Change of the maximum principal stress during the Laramide Orogeny in the Monterrey salient,...

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INTRODUCTION

An important number of salients and recesses in fold-and-thrust belts on Earth have been studied using kinematic, geo-metric, and paleomagnetic data to document their development (e.g., Eldredge and Van der Voo, 1988; Marshak et al., 1992;

Van der Voo et al., 1997; Gray and Stamatakos, 1997; Mitra, 1997; Norris, 2001; Marques and Cobbold, 2002). Alternatively, some arcuate thrust belts have been studied using numerical and analogue modeling (e.g., Cobbold and Davy, 1988; Colletta et al., 1991; Gutscher et al., 1996; Macedo and Marshak, 1999; Hindle and Burkhard, 1999; Marques and Cobbold, 2002). In

Chávez-Cabello, G., Cossío-Torres, T., and Peterson-Rodríguez, R.H., 2004, Change of the maximum principal stress during the Laramide Orogeny in the Monter-rey salient, Northeast México, in Sussman, A.J., and Weil, A.B., eds., Orogenic Curvature: Integrating Paleomagnetic and Structural Analyses: Geological Society of America Special Paper 383, p. XXX–XXX. For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. © 2004 Geological Society of America.

Geological Society of AmericaSpecial Paper 383

2004

Change of the maximum principal stress during the Laramide Orogeny in the Monterrey salient, Northeast México

Gabriel Chávez-CabelloPosgrado en Ciencias de la Tierra, Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla,

Querétaro, Qro. 76230, México, and Facultad de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, A.P. 104, Kilómetro 8, Carretera Linares-Cerro Prieto, Linares, N.L. 67700, México

Tomás Cossío-TorresFacultad de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, A.P. 104, Kilómetro 8,

Carretera Linares-Cerro Prieto, Linares, N.L. 67700, México

Rolando Heberto Peterson-RodríguezFacultad de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, A.P. 104, Kilómetro 8, Carretera Linares-

Cerro Prieto, Linares, N.L. 67700, México, and PEMEX, Exploración y Producción, Reynosa, México

ABSTRACT

Detached folds in the Monterrey salient of the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt, México, show macro- and mesostructures that demonstrate a change of the regional maximum principal stress from NNE-SSW to approximately E-W com-pression, during the late stages of the Laramide event. Data were collected along a N-S trending section in the central part of the Monterrey salient. Paleostresses were determined by means of fault slip data inversion. These estimates where corrobo-rated with those from meso-scale structures. Macro and mesostructures suggest that mechanisms of folding are mainly fl exural shear and orthogonal fl exure at both local and regional scales. The change in orientation of the paleotensor in the central part of the Monterrey salient from NNE to approximately E-W appears to be a local effect of progressive deformation in the Monterrey salient. We conclude that a regional orthogonal fl exure of the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt occurred at the late stage of the Laramide Orogeny and controlled: (1) change of the paleotensor, (2) a fan shaped arrangement of joints and, (3) divergence of paleostress estimated using fold axes from NNW to NE in the leading edge of the Monterrey salient.

Keywords: Laramide, Sierra Madre Oriental, Monterrey, salient, fault analysis.

2 G. Chávez-Cabello, T. Cossío-Torres, and R.H. Peterson-Rodríguez


most cases, a detailed knowledge of the stratigraphy, tectonic history, and geometry of the depocenter exists, which is critical to a detailed assessment of the origin of arcuate zones in fold-and-thrust belts (Marshak et al., 1992; Mitra, 1997; Macedo and Marshak, 1999).

The Sierra Madre Oriental is a NNW-trending, 1500 km long, 100 km wide fold-and-thrust belt that extends from the state of Puebla, in central México, to the state of Chihuahua in northernmost México. One of its characteristic features, which is visible on any continental-scale satellite image, is the Monterrey salient, which is defi ned by a change in the trend of structures from NNW-SSE to E-W. The paleogeography and stratigraphy of the Monterrey salient are well known topics in the geology of northeastern México (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Gold-hammer et al., 1991; Goldhammer, 1999); however, geometric and kinematic aspects of the salient (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985; Melnyk, 1997; Camerlo, 1998; Fischer and Jackson, 1999; Mar-rett and Aranda-García, 1999) and its tectonic history have not yet been exhaustively studied. However, a number of arcuate fold and thrust belts around the world that show deformation of a thick sedimentary sequence above a weak, plastic, evaporitic horizon like the Monterrey salient have been studied extensively; examples include the Jura (Philippe et al., 1996), the Apennines (Coward et al., 1999), the Salt Range in Pakistan (Davis and Lillie, 1994; Cotton and Koyi, 2000), the central Appalachians (Davis and Engelder, 1987), the Mediterranean ridge offshore of Libya (Von Huene, 1997; Mascle et al., 1999), and the Romanian Carpathians (Stephanescu et al., 2000).

This work reports geological and structural analysis, sup-ported by interpretation of aerial photographs and orthophoto-graphs, in the Monterrey salient of the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt (Fig. 1). Analysis of fold axes and faults of this area allowed us to better understand the mechanisms of local and regional folding. The geometric and kinematic analysis also permitted us to separate, in both space and time, the evolution of the structures and to propose a coherent model to interpret the local paleostress directions reported previously (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985) and data obtained during this investigation. For paleostress analysis, we used the methodology of fault slip data inversion (Angelier, 1984, 1990) and the theory of fl exural fold-ing of multilayers from Price and Cosgrove (1990) for its spatial and temporal analysis.

In NE México, variation in the spatial distribution of a décol-lement has been cited as a possible origin of variable regional paleostress directions observed in the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt (De Cserna, 1956; Tardy, 1980; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Meiburg, 1987; Suter, 1984, 1987; Eguiluz et al., 2000). However, there is little information about the internal changes of paleostress in the Monterrey salient and about the mechanisms of folding (Camerlo, 1998; Fischer and Jackson, 1999; Marrett and Aranda-García, 1999; Cossío-Torres et al., 2000, 2001). Here, based on the geometric and kinematic analysis of macro and mesostructures such as faults, fold axes, and fractures, we argue in favor of a change in the orientation of

maximum principal stress (σ1) in the central part of the Monter-rey salient from NNE-SSW to approximately E-W as a product of progressive deformation that controlled the development of a regional orthogonal fl exure during the late stage of the Laramide Orogeny.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Sierra Madre Oriental consists mainly of Mesozoic clastic and calcareous marine sedimentary rocks that variably overlie Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic rocks that form the basement of NE México (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982; Wilson, 1990; Michalzik and Schumann, 1994; Goldhammer et al., 1991; Goldhammer, 1999; Torres et al., 1999). Clastic and calcareous Upper Triassic to Berriasian rocks represent a long transition from a rift to a passive margin tectonic setting (Michalzik and Schumann, 1994; Ye, 1997; Goldhammer et al., 1991; Gold-hammer, 1999). Limestone of Lower Cretaceous age represents slope and platform environments, and since Santonian-Cam-panian time, a marine regression developed from west to east (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982; Michalzik and Schumann, 1994; Ye, 1997; Lehmann et al., 1999; Goldhammer, 1999; Fig. 2). In NE México, in the vicinity of the city of Monterrey, the trend of Sierra Madre Oriental curves sharply to form the Monterrey salient. The fold axes, fault planes, and thrusts change their trend and produce a convex northward structure between the cities of Linares and Saltillo, in the states of Nuevo León and Coahuila, respectively (Fig. 1; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985).

Several authors have divided NE México into stratigraphic and structural subprovinces using structural and paleogeographic criteria (e.g., De Cserna, 1956; Humphrey, 1956; McBride et al., 1974; Charleston, 1981; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Wilson, 1990; Goldhammer et al., 1991; Goldhammer, 1999). Base-ment master faults and structural highs are keys to understand-ing the lithofacies distributions and structural evolution, which frequently separate zones with different deformational styles in northern México (Fig. 1).

The Monterrey salient is bounded by two Permo-Triassic basement highs (Fig. 3; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Wilson, 1990; Goldhammer et al., 1991; Goldhammer, 1999; Torres et al., 1999). The more prominent of the two is referred to as the Coahuila Block, northwest from the salient, while the other, to the east of the belt, is called the San Carlos or Tamaulipas Block (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1986). The central part of the Monterrey salient paleogeographically constitutes a north-south trending elongate basin (the Monterrey Channel of Goldhammer [1999]) between the basement highs, with a thick (>1000m) evaporite sequence, the Minas Viejas Formation of Oxfordian age, at its base. We suggest that three factors, the structural highs, the depocenter, and the thick evaporitic sequence at the base of the marine sedimentary rocks, controlled the geometry and style of deformation in the Monterrey salient.

The folds in the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt are fault-related folds controlled by detachment of a thick

Change of the maximum principal stress during the Laramide Orogeny 3


Figure 1. A. Location of the study area, geological subprovinces, and fracture zones that separate different deformation styles in NE México. Fracture zones from McKee et al. (1990) and Velez (1990). Dotted lines show the inferred zone of the Mojave-Sonora Mega shear (Anderson and Schmidt, 1983). Rectangle in the central part of the fi gure shows area in B. B. Area of the Monterrey salient; la Piñalosa shear zone appears in the central area of the salient. White rectangles show area in Figures 5 and 7. Black dotted line shows location of Figure 4. White arrows show inferred paleostress directions using fold axes; large white arrow shows regional direction of compression (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985; this work).



evaporite sequence of the Minas Viejas Formation (Camerlo, 1998; Melnyk, 1997; Fischer and Jackson, 1999). The geometry of the folds is upright, roughly symmetric, box-style folds with limbs that are vertical or slightly overturned (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Gray and Johnson, 1995; Marrett and Aranda-García, 1999). The fold hinges are clearly arcuate in plan view, and many can be traced over distances of 40–60 km. Fold wavelengths range from 4 to 7 km, and amplitudes average 2–3 km (Fig. 4; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985). The depth of the detachment is uncertain; consequently, most cross sections through the area are

largely schematic and do not strictly defi ne subsurface geom-etries (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985; Fischer and Jackson, 1999). The more widely cited mechanisms of folding for individual folds in the Monterrey salient are orthogonal fl exure, fl exural shear, and/or fl exural fl ow (Camerlo, 1998; Melnyk, 1997; Fischer and Jackson, 1999; Marrett and Aranda-García, 1999).

Several paleostress directions have been determined for the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt (Fig. 1B). Earlier workers based their analysis mainly on the orientation of regional fold axes and thrust faults (De Cserna, 1956; Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Meiburg, 1987). Recently, models about the origin and structural style variations in the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt have been proposed. These models are constrained with stratigraphic data from the fold-and-thrust belt itself (Tardy, 1975; Gray and Johnson, 1995; Ye, 1997; Goldhammer, 1999; and Eguiluz, et al., 2000) and from its foreland basins (Ye, 1997). Models have also been based on structural data such as faults and fold axes (Longoria, 1985; Velez, 1990). Suter (1984, 1987) used balanced cross sections to determine values of crustal shortening, and more recently, Eguiluz et al. (2000) suggested a critical wedge model to explain variation in styles of deformation and amount of shortening along the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt.

Figure 2. Chronostratigraphic chart of NE México (Modifi ed from Goldhammer, 1999).

Figure 3. Regional tectonic elements of northeastern México. Base-ment highs delineate the tectonic front of the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt. Abbreviations for geographic localities: NL—Nuevo Laredo; M—Monterrey; S—Saltillo; T—Tampico (adapted from Padilla y Sánchez, 1982; Goldhammer et al., 1991).



STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Drainage Pattern

In the highly dissected central part of the Monterrey salient, the drainage pattern analysis shows the trend of a number of structures, such as faults, bedding planes, fractures, and the trend of fold axes (Figs. 5A and 5B). Nonetheless, it is diffi cult to obtain a clear defi nition of the direction of the drainage pattern because of the gradual change in orientation of all the structures. The trend of fold axes changes from NE-SW in the southwest to approximately E-W in the central and NW-SE in the southeastern of the study area (Fig. 5A).

The drainage pattern in the Monterrey salient was divided into three zones (Fig. 5B): the dendritic pattern in the western and eastern parts (zones 1 and 3) and the reticular pattern in the central part (zone 2). A set of marked drainage anomalies show trends between the NE and NNW (Fig. 5C), correspond-ing mainly to joints generated during and at the late stage of the fl exural folding development. These are located in zones 2 and 3 (Fig. 5B) of the Monterrey salient. A second set of drainage anomalies shows a curved geometry with changes of trends from NW-SE to NE-SW; this corresponds to fractures related to hinge parallel extension (Fig. 5B). A third drainage anomaly corre-sponds to dendritic local drainage, where fold axes plunge more steeply (zones 1 and 3; Fig. 5B). Finally, the more prominent rectilinear drainage anomalies frequently correspond to joints and minor mode I cracks trending NNW and NE at the leading edge of the Monterrey salient. We interpret the radiation of the drainage to be controlled by the gradual change of fold axes dur-ing regional orthogonal fl exure at the late stage of the progressive deformation in the Monterrey salient. From west to east, the San Juan, Cortinas, El Jonuco, La Huasteca, and El Huajuco Canyons, on the leading edge of the salient (Fig. 5A), suggest reactivation of joints and their propagation as mode I cracks perpendicular to fold hinges during regional orthogonal fl exure.

Macro and Mesostructures

In any effort to defi ne paleostress directions using fi eld structures (faults, fold axes, stylolitic peaks, and foliation, among

others), it is fundamental to understand how these structures were formed and thus determine which structures could be used in paleostress analysis. In this work, we consider as macrostruc-tures all structures with dimensions larger than a few hundred meters up to a few kilometers. Structures smaller than ~100 m were classifi ed as mesostructures and include minor fold axes, faults, tectonic stylolites, shear fractures, joints, bedding, and foliation planes.

We consider that the meso and macrostructures that are exposed in the Monterrey salient were developed by fl exural folding sensu Price and Cosgrove (1990). For an illustrative and detailed analysis, we created a scheme for its spatial and tempo-ral analysis (Fig. 6). In our analysis, we fi nd structures related to local stresses (i.e., strike-slip faults in the Piñalosa shear zone) as well as regional compression (i.e., regional fold axes in the Monterrey salient), which must be strictly analyzed to defi ne their location within the Monterrey salient and their mechanisms of formation (thrusting or folding).

According to Price and Cosgrove (1990), the process of fl ex-ural folding can be divided into four stages with characteristic structures developed within each stage (Fig. 6). Stage 0 results in structures developed without the infl uence of a regional tectonic stress; the stresses responsible are lithostatic and include bed-ding (B), bedding parallel stylolites (BPS), and vertical tensional fractures (TF). Price and Cosgrove (1990) consider that under a tectonic stress regime, some structures develop when the bed-ding is still horizontal (stage 1). Examples of these structures are tectonic stylolites, referred to here as fi rst generation (E1-1), conjugate shear fractures or oblique fractures (E2-1A) and minor thrust faults (E2-1B; Fig. 6, stage 1 and 2), which record the regional paleostress at a time when bedding is still horizontal. Other structures develop as bedding is rotated by folding and include shearing parallel to bedding (E2-2 and E3-1, when fl ex-ural shear is the folding mechanism), faults resulting from frac-ture (re)activation (E2-3 and E3-2, which occur with preexisting tensional and oblique fractures), foliation (E3-3), fracturing parallel to fold hinges (E3-4), joints (E3-5), fold axes (E3-6), and hydraulic fracturing in fold nuclei (E3-7), and show evidence of the paleostress imposed during the fold growth (stage 3, Fig. 6). On the other hand, faults resulting from shear along newly formed fractures (rather than preexisting fractures) in the overturned or

Figure 4. Regional cross section through the central part of the Monterrey salient. See Figure 1B for location of section line. This is a modifi ed version of section E–E′ of Padilla y Sánchez (1982). Note the lack of control on depth of the detachment horizon. Vertical and horizontal scales are equal.



Figure 5. A. Simplifi ed regional structural map that shows the principal fold axes at the central part of the Monterrey salient. The arrows at each point show the estimated direction for σ

1 (gray—inherited faults; black—neoformed faults). Principal canyons in the front of the Monterrey

salient: 1—San Juan; 2—Cortinas; 3—El Jonuco; 4—La Huasteca; 5—El Huajuco. A–K are structural analysis sites. B. Drainage pattern at the study area; 1–3 are zones of different drainage patterns as discussed in the text. C. Principal directions of fracturing in the Monterrey salient.



Figure 6. Model for the development, in space and time, of the structures employed to estimate paleostress directions (adapted from Price and Cosgrove, 1990; Peterson-Rodríguez, 2001).



frontal limb of the fold (E4-1), en echelon veins through bedding contacts (E4-2), boudinage (E4-3), (re)activation of pre-existing joints (E4-4), second generation tectonic stylolites (E4-5), and vergence of the axial plane (E4-6) indicate the paleostress direc-tion after fold growth (Peterson-Rodríguez, 2001). On the basis of these criteria, we can reconstruct the evolution of the paleo-stress orientation through the deformational event in deformed sequences that record only one deformation. In other words, we can defi ne whether the direction of the paleostress was constant or modifi ed during and/or after fl exural fold development in mul-tilayered sequences at several scales.

Mechanical Analysis of Brittle Deformation

Inversion of Fault Slip DataThe inverse problem of paleostress tensor reconstruction

from fault slip data is based upon fi eld measurement of the sense and direction of displacement in a statistically suffi cient number of faults (Etchecopar et al., 1981; Angelier, 1984, 1990, 1994). The basic principle establishes that the direction and sense of movement observed on a fault plane (as defi ned by striae) are parallel to the maximum shear stress resolved upon it (Angelier, 1984, 1990). The inversion of fault slip data produces the reduced stress tensor, which includes the orientation of the principal stresses σ

1, σ

2, and σ

3 (σ

1 ≥ σ

2 ≥ σ

3; a positive value

is indicative of compression) and the Φ value [Φ = (σ2 − σ

3)/(σ

1

− σ3); 0 ≤ Φ ≤ 1]. For the analysis presented here, we used the

INVD software package of Angelier (1990) for the inversion of the fault slip data.

Some workers (Nieto-Samaniego and Alaniz-Álvarez, 1997; Nieto-Samaniego, 1999) have expressed concerns about the anal-ysis of complex fault patterns or multiple fault zones using the inversion of fault slip data. In many cases, fault slip data cannot be unambiguously assigned to a single stress tensor, and the data are separated into different sets and a different stress tensor is cal-culated for each set. In such cases, it is possible that interaction among faults is the reason for “incompatible” fault displacement directions (Nieto-Samaniego and Alaniz-Álvarez, 1997).

The problem of preexisting fractures as it relates to a defor-mational event can be solved using Price and Cosgrove’s (1990) models. Additionally, using the integrated scheme that we pro-pose here (Fig. 6), applied to previously undeformed multilay-ered sequences, the orientation and type of fractures developed during folding are predictable and related to fold shape and posi-tion within the fold (Suppe, 1983; Hancock, 1985; Lisle, 1994; Erslev, 1991; Fischer and Wilkerson, 2000).

Considering the theory of Anderson (1951), one of the principal stress axes is vertical, because no shear is assumed on Earth’s surface. Therefore, if a fault population is generated before buckling, the stress tensor associated with the faults will be modifi ed by rotation during folding. Because of this effect, rarely are any of the calculated principal axes of stress vertical (Fig. 6). However, one of the principal axes will be perpendicular to the bedding surface, whereas the two others are contained within the

bedding plane (Fig. 6, E2-1B). The previous assumption allows us to rotate the obtained principal axes according to the dip of the bedding to obtain the initial position of the stress tensor, provided that the deformation is not polyphase or more complicated. This procedure shows consistent results in non-plunging, cylindrical folds; however, the procedure may be complicated in areas where the stress was applied to previously deformed layers, where uncontrolled discontinuities exists, and/or where the timing and mechanisms of fracture generation are ignored.

Paleostress Reconstruction

Data for the central part of the Monterrey salient were col-lected at the Los Muertos, Los Nuncios, Agua del Toro, San Lucas, Arteaga, and Jame anticlines (Fig. 5) and provide the basis of our analysis. We estimate the stress tensor using stylolitic peaks and slickensides on fault and bedding planes. The mea-surements were carried out without stratigraphic discrimination in order to evaluate the consistency of the estimation of stress ten-sors and to evaluate whether these are products of regional stress or of local effects within the folded structures.

Regional fold axes were considered as macrostructures in the structural analysis, whereas minor faults are classifi ed as mesostructures. Furthermore, we also measured the attitude of planes such as joints, conjugate shear fractures or oblique fractures, tectonic stylolites, mesoscale-fold axes, and foliations. Analyzing these structural elements, it was possible to defi ne two areas with different stress tensor orientations.

Fault Slip DataData collection stations are described from north to south

in the Monterrey salient (Fig. 5A). Station A is located on the southern limb of Los Muertos anticline and consists of bedding parallel faults with reverse and strike-slip motion as well as a conjugate set of strike-slip faults oblique to bedding (Fig. 7, plots A

1, A

2, A

3). Data were collected in the upper part of the Cupido

Formation (Cupidito from Goldhammer 1999; Fig. 2). The paleostress tensor estimated using the bedding-oblique strike-slip faults shows an almost horizontal position for σ

1 and σ

3, while

σ2 is approximately vertical (Table 1; Fig. 7, plot A

2). These

faults developed during stage four of the fl exural fold develop-ment (Fig. 6, stage 4, E4-6) because they show displacement and cross-cutting relationships involving vertical bedding planes. At station A, fault reactivation was also documented, and these faults with reverse movement are parallel to bedding (Fig. 7, plot A

1). Bedding planes with reverse motion are interpreted to

have developed between the second and third stages of folding (Fig. 6). Bedding parallel motion perpendicular to fold axes is interpreted to be the result of fl exural shear. Almost all reacti-vated faults identifi ed in this work correspond to bedding planes dipping at a high angle (>75º) on limbs of folds with slickensides (more frequently slickenfi bers than ridges and grooves), and only in a few cases do they correspond to reactivated shear fractures and joints oblique to bedding (e.g., Jame anticline).



Figure 7. Stereographic projections of analyzed faults, which include inferred direction of compression of the maximum principal stresses. The three-dimensional drawing diagrammatically shows the structural position of each group of faults in reference to the fold geometry. NNE: direc-tion of regional compression; E-W: direction of local or internal compression in the Monterrey salient. σ

1, σ

2, and σ

3 are shown as 5-, 4-, and

3-branched stars, respectively; large black arrows indicate the direction of compression. Vertical and horizontal lines show slickenfi bers parallel to bedding during NNE and E-W shortening controlled by fl exural shear mechanisms, respectively.

TABLE 1. VALUES OF THE ESTIMATED MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESSES BY INVERSION OF FAULT SLIP DATAFROM THE MONTERREY SALIENT, USING THE INVD PROGRAM*

Anticline Limb Formation Type of fault Site σ1 σ2 σ3 φ N RUP % Q

Los Muertos South Upper Cupido Reverse A1 22/190 03/282 68/019 0.868 15 25 ALos Muertos South Upper Cupido Lateral A2 01/026 81/294 08/112 0.085 10 37 ALos Muertos South Upper Cupido Lateral A3 26/264 68/094 04/352 0.452 9 38 ALos Nuncios South Agua Nueva/San Felipe Reverse C 12/185 13/278 72/053 0.863 32 21 AAgua del Toro North Aurora Thrust D1 15/271 57/025 29/173 0.727 5 20 BAgua del Toro North Aurora Lateral D2 03/108 22/202 65/019 0.322 6 10 BSan Lucas North San Felipe Thrust F 10/188 26/093 62/297 0.348 6 12 BSan Lucas Core Cupido/Taraises Thrust I 18/036 08/128 70/240 0.355 4 9 CSan Lucas South Aurora Thrust J 05/029 13/126 61/272 0.748 17 20 AArteaga Core La Casita Thrust K1 04/016 05/286 82/134 0.499 13 26 AArteaga Core La Casita Thrust K2 10/011 08/281 76/129 0.309 57 49 AJame Hinge Cupido Lateral LV1 24/097 61/313 15/194 0.769 15 18 AJame Hinge Cupido Thrust/Lateral LV2 11/169 08/77 76/310 0.135 18 20 A

Note: σ1, σ2, and σ3—principal axes of the stress tensor (plunge and trend in degrees); φ—relation (σ2 – σ3)/(σ1 – σ3); N—number of data; RUP %—estimator of the Angelier (1990) program; Q—quality (A—good, B—regular, C—poor). *Angelier, 1990.


spe383-10 page 10 of 15

Station C, on the southern limb of the Los Nuncios anticline (Fig. 5A), shows data of bedding parallel reverse faults with slickenfi bers, which indicate approximately N-S compression (Fig. 7, plot C). Data at station C were collected at San Felipe and Agua Nueva Formations (Fig. 2). Station D, on the north-ern limb of the Agua del Toro anticline, shows data of bedding parallel strike-slip faults, which indicate approximately E-W compression (Fig. 7, plots D

1 and D

2). Station F is located north

of the crest of the San Lucas anticline (Fig. 5A). This locality did not provide useful fault data on newly formed fractures; however, reactivated planes produced a coherent regional NNE direction of compression (Fig. 7, plot F).

Station I is located at the core of the San Lucas anticline (Fig. 5A). At this locality, bedding parallel faults are located in thickly-bedded limestone strata of the Cupido Formation. As at station F, the fault data were scarce; however, mesostructures such as foliation, joints, and stylolitic peaks are numerous (Fig. 8). Here, the inferred regional compression is ~NE-SW (Fig. 8, plots I

1, and I

3, respectively), and a local WNW-ESE direction of com-

pression was documented for I2. Station J is located on the south-

ern limb of the San Lucas anticline (Fig. 5A). There we measured faults oblique to bedding in the Aurora Formation that document a NNE to NE compression (Fig. 7, plot J), with σ

1 almost hori-

zontal (Table 1), as normally observed in faults developed during the fourth stage of fl exural folding (Fig. 6, E4-1).

In the core of the Arteaga anticline (Fig. 5A, station K), we collected data from both bedding parallel and oblique faults developed in La Casita Formation (Fig. 2). The bedding oblique faults document the regional stress direction during the fourth stage of the fl exural folding (Fig. 6, E4-1), with NNE-SSW com-pression (Table 1; Fig. 7, plot K

1). Stress tensors calculated using

bedding parallel and oblique faults together, as well as using the bedding oblique faults on their own, produced very similar results, which suggests that motion along both sets of planes is kinematically compatible (Table 1; Fig. 7, plots K

1, and K

2).

Finally, at the hinge zone of the Jame anticline, we docu-ment bedding parallel and oblique faults. The Jame anticline is located in the central portion of the Monterrey salient. At this location, bedding oblique faults that developed during the fourth stage of fl exural folding, simultaneously with faults (tear faults) that reactivate joints (perpendicular to the fold axis; Fig. 6, E4-4, and Fig. 9C), were documented. The direction of compres-sion obtained is NNW-SSE, with σ

1 approximately horizontal

(Table 1, station LV2). The Jame anticline (Fig. 8A) is the only

location where we found bedding oblique faults that yield differ-ent maximum principal stress orientations in the central portion of the Monterrey salient (Fig. 8A and 8B), which will be dis-cussed subsequently.

MesostructuresIn addition to the faults at stations A to K (Fig. 5A), we

documented mesostructures, such as shear fractures, joints, fold axes, foliation, and stylolitic peaks. These data defi ne the NNE-SSE regional stress direction (Fig. 8, plots B

1, B

2, D, E, F, G, H,

I1, I

2, and I

3). Based on this, we conclude that the different struc-

tural elements at the central part of the Monterrey salient show internal consistency.

Paleostress Result Summary

The fault slip data analysis and the mesoscale data analysis yield generally consistent results that can be summarized as follows:

Regional Compression: NNE-SSWThe evidence that indicates a regional NNE-SSW com-

pression in the central part of the Monterrey salient is well documented (Padilla y Sánchez, 1982, 1985; Cossío-Torres et al., 2000, 2001; Eguiluz et al., 2000). The existence of bedding oblique and bedding parallel thrust fault planes, strike-slip faults, and regional fold axes helps us to constrain a regional NNE-SSW direction of compression without ambiguity (Fig. 7, plot A

1, A

2,

C, F, I, J, K1, and K

2).

Local Compression: ~E-WIn the study area, the change in orientation of maximum

compression from NNE to ~E-W is strongly supported by the existence of bedding oblique faults that affect the Jame fold axis (Fig. 9A and 9B). This area represents the most important bedding oblique fault zone in the central part of the Monterrey salient. This fault zone, the La Piñalosa fault, had been identifi ed as a thrust fault by Padilla y Sánchez (1985); however, Melnyk (1997) and this work clearly defi ne the discontinuity at the Jame anticline as a strike slip fault. Additionally, strike-slip faults par-allel to bedding at station A and D (Fig. 7, plots A

3, D

1, and D

2)

and stylolitic joints at station I (Fig. 9, plot I2) show similar stress

tensor orientation.

DISCUSSION

Our analysis of the data collected at several structural posi-tions on folds (limbs, cores, and hinge zones) and stratigraphic levels (La Casita, Aurora, La Peña, Cupidito, San Felipe, and Agua Nueva Formations) demonstrates the occurrence of two directions of compression in the central part of the Monterrey salient. A regional direction is NNE-SSW, which is dominant at all stations. The second direction is local and ~E-W and was determined using bedding oblique faults in the hinge zone of Jame anticline (Fig. 9) and bedding parallel strike-slip faults (Fig. 7, plots A

3, D

1, and D

3).

The stress tensor estimated using bedding oblique faults best represents the direction of regional compression. We can establish for several families of faults that the average trend of σ

1 is NNE-

SSW with a subhorizontal plunge; however, for bedding parallel faults, we see a dispersion of the trend and plunge of the maxi-mum principal stress from NE-SW (Fig. 7, plot I) to NNW-SSE (Fig. 9C), with plunges from 12º to 28º (Table 1). Nonetheless, the values of trend and plunge obtained for bedding parallel faults con-


spe383-10 page 11 of 15

tain the values obtained for bedding oblique faults. We conclude that rotation of bedding during folding controlled the dispersion of values of σ

1 for bedding parallel faults during fold growth.

The NNE-SSW directions of compression obtained with mesostructures developed in the central part of the salient, par-ticularly shear fractures or oblique fractures (Fig. 8, plots B

1, E,

and H) characteristic of stage 1 of fold development, are con-sistent with (1) the paleostress estimated using bedding oblique faults developed after the fold growth (stage 4; Fig. 7, plots A

2,

F, J, and K2), and (2) mesostructures, such as joints and stylolitic

peaks of the second generation developed at stage 4 (Fig. 6, E4-5, and Fig. 8, plots B

2 and I

3). This observation allows us to

interpret that, at least in the central part of the Monterrey salient,

the structures experienced minimal rotation with reference to a vertical axis. We recognize that the directions obtained using paleostress analysis on reactivated planes are often not consistent with paleostress estimates obtained using faults on newly formed fractures (Nieto-Samaniego and Alaniz-Álvarez, 1997; Nieto-Samaniego, 1999). However, this effect appears to be minimal in our study area (Table 1).

Bedding parallel faults on the leading edge of the salient, with subhorizontal striae that defi ne an approximately E-W regional compression (Fig. 7, plots A

3, D

1, and D

2), were gener-

ated by fl exural shear mechanisms of folding on a macro scale; this is best represented where lithological contrasts occur in the Monterrey salient (e.g., San Felipe, Agua Nueva, and Cupidito

Figure 8. Stereographic projection of analyzed mesostructures that shows the consistency of obtained directions with inversion of fault slip data (Fig. 7; Table 1). The three-dimensional diagram shows approximately the structural position of each mesostructure in reference to macro folds. NNE: direction of regional compression; E-W: direction of local or internal compression in the Monterrey salient.


spe383-10 page 12 of 15

Formations; Fig. 5A, points A and D, and Fig. 7, plots A3, D1,

and D2). In contrast, the Piñalosa fault at the Jame anticline sup-

ports regional orthogonal fl exure as a deformation mechanism during the late stages of Laramide deformation. Theoretically, at the Jame anticline, local compression by folding of the Monter-rey salient should be more pronounced than that in external zones of the salient (i.e., Los Nuncios, Agua del Toro, San Lucas, and Arteaga anticlines).

The more accepted origin for NNE-SSW regional compres-sion in the Sierra Madre Oriental fold-and-thrust belt is that it is

related to uplift in western México and inland migration of the Alisitos magmatic arc. This has been attributed to subduction of the buoyant Farallon plate under North America at the begin-ning of the Laramide Orogeny (Coney, 1976, 1978; Dickinson and Snyder, 1978; Clark et al., 1982; Atwater, 1989). Shorten-ing associated with this compression was accommodated by thin-skinned deformation of the upper sedimentary cover above a regional décollement, which triggered detachment in NE México. In this work, we interpret the local ~E-W compression in the central part of the Monterrey salient to be a product of

Figure 9. A. Simplifi ed structural map of Jame and neighboring anticlines; arrows show the estimated direction for σ1. B. Direction of stress

estimated using neoformed lateral faults. C. Direction of stress estimated using neoformed reverse faults and inherited tear faults for regional compression in the Monterrey salient.


spe383-10 page 13 of 15

regional orthogonal fl exure, which is best seen in the Cupido and Aurora Formations in the Jame anticline during the late stages of the progressive deformation.

During the initial stages of regional shortening and fold growth, a general NNE-SSW direction of compression is sug-gested by fault slip data and mesoscale structure analysis (Figs. 7 and 9). However, during the later stages of the progressive deformation, regional buckling of fold axes occurred by regional orthogonal fl exure combined with fl exural shear, which together controlled a fan arrangement of paleostress directions oriented from NNW to NE on the leading edge of the salient. These regional mechanisms of folding also generated accommodation zones of strike-slip faulting in the inner central portion of the salient that defi ne, locally, an approximately E-W maximum stress axis orientation.

CONCLUSIONS

We document a change in the orientation of the stress tensor within the Monterrey salient during progressive folding associated with the Laramide Orogeny. During the early stages of fold devel-opment, σ

1 is subhorizontal and perpendicular to fold hinges; σ

3

is vertical. The later stages of folding are characterized by ~E-W maximum compression directions, and σ

2 is vertically oriented.

Motion on bedding parallel faults suggests that the mechanism of fold development is fl exural shear folding in a broader context of orthogonal fl exure. Strike slip motion along bedding oblique faults in the core of the salient in the south central part of the Monterrey salient represents accommodation structures resulting from internal stress reorientations within the regional structure. These strike slip faults in the core of the regional structure are in contrast with the fan shaped arrangement of tensional structures along the leading edge of the salient. We agree with previous workers (Padilla y Sánchez, 1985; Fischer and Jackson, 1999; Marrett and Aranda-García, 1999) that the regional deformation was related to a décollement, which triggered detachment of the clastic and carbonate sedimentary sequence above the evaporitic rocks of the Minas Viejas Formation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support for this research was provided by the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León (Paicyt Grant CT189-99, and Conacyt Grant 37429-T. Jonathan Jasso Saldaña assisted during fi eldwork. We thank Roberto S. Molina Garza, Angel F. Nieto Samaniego, and Veronika Dülmer for comments on an ear-lier version of the manuscript. The authors would like to thank Gustavo Tolson Jones, Basil Tikoff, and M. Evans for providing detailed reviews that helped elucidate important aspects of the analysis. Their comments helped to signifi cantly improve an ear-lier version of the manuscript. The fi rst author (Gabriel Chávez-Cabello) thanks the Secretaría de Educación Pública of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León for support (Programa para el mejoramiento del profesorado [PROMEP] Grant) for his

Ph.D. program at Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.

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