in mind for the unique heritage of Lo Manthang. The

12 Ramesh K Dhungel. 2002. The Kingdom of Lo: A Historical Study. Kathmandu: Jigme S.P.Bista for Tashi Gephel Foundation. 13 Ramesh K Dhungel. 2002. The Kingdom of Lo: A Historical Study. Kathmandu: Jigme S.P.Bista for Tashi Gephel Foundation.

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restoration activities are taking place but the focus must be given to the history and

the uniqueness of Mustang.14

Upper Mustang: Intangible Cultural Heritage

Intangible cultural heritage is a fragile concept but is an important factor in

maintaining cultural diversity in the age of globalization. An understanding of the

intangible cultural heritage of different communities helps with intercultural dialogue,

and encourages mutual respect for other ways of life.

The importance of intangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself

but rather the wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from one

generation to the next. The social and economic value of this transmission of

knowledge is relevant for social groups within a state and the world population.

Intangible cultural heritage represents both inherited traditions from the past along

with the contemporary rural and urban practices in which diverse cultural groups

participate in reference to the cultural unity. These intangible elements of the cultural

practice contribute to social cohesion, encouraging a sense of identity and

responsibility which helps individuals to feel part of one or different communities and

to feel part of society at large. Intangible cultural heritage is not merely valued as a

cultural good, on a comparative basis, for its exclusivity or its exceptional value. It

thrives on its basis in communities and depends on those whose knowledge of

traditions, skills and customs are passed on to the rest of the community, from

generation to generation, or to other communities. Intangible cultural heritage can

only be heritage when it is recognized as such by the communities, groups or

individuals that create, maintain and transmit it.

14 An Interview with Ramesh Dhungel, who is a cultural expert of Himalayan Region including Mustang.

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Intangible cultural heritage is constantly changing and evolving, and being enriched

by each new generation by being traditional yet modern in this rapidly changing

world. Many expressions and manifestations of intangible cultural heritage are

threatened by the rapid globalization and cultural homogenization, and also by a lack

of support, appreciation and understanding. The intangible cultural heritage is at risk

if proper care and conservation is done urgently. If these intangible heritages are not

conserved they might get lost and the present and future generation may vanish

without any identity and cultural belongingness. It is the duty of the present

generation to conserve various aspects of the intangible heritages and pass it on to

future generations, so that the culture gets strengthened and remains alive for the time

immemorial.

There are certain modalities for the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage for

making them relevant to cultures practiced within communities from generations to

generations. There are various international institutions involved in maintaining the

cultural diversity through the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage through

international cooperation. The international agency of United Nations working for the

conservation and safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage under UNESCO has

formulated a Convention through the General Conference of UNESCO in 2003,

which is the first international treaty to provide a legal, administrative and financial

framework to safeguard the cultural heritages both tangible and intangible. This

convention has been agreed upon under international law and is practiced globally by

establishing the rights and obligations to the concerned parties.

The 2003 Convention aims at safeguarding intangible cultural heritage that is in step

with international agreements on human rights and that meets requirements of mutual

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respect among communities and of sustainable development.15 This is very important

in in reference to the cultural practices of Mustang. The cultural elements of Mustang

that do not have physical appearance but are practiced in rituals, ceremonies, dances,

songs and many other indigenous knowledge are in threat due to globalization

therefore they must go through conservation.

Tiji Festival

The original name of the Tiji festival celebrated in Lo Manthang, Mustang is Tenpa

Chihi Rimdo, which stands for the worshipping conducted to flourish the teachings of

Buddha in the world by subjugating the evil spirits. Later it was called Tenchi Rimdo

by tradition of abbreviating but later it got corrupted and came to be known as Tiji. In

the ancient time it used to be celebrated in the last month of the lunar calendar in the

month of February but at present it is celebrated in the 3rd month of the Tibetan Lunar

Calendar, which falls in the month of May for convenience.

The chronicles related to Tiji festival mention that this festival was initiated by the 8th

King (Gyalpo) Samdrub Rabten of Mustang when the Sakya Trijin Ngawang Kunga

Sonam came to Mustang accepting his invitation in around 1650 AD. This festival

was named in the past as Phur Dog meaning the expulsion of negativities through

Kila (Phurba-Dagger). Tiji is celebrated twice a year: one for public in the month of

May and one for Lamas of Chosde Monastery in the month of Bhadra.

The master of the mask dance is known as Dorje Sonnu and he has to complete the

retreat of three months in the monastery. Dorje Sonnu comes to the public Tiji

ceremony and performs various ritual dances by leading the group of lamas from

Chosde Monastery of Lo Manthang in mask. Therefore this dance is also known as

Mask Dance.

15 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage UNESCO.

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The main ritualistic ceremony is cantered on the subduing of the devil/ evils by Dorje

Sonnu / Dorje Phurba (Vajra Kumara / Vajra Kila). This act of the subduing the evil

forces and protecting the territory is the major event of the ceremony through the

performed dances. This ceremony lasts for three days with one-day prior preparation

by making the tormas in Jampa Lhakhang. On this preparation day all the

representatives of the seven villages of Lo collectively known as Lo Tsho Dun gather

at Jampa Lhakhang and contribute for the preparation of the tormas necessary for the

celebration of the Tiji Festival.

One the first day, they unfold the big thanka of Padhmasambhava or Guru Rinpoche

in the wall of the palace of Lo Manthang Mustang. The local Lopa communities of Lo

Tsho Dun observe the festival with traditional respect for the cultural symbol by

showing respect to the thanka. After this the lamas perform the preliminary dances in

front of the people of Mustang. This lasts for a couple of hours and they perform one

set of dance.

On the second day, the main function of subduing the devil/evil spirits by Dorje

Sonnu is done in front of the audience. The master of the dance leads the other

members of the mask dance and they perform the re-enactment of various other

dances known as Dungmar and Cheumar. This is the main day of the spiritual

celebration of this festival.

On the third day, the Choho subjugates the Mara with the phurba therefore it is called

Phur Dok. After this the king leads the procession following the activity of the Choho

(master of the dance), all of them go to the near by places and throw the evil

symbolized in torma. They perform rituals at three points of location of the evil spirit

as decided by the Choho and finally destroy the evil force at the most powerful place

and destroy the torma symbolically. This activity symbolically represents that the evil

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and the negative forces are thrown away for the establishment of the Teachings of

Buddha and the spread of Buddhism in this region.

In between the Tiji festival all the people gather in their houses and enjoy the feast by

celebrating the merry making occasion of killing the evil. They eat their cultural

foods, drink and dance and sing songs and enjoy their best among the communities by

coming together culturally and socially. This festival is mainly the lama dance so here

the lamas perform and the people observe this dance.

This is the living intangible heritage of the whole Himalayan region. The lamas of

Chosde Monastery perform this dance and they perform the same dance for the lamas

in the monastery in the fifth month of the lunar calendar inside the monastery. Tiji is

the celebration and reaffirmation of this myth. Throughout the festival the events and

story of the myth are re-enacted. The festival is timed to coincide with the end of the

dry season (late winter/spring) and ushers in the wetter monsoon season. The Tiji

festival is a three-day ritual known as “The chasing of the Demons”, centred on the

Tiji myth celebrated in Mustang. Tiji tells the story of a deity named Dorje Sonnu

who must battle against his demon father to save the Kingdom of Mustang from

destruction. The demon father wreaks havoc on Mustang by creating a water shortage,

which, in this extremely arid land, is the most precious life-sustaining resource. Dorje

Sonnu eventually defeats the demon and banishes him from the land.

Yar-tong (dyar-stong) Festival

The Yar-tong festival is one of the other most important Buddhist festivals of the

Himalayan region celebrated in the end of the rainy season, which the name ‘Yar-

tong’ itself stands for the end of rainy season. This festival is celebrated after

harvesting the crops. Different villages around Upper Mustang and Lower Mustang

and other Himalayan areas celebrate yar-tong at different times. In the Lo Manthang

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of Upper Mustang the people celebrate Yar-tong on the full moon Day of the eighth

Month of the lunar calendar, which falls in the month of Bhadra (Aug/Sep). The date

is not fixed and is therefore to be decided by looking at the auspicious day. The

people go out of the village and gather in one open space in different tents and enjoy

this festival as outing.

This festival goes on for three days, but locals gather in different parts of their

villages and entertain themselves by drinking Chyang indulge in feasts for three days.

This tradition of drinking Chyang and eating food is known as Ten-drel. Singing and

dancing is also included in this type of get-together. This festival is celebrated as a

means of saying goodbye to monsoon and the welcoming of winter is celebrated by

the locals as a means of saying goodbye to hard work in the fields for the whole year.

They dress up in beautiful clothes and drink airag and Chyang and eat many types of

food. But sometimes after they are drunk old enmities and rivalries come up and there

are fights.

The game of horse racing continues till the evening. Singing and dancing also goes on

simultaneously in different places. After the entertainment is over, the horse riders

return to their settlements in a procession accompanied by songs and music like

before.

The three days of Yartong in the Lo Manthang of Upper Mustang is divided for three

different aspects of the communities: the First Day is the King’s Yartong, the second

Day is the Queen’s Yartong and the Third Day is the Lama’s Yartong.

The first day is known as King’s Yartong and on this day, the King goes on a horse

with his royal symbol followed by the sKudragpa and male relatives to the same open

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space and celebrate in similar manner by eating, drinking, singing and dancing. The

people entertain the King through their performances of songs and dances.

The second day is known as the Queen’s Yartong and on this day, the Queen with her

woman relatives and friends go in horse to the open space and enjoy the outing there

by drinking, eating, singing and dancing. The friends of the Queen entertain her

through various performances of songs and dances.

Similarly, the third day is the Lama’s Yartong and on this day, the Lamas of Chosde

Monastery go to the same field and eat drink and enjoy but they don’t sing and dance.

The game of horse racing continues till the evening. Singing and dancing also goes on

simultaneously in different places. After the entertainment is over, the horse riders

return to their settlements in a procession accompanied by songs and music like

before.

This festival goes on for three days, but locals gather in different parts of their

villages and entertain themselves by drinking Chyang indulge in feasts for seven days.

They also organize horseracing and enjoy the contest.

The main Yar-tong is celebrated in Lomanthang with cultural unity. In the past, the

kings and the local administrators had a great hand in making a festival grand. That is

why the festivals that were celebrated in places where these rulers lived were the

grandest16.

Lo Manthang Amchi Museum, Lo Manthang

The Amchi tradition of Tibetan Medical practice at Amchi Gyatsho’s museum was

established in 2008 in Lo Manthang to conserve the traditional practice of Amchi

tradition of the whole Himalayan cultural geography. The Amchi tradition is one of

16Dhungel, Ramesh K. 1988. “Mustang Jillako Lomanthangma manaine yar-tong parva” (The Yar-Tong Festival of Lo-Manthang). Text in Nepali. Nepal Past and Present 1.1:31-39.

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the intangible cultural heritages of Tibetan cultural tradition. This tradition is one of

the oldest herbal medical treatment traditions of the ancient civilizations of the world

where they connect this tradition to the Medicine Buddha, who is believed to an

emanation of Buddha among many incarnations of the Lord Buddha such as Buddha

Maitreya (Sangye Jampa), Buddha Dipamkar (Sangye Marmey Zey), Buddha

Amitabha (Sangye Voe Pakmey), Buddha Sakyamuni (Sangye Shakya Thubpa), etc.

who had directly appeared on earth as human beings. Buddha emanations are

represented in the form of a statue, or speech, mind, attributes and activities; for

instance, the Tibetan Medicine Buddha. The original teachings of the ancient Tibetan

medical system are generally attributed to the Buddha who is believed to have taught

the roots of this tradition of Medicine Buddha.

The right hand of the Medicine Buddha holds a fruit of arura (Terminalia chebula

Retz; a medicinal plant) and the left hand holds a begging bowl. His right hand is

extended, palm outward, over his right knee in the gesture called supreme generosity.

Arura is considered the best medicine in the Tibetan medical system. The position of

his right hand and the arura that he holds, represent the eradication of sufferings. The

name Medicine Buddha itself is a power to free one from the pattern of negative

thoughts and emotions. It is believed that just by speaking, hearing or concentrating

on his name, healing can be accomplished. In traditional Tibetan culture, meditation

and working (or playing) with prayer wheels, chants and prayer flags all are used

together with Tibetan medicine. The Amchi focuses his attention on spiritual factors

while treating any illness. Every Amchi vows to ‘regard medicine as an offering to the

Medicine Buddha and all other medicine deities’ and considers his ‘medical

instruments as holy objects’. Even in modern Tibetan pharmaceuticals the medicines

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which are a mixture of plants, animal organs, minerals and chemicals, are prepared

with meticulous attention to religious rituals.

Amchis enjoy great respect and social status among the trans-Himalayan Buddhist

communities. The meaning of Amchi is self-explanatory in the Buddhist language; it

means ‘superior to all’. The Amchis do not merely follow theoretical texts, but also

have practical knowledge on making various ethno-medicines. The medical

knowledge is passed on from one generation to the next by word of mouth.

Traditionally, the Amchis were primarily farmers, and medical practice was their

secondary occupation. They used to offer their services free of charge; however in

exchange one member of every household in the village used to help the Amchis

during planting and harvesting of agricultural crops. In this modern global world the

scientifically developed medicines are spreading fast and the present generation

people are forgetting their cultural link with the Himalayan Tibetan Amchi tradition.

Therefore, this tradition has been preserved in Mustang in the form of museum and a

school where the young generation can learn and give it life for future generation. It is

the duty of the present generation agencies to conserve this intangible heritage of the

Himalayan region in reference to this location of Mustang.

Cultural Heritage of Choser (Tsho Sar) Village

Choser (Tsho Sar) village is located towards the northeastern part of Lo Manthang.

This village is one of the major settlements of the whole Lo Tsho Dun. There are

various important cultural heritages in the forms of caves. There are dGonpas, the

ancient cave settlement connecting to the pre-historical settlement civilization of the

whole Mustang people. There are many important monuments of cultural value and

among them the most important are: Ghar Phug Gonpa, Nub Chhog Ling, Dzong

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Phug, etc.

Gar Phug Gonpa

Gar Phug dGonpa (Monastery) is located in the northeastern part of Lo Manthang in

Choser Village. According to the Karchag of this Monastery, Lama Siji Gyatsho, who

was a lama from Kham of Tibet of the mid 17th century, constructed this monastery.

This monastery was completely further developed by third lama of this monastery,

Rig-Zin-Tshewang-Norbu during the time of Tenzin Wangyal, who was ruling

Mustang. The monastery was reconstructed later and the present building of the

monastery was constructed recently by shifting from its original place to this place

under the time of Lama Tenzin Norbu. This monastery was originally connected to

the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism but now it is associated both with Kagyupa

and Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism. The art, architecture, wall paintings and

the sculptures of this monastery are of various time frames. The Buddha idol of this

monastery seems to have Newar style that was influenced by Pala and Gupta School

of art and might be as old as of 12th to 13th century. The time of the sculptures found

in this dgonpa can also be traced to the 12th to 13 century. The monastery is restored

in various time but the restoration activity has brought the alterations in the monastery

like the Mani has covered the area of the wall paintings and the construction of the

new monastery building has completely destroyed the antiquity of the monastery. The

wall paintings are new of around 180 years to 200 years.

Nub Chog Ling

The name of the small cave located in Choser village is Nub Chog Ling, which means

the cave area located in the west. The cave has mandala paintings and the thousand

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images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas but the images are destroyed completely due to

the lack of conservation. The ceiling is full of Mandala Fresco paintings painted in

probably 12th/13th century. The flower decorations of the mandalas refer to the 13th

century style of decorating the mandalas. In the wall the paintings are painted in two

layers. There are layers in the paintings of the ceiling and the cave wall areas. The

process of drawing fresco paintings in the walls or ceilings is very unique in nature

and is one of the important cultural histories of the refined artistic development of the

human settlement. The fresco paintings are drawn only in the wet plaster so that the

paintings and the wall dry together and the paintings seem lively and last for a long

time. The walls and ceilings need lime wash before the painting begins. The frescos

have different layers in the sense that they are touched in one time but if they have to

paint in the other spot after it is completed they have to create another plaster.

Therefore there are patches of plasters added in the wall to finish the paintings once

and start the other. The layers in the cave give the impression that the paintings were

done in different times during the renovations done in the past. Similarly, there are

supporting rods of wood marking the construction of the wall to make it safe for

living. The wall paintings are in ruined state therefore it is the urgent need of the

conservation of the small cave paintings for the conservation of the cultural heritage

of Mustang.

Dzong Phug

The cave of the Choser area, which is five storied is known as Dzong Phug meaning

the Fort Cave. This cave was probably the place of shelter for the early dwellers of

this area. There are different cabins in the cave. The caves are all organized as that of

the rooms of the modern house. The cave gives the impression that when people of

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this area used to live in the caves they discovered this cave to be safe and protected

them from other tribes so it might have worked as fort. This is one of the ancient cave

located in the whole Himalayan region that connects to the history of the pre-

historical development of human civilization. The dzong is one of the important

cultural heritages of Mustang and it needs conservation for the preserving of this

ancient monument of the historical connection.

Cultural Heritage of Tsho-Nub Village

Tsho-nub (Chonub) Village is located in the northern part of Lo Manthang of

Mustang. This village covers the area of Thenkar and Namgyal settlements of the Lo

Tsho Dun area. The settlements have unique gonpas, chortens, mani, forts and

summer palace at Thenkar. These important cultural heritages are in ruined conditions

and therefore they need the conservation activity for the preservation of their

uniqueness and historical originality. The major cultural monuments of this area are:

Namgyal Gonpa, Thenkar Palace, etc.

Namgyal Monastery, Namgyal

Namgyal Monastery is located in Namgyal village of Tshonub Village Development

Committee situated towards the northwestern side of Lo Manthang. Venerable

Khenpo Tsewang Rigzin is the chief Abbot of Namgyal Monastery. The historical

chronicles refer that Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo constructed the monastery in the

village in the fifteenth century. In the 19th century due to the bad condition of

Phuphag Samten Ling, Rising Domsum Ling and Jampa Shedrup Ling, they were

merged to Namgyal Monastery. This merger added many idols and important

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collections of Buddhism at Namgyal monastery. Namgyal Monastery belongs to

Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism under Ngor clan where they worship to lamas and

Buddhist deities and various sister deities. The monastery is rich in sculptural idols

but the paintings are of recent past due to the reconstruction of the main monastery

buildings twice. The paintings in the wall are of around 50/60 years old. But the metal

and clay idols are of 15th/16th century.

Namgyal dGonpa is one of the historically old and culturally unique monument of

Mustang therefore it is the responsibility to preserve it for the future generations. The

monastery is in ruined condition and therefore the conservation is the urgent demand.

The restoration of the monastery must be done by preserving the originality and

historicity because it is already in the ruined condition.

Venerable Khenpo Tsewang Rigzin has already been discussing with various agencies

involved in the conservation activity of Mustang for the conservation of the

monastery. The plan of Khenpo is to construct a new dGonpa in place of the old

monastery complex due to its small size and partly destroyed stage by the leaking

water on the walls. But the construction of the new dGonpa creates the lack of the

antiquity and authenticity so the restoration activity of the dGonpa must be done by

conserving its unique heritage. The restoration of the monastery is to conserve the

cultural heritage with its originality and antiquity. For this the construction of another

building around the main dGonpa like an envelope can preserve the monastery from

the effects of the climate change. Khenpo further clarified that he wanted to construct

the new monastery by using the ramped soil by consulting the local experts from

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Muktinath area17. Another way of the restoration and conservation of the monastery is

to conserve it by constructing another building as an annex building without

destroying it since it is the cultural heritage of this area. The new building can be

constructed in the open space in the front part or at the back part.

This Namgyal dGonpa is one of the unique and historically ancient cultural heritages

of Mustang therefore it is the responsibility of the present generation to preserve the

monastery through restoration and conservation.

Cultural Heritage of Tsarang Village

Tsarang village is located in the southern part of Lo Manthang and it is one of the

important cultural heritages of the whole Mustang region due to its history of being

older than Lo Manthang. Before King Ame Pal moved the capital to Lo Manthang,

Tsarang was the center of the rule of Lo area under Nagri, Gungthang, Yartche rules.

Tsarang is one of the central places of Mustang as there used to be the capital before it

got shifted to Lo Monthang. In the references of Gunthang and the Ngari chronicles

there is the name of Tsarang as the ruling (Dzong Khar) fort of the Mustang region.

Tsarang was the administrative centre of the Mustang region until King Ame Pala

came in power and shifted the capital to Monthang. The important historical

monuments of the area are: Tsarang Palace, Tsarang dGonpa, Lo dGekar Gonpa, etc.

Most of them are in ruined condition therefore they urgently need the restoration and

conservation for the future generations.

Tsarang Palace

The palace located at Tsarang is one of the most important royal palace of Mustang

that is historically very old and it is named as Samdub Gephel. The chronicles

17 Interview with Venerable Khenpo Tsewang Rigzin in the field visit carried out by the researcher

36

mention that the palace was constructed by Dhondub Dorje but it must be even older

than that. Probably he had renovated or made a newer complex but there was another

ancient palace in this region. There is no reference to who made this complex but the

reference of the Lo Gekar Monastery and two other complexes in white and red

colour of Tsarang symbolically hint the construction of this palace by King Amed

Pala. Tsarang palace is located towards the east hillock of Tsarang village. This is

constructed facing towards the east but due to the damaged condition of the location

and the palace the main entrance is in the south. This palace faces towards the east.

This palace is five-storied building complex. The roof of the palace is flat in Tibetan

style to suit the geographical location of the area. The whole roof is circled by 3ft

high wall on all the sides and the wall is covered by stone slabs and mud slabs but

totally in ruined condition these days. These walls are called Nya Gab. The rooms of

the palace are not used these days.

The outer part of the palace wall is painted in white colour with White mud. There are

many small beautiful niches carved in the wall of the roof. The above part is coloured

in black colour mud. This is symbolically the sign of the King. The main entrance is

open with two wooden pillars on both sides. There is locking flat door just above the

ladder steps on every floors. The rooms upto the third floor are not used. The fourth

floor has a hall known as Sherkhang. There were many images in the past but now

there are the images of Maitreya Buddha, Lokeswora, Kathog Rigdzin Tsewang

Norbu made up of clay etc. There are many religious manuscripts in this hall. Hevajra

Mandala puja is done in this hall in the 24th day of the first month to the 1st day of the

second month of Tibetan Lunar calendar in the memory of Lobo Khentschen Sonam

Lundub who came to Mustang and lived in this palace. He is significant for the

propagation and establishment of Sakyapa School of Tibetan Buddhism in Mustang.

37

Similarly, the Tengyurs and Kangyurs are also recited here in this room in the 18th day

of the third month to the 3rd day of the fourth month of Tibetan lunar calendar.

In the backside of the Lhakhang, there is the dGon Khang of the palace where the

tutelary ancestral deities there is the Mandala of Gur Gon symbolically kept secretly.

The ancient arms and other equipment are also preserved here in this hall.

This palace was the main palace of the king Amed Pal before he shifted the capital to

Lo-Manthang in the 14th century. Inside the palace there is a dGon-Khang with

various idols and important collections of texts, paintings and antique objects. The

Tara image, Avalokiteshwora idol, and important icons are historically important. In

the same hall there is the ancient hand paw with a legend behind.

Lo Gekar dGonpa

Lo Gekar dGonpa is located in the Lo Gekar village in the western part of Tsarang

village and is known as Ghar dGonpa. This dGonpa is believed to have been

constructed by Guru Padmasambhava from Uddiyana before the construction of the

Samye dGonpa in Tibet. The oral history states that this was constructed in the mid 8th

century. This is in reference to the arrival of Buddhism in the Himalayan region.

Therefore this Gonpa is believed to be the first monastery of the whole Himalayan

region including Tibet. This Gonpa is one of the first of the 49 pilgrimage sites

related to Padmasambhava as recorded in the treasure text known as Terma.18 The

Bemchag of Tsarang Gonpa records that whole Mustang was turned to Buddhism by

subjugating the local Himalayan demons and spirits who were the chief deities of the

pre-Buddhist Bon practice prevalent in the whole Himalayan region.19

18 This is the summary of the section related to Lo Gekar in “Upper Mustang: Cultural Heritage of Lo Tsho Dun” written by Elke Selter. 19 Urgyen Padmas-de-Srin-bTul-Pah’-Gnas. Gangs-Chan-ldzongs-kyi-mchog-gyur-sTong-Kyi-ch. sMon-Thang-She-bya-rGyal-pohi-pho-Brang-der as quoted in Sharma, Prayagraj and Jagaman Gurung. 2056. “Blo Mustangko Sanskritik Sampada”---

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Lo Gekar Gonpa is one of the Nyingma Gonpas of Mustang region. This is the

common cultural heritage of the whole Himalayan region therefore it is necessary for

the conservation of the monastery. The Gonpa faces towards the east with one

labrang (monk residence) attached to the south. The monastery is painted with red

mud and the monk residence with the white mud. There are four chortens in four

directions of the monastery. There are many Mani Khorlos around the monastery.

The main Du Khang is decorated with artistic wall paintings. There are the images of

sister deities, related masters and other important Buddhist symbols painted on the

walls. There are the statues of Padhmasambhava and other Buddhist masters in the

central shrine of the monastery.

There is one shrine room above the Du Khang and it is known as Lhakhang. There are

various images of Padhmasambhava, lamas, Mahakalas and many animals and birds

carved in stone. They are decorated in the wood and managed so beautifully. There is

another room in the third floor, which is known as Mani Lhakhang, where the images

of Mani Padma Lokeswora are carved in the stone slates.

Cultural Heritage of Gami-Gilung Area

Gami and Gilung area of Mustang is one of the important settlements of the Lo Tsho

Dun area and is located in the south of the Lo Manthang. It is the southern most

settlement of the Lopa communities of Mustang. The Gilung village has important

gonpa located above the village in the hill while the village is in the down flat area.

Likewise, Gami is another historically important cultural heritage with its unique and

regular tussle with the Kingdom of Lo at times.20 The historical chronicles mention

that this was mostly under the rule of the Kingdom of Lo but at times it fought for

---(The Cultural Heritage of bLo (Mustang). Research Center for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. 20 Dhungel, Ramesh K. 2002. The Kingdom of Lo: A Historical Study. Kathmandu: Jigme S. P. Bista for Tashi Gephel Foundation.

39

independence and was ruled by the local ruler as well. There is one of the old palace

of the 16th century, one ancient monastery and a village settlement of around 100

households.21

Mani Wall of Gami

The most important cultural heritage of Gami area is the Mani Wall, which is believed

to be the longest of the whole Himalayan region. The Himalayan region has many

Mani walls but the Mani Wall of Gami of Mustang is one of the important cultural

heritages that need conservation. Mani Walls are constructed by constructing the

walls in intricately carved stone tablets, most with the inscription “Om Mani Padme

Hum”. These walls are circumvented from the left side, the clockwise direction in

which the earth and the universe revolve, according to Buddhist doctrine by the

Buddhist followers and therefore it is one of the cultural markers of the Himalayan

region.

They are constructed close to a temple or chorten, sometimes completely isolated and

range from a few meters to a kilometre long and one to two meters high. They are

built of rubble and sand and faced with mani stones engraved in the elegant Tibetan

script. The mani stone wall are made of stone plates, rocks or pebbles inscribed with

syllabled mantra of Avalokiteshvara.

Cultural Heritage of Yara Gara Dhi Area

Yar-ra Gara Dhi area is one of the major settlement areas of the Lo Tsho Dun. The

settlement is settled by the Lopa communities living in Mustang region. This area has

very important cultural heritage like Luri Cave Monastery. The monastery is in ruined

condition and needs conservation for future generations.

21 This is the summary of the section related to the Background of Selter, Elke. 2006. Upper Mustang: Cultural Heritage of Lo Tso Dhun. Kathmandu: UNESCO.

40

Luri Cave Monastery

Luri (klu-ri-dgonpa) Cave Gonpa is common monastery of the Yar-ra Gara Dhi area

and is located in the eastern part of Mustang in the bank of Kali Gandaki river. This is

rock-cut temple structures located near trade routes and became stopovers and lodging

houses for traders. The interiors became more and more elaborate as its endowments

grew. Luri cave has a notable trait of rock-cut architecture crafted of rock imitating

the timbered and carved wood. This Cave temple has been well preserved due to its

hidden location in difficult high cliff.

The Luri Cave is home to some very early and well-preserved wall/ceiling paintings

that decorate the walls and ceilings and date from the 12th/13th century AD. The Luri

Cave is known as Luri Gonpa and contains some of the earliest and most beautiful

Buddhist mural paintings in the Mustang region. The mysterious Luri Cave

Monastery in Upper Mustang is the 12th century cave monastery located in the east of

Lo Manthang. Mary Slusser, in an article on Luri cave temple, wrote in 1999 that

other scholars “had sought (this temple) in vain following an American trekking

guide’s signal sometime after 1992, the year Mustang was opened to foreigners.”22

Luri Gonpa is associated with the Nyingma and Kargyupa school of Tibetan

Buddhism.

The entrance to the Luri Cave is a low, narrow tunnel to the left of the ledge and the

smaller cave. Luri cave is rounded about four to five meters across, four to five meters

tall, and hand carved into the mountain. This cave has a single entryway with one

small window overlooking the valley to the left of the entry. The walls and ceilings of

22 Slusser, Mary Shepherd and Lilla M. Bishop. February 1999. “Another Luri: A Newly Discovered Cave Chorten in Mustang, Nepal”. Orientations Vol.30.2.

41

the cave temple are covered in plaster and are attractively painted. In the centre of the

cave is a beautifully crafted Chorten surrounded by sufficient floor space for

circumambulation. This is designed in the exact structure of the stupa Mandala basing

on the format of this type. The base of the Chorten is approximately 2.5 meters

across, consisting of a series of staggered 12-cornered tiers. The terracotta spire of the

Luri chorten rises about three meters from the floor and is crowned by a canopy. The

Luri chorten is ornamented with small paintings around the different tiers of the base

and four larger frescoes on the upper dome. The exterior of the chorten is covered

with an unusually smooth and hard ceramic-like glazing. Luri Cave Monastery is in

bad condition due to the excessive blow of wind and the lack of care and conservation

therefore it is in the need of conservation for the future generations.

Cultural Heritage of Dhe Tangye Area

Dhe Tangye area is located in the south-eastern part of Upper Mustang and is one of

the major settlements of Lo Tsho Dun area. The village is one of the unique cultural

heritages of Mustang with Gonpas, Chhortens, small fort, caves, etc.

Conclusion

The cultural Heritages of Upper Mustang both tangible and intangible are the

important factors of the historicity and the originality of the Lopa communities living

in this region. The conditions of the cultural heritages of the region are in ruined

condition and therefore it is the duty and responsibility of the present generation

people, institutions, agencies involved in the conservation to preserve this medieval

cultural settlement for the future generations. The paper concludes that world must

realize the inevitability of the restoration and preservation activities for the

42

conservation of the cultural heritages of Mustang that are historically old and get

connected to the antiquity of the Himalayan cultural region. The paper forwards some

important recommendations for the conservation of the cultural heritages of Upper

Mustang.

1. The agencies, institutions and people related to conservation activity must

develop a Master Action Plan for the Conservation and Restoration of the

Cultural Heritages of Lo Manthang and Upper Mustang for safeguarding its

cultural, historical and religious antiquity.

2. The Museum of the Chosde Monastery needs immediate restoration for the

preservation of the antique Thankas, manuscripts, idols, musical instruments,

metal statues, wooden furniture (antique), weapons, dresses, etc. of both pre-

Buddhist Bons and the Sakyapa Buddhists of the region. Those articles have

been kept haphazardly without the knowledge of preservation.

3. The conservation of this cultural heritage should be done not at the historicity

and the cultural ties with its uniqueness but by training the local communities

and involving them in the conservation activities with some standard norms

and values suitable for Mustang. This can be done in reference to the

examples applied in other similar cultural heritages of the Himalayan Region.

4. The restoration of the cultural heritages like: Namgyal Monastery, Nub Chhog

Ling, Thubchen Lhakhang, Jampa Lhakhang, Tsarang Fort Palace, Thenkar

palace, Luri Gonpa, Lo Gekar Gonpa, and other intangible heritages must be

done by keeping in mind the historicity and the antiquity in originality of art,

architecture, materials and the philosophy of those cultural heritages.

5. The ruined cultural heritage places can be renovated with the active

participation of local communities by training them, and learning from them

43

on the issue of the conservation of their cultural heritages for the world.

The Cultural Conservation Agencies can take measures to preserve the ancient

cultural heritage both tangible and intangible forms for the conservation by

continuous dialogues with the Government of Nepal, Department of Archaeology,

District Administration Office Mustang, Annapurna Conservation Area Project and

the Local Communities.

The changes in the last 20 years after the opening of tourism in Lo Manthang in 1992

for foreigners has brought the cultural encroachment from the global elements

therefore these things must be controlled as soon as possible. Mustang seems to be

divided in between tradition and modernity. The sustainable farming of herbs,

handicrafts for alternative economic support and the improvement of education

system is the must of the modern context for the understanding of the cultural heritage

of Lo Manthang. The solutions for the conservation and the preservation of Lo

Manthang can be conducted by the collaborative work among the locals and the

experts of cultural heritage.

44

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49

Appendix-1

Abridged Itinerary

Day 1: 27 April, 2014 –Kathmandu-Muglin-Pokhara-Beni Myagdi, Nepal-Group A

(Nepali Members leave Kathmandu)

Day 2: 28 April, 2014 –Beni-Tatopani-Gasa-Lete-Larjung-Kobang-Tukche-Marpa-

Jomsom, Mustang Nepal

Day 3: 29 April, 2014 –Jomsom-Kagbeni- Tangbe-Tshugsang, Mustang Nepal-

Group B (International Members arrive)

Day 4: 30- April, 2014 –Tshugsang, Mustang Nepal

Day 5: 1-May, 2014- Tshugsang-Tsarang-Lo Manthang, Mustang Nepal

Day 6: 2-May, 2014- Chosde Monastery Lo Manthang –Choser: Gar Phug Monastery,

Nub Chog Ling Cave and Dzong Cave of Mustang

Day 7: 3-May, 2014-Lo Manthang- Namgyal Monastery, Namgyal, Mustang

Day 8: 4-May, 2014-Lo Manthang-Amchi Museum, Jampa Lhakhang, Thubchen

Lhakhang, Lo Manthang, Mustang

Day 9: 5-May, 2014- Lo Manthang-Tsarang-Tshugsang, Mustang

Day 10: 6-May, 2014- Tshugsang

Day 11: 7-May, 2014- Tshugsang, Mustang

50

Day 12: 8-May, 2014-Tshugsang-Salt Mine, Mustang

Day 13: 9-May, 2014- Tshugsang, Mustang

Day 13: 10-May, 2014- Tshugsang -Kagbeni-Jharkot Mustang

Day 14: 11-May, 2014-Jharkot-Muktinath-Jomsom-Larjung, Kobang, Mustang

Day 15: 12-May, 2014-Larjung-Narshang Gonpa-Lete-Ghasa-Beni-Pokhara

Day 16: 13-May, 2014-Pokhara-Mugling-Kathmandu

51

Appendix 2

Photos of the Tangible and intangible Cultural Heritage of Lo Tsho Dun

Plate 1

The Lopa Women in Lopa Cultural Costume at Jomsom, Mustang

Plate 2

The view of Mentsun Lhakhang, Tshugsang

52

Plate 3

Thangka in the Antique Museum of Chosde Monastery, Lo Manthang

Plate 4

Chosde Monastery, Lo Manthang

53

Plate 5

The ruined condition of the Fresco of Nub Chog Ling

Plate 6

The view of the Dzong Cave of Tsho-sar

54

Plate 7

Namgyal Monastery, Namgyal village of Tshonub VDC

Plate 8

The Cultural Heritage of Tsarang with the ruined state of Tsarang Palace and other monuments.

55

Plate 9

Tsarang Gonpa

Plate 10

The Cultural Heritage of Lo Gekar Monastery of Tsarang VDC at Marang village

56

Plate 11

The Cultural Heritage of Luri Cave Gonpa at Yar-ra Gara Village of Mustang

Plate 12

The Intangible Cultural heritage of Mustang-Tiji Festival, Mask Dance

57

Plate 13

The Cultural Heritage of the Wall of Lo Manthang, Mustang

Plate 14

The Mandala Paintings of the Jampa Lhakhang at Lo Manthang Mustang