Conservation and multiple purpose dam management: challenges and opportunities. A Case study of Okpara

dam in north Benin.

by Check Abdel Kader, Baba.

Institute of International Forestry and Forest Products. Faculty of Environmental

Mangement/Technische Universität Dresden.

E-mail: cheikad@gmail.com

Abstract:

Integrated water management remains a constant issue in developing countries and the

availability of clean and fresh water is an increasing challenge. In Benin like in other

countries, pilot projects aiming to integrate ecosystem services into development priorities are

being implemented as a good alternative to reach development objectives without

jeopardizing ecosystems, the basis of continuous provision of environmental services upon

which rural populations strongly depend for their livelihood. The Initiative Okpara which

engaged the Okpara dam stakeholders from all levels in a common effort to restore ecosystem

functions for the safety of the dam itself and the related ecosystem services it provides,

represents an interesting case to investigate and accompany. This paper aims to review the

stakeholders’ interests and the main ecosystem services they depend upon, to identify the

issues and challenges of the Okpara dam and finally to discuss the opportunities to integrate

ecosystem services into development perspectives in the context of north Benin.

Keywords: Okpara Initiative, Ecosystem services, Stakeholders and development perspectives

Introduction

In spite of its importance for life, drinking water remains a luxury product and water,

whatever its nature, a rare commodity in most areas of the world (Geny et al, 1992). In sub-

Saharan countries, more than three hundred million people have no access to clean water and

fifty percent (50%) of this population suffer from diseases associated with poor water quality

(Mérino, 2008). To tackle water scarcity problems, governments and their partners have opted

for the construction of dams since the 70s. Against this background, about 250 dams (mostly

for hydro pastoral purpose) have been constructed between 1970 and 1990 at a cost estimated

at more than ten billion in local currencies (15 384 615 €). The current problem is that half of

these dams dried up by the end of the dry season (Ibouraima, 2005), corresponding to the

period of high water demand in all sub-Saharan countries characterized by a unimodal rainfall

regime with one rainy season and one dry season. Heavy sedimentation resulting from soil

erosion in the watershed and induced by different land uses systems and local farming

practices (farming, grazing, timber harvesting, charcoal production, etc.) is pointed out as the

main cause of this rapid drying up of reservoirs. Ecosystems weakening through multiple and

conflicting land uses and practices have already been identified by several scholars as factors

limiting ecosystem goods and services (drinking water, soil protection, flood regulation, cults

and culture, etc.) provision. In this vein, Mérino (2008) mentioned that the weakening of

ecosystems resulting from intense deforestation, intensification of farming activities, etc. is

one aggravating factor of water scarcity in Sub- Saharan Africa, and Uhlmann (1979), Amani

& Nguetora (2000) and Freeman et al. (2008) showed that decreased forest or soil cover

(whether forests, thickets, savannas, grasslands or a thin mulch) was significantly correlated

to decreased water quantity and quality due to the modification of surface runoff and transport

of sediments and chemicals. Finally, Tomer and Schilling (2009) highlighted the relationship

between a terrain’s physical characteristics, human activities and hydrology by stressing that

physical parameters such as vegetation types, soil properties, geology, topography and

humans actions such as land use practices and the interactions among them affect catchment

hydrology. This clearly recalls that development cannot be separated from ecosystems (World

Resources Institute, 2008) and water provision. Forest resources and local livelihood

conditions are closely interlinked.

The aim of this research is to contribute to this debate by taking a case study of a

multiple purpose dam (Okpara dam). This choice is justified by four main reasons: (1) Okpara

dam which represents the only source of fresh water for more than 266 000 people and

contributes to the riparian population’s livelihood is currently threatened by both human

activities and climate change and the situation is expected to worsen by 2025 (Bossa, 2012).

(2) The dependency of this region on surface waters is likely to increase as Barthel et al.

(2008) show by stressing the "particularly unfavorable conditions for groundwater use" in the

northern part of Benin because "groundwater recharge during the wet season does not lead to

the formation of persistent groundwater storage in its shallow, unconfined aquifers." (3) The

department of Borgou (surrounding communes of Okpara dam) is characterized by a Human

Poverty Index varying from 51,1 to 65,5% and more than 50 percent of its population live

under the tolerable threshold of poverty (INSAE, 2008). The high cost of groundwater

pumping technology combined with the continual deterioration of surface water quality and

the expected reduction of rainfall are likely to increase the level of poverty and the pressure

on natural ecosystems. (4) There is a recent local and regional initiative called "Initiative

Okpara" focused on the restoration of the ecosystem’s vitality and dynamics, and the building

of an effective institutional framework which will define and implement the payment of

ecosystem services (fresh water). Although the mechanisms and the involvement of the

Okpara dam stakeholders are not yet clear, this initiative opens perspectives for research on

the one hand and the integration of ecosystems in development priorities on the other hand.

To efficiently implement the Okpara initiative, it thus appears urgent to analyze the

opportunities and challenges of such an initiative.

Objectives

The main objective of this paper is therefore to investigate the opportunities and challenges of

integrating ecosystem services into development perspectives in the case study of the Okpara

dam. Thus the following specific objectives are formulated:

1. Who are the stakeholders of Okpara dam and what are their current interests with

regard to the ecosystem goods and services (fresh water, NTFP, soil protection, flood

protection, etc.) ?

2. What are the current issues and challenges of the Okpara dam that potentially

jeopardize the delivery of the above ecosystem goods and services?

3. What opportunities could effectively help the implementation of the Okpara Initiative

and successfully contribute to the integration of ecosystem services into development

priorities?

Conceptual framework

The framework used is derived from the World Resources Institute (2008). It stressed the

interrelations between people and ecosystem services arguing that if development impacts

ecosystem services, ecosystem services sustain development. The framework goes beyond the

general idea that development affects ecosystems to affirm that development depends on

ecosystems and the sustainable provision of ecosystem services.

Figure 3: Framework for the integration of ecosystem services into development perspectives

(source: World Forest Institute, 2008)

Methodology

The method used is a case study of the Okpara dam. The choice of a case study is justified by

three reasons. Firstly, challenges and opportunities are always context dependent and thus it is

necessary to take into consideration the real life situation and local realities when identifying

the challenges and opportunities of the implementation of a given development project

(Okpara Initiative). Secondly, the issues of Okpara dam are actual and urgent and several

thousands of inhabitants depend on to the dam for their livelihoods. Thirdly, the successful

implementation of Okpara Initiative though is uncertain as no one can predict the behavior of

stakeholders during the implementation of the Initiative. All these factors justify fully the

choice of a case study (refer Yin, 1994). Scientific reviews of different sources have been

used as main investigation option and three telephonic interviews with key informants have

been conducted (focal point of the Okpara Initiative in APIC NGO, one farmers' leader and

one herders leader from Kika village). Similar experiences throughout the world have been

revised in order to better assess the challenges and opportunities of the implementation of

Okpara Initiative.

Overview of the study area: The Okpara dam and its sub watershed

Constructed in 1969 by the "Société Dahoméenne du Kénafe" or SODAK (Dahomey was the

former name of today's Benin before 1972), the Okpara dam had primarily been constructed

for the production of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus). By 1975, it had been inherited by the

Benin National Society of Water (SONEB) and is being used since as drinking water

reservoir. Located in the district of Kika, commune of Tchaourou, the reservoir is an earthfill

dam characterized by a dyke length of 480 m and height of 10 m. This water holding structure

had an initial storage volume of 5 750 000 m³ but today this volume has decreased to

approximately 2 000 000 m³ due to sedimentation as corollary of erosion in its watershed

induced mainly by human activities (PNE-Benin, 2008).

The catchment area of the Okpara dam is known as the Nanon sub watershed. It includes five

communes: Nikki, Pèrèrè, N'Dali, Tchaourou and Parakou and a population estimated to be

466 192 inhabitants in 67 776 households (INSAE, RGPH3). Various socio-linguistic groups

with different cultural backgrounds (Baatombu, Gando, Fulani, Yoruba, etc.), often practicing

conflicting professions such as farming, pastoralism, agro pastoralism and trading are found

in this region. Farmed food crops include sorghum, maize, millet, rice, yam, etc., while

industrial crops are dominated by groundnut and cotton, the latter using a high rate of inputs

(seeds, fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides). Extensive breeding (cattle, ovine, caprine,

porcine and poultry) is one particular feature of the region. Other economic activities include

fishery, timber logging, etc.

In the form of a funnel, the Nanon sub catchment has an area estimated to be 2070 km² and is

characterized by a generally low topographic relief, a slightly undulating land surface and is

mostly dominated by a granitic – gneissic plateau (Menz, 2010). The region belongs to the

Guinean Soudanian climatic zone (dry tropical type) characterized by an annual mean

temperature of 26 to 30°C and annual mean rainfall of 1280 mm (from 1950 to 1969) and

1150 mm (from 1970 to 2004) at the climatic station of Parakou (Fink et al., 2010a). While

the movements of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) could explain the climate

variability in the region (Cochémé and Franquin, 1967), other local factors such as the

topography, the atmospheric disturbances and the surface cover mainly affected by land use

and land use changes (deforestation, fragmentation, farming, etc.) also play an important role.

Ferruginous tropical soils with concretions supporting woodland and savannah as natural

vegetation are predominant in the region. Tree species such as Daniellia oliveri, Isoberlinia

doka, Parkia biglobosa, Pteleopsis laxiflous, Pterocarpus erinacens, Vitellaria paradoxa,

Bridelia ferruginen, Chlorophora excelsa, Detarium microcarpus, among others, and

herbaceous such as Imperata cylindrica, Schizachirum pulchellum, Eragrostis namaguensis,

Andropogon gayanus, etc., dominate the landscape. Figure 1 presents the location of the sub

watershed of the Okpara dam (Nanon) and the position of the dam (shown here by the

position of the Multi-parameter probe) and figure 2 shows the state of the dam (reservoir and

restoration actions) by 2011. The map (source: APIC NGO) reveals the lack of protection

zones along the river stream and the surroundings of the reservoir which had been occupied

by human infrastructure and religious sites before the implementation of Okpara Initiative.

Since 2011, participatory efforts to sustain the services of the Okpara dam lead to ecosystem

restoration actions that resulted in the reforestation of the first 50 m around the reservoir with

Borassus aethipium and Khaya senegalensis.

Okpa

ra

dam

Figure 1. Geographical location of the Nanon sub watershed and the Okpara dam (from

Bossa, 2012)

Figure 2. Map of the Okpara dam after reforestation actions in 2011 (APIC-NGO, 2011)

Results

The results are described in three steps: identification of Okpara dam stakeholders and their

interests, current issues and challenges of the Okpara dam, and opportunities to implement the

Okpara initiative.

Categorization of stakeholders

According to their interests and level of interactions, three groups of stakeholders are

identified: Grassroots stakeholders, regional stakeholders and national stakeholders, and

Donors. Figure 2 summarizes the main stakeholder groups, their interests and potential and

current conflicts with the provision of ecosystem services (ES).

Table 1. Categorization of Okpara dam stakeholders and their interests

N° Stakeholders Interests Conflicts or sources of

conflict with provision of ES

Grass-roots stakeholder groups

1 Herders Water & pasture, NTFP;

fuelwood

Degradation of soil and

surrounding vegetation

2 Farmers Land, water, NTFP;

fuelwood

Soil erosion, forest

degradation, water pollution

Invasion of water body by

aquatic plants 3 Vegetable producers Water, land, NTFP

4 Fishers Fish and other aquatic

species

Aquatic biodiversity

5 Forest entrepreneurs Timber Biodiversity, soil damage and

degradation

6 Traditional therapist,

traditional religionsetc.

Cults -

Civil society

7 NWP-Benin, CREPA,

APIC-NGO

Social mediation, raise

awareness of

environmental protection

Conflicting and unclear goals,

incongruence of on-field

interventions

Regional and national level stakeholder groups

8 Riparian communes or

municipalities

Revenues from fishing,

taxes from vegetable

farmers, water availability

for pastoralists and

farmers, fertile soils, etc.

Lack of skilled staff or poorly

skilled

Lack of ecological knowledge

Weak institutions

Lack of financial means

9 CeCPA/CeRPA Increase areas of cotton

and food crops production,

More productivity, fish

production,

Poor technical skills and means

and weak institutions

Poor knowledge of the

interaction between ecosystems

and provision of ecosystem

services

10 Breeding Farm of

Okpara (owns 33000

ha of land and 1000

cattle )

Water, pasture, fertile soil Soil erosion through trampling,

overgrazing

11 SONEB Drinking water provision,

rice-growing, fishing

Withdrawal of water,

constructions for water

retention

12 Water and mines

ministry, Agriculture

ministry,

Environmental

ministry and their

decentralized

directions

Protection of natural

resources, provision of ES,

protection of environment,

implementation of

agricultural policy

Top down policies,

Lack of relevant institutions

and insufficient inter sector

coordination

Risk of seeing cotton farming

as the main industrial crop,

dominating other local needs

(NTFP, land for pasture) etc.

Table 1 describes twelve major stakeholders of Okpara dam with various interests in

term of ecosystem goods or commodities (water, pasture, NTFP, timber, fertile soil, etc.).

Conflicting interests such as farming versus pasture, vegetable farming versus entrance points

of cattle in the water body, fodder trees versus timber, etc., are common and lead each group

of stakeholders to egoistic profit maximization regardless of the impacts on ecosystems. The

dam and the surrounding ecosystems undergo the so called "tragedy of the commons" as

involved stakeholders are not aware of the limits of the ecosystems (concept of Maximum

Sustainable Yield) or they just prefer to maximize the present use as no legal institution takes

care of the use of common pool resources in public lands.

From the perspective of future corrective actions aiming to restore ecosystem functions

and accordingly the delivery of ecosystem goods and services, we have segregated the above

stakeholders into three main categories according to the type of interactions they have with

the surrounding ecosystems: strong interdependence, fair interdependence and low

interdependence. Stakeholders with a strong interdependency with ecosystem services affect

ecosystems by their daily activities (farming, cattle breeding, timber logging, etc.) and are

most likely to be affected by the lost of ecosystem services. Actions of stakeholders with a

low interdependency do not affect ecosystems directly and a hypothetical loss of ecosystem

services will not affect them directly either. In between are stakeholders with fair

interdependency. Table 2 presents this categorization.

Table 2. Ecosystem services-stakeholders’ level of interdependency N° Ecosystem

Services (ES)

affected

Activities

threatening

ES provision

Involved stakeholders

Strong

interdependence

Fair

interdependence

Low

interdependence

1 Sustainable

provision of

fresh and clean

water

Farming,

cattle

breeding,

vegetable

farming, use

of water,

fishing

Farmers, herders,

Breeding Farm of

Okpara, vegetable

farmers, SONEB

Riparian

municipalities,

CeCPA/CeRPA

Civil Society,

sectoral ministries

and their

decentralized

bodies

2 Flood

protection

Farming,

cattle

breeding,

vegetable

farming

Farmers, herders,

vegetable farmers,

forest

entrepreneurs,

SONEB

CeCPA/CeRPA,

communities

downstream the

dam (Oueme

river valley),

Civil Society,

sectoral ministries

and their

decentralized

bodies

3 Soil protection

and nutrient

cycle

Farming,

cattle

breeding,

unsustainable

timber

logging

Forest

entrepreneurs,

farmers, herders,

Breeding Farm of

Okpara

CeCPA/CeRPA,

Municipalities,

Civil Society

Sectoral ministries

and their

decentralized

bodies

4 Climate

stabilization

Farming,

cattle

breeding,

unsustainable

timber

Farmers, herders,

forest

entrepreneurs,

Breeding Farm of

Okpara

Municipalities,

Civil Society

Sectoral ministries

and their

decentralized

bodies, global

community

logging

5 Biodiversity

and landscape

beauty

Farming,

cattle

breeding,

over-fishing,

Tradi therapist,

traditional

religions, herders,

fishers

Municipalities,

Civil Society

Sectoral ministries

and their

decentralized

bodies, global

community

It appears that stakeholders with strong interdependency are mostly local stakeholders

(farmers, herders, SONEB, Breeding Farm of Okpara, vegetable farmers, fishers, traditional

therapists and somehow forest entrepreneurs) because this category of stakeholders depend

entirely on ecosystem services for their daily life and a loss of these services will dramatically

affect their livelihoods. Stakeholders with fair interdependency are regional agencies or

decentralized bodies in charge of implementing national development policies by supporting

local stakeholders such as CeCPA/CeRPA, civil society including local NGOs and the

municipalities. Their policies, implementation approaches and actions affect ecosystems and

the delivery of ecosystem services indirectly, and inversely they are affected by the loss of

ecosystem services because they live in the region. Stakeholders with low interdependency

are in general policy makers, national agencies and the international community who impact

the delivery of ecosystem services mostly through a poor design of environmental laws, poor

policies, and inversely only their professional career or position could be affected in case of

policy failure.

It appears also that the effects of ES loss go beyond the sub- watershed and the riparian

communities of the dam. Indeed, the table reveals a new group of stakeholders with strong

dependency on a specific service of ecosystems such as flood protection, biodiversity,

landscapes’ beauty and climate protection. Understanding these interlinks and how each

factor affects another is therefore a key challenge in integrating ecosystem services into

development perspectives.

Current issues and challenges

Dramatic changes in LULUC, the sub-watershed of Nanon, have resulted in severe impacts on

the hydrology of the Okpara river, the provision of fresh and clean water and the stability of

the dam itself (GWP, 2008; APIC-ONG, 2012). Table 3 resumes the current issues of the

Okpara dam and their direct causes and figure 2 shows the actual situation of the lateral

spillway of the dam.

Table 3. Issues on Okpara dam and their causes

N° Problems Primary causes Secondary causes

1 Filling up of the reservoir

-> Water quantity

Sedimentation, watershed

erosion

Conversion of forests and

wooded lands into crop

lands,

Soil degradation through

cattle tramples near the river

stream and reservoir

2 Threat to dam stability Transport of sandy

sediments in water flow

Destruction of the lateral

spillway

Lack of dam structure

maintenance

Poor structure for flow

regulation along the

reservoir

3 Invasion of aquatic plants

(90% of the water surface)

Increase of nutrient load

(Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

etc.)

Use of fertilizers

Dejection of cattle

Domestic and other

pollution sources

High cost of aquatic plants

removal

4 Water quality Lack of public

sanitations,

bad disposal of domestic

waste,

other pollution sources

(improper domestic uses)

Poor public sanitation

strategy

Poor water quality

monitoring

Poor water governance

structures and poor

intersector synergy

Figure 4. lateral spillway eroded (source: PNE Benin, 2008)

These issues, combined with the prediction of climate change effects in the region,

determine the challenges that decision makers must imperatively integrate into policies and

development strategies. These challenges are formulated mainly in terms of fresh and clean

water availability (water quantity and quality) and sustainable land use management although

they cannot be separated in real context.

Two main factors threaten the availability of water (water quantity) and are likely to

exacerbate the scarcity of water. The first is climatic predictions which foresee a decrease of

about 10 to 15% in the rainfall regime by 2030 (figure 3) under IPCC SRES scenarios A1B

and B1 (regional model REMO). According to Christoph et al. (2008), scenario A1B refers to

a globalized world characterized by a rapid economic growth and a comparatively low

population growth while scenario B1 refers to a globalized world also characterized by a low

population growth and in which the economic structures change towards a service and

information economy with a very low material intensity, using clean and sustainable

technologies.

Figure 5. Relative change in future rainfall (ref. period 1998-2009) for Ouémé-Bonou

catchment. (Source: Bossa, 2012)

The second factor is mentioned by Barthel et al. (2009) who stressed the unfavorable

conditions for the use of groundwater in this region while surface water are expected to

decrease. Indeed, the author revealed that in North Benin and specifically in the northern part

of the Oueme Basin, the groundwater structure (hydraulic properties of the deeper fractured

aquifers) is not favorable to the formation of persistent groundwater storage. This is due to its

shallow, unconfined aquifers, limiting the capture of groundwater with the standard types of

wells that the riparian population used to dig. Improved technologies to reach groundwater are

costly and beyond the mean spending power of inhabitants.

The sustainable management of the watershed (second challenge) is mostly determined

by the types of land use and land use changes in the region and these latter are strongly

influenced by factors such as population growth (Götzinger, 2007) and socio-economic

choices and priorities (farming systems, land use practices, market structure, etc.). They

influence the hydrology of the region, the vitality of ecosystems (gallery and riparian forests

and surrounding wooded savannas), and the provision of fresh and clean water through two

main dynamics: the surface runoff and the top soil erosion which together determine the

amount of sediments and the quantity and quality of water in the reservoir. Figure 4 shows the

result of land use change prediction in the whole region (Oueme river watershed including

Okpara sub-watershed) under two scenarios, La (stronger economic development, controlled

urbanization, 3,2% population growth per year) and Lb (weak national economy, uncontrolled

settlements and farmland and 3,5% population growth per year). The predictions revealed an

increase of fallows and crop lands and conversely a net decrease of forest and savanna areas

of about 20 to 40% under the scenario Lb (which seems more realistic and closer to the Benin

context). Although there is no scientific evidence of the relationship between the surface of

forests and wood lands converted to crop lands in the sub watershed of Nanon and the amount

of sediments in the reservoir of Okpara, several authors documented a strong correlation

between these three variables (surface runoff, top soil erosion, and vegetation cover). In this

vein, Abdourhamane (1995) and Amani & Nguetora (2000) argued that in tropical subhumids,

relatively rapid filling of water reservoirs is due to the accelerated degradation of the

environment induced by the reduction of ecosystems' production and the pressure on the

various resources due to population growth. Uhlmann (1979) stressed that surface runoff and

top soil erosion increase as the vegetation cover decreases, and Roose (1993) specified that

the amount of soil erosion and surface runoff varied according to the type of surface cover

(forests, thickets, savannas, grasslands or a thin mulch). Demangeot (1998) stressed the

necessity to maintain vegetation cover particularly on ground slopes by reporting that even

the lowest slope induced water erosion which cleans the very thin surface horizon rich in

humus and digs gullies, brings millions of tons of sand and clay to the river that will clog the

artificial water reservoirs

Figure 6. Land use/land cover changes in the Ouémé watershed under La and Lb scenarios

(Bossa, 2012)

Another challenge strongly linked to the conversion of forest and savanna lands into

crop lands is the pollution of surface waters coming mainly from the production of cotton (use

of insecticides, fertilizers, herbicides), the poor hygiene and sanitation facilities existing in

this area and the resulting release of domestic waste, feces, animal dejections, etc. into nature

. All these harmful substances are mainly transported into the reservoir with the runoff and

eroded substances.

In conclusion, climate change, land use patterns and water pollution sources associated

with rapid population growth, and poor governance structures are the major threats to water

availability of ecosystems and the delivery of ecosystem services.

Implementation of Okpara Initiative and ecosystem services: Opportunities

The Okpara Initiative has been developed from the necessity to implement urgent actions to

save Okpara dam and the riparian populations from water scarcity. Supported by the Global

Water Partnership though its national body called PNE-Benin, the initiative also benefits from

other national and international agencies (Ministry of Cooperation of the Netherlands,

Ministry of Water and Mines, municipalities, etc.). Its aim is the participatory and sustainable

management of Okpara dam by restoring its surrounding ecosystems. Specifically, six outputs

are pursued but they can be segregated into two main axis: the development of an effective

institutional framework and the restoration of ecosystem dynamics.

Opportunities to implement such an initiative exist at both national and international

levels. At the national level, four categories of opportunities have been identified:

• Political will: This is shown by taking water issues into account as a prerequisite for

sustainable development and its integration into the fourth component of the Multiannual

Program of Water and Sanitation sector. Supported by the Ministry of Cooperation of the

Netherlands, the program is implementing the Integrated Water Resources Management

(IWRM) since 2007 in three pilot sites in Benin including the Okpara dam and its sub

watershed. Although certain development policies aiming to increase the production of

cotton may contradict efforts to preserve the ecosystems, there is a strong will at the

regional level to implement the Okpara Initiative as the loss of Okpara dam would result

in immeasurable damages.

• Institutional framework: With the support and lobby of international agencies such as the

Global Water Partnership, an institutional framework including both national, regional

and local institutions is under development around the Okpara dam. So far, a riparian

communes association called "Territoire de Développement Oueme Superieur” or TDOS

and including the three closest communes to Okpara dam (Parakou, Tchaourou and N'dali)

has been created and officially recognized by a prefectural decision (Ordinance

2011/042/PDBA/SG/SAG/DASCCS of May 20th, 2011). The Initiative Management Unit

and the Orientation and Monitoring Committee known as "Comité d'Orientation et de

Suivi or COS" have been established by a prefectural decision (Ordinance

N°5/198/PDBA-SG-SPAT of November 22nd, 2011) and, at local level, a stakeholder

council for the participatory management of Okpara dam resources known as the "Conseil

des Acteurs pour la Gestion Concertée des ressources du barrage de l'Okpara or CACG"

has been established and formalized by statutes and internal regulations approved on

December 10th, 2011.

This institutional framework is also supported by bilateral conventions and partnerships

such as the "Convention National Water Partnership - TDOS" or the Partnership "TDOS -

National Society of Benin Waters (SONEB)". Technical support is provided by a local

NGO called APIC NGO which has been designated by consensus as the Client's

Representative.

• Willingness to pay drinking water services: The support of the Okpara Initiative by the

TDOS communes (Parakou, Tchaourou and N'dali) has been demonstrated by the

payment of a contribution fund according to their respective revenues, amounting to 18

000 000 FCFA (about 27 700 €). It is expected that other stakeholders such as the national

society of Benin waters (SONEB) and local users will contributed financially or with

other means to the Okpara Initiative.

• Possibility of compensation payment and pricing of water use: During the implementation

of the Okpara Initiative, several families have been displaced from the banks of the river

stream or the reservoir in order to establish protection zones (restoration of ecosystems).

These families are supposed to be compensated. Other activities such as fishing, watering

of cattle, etc., had in the past been successfully priced and it is expected that the local

stakeholder council in charge of the participatory management of the Okpara dam with the

technical support of NGOs and regional partners will find suitable and fair options to

introduce the pricing of water uses.

At the international scale, opportunities are summarized as follow:

1. Networks for learning processes and sharing of experiences: Numerous experiences

aiming to integrate ecosystem services to development issues have been documented

and lessons learnt. Among them are successful experiences such as the Quito Water

Fund in Ecuador consisting in the creation of a water fund; the sloping land

conversion program known as the "Grain to Green Program" in China consisting

mainly in compensation payment by the State budget; the investment in restoring the

natural purification services in the Catskills-Delaware watershed in New York City;

the revolutionary approach of Napa in California to mitigate floods; and lessons learnt

from experiences that failed to integrate ecosystem services into development mostly

because of a poor understanding of species ecology or ecosystem dynamics and poor

implementation approaches such as the Shrimp Aquaculture in Former Mangrove

Forests in coastal regions of Asia, and the West African Wildlife Project (confer

Tallis et al., 2008; Turner and Daily, 2008, Daily and Matson, 2008).

2. Existence of a technical and financial platform to implement an ecosystem based

project: This are several organizations such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,

the World Forestry Institute, The CIFOR, etc., working to promote and support

initiatives aiming to integrate ecosystem preservation and development priorities.

These agencies are supported in their actions by a multitude of financial institutions

such as the United Nations agencies (GEF, UNEP, PNUE, PNUD, etc.) and locally by

bilateral cooperation agencies (GIZ, SNV, etc.).

3. Good scientific knowledge of ecological processes: Numerous publications related to

the understanding of the ecological processes, the integration of local knowledge into

species preservation and water protection, approaches to transfer scientific knowledge

to the local level efficiently and suitably are on-going and at the national level, local

NGOs are supported in both capacity building and implementation of their work plans.

In conclusion, the implementation of the Okpara Initiative appears to be a unique

opportunity to study the behavior of stakeholders, their willingness to protect ecosystems and

the functionality of a regional institutional framework. How successful the Initiative will be

and how it could contribute to change the land use patterns in the sub watershed and preserve

ecosystem dynamics is an interesting case to be investigate by researchers.

Conclusion

Riparian communes of the Okpara dam will experience water scarcity by 2025 (PNE Bénin,

2008). Indeed, it is expected that by 2025 the water needs of Parakou and the surrounding

communes will be around 7 233 003 m³ while the reservoir storage volume will be less than 2

650 000 m³/year. This situation demands urgent measures to reduces soil erosion and to

increase the storage volume of the reservoir. Among factors that lead to such a situation are

the ecosystems’ degradation and weak institutions around the dam. The Okpara Initiative

which is build around the sustainable provision of drinking water, seen as an umbrella ES, is

an opportunity to protect and promote forest ecosystems as well as the climate at a local and

regional scale. Successful experiences exist and a panoply of lessons learnt are available to

support the project technically. Besides, an effective institutional framework including

stakeholders from local to national level and supporting international agencies and civil

society is under development to accompany and sustain the efforts of the Initiative.

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