Chalcolithic Gold from Varna - Provenance, circulation, processing, and function

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11/I 2 0 1 4 T A G U N G E N D E S L A N D E S M U S E U M S F Ü R V O R G E S C H I C H T E H A L L E

Herausgeber Harald Meller, Roberto Risch und Ernst Pernicka

Metalle der Macht – Frühes Gold und Silber Metals of power – Early gold and silver

6. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentagvom 17. bis 19. Oktober 2o13 in Halle (Saale)

Metalle der M

acht – Frühes Gold und Silber

11/I

Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle

Band 11/I | 2014

Metalle der Macht – Frühes Gold und Silber

Metals of power – Early gold and silver

6. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 17. bis 19. Oktober 2o13 in Halle (Saale)

6th Archaeological Conference of Central Germany October 17–19, 2o13 in Halle (Saale)

landesmuseum für vorgeschichteLandesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt

Metalle der Macht – Frühes Gold und Silber

Metals of power – Early gold and silver6. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 17. bis 19. Oktober 2o13 in Halle (Saale)

6th Archaeological Conference of Central GermanyOctober 17–19, 2o13 in Halle (Saale)

Tagungen desLandesmuseums für Vorgeschichte HalleBand 11/I | 2014

herausgegeben von Harald Meller, Roberto Risch und Ernst Pernicka Halle (Saale) 2o14

Die Beiträge dieses Bandes wurden einem Peer-Review-Verfahren unterzogen. Die Gutachtertätigkeit übernahmen folgende Fachkollegen: PD Dr. Barbara Regine Arm- bruster, Prof. Dr. François Bertemes, Prof. Dr. Christoph Brumann, Prof. Dr. Robert Chap- man, Dr. Andrea Dolfini, Prof. Dr. Gerhard Eggert, Dr. José Lull Gracía, Dr. Maria Filomena Guerra, Prof. Dr. Detlef Günther, Prof. Dr. Andreas Hauptmann, PD Dr. Reinhard Jung, Dr. Laurence Manolakakis, Prof. Dr. Gregor Markl, Dr. Regine Maraszek, Prof. Dr. Carola Metzner-Nebelsick, Prof. Dr. Pierre de Miroschedji, Prof. Dr. Louis Daniel Nebelsick, Prof. Dr. Ernst Pernicka, Prof. Dr. Margarita Primas, PD Dr. Sabine Reinhold, Dr. Ralf Schwarz, Dr. Zofia Anna Stos-Gale, Dr. Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich.

Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://portal.dnb.de abrufbar.

isbn 978-3-9445o7-13-2 issn 1867-44o2

Redaktion Jennifer Bröcher, Dirk Höhne, Kathrin Legler, Janine Näthe, Sven Roos, Monika Schlenker, Manuela Schwarz, Anna Swieder, Andrea Welk Redaktion und Übersetzung Tanja Romankiewicz, Nicholas Uglow • beide Edinburgh, Bettina Stoll-Tucker der englischen Texte Organisation und Korrespondenz Konstanze Geppert Technische Bearbeitung Thomas Blankenburg, Nora Seeländer, Mario Wiegmann

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Inhalt / Contents

Band I

11 Vorwort der Herausgeber / Preface of the editors

Sektion Allgemeines / Section General Perspectives

21 Hans Peter Hahn Die Sprache des Glanzes: Wert und Werte als Kontext von Gold

33 Hans-Gert Bachmann Gold: pursued, desired, cursed – Reverence for a precious metal

Sektion Herkunft und Verarbeitung / Section Procurement and craft

Bergbau / Mining

53 Gregor Borg »Gold is where you find it« – Zeitgenössischer artisanaler Goldbergbau in Afrika als Analogie

(prä-)historischer Goldgewinnung

71 Thomas Stöllner Gold in the Caucasus: New research on gold extraction in the Kura-Araxes Culture

of the 4th millenium BC and early 3rd millenium BC

111 Danilo Wolf und René Kunze Gegharkunik – Neue Quellen für altes Gold aus Südkaukasien?

141 Rosemarie Klemm und Dietrich Klemm Früher Goldbergbau in Ägypten und Nubien

Archäometrie / Archaeometry

153 Ernst Pernicka Possibilities and limitations of provenance studies of ancient silver and gold

165 Verena Leusch, Ernst Pernicka, and Barbara Armbruster Chalcolithic gold from Varna – Provenance, circulation, processing, and function

183 Zofia Anna Stos-Gale Silver vessels in the Mycenaen Shaft Graves and their origin in the context of the metal supply

in the Bronze Age Aegean

209 Christopher D. Standish, Bruno Dhuime, Chris J. Hawkesworth, and Alistair W. G. Pike New insights into the source of Irish Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age gold through lead

isotope analysis

223 Nicole Lockhoff and Ernst Pernicka Archaeometallurgical investigations of Early Bronze Age gold artefacts from central Germany

including gold from the Nebra hoard

237 Robert Lehmann, Daniel Fellenger, and Carla Vogt Modern metal analysis of Bronze Age gold in Lower Saxony by using laser ablation mass

spectrometry (ns-LA-ICP-QMS and fs-LA-ICP-MCMS) and portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF)

247 Ernst Pernicka Zur Frage der Echtheit der Bernstorfer Goldfunde

257 Mercedes Murillo-Barroso, Ignacio Montero Ruiz, and Martin Bartelheim Native silver ressources in Iberia

269 Francisco Contreras-Cortés, Auxilio Moreno-Onorato, and Martin Bartelheim New data on the origin of silver in the Argaric Culture: The site of Peñalosa

285 Beatriz Comendador Rey, Jorge Millos, and Paula Álvarez-Iglesias Provenance of the prehistoric silver set of Antas de Ulla, north-western Iberia, using lead stable

isotope ratios

309 Katja Martin Was bleibt ... Der Metallurg und sein Handwerk im archäologischen Befund

Experimentelle Archäologie / Experimental archaeology

323 Barbara Armbruster Ethnoarchäologie und experimentelle Archäologie in der Forschung prähistorischen Goldes

335 Eleni Konstantinidi-Syvridi, Nikolas Papadimitriou, Anna Philippa-Touchais, and Akis Goumas Goldworking techniques in Mycenaean Greece (17th/16th–12th century BC):

some new observations

349 Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich Wie golden war die Himmelsscheibe von Nebra?

Gedanken zur ursprünglichen Farbe der Goldauflagen

353 Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich, Nicole Lockhoff und Ernst Pernicka De Cementatione oder: Von der Kunst, das Gold nach Art der Alten zu reinigen

Band II

Sektion Kontext und Interpretation / Section Context und interpretation

Osten / East

371 Raiko Krauß, Steve Zäuner, and Ernst Pernicka Statistical and anthropological analysis of the Varna necropolis

389 Svend Hansen Gold and silver in the Maikop Culture

411 Barbara Helwing Silver in the early societies of Greater Mesopotamia

423 Romain Prévalet Bronze Age Syrian gold jewellery – Technological innovation

435 Andreas Reinecke Der Anfang des Goldhandwerks in Südostasien. Zur Verknüpfung archäologischer Befunde

und metallanalytischer Ergebnisse

Mittelmeer / Mediterranean sea

451 Stelios Andreou and Michael Vavelidis So rich and yet so poor: Investigating the scarcity of gold artefacts in Bronze Age northern

Greece

467 Borja Legarra Herrero The role of gold in south Aegean exchange networks (31oo–18oo BC)

483 Maria Grazia Melis Silver in Neolithic and Eneolithic Sardinia

495 Maria Bernabò Brea, Filippo Maria Gambari, and Alessandra Giumlia-Mair Preliminary remarks on the gold cup from Montecchio Emilia, northern Italy

505 Teodoro Scarano and Giovanna Maggiulli The golden sun discs from Roca Vecchia, Lecce, Italy: archaeological and cultural context

527 Alicia Perea Goldworking processes and ontologies at the inception of metallurgy in the

western Mediterranean

541 Maria Carme Rovira Hortalà, Ferran Borrell, Mònica Oliva, Maria Saña, Oriol Vicente, and Gabriel Alcalde Early gold remains in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula

547 Maria Carme Rovira Hortalà, Ignacio Montero Ruiz, and Alicia Perea The funerary »treasure« of Montilla, Cordova, Spain

557 Vicente Lull, Rafael Micó, Christina Rihuete Herrada, and Roberto Risch, The social value of silver in El Argar

577 Selina Delgado-Raack, Vicente Lull, Katja Martin, Rafael Micó, Cristina Rihuete Herrada und Roberto Risch

Die Silberschmiede von Tira del Lienzo, Totana, Prov. Murcia, im Kontext der El Argar Metallurgie

593 Mauro S. Hernández Pérez, Gabriel García Atiénzar, and Virginia Barciela González The treasures of Villena and Cabezo Redondo, Alicante, Spain

Mitteleuropa / Central Europe

611 Harald Meller Die neolithischen und bronzezeitlichen Goldfunde Mitteldeutschlands – Eine Übersicht

717 Ralf Schwarz Goldene Schleifen- und Lockenringe – Herrschaftsinsignien in bronzezeitlichen Rang gesellschaften

Mitteldeutschlands. Überlegungen zur Gesellschaft der Aunjetitzer Kultur

743 Juliane Filipp und Martin Freudenreich Dieskau Revisited I: Nachforschungen zur »Lebensgeschichte« des Goldhortes von Dieskau

und zu einem weiteren Grabhügel mit Goldbeigabe bei Osmünde im heutigen Saalekreis, Sachsen-Anhalt

753 Martin Freudenreich und Juliane Filipp Dieskau Revisited II. Eine mikroregionale Betrachtung

761 Rupert Gebhard, Rüdiger Krause, Astrid Röpke und Vanessa Bähr Das Gold von Bernstorf – Authentizität und Kontext in der mittleren Bronzezeit Europas

777 Henning Haßmann, Andreas Niemuth, Mario Pahlow, Bernd Rasink, Stefan Winghart und Friedrich-Wilhelm Wulf

Der Goldhort von Gessel

789 Franziska Knoll, Harald Meller und Juliane Filipp »Nordisch by nature«. Die jundbronzezeitlichen, goldenen Eidringe Sachsen-Anhalts an der südlichen

Peripherie des Nordischen Kreises in ihrem Kontext

873 Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede der goldenen Eidringe von Schneidlingen, Könnern,

Hundisburg und Klein Oschersleben hinsichtlich ihrer Herstellungs- und Abnutzungsspuren

Westen und Norden / West and North

885 Flemming Kaul Bronze Age gold from Denmark

903 Stuart Needham and Alison Sheridan Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age goldwork from Britain: new finds and new perspectives

Tagungen des L andesmuseums für VorgeschichTe haLLe • Band 11 • 2014

Chalcolithic gold from Varna – Provenance, circulation, processing, and function

Verena Leusch, ernst Pernicka, and Barbara armbruster

Summary

When discussing the role of early gold and silver in human history, a single archaeological site is particularly outstanding: the cemetery of Varna I. Dated between 455o–445o BC, it is still considered to provide the earliest evidence for the ex ist ence of specialised and developed gold metallurgy in combination with a high level of social differentiation. Since 2oo9, intensive reinvestigations of the grave assem blages shed new light on the phenomenon of this earliest gold industry and its impact on society. Extensive analytical work was conducted in order to provide the empirical basis for the reconstruction of the »chaîne opératoire« of gold during the Late Chalcolithic period within the Kodža dermenGumelniţaKaranovo (KGK) VI cultural complex in the west Pontic region. This article focuses on the new analytical results and their interpretation related to production techniques and workflows as well as the intrasite distribution of the gold objects from Varna. Furthermore, in addition to the investigation of the gold artefacts, placer gold occurrences in eastern Bulgaria were prospected in search for gold resources that possibly have been used in the Chalcolithic. Finally, other grave goods from the cemetery were considered, aiming to provide in sights on the wider economic networks and social structures within Varna’s society. This comprehensive approach represents a novelty in the research history of this site. The following article presents selected highlights of this study.

Zusammenfassung

Kupferzeitliches Gold aus Varna – Herkunft, Zirkulation, Verarbeitung und Funktion

Wenn es um die Geschichte früher Gold und Silberverarbeitung geht, wird eine archäologische Fundstätte besonders häufig thematisiert: das Gräberfeld von Varna I. Mit einer Belegungszeit zwischen 455o–445o v. Chr. gilt es noch immer als der früheste Beleg einer spezialisierten und ent wickelten Goldverarbeitung sowie einem bis dahin unbekannten hohen Grad sozialer Differenzierung. Seit dem Jahr 2oo9 konnten umfassende Neuuntersuchungen der Grabfunde weitere Erkenntnisse zum Phänomen dieser frühen Goldindustrie und zu dessen gesellschaftlichem Einfluss liefern. So konnte durch umfangreiche Analysen eine empirische Basis für die Rekonstruktion der »chaîne opératoire« des Goldes in der späten Kupferzeit innerhalb des KodžadermenGumelniţaKaranovo (KGK) VI Kulturkomplexes im Westpontikum erarbeitet werden. Dieser Beitrag bezieht sich vor allem auf die neuen Analysenergebnisse und deren Interpretation hinsichtlich der Produktionstechniken und abläufe sowie der Verbreitung der Goldobjekte innerhalb des Gräberfelds von Varna. Neben den Analysen der Goldartefakte von Varna umfasst diese Studie auch geologische Prospektionen von Goldvorkommen im östlichen Bulgarien, die möglicherweise bereits während der Kupferzeit genutzt wurden. Um außerdem einen Einblick in die spätkupferzeitlichen Austauschnetzwerke sowie sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Strukturen zu gewinnen, in welche Varna eingebettet war, werden auch andere Grabbeigaben des Fundplatzes in die Untersuchungen mit einbezogen. Der vorliegende Artikel präsentiert ausgewählte Ergebnisse dieser neuen Forschungen.

1 For the absolute dates see Chapman et al. 2oo6; Higham et al. 2oo7, but see also Krauß et al. in the present volume for a later ending of the cemetery.

2 E. g. Renfrew 1978; Fol/Lichardus 1988; Ivanov 1988; Marazov 1988; Lichardus 1991; Biehl/Marciniak 2ooo; Chapman et al.

2oo6; Higham et al. 2oo7; Govedarica/ Manzura 2o11.

Introduction

The available literature on the cemetery of Varna I (455o– 445o BC1) places strong emphasis on the relevance of this site for the interpretation of the complex social dynamics taking place during the Copper Age in south-east Europe2. Without doubt, the site reveals a distinct social structure that is still unique for the entire Chalcolithic period, not only in the region of the KGK VI cultural complex but throughout the ancient world that we know. 32o burials (Bojadžiev/Slavčev 2o11, 15) in total were identified so far,

which represent different kinds of depositions (inhumations, deposits, symbolic graves) displaying strongly differentiated grave assemblages. Amongst them, c. 7o burials contained gold objects ranging from single or a few finds up to around 1ooo objects in a single burial. In total, only a few of these gold-bearing burials can clearly be addressed as outstanding according to the large number and variety of gold objects, and also because of other grave goods they contained.

These burials include the inhumation grave no. 43, the symbolic deposition complex no. 36, and the symbolic grave no. 4 (Fig. 1b–c). In this context the burial no. 1 must also be


166 Verena Leusch, ernsT Pernick a , and BarBar a armBrusTer

3 Here the burial no. 35 must be men tioned, too. It also contains gold sheet that can

be interpreted as a bow decoration similar to these from the listed burials in the text.

mentioned (Fig. 1a). However, this burial was heavily dis-turbed by the initial construction works of the cable trench, which took place in the industrial area of the Varna munici-pality in 1972 and which led to the discovery of this site (Ivanov 1988). Because of the resulting unclear context this »burial« is usually addressed as a deposition or symbolic grave. Yet, it cannot be excluded that the finds include the inventory of an inhumation as human bone material was found within the excavated heap of the mentioned construc-tion works (Bojadžiev/Slavčev 2o11, 15). Although the archae-ological context of this feature remains unclear, the collected assemblage shows a strong affinity to the above-mentioned burials singled out for their wealth. They resemble each other in the large number of gold objects and, importantly, show a somewhat canonical assemblage of gold jewellery and decoration that consists essentially of armlets, neck-laces, and/or bracelets made out of small gold beads, mostly domed garment appliqués, and golden sheet decoration of the so-called ceremonial or prestige gear (like the hammer axes; Fig. 1; 4–5).

Besides these extraordinarily rich burials, another group of outstanding depositions has to be mentioned. These are the symbolic graves with clay masks or heads, namely the burials no. 2, 3, and 15 (Fig. 2). They evince a special ideolog-

ical conception that can be deduced by their canonical grave assemblages and stylised representations of the buried indi-viduals or deities (Bertemes 2o1o; Krauß/Slavčev 2o12).

Two further burials with extraordinary gold objects should also be mentioned. Burial no. 41 contains a set of sheet-gilded or plated copper beads (Fig. 3a) and burial no. 97 includes a necklace composed out of spiral beads, car-nelian, and a ring-idol (Fig. 3b). These objects reveal impor-tant insights into the elaborate goldworking techniques and the technological expertise of the Varna artisans.

On closer examination, the introduced burials show spe-cific patterns in the arrangement of the gold objects they contain (see also Lichardus 1988, 94 ff.). These patterns reveal strong similarities between the burials no. 1, 4, and 43 as all contain pectorals and gold-decorated ceremonial weapons/tools (like hammer axes or bows3; Fig. 1a–b; 1d; 4c–b; 5,1). Which function these sheet-gilded ceremonial objects represent, remains debatable. Whether the hammer-axes represent tools or weapons and the bows weapons or hunting gear cannot be assessed from their shapes. Hitherto, it was often hypothesised that the hammer-axes would point to metallurgical skills and, thus, were regarded as sup-porting evidence for the social importance of metal working and the metallurgist in the Chalcolithic society (Marazov

Fig. 1a–d Assemblages of gold objects from the burials no. 1 (a), 4 (b), 36 (c), and 43 (d) from the Varna I cemetery. Abb. 1a–d Goldinventare aus den Gräbern 1 (a), 4 (b), 36 (c) und 43 (d) vom Gräberfeld Varna I.

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167ChalC ol ithiC gold from Varna – ProVenanCe, C irCul at ion, Pro Ces s ing , and funCt ion

1988). Yet, this monocausal approach does not seem con-vinc ing against the background of the problematic func-tional interpretation of these objects and their »symbolic dimension« has been emphasised in more recent studies (Kienlin 2o14, 451).

In contrast to the burials no. 1, 4, and 43, the burial no. 36 shows a different set of prestige items. The different types of ring-idols represent the more typical grave goods. In addi-tion, a small golden hammer (Fig. 5,2) can only be described as an exceptional object which is still lacking any archaeo-

Fig. 2 The symbolic burial with clay head from the grave no. 2. Abb. 2 Die symbolische Bestattung mit tönerner Gesichtsdarstellung aus Grab 2.

Fig. 3a–b a Sheet-gilded copper bead from the burial no. 41; b Necklace with spiral gold beads, carnelian, and a ring-idol from the burial no. 97. Abb. 3a–b a Folien bzw. blechvergoldete Kupferperle aus Grab 41; b Halskette mit spiralförmigen Goldperlen, Karneol und einem RingidolAnhänger aus Grab 97.

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4 See e. g. Renfrew 1978; Fol/Lichardus 1988; Lichardus 1988; Todorova 1999; Biehl/ Marciniak 2ooo; Govedarica/Manzura 2o11; Hansen 2o11.

logical parallel. Its shape strongly resembles the typical modern goldsmith’s hammers for embossing or chasing (see e. g. Knauth 1974, 77 Fig. 3). Yet, the interpretation of the golden hammer-sceptre from burial no. 36 as an imitation of such a goldsmith’s tool and, thus, as an indication for the social importance of this craft must be discussed thoroughly considering the contemporaneous spectrum of finds where no such tool has been found so far. Generally, the complex no. 36 includes exceptional forms of gold objects that are typologically unique, as the gold decoration of a potential sceptre-handle (Fig. 5,3) or the set of double-convex armlets (Fig. 1c). On the other hand, this assemblage contains types that are strongly related to other burials. For instance it con-tains a miniature diadem that displays a clear connection to the so-called graves with clay heads or masks (Fig. 2), each of which contained such head gear. Despite this parallel, a dif-ferent ideological conception of these graves and the com-

plex no. 36 must be assumed. This can be deduced from the different burial rites and the characteristic ensembles of gold items. As such, in contrast to the complex no. 36, the mask graves show a spectrum of gold finds that is further restricted to certain types. Besides the miniature diadems, specific gold sheets that decorate the clay heads and ring-idols of type B (after Todorova/Vajsov 2oo1) are characteris-tic golden grave goods (Fig. 2).

In a nutshell, the complexity of the burial customs that is basically reflected by the different patterns of grave assem-blages and the variety of depositions is associated with differ-ent social strata and mirror the complex ideological system of the Varna society. Here the focus is put on selected gold-bearing burials that only reflect a segment of this society. By and large, the multitude of grave assemblages and funerary rites evince a collective labour investment and mirror a well organised and stratified society that used this funeral place4.

Fig. 4a–c Gold decorated »prestige goods« like the so-called golden phallus (a), a golden bow decoration (b), and a hafted axe (c) from the grave no. 43. A ceramic tuyère (a) from Kubrat is discussed as a possible related form to the golden phallus. Abb. 4a–c Goldverzierte »Prestigeausrüstung« wie der sogenannte goldene Phallus (a), die Goldverzierung eines Bogens (b) und eine Hammeraxt (c) aus Grab 43. Eine Tondüse aus Kubrat wird als mögliche Parallele zum goldenen Phallus diskutiert.

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5 Full details of the XRF method are provided in Pernicka/Lutz 2o14; and explanations of the analysis of gold samples with laser abla-tion are given Kovacs et al. 2oo9; Schlosser et al. 2oo9.

6 This publication will comprise the catalogue with a typological overview of all finds and a detailed description of all depositions which

is being prepared by V. Slavčev. Additionally, further contributions will concentrate on the evaluation of the anthropological remains and a detailed archaeometallurgical assess-ment of the gold objects which are the topics of two PhD theses by S. Zäuner and V. Leusch.

7 See e. g. Hartmann 1978; 1982; Eluère 1989; Echt et al. 1991.

8 A final techno-typological classification of the entire gold objects is being prepared by K. Dimitrov and shall be published in the concluding publication of the project.

Methodology – Technological investigation of fine metal working

Considering the observable patterns of the gold ensembles that point to different social purposes of the respective depositions, the question arises how the supply, production, and distribution with these abundant gold objects was organ-ised. To solve this problem, chemical analyses of the gold artefacts were performed. Within a multidisciplinary research project it was possible to reinvestigate the entire material assemblage from Varna I and study almost all gold objects for the first time. The project (PE 4o5-25-1) was funded by the German Research Foundation from 2oo9 until 2o13 and primarily dealt with palaeo-anthropological and archaeometallurgical investigations (focussing on the gold objects) of the remains from the Varna I cemetery. In this process chemical analyses could be performed with the objective to define a reliable material classification of the gold that was used. Nearly all gold objects were quantita-tively analysed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, where-upon a selection of objects was also analysed by laser laser ablation with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrom-etry (LA-ICP-MS)5. A full account with all analytical results will be presented in a forthcoming publication which shall

provide the long-expected holistic evaluation of the archaeo-logical residues from Varna6.

A crucial question addressed by the recent analyses was to investigate the technical level of goldworking that is revealed by the objects from the Varna I cemetery. Hitherto, observations and reconstructions in this respect were based only on a small number of artefacts7. Now they can be complemented by the recent studies where the gold objects could be investigated by optical analyses of tool marks and surface topography aiming at a better under-standing of the manufacturing techniques. The analyses of tool marks are especially relevant for the reconstruction of tools and workshops at the inception of gold metallurgy. Within this contribution selected objects will be presented to illustrate the major findings8.

Furthermore, with the above mentioned analytical methods it was possible to define different chemical gold groups. On the one hand, this was possible by the analysis of the main components – gold, silver, and copper – by XRF that allows an internal material classification and an over-all comparison of the gold finds. On the other hand, the trace element patterns of a selection of gold objects could be determined by LA-ICP-MS that provides the possibility to recognise sub-groups amongst the major alloys.

Fig. 5 The hafted axe from the grave no. 4 (1), as well as a gold decorated miniature hammer (2), and the gold decoration of a possible sceptre (3) from the complex no. 36. Abb. 5 Die Hammeraxt aus Grab 4 (1) sowie ein goldverzierter Miniaturhammer (2) und die Goldverzierung eines möglichen Stabzepters (3) aus Komplex 36.

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9 Pernicka et al. 1997; Pernicka 1999; Dimitrov 2oo2; Gale et al. 2oo3.

1o Recently there also habe been attempts to apply inductively coupled plasma multi-

collector mass spectronomy (LA-ICP-MC-MS) for lead isotope measurements on gold as described for example in C. Bendall et al. (2oo9) and C. Standish et al. (2o13).

11 Personal communication M. Brauns, N. Lock-hoff, and G. Borngässer.

Reconstruction of the organisation of the fine metal craft and the (problematic) search for prehistoric gold sources

In addition to the internal material classification, the trace element pattern was thought to be indicative for the prove-nance of gold. On this basis A. Hartmann (1978; 1982) had suggested that at least part of the gold in Varna derived from external sources such as the Caucasus. While the prov enance of copper objects from the Varna cemetery and from other Chalcolithic sites in Bulgaria could be success-fully determined by a combination of trace element pat-terns and lead isotope ratios9 this turned out to be more complicated with gold. First of all, lead concentrations in the gold finds from Varna are generally very low (mostly below 5o mg/kg) so that relatively high amounts of sample material would be required for a reliable determination of the lead isotope ratios by measurement in solution10. There-fore, concerning the provenance question one is left with the trace element pattern of the gold objects and the possi-bil ity to compare them with geo logical samples.

However, although intensive geological fieldwork in east-ern Bulgaria led to the discovery of numerous, previously unknown gold occurrences, the direct comparison of the composition of placer gold with gold artefacts is fraught with difficulties. It turned out that the placer gold nuggets and artefact samples that we have analysed show systematic differences in their copper and trace element concentrations as shown in table 1. Interestingly, in contrast to the general composition of native gold nuggets from river sediments, the artefacts from the Varna I cemetery generally contain more copper as well as measurable concentrations of plati-num, palladium, and tin (Tab. 1). Thus, the trace element pattern of the artefact samples is usually characterised by

elements that are not geochemically related to gold and/or occur in separate mineral phases within the gold placers. This is because gold placers include a mixture of several minerals beside the gold nuggets and the detected trace ele-ments in the artefact gold suggest that also copper and tin minerals as well as platin group elements (PGE) may have been included in this heavy mineral mix. This hypothesis is supported by the observation of copper and iron minerals within gold placers from Georgia (Hauptmann et al. 2o1o, 15o Fig. 7). Similarly, gold placers from Bulgaria and other localities11 that were investigated at the Curt-Engelhorn-Centre Archaeometry gGmbH (CEZA), Mannheim, con-tained small grains of PGE, iron, and tin minerals. Accord-ing to these observations, we must presume that the gold placers that were used in prehistoric times still contained all these minerals or »impurities« in different amounts when they were melted. Thus, when melting these hetero-geneously composed gold placers under reducing condi-tions some copper, tin, and PGE may have found their way into the artefact gold. And indeed, the presence of these ele-ments in archaeological artefacts, like those from Varna, is usually regarded as indication for the use of placer gold. This means that the artefact gold is a mixture of several components within the exploited gold placers that is dif-ficult to be reproduced by modern sampling of river sedi-ments, which, hence, represents a crucial problem for their comparability. Thus, the trace element pattern of the gold artefacts is significantly influenced by the described sepa-rate mineral phases and, therefore, as provenance indicator it must be discussed with caution.

In addition to these geochemical and mineralogical com-plexities one also has to take into account a multitude of influences by past practices within the »chaîne opératoire«

Main elements PGE Other trace elements Source Country

Sample Cu Ag Ru Pd Ir Pt Fe Ni Sn Sb

ppm % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Lab.no. Mean limit of detection (in mg/kg) 10 30 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 5.0 1.1 0.5 1.0

Geological gold samples

ma-103190 geoau012 1390 12.9 <lod <lod <lod 22 270 <lod <lod 5.1 dimitrovchenska Bulgaria

ma-103187 geoau009 310 8.3 <lod <lod <lod <lod 125 <lod <lod <lod saplama Bulgaria

ma-103189 geoau011 21 28 <lod <lod <lod <lod 560 <lod <lod <lod ogosta Bulgaria

Artefact gold samples

ma-122618 i-1742/03 19600 23.3 1.7 4.3 0.55 130 44 130 7.2 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122621 i-1742/12 11100 9.6 1.7 1.3 <lod 24 160 4.6 16 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122622 i-2038 4550 10.7 8.8 12 1.54 440 97 2.7 19 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122623 i-2020 3740 10.1 0.5 3.3 <lod 43 110 1.8 2.0 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122624 i-2042 2640 6 <lod 1.1 <lod 4.2 130 2.1 <lod <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122625 i-2041 592 11 <lod 0.4 <lod 1.5 1500 1.5 4.0 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122626 i-1992 4470 9.4 5.8 7.3 1.13 340 150 3.3 45 <lod Varna i Bulgaria



that may also change the final composition of the gold arte-fact (Roberts 2oo9, 47o f.). The scheme in figure 6 shows this metallurgical sequence that comprises, besides the geolog ical sphere, also manufacturing, economic, and social aspects that constitute parts of this dynamic network of mutual exchange and communication. This schematic depiction further illustrates that particularly the socially determined actions within this »chaîne opératoire« may have great impact on the exploitation, production, distribu-

tion, use, and as a consequence also on the chemical compo-sition of the gold artefacts. As such, the social structures influence the ways of how the exploitation and trading of the gold is organised, how the workshops are structured and also the ways of how gold items were used within a given society (see for example Rowlands 1971). In this regard one may hypothesise that the exploited gold placers were melted to produce some kind of ingots to facilitate portability. Such a procedure would already alter the chemical composition of

Fig. 6 Schematic depiction of the processes within the metallurgical chain with its intersecting geological and socio-economic sphere. Multiple human actions affect the associated manufacturing and economic processes. The social superstructure basically can be understood as a mutual communication as well as an exchange network. Abb. 6 Schematische Darstellung der Prozesse innerhalb der metallurgischen Kette mit ihren sich überschneidenden geologischen und sozioökonomischen Bereichen, welche Gewinnung, Herstellung und Austausch beeinflussen. Diese Prozesse sind gesellschaftlich reglementiert und somit Gegenstand einer wechselseitiger Kommunikation bzw. eines Austauschs.

Main elements PGE Other trace elements Source Country

Sample Cu Ag Ru Pd Ir Pt Fe Ni Sn Sb

ppm % ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Lab.no. Mean limit of detection (in mg/kg) 10 30 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 5.0 1.1 0.5 1.0

Geological gold samples

ma-103190 geoau012 1390 12.9 <lod <lod <lod 22 270 <lod <lod 5.1 dimitrovchenska Bulgaria

ma-103187 geoau009 310 8.3 <lod <lod <lod <lod 125 <lod <lod <lod saplama Bulgaria

ma-103189 geoau011 21 28 <lod <lod <lod <lod 560 <lod <lod <lod ogosta Bulgaria

Artefact gold samples

ma-122618 i-1742/03 19600 23.3 1.7 4.3 0.55 130 44 130 7.2 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122621 i-1742/12 11100 9.6 1.7 1.3 <lod 24 160 4.6 16 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122622 i-2038 4550 10.7 8.8 12 1.54 440 97 2.7 19 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122623 i-2020 3740 10.1 0.5 3.3 <lod 43 110 1.8 2.0 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122624 i-2042 2640 6 <lod 1.1 <lod 4.2 130 2.1 <lod <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122625 i-2041 592 11 <lod 0.4 <lod 1.5 1500 1.5 4.0 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

ma-122626 i-1992 4470 9.4 5.8 7.3 1.13 340 150 3.3 45 <lod Varna i Bulgaria

Tab. 1 Typical analytical results by LA-ICP-MS of geological and archaeological gold samples. Systematic differences can be observed, such as the significantly higher copper concentrations and the evidence for various trace elements in the artefact gold that are usually not found in the gold nuggets from the geological samples. LoD – limit of detection. Tab. 1 Typische Ergebnisse der Spurenelementanalyse (mittels LAICPMS) der geologischen und archäologischen Goldproben. Es lassen sich systematische Unterschiede beobachten, wie zum Beispiel die deutlich höheren Kupferkonzentrationen und der Nachweis verschiedener Spurenelemente im Gold der Artefakte, die sich typischerweise nicht in den Goldnuggets der geologischen Proben finden. LoD – Nachweisgrenze (engl. limit of detection).

Trade/exchange/communication

Geological sphere

GeologyExploitation

Trade

Consumption/Display

Supplynetworks

Technology/Processing

Trade

Socio-economic sphere

Raw gold Workshop Object



12 See e. g. Hartmann 1978; 1982; Echt et al. 1991; Armbruster 1995; Anfinset 2o11.

the native gold. The subsequent processing of such pre-prod-ucts in the workshops further implies pyrotechnical treat-ment as can be deduced from the gold objects from Varna that turned out to be cast and reworked (see below). Further-more, the use as well as the possible re-use and re-melting of the gold may be greatly determined by the social and/or reli-gious habitus. Consequently, numerous chemical alterations of the gold must be taken into account at the various stages of its »chaîne opératoire« and the anthropogenic influence on the (trace) elemental composition of the artefact gold has to be regarded at least as high as the geological one.

As a conclusion, one can assume that all different proc-esses within the metallurgical sequence influence the chemical composition of the gold artefact and blur the geo-chemical signature of the native gold, which particularly exacerbates the identification of its geological source. How-ever, considering the gold from Varna the new finds of gold placers in eastern Bulgaria that also contain PGE minerals at least show that Hartmann’s hypothesis (Hartmann 1978; 1982) that gold with traceable concentrations of platinum must be regarded as imported from afar has to be revised. Also exploitation by hard rock mining, as also suggested by

Hartmann (1982), seems unlikely. The detected trace ele-ments within the available artefact samples rather indicate that the raw gold solely derived from placer gold occur-rences.

A further problem when discussing the provenance of the Varna gold and its production is the insufficient archaeo-logical evidence of the respective Chalcolithic gold mining areas and workshops (see e. g. Todorova 1999). Therefore we ought to consider comparisons with structurally similar archaeological and ethnographic evidence, as well as with detailed material analyses12 in order to address vital ques-tions about the »chaîne opératoire« of the Varna gold. The above mentioned investigations by optical and chemical means help to elucidate not only the direct work processes of the Chalcolithic gold industry, as H. Todorova and I. Vajsov (2oo1, 1o) called it, but also the intra-site distribution and eventually large-scale exchange processes of the material that may point to particular patterns of cultural, economic, and/or social interactions, as shall be illustrated and dis-cussed in more detail by the presentation of the following examples.

Fig. 7a–d Examples for »serial production«: beads (a), domed (hemispherical) appliqués (b), and the so-called bucrania (c) from the complex no. 36, as well as the double-conical beads from the grave no. 43 (d). Abb. 7a–d Beispiele für »Serienproduktion«: Perlen (a), gewölbte (halbkugelförmige) Applikationen (b) und die sogenannten Bukranien (c) aus Komplex 36 sowie die doppelkonischen Perlen aus Grab 43 (d).

ba

dc

3 cm3 cm

3 cm 2 cm



Exemplifying results

The gold objects from Varna reveal a complex and devel-oped technology. Generally, they comprise a variety of object types and functions: body adornment in the form of bracelets and collars, piercing elements, cloth adornments such as appliqués, and also prestige objects and ceremonial items or sceptres in form of gold decorated weapons/tools (bows, axes). Here we describe several of these technologi-cal aspects in more detail, which will illustrate the techno-logical level of the artisans’ expertise. The new analyses highlight aspects such as serial artefact production, various casting, and alloying techniques, the intentionality of com-bining differently coloured gold objects and finally, the use of sheet-gilding as potential means of communicating social prestige. Beyond these technical aspects, chemical analyses indicate intra-site distribution patterns of the gold, which help to elucidate relations between the gold-bearing burials.

Serial production

Different groups of objects appear to be serially produced, judging from their typology and production techniques (Fig. 7). R. Echt et al. (1991, 65o) already observed this serial production when investigating a selection of gold objects in the course of the exhibition »Macht, Herrschaft und Gold – Das Gräberfeld von Varna (Bulgarien) und die Anfänge einer neuen europäischen Zivilisation« hosted in Saarbrücken in 1988. The recent studies of the tool marks and technical char-acteristics of the gold objects by B. Armbruster and K. Dimit-rov confirm these observations. Supporting evidence could also be found by the chemical analyses, especially by XRF, which is illustrated in figure 8. The diagram shows the results for the numerous beads that are made out of differ-ent material groups according to their specific copper and silver contents. Furthermore, a clear correlation emerges between these material groups and the specific forms of the beads which provides empirical evidence for their serial production. The production procedure of the astonishingly

Fig. 8 Results of the XRF analysis of the neck-lace I-2231-VI from the grave no. 43 with typo-logically different beads. Preliminarily the different beads are labelled as types I to V. Dif-ferent gold groups can be defined according to their specific copper and silver contents. A clear correlation between the gold groups and the typological features, that provides an empirical evidence for serial production, can be seen. Abb. 8 Ergebnisse der Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse (RFA) der Halskette I2231IV aus Grab 43 mit typologisch unterschiedlichen Perlen. Die verschiedenen Perlen sind hier vorläufig als Typ I bis V bezeichnet. Verschiedene Goldgruppen können anhand spezifischer Kupfer und Silbergehalte abgegrenzt werden. Ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen Goldgruppen und Perlentypen ist deutlich erkennbar und stellt einen empirischen Beweis für eine Serienproduktion dar.

0,1

1

10

Cu

(in %

)

Ag (in %)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Type V

5 mm



13 Renfrew 1978, 2oo; Eluère 1989, 37; Raub 1995, 247–253; Guerra/Calligaro 2oo3, 1527.

uniform, ring-shaped beads (types III and IV; Fig. 8) was suggested by Echt et al. (1991) as illustrated in figure 9. Their reconstruction gains support by corresponding finds of spiral beads, which may be interpreted as semi-finished products, but were also used as jewellery components, for example as beads of the necklace with a ring-idol pendant from the grave no. 97 (Fig. 3,2). The evidence of serial arte-fact production as it is also traceable for example for the domed appliqués, the »bucrania«, and the double conical beads (Fig. 7), suggests a particular concept in jewellery making, using the repetition of items of equal form, weight, and dimension.

Casting, processing, and alloying

In the history of research on the Varna gold one often comes across the opinion that casting did not play a role for the production of the gold objects as they belong to the suposed initial stage of gold metallurgy. This initial stage was thought to be represented only by cold-working methods, that is cold-welding of gold nuggets or their deformation by hammering13. Nevertheless, this assumption could soon be dismissed on the basis of empirical studies on the produc-tion techniques that were conducted by Echt et al. (1991) and could be corroborated within the recent project. Both stud-

Fig. 9a–c Schematic reconstruction of the serial production of the ring-shaped beads (a) and corresponding finds from Varna I (b–c). The spiral beads (b) might be interpreted as pre-products for the ring-shaped ones (c), but are also used as jewellery items themselves (see for example the necklace with the ring-idol pendant from the grave no. 97; Fig. 3b). Abb. 9a–c Schematische Rekonstruktion der Serienproduktion der ringförmigen Perlen (a) und die entsprechenden Funde von Varna I (b–c). Die spiralförmigen Perlen (b) könnten als »Vorprodukte« der ringförmigen Perlen (c) interpretiert werden, sie wurden aber auch direkt als Schmuckobjekte verwendet (so zum Beispiel bei der Halskette mit dem RingidolAnhänger aus Grab 97; Abb. 3b).

Gold wire or rod

Gold rod wrapped around a cylindrical core

Cutting regularwire loops witha chisel

Connecting the ends of the wire segment and probably reshaping to obtain a regular round shape

2 cm

a

cb



ies confirm that various and quite complex casting tech-niques were used to produce the hollow bodies like armlets and globular beads (Fig. 1o).

Even lost-wax casting was obviously used for goldwork-ing. It was applied for producing both, solid and hollow objects. Subsequent plastic shaping techniques include hammering, most likely with stone, copper, or antler tools. For chasing chisels, punches, and doming blocks were used. Embossing, folding, and bending also belong to the plastic shaping techniques and perforations were done with a coni-cal point. Abrasives, such as grinding stones, sand, ashes, and siliceous plants could have been used for finishing; and abrasives combined with fibres are probable materials applied for parting (Armbruster 2o1o; 2oo1).

Significantly, also on the basis of chemical analyses a clear evidence could be found for the prevalent casting of gold. A small group of objects consists of gold-copper-alloys, with copper contents ranging up to more than 3o % and, thus, exceeding by far the naturally occurring concentra-tions within native gold (Hauptmann et al. 2o1o, 154). Hence, these objects attest to the melting of both metals and, more importantly, represent the first anthropogenic alloys so far recorded (see Fig. 11a). The composition of the ring-idol in figure 11a revealed the following composition: 5o % gold, 14 % silver, and 36 % copper. This means that the base (native) gold obviously was rich in silver (c. 22 %) and thus also lighter in colour. Whether the fine metal worker tried to manipulate the colour of that silvery gold to make it look more yellowish or reddish by the addition of copper must

Fig. 1oa–b Differently shaped gold objects made of sheet metal or having massive and hollow bodies from the grave no. 4 (a) representing the results of various casting methods like the lost-wax casting technique that was (apparently) used to produce for example the big, globular bead (b). Abb. 1oa–b Verschiedenförmige Goldobjekte aus Blech oder als Massiv und Hohlkörper aus Grab 4 (a), die in verschiedenen Gießverfahren hergestellt wurden. Die große kugelförmige Perle (b) wurde offenbar im Wachsausschmelzverfahren gegossen.

Fig. 11a–b a Example of a gold-copper-alloy. The ring-idol (I-231o) from the grave no. 271 consists of c. 5o % gold, 14 % silver, and 36 % copper. It may be regarded as one of the earliest evidences for anthropogenic alloying known so far; b Differently coloured gold beads. The silvery beads from the grave no. 43 contain on average about 58 % gold, 4o % silver, and 2 % copper. Abb. 11a–b a Beispiel einer GoldKupferLegierung. Der RingidolAnhänger aus Grab 271 besteht aus ca. 5o % Gold, 14 % Silber und 36 % Kupfer. Er stellt einen der bislang frühesten Nachweise einer intentionellen Legierung dar; b verschiedenfarbige Goldperlen. Die silberfarbenen Perlen aus Grab 43 enthalten durchschnittlich etwa 58 % Gold, 4o % Silber und 2 % Kupfer.

ba

5 cm

ba5 mm



remain debatable, since such alloys are the exception rather than the rule among the gold artefacts from Varna. Yet, they may indicate some experimentation with metals and the desire to influence their properties.

Generally, a technological link of copper and gold metal-lurgy seems very plausible especially regarding the inven-tion and subsequent innovation of metal casting that was already a well established technique for copper working long before the first gold objects appear. In this regard, cop-per production evidence from the Vinča Culture (c. 5ooo BC) provides the earliest securely dated record of extractive metallurgy and some of the earliest cast copper objects so far (Radivojević et al. 2o1o; Hansen 2o11, 66). Moreover, con-sidering the Late Chalcolithic gold objects from Varna I it is notewothy, that even earlier gold objects exist, for instance from the grave no. 3 from the Middle Chalcolithic site Varna II. This finding indicates that the massive appearance of gold objects from Varna I does not represent »the oldest gold of mankind« as it often has been addressed. Further-more, it shows that even these preceding gold finds are based upon cast semi-products. Thus, considering the tech-nological context and the available archaeological evidence, the knowledge of melting and casting apparently was avail-able already at the earliest stages of goldworking and it is well conceivable that this technology was adopted from copper metallurgy that was already well established.

The organisation and structure of copper and goldwork-ing, though, remains uncertain as we still do not have any clear archaeological evidence for corresponding workshops within contemporaneous settlements from the whole region under investigation (see e. g. Todorova 1999; Hansen 2oo9). This is basically due to two crucial problems: First of all, it is a general problem to recognise smithing tools from archaeo-logical contexts as their function usually cannot be clearly

determined from their shape (Rowlands 1971, 216). This is why the equipment of the Chalcolithic goldsmiths is mostly reconstructed by indirect evidence according to the tool marks on the objects. We assume that the fine metal work-ing tools, like crucibles, casting moulds, hammers, anvils, and punches, were made from stone, copper, ceramics, ant-ler, and bone. Secondly, we have to consider that these tools, except for the hearth, could be transported easily in a con-tainer or bag. Ethnographic examples show that fine metal workers can work without a special workshop, in a senden-tary, nomadic or semi-nomadic way, never leaving any equipment at the working place (Armbruster 1995).

»All that glitters is gold«

Some of the ring-shaped beads especially from the burial no. 43 (Fig. 11b) caught our attention because of their pecu-liar silvery colour. It seems as if they were purposly arranged together with yellow-coloured gold beads within bracelets or necklaces, perhaps to increase the shimmering effect of these adornments.

The chemical analyses of these beads yielded very high silver concentrations around 45 % (Fig. 12). Returning to the observation of early alloying and the presumable intentio-nal manipulation of the gold colour by the admixture of cop-per, the question arose, whether these high silver concen-trations might also be intentional. An intentional addition would mean that silver was already available in significant amounts during the Late Chalcolithic, which cannot be sub-stantiated by corresponding archaeological finds. Until now there are only two silver ring-idols from Greece (from the Alepotrypa cave in the southern Peloponnesus and from Eileithyia near Amnissos, Crete) that are dated by J. Maran

Fig. 12a–b a Results of trace element analyses by LA-ICP-MS show that high copper concentrations could be found not only in the silver-rich gold objects but also in those with lower silver concentrations; b The lead concentrations tend to be slightly higher in the silver-rich alloys but the trend is not very pronounced and cannot be interpreted as a clear sign for an intentional admixture of silver. Abb. 12a–b a Die Ergebnisse der Spurenelementanalyse (mittels LAICPMS) zeigen, dass hohe Kupferkonzentrationen nicht nur in silberreichen Goldobjekten, sondern auch in solchen mit niedrigen Silberkonzentrationen vorkommen; b die Bleikonzentrationen sind in den silberreichen Legierungen leicht erhöht. Diese Tendenz ist jedoch nicht besonders ausgeprägt und kann nicht als Nachweis einer intentionellen Silberbeimengung gewertet werden.

0,1

1

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100

1000

10000

1 10 100

Pb

(in m

g/kg

)

Ag (in %)

0,1

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100000

1 000 000

1 10 100

Cu

(in m

g/kg

)

Ag (in %) a b



(2ooo) to the Chalcolithic period between the 5th and the first half of the 4th millenium BC. He assumes a high level of metallurgical expertise in the Aegean, which may have included cuppelation already (Maran 2ooo, 185; 189). Further, another find of an anthropomorphic pendant that presumably is made out of silver was found at the Cucuteni-A settlement of Truşeşti in Romania (Dergačev 2oo2, 78).

So far, clear analytical evidence for prehistoric silver pro-duction from argentiferous lead ores by cupellation was found for the 4th millenium BC in eastern Anatolia and north ern Syria (Hess et al. 1998; Pernicka et al. 1998). Even if one would assume that this process was already practiced at Varna corresponding chemical indications should be expected. For instance, one would expect a positive correla-tion of lead with increasing silver contents as cupelled silver typically contains between o.1 % and 1.o % lead (Gale et al. 198o; Pernicka/Bachmann 1993). Such a correlation could not be found in the recent data and, moreover, the lead con-centrations are well below o.1 % (Fig. 12b). Another source of silver could be the native metal, which does occur in nature but has so far only been identified in prehistoric arte-facts from Spain where it was used for jewellery production in the El Argar culture of the 3rd millennium BC (Bartel-heim et al. 2o12).

Another analytical finding that may be interpreted as indicative for an intentional alloying of silver is the in- creased copper concentration between 1.5 % and 3.o % that was detected in many of the silver-rich objects (Fig. 12a). Usually copper concentrations in natural gold are below o.5 % (Schmiderer 2oo8, 11o Fig. 11o) or at least are esti-mated to be less than 2.o % as summarised in A. Haupt-mann et al. (2o1o, 154). Although, such high concentrations of copper as in the silver-rich gold objects from Varna are uncommon in natural gold, they cannot be regarded as proof for alloying neither with silver nor with copper. As discussed earlier, according to comparative studies and geo-logical investigations it is more likely that the copper in the artefacts is »enriched [from 1 % up to 7,7 %] in the gold, because the gold grains were first insufficiently separated from copper mineral grains in the placer material« (Haupt-mann/Klein 2oo9, 79 f.; see also Hauptmann et al. 2o1o, 15o Fig. 7; 154).

Thus, the chemical analyses of the silver-rich gold objects from Varna did not reveal any clear evidence for an inten-tional admixture of silver. Moreover, it could be shown that silver concentrations in natural gold »can vary from practi-cally nil to about 4o–5o %« (Raub 1995, 245). According to the new analyses, intentional alloying of gold with silver cannot be substantiated at Varna. However, a deliberate use of differently coloured gold may be assumed.

»Gilding« and polychromy

The seemingly intentional use of different gold colours at Varna may reflect a general interest to combine differently coloured materials with each other. This is also illustrated by the polychrome jewellery composed of gold and col-oured stones, as for example the necklace from grave no. 97 (Fig. 3b). Beyond its use as jewellery material, gold also

served as a decoration of particular grave goods. As such, textiles, hammer axes, ceramics, but also the clay heads from the burials no. 2, 3, and 15 were gilded by wrapping or covering them with gold sheets (Fig. 1–2; 4–5). Presumably, by this gilding the social and/or religious meaning of the respective objects were emphasised.

In this regard, one group of objects deserves closer atten-tion: These are the tools or weapons (Fig. 1; 4–5). The gold decoration accentuates their symbolic value as prestige goods or symbols of social/religious power. At the same time these objects presumably mirror the social importance of the associated activities. As discussed above, they may represent hunting, warfare, and/or craftsmanship. Some objects were even thought to represent metallurgical skills. For instance, the hammer axes were often associated with metallurgy (Marazov 1988, 74 f.), even though this func-tional interpretation so far cannot clearly be corroborated by corresponding archaeological evidence. Another disputed find is the famous so-called phallus-sheath from the grave no. 43 which eventually has to be re-interpreted. The recent review of the excavation documentation by Slavčev clearly revealed that the original position of this object was beside the body of the deceased (see also Ivanov 1988, 55 Fig. 25) and not between his legs as it is exhibited in the museum, which obviously led to the interpretation as a phallus. As an alternative interpretation it may represent an imitation or gilding of a tuyère (Fig. 4a; Lichardus 1991, 174). Also the contemporaneous ceramic tuyères (one example from Kubrat, Bulgaria, is shown in figure 4) were often mis-interpreted as phalli (Lichardus 1991, 174). In any case, considering the erroneous reconstruction of its original position in the grave, the interpretation of this prominent gold find as a phallus can be rejected. Of course, the re-interpretation as a tuyère is highly speculative as well, and also other functional recon structions must be discussed. Another object that was already mentioned and related to a metallurgical context is the golden hammer from the complex no. 36 (Fig. 5,2). But as discussed above, the lack of contemporary typological analogies of such tools renders its functional interpretation equally debatable.

Material distribution: workshop and supply organisation

After discussing the functional and technical aspects of the gold finds from Varna the question shall be addressed how the different chemical gold groups are distributed within the burial site. For this purpose a general compositional clas-sification of the gold finds was achieved based on XRF anal-yses. The material groups are defined by their silver and cop-per concentrations and thus represent the major gold alloys that were used for the production of the objects (Fig. 13). The gold concentration can be neglected for the discrimination of these gold groups, because it is not an independent varia-ble within the ancient gold matrix, as it correlates negatively with silver. Other elements at trace levels below o.1 % could not be detected by XRF. Considering the usual concentra-tion ranges of silver and copper in the native gold, as dis-cussed above, the majority of the gold from Varna can be regarded as naturally occurring gold alloys. An exception



are the few objects with copper concentration around 3o %, as discussed earlier.

This first-order classification by XRF analyses was essen-tially used to study the intra-site distribution of the mate-rial. Furthermore, a finer classification of the gold could be achieved by trace element analyses with LA-ICP-MS of a selection of finds as exemplified by figure 14. Here, the trace elements platinum and palladium are plotted, that were determined for the samples of a coherent gold group, that was classified by the XRF results (Fig. 13; dark grey »clus-ter«). At least two sub-groups emerge from the trace element analyses. The differences in the trace element pattern mir-ror typological differences as it is illustrated by figure 14. Thus, trace element analyses with LA-ICP-MS provide more variables for the classification of the gold artefacts. There-fore, when interpreting the XRF groups one has to keep in mind that they may be further differentiated into sub-groups when their trace element compositions are also con-sidered. These sub-groups could not be classified for the whole range of gold objects, because it was not possible to

analyse the entire material from Varna by LA-ICP-MS. Hence, the results only enable a selective insight into these possible sub-groupings but certainly attest the validity of both analytical methods.

Figure 13 illustrates the material groups of the Varna cemetery that could be identified by XRF. As shown in the discussion of the technical and functional aspects of the gold objects from Varna, a great typological and technologi-cal variety could be attested. Besides the large number of gold objects that comprise c. 3ooo objects with a total weight of c. 6 kg (Ivanov 1988, 58), it is this variety that must be regarded as outstanding and that is mirrored as well in the different chemical groups as shown in figure 13. The visu-alised XRF groups can be regarded as chemical relics of dis-tinct »patterns of [production and] consumption« (Roberts 2oo9, 471), that help to elucidate past social practices. Echt et al. (1991) already used a similar approach to study the intra-site distribution of selected gold artefacts from Varna (based on their technological and chemical analyses) as a means to reconstruct their production and distribution.

Zoomorphic appliqué

Domed appliqué

Bead

Armlet

Pd

(in m

g/kg

)

Pt (in mg/kg)

0,1

1

10

100

0,1 1 10 100 1000

Fig. 14 The trace element signatures are defined by specific platinum and palladium concentra-tions. The plotted data represent selected gold objects of a homogeneous gold group that was defined by the XRF results (cf. »cluster« that is highlighted in dark grey in figure 13). This dia-gram shows that a more detailed material classi-fication could be achieved by LA-ICP-MS. A cor-releation exists between typology and chemical composition. Abb. 14 Spurenelementsignaturen lassen sich anhand der spezifischen Platin und Palladiumkonzentrationen der untersuchten Artefakte definieren. Die Daten beziehen sich auf ausgewählte Goldobjekte einer homogenen Goldgruppe (vgl. das dunkelgrau hervorgehobene »Cluster« in Abbildung 13), die anhand der RFAErgebnisse definiert wurde. Das Diagramm zeigt, dass durch die Spurenelementanalyse (mittels LAICPMS) eine genauere Materialklassifizierung vorgenommen werden kann. Eine deutliche Korrelation zwischen Typologie und chemischer Zusammensetzung ist erkennbar.

Cu

(in %

)

Ag (in %)

1 10 100 0,01

0,1

1

10

Fig. 13 Copper and silver concentrations accord ing to the XRF results. The different gold groups (point clouds) show distinct silver and copper concentrations. The group that is high-lighted in dark grey is further discussed accord-ing to its trace element concentrations in figure 14. Abb. 13 Kupfer und Silberkonzentrationen anhand der RFAErgebnisse. Die verschiedenen Goldgruppen (Punktwolken) zeichnen sich durch unterschiedliche Silber und Kupferkonzentrationsbereiche aus. Die dunkelgrau hervorgehobene Gruppe wird bezüglich ihrer Spurenelementmuster in Abbildung 14 detailliert betrachtet.



The recent studies follow up this matter as will be briefly discussed below.

As already demonstrated in the discussion of serial pro-duction the chemical groups correlate with the typological classification (Fig. 8; 14). This suggests advanced production techniques in goldworking and well organised workshops. Parallel to this specific typological patterning, the distribu-tion of various gold groups within the cemetery can be studied to uncover social or economic relations between dif-ferent archaeological contexts or the so-called »patterns of consumption« (Roberts 2oo9, 471). To illustrate this approach, the compositions of the gold objects from the buri-als no. 36 and no. 43 are compared (Fig. 15). It was found that their compositions show systematic differences that reflect such patterns of consumption, as by trend the gold objects from the burials no. 36 and no. 43 are chemically different.

Moreover, the gold objects reflect variations in the techni-cal skills of their producers. For instance, many shapes from the burial no. 36 display more complex workpieces like the gold decorated sceptres (Fig. 5,2–3) and the double-convex bracelets (Fig. 1c). Bracelets and golden sceptre decorations also occur in the grave no. 43 (Fig. 1d) but in a simpler form. Considering, moreover, the above mentioned, different ide-ological backgrounds of the dicussed burials one might con-clude that different workshops produced exclu sively for a certain clientele, perhaps even exclusively for the funerary deposition. This would fit the idea that skilled artisans may have been supported by or bound to different social author-ities (Rowlands 1971, 212). It also has been widely discussed, whether this social elite was directly involved in the produc-tion of the prestige items (Marazov 1988). Yet, according to the archaeological record this direct involvement remains elusive.

Beyond the intra-site distribution patterns the diversity of chemical gold groups also may point to an equally well organised supply of gold. Even if the different XRF groups do not necessarily represent different geological gold sources, it seems legitimate to assume that all the different alloys as shown in the figures 13 and 15 cannot derive from one sin-gle placer deposit. The diversity rather points towards a sup-ply with raw gold that may resemble the supply with copper during the Late Chalcolithic. Chemical and isotopic analyses revealed different provenance regions for copper, like the Balkans around Stara Zagora and the west Pontic copper deposits around Burgas14. This finding reflects several trade routes that were established for the supply of copper and probably also served for the exchange of other goods. And indeed, other commodities that were found at Varna, as for example flint, carnelian, marble, obsidian, spondylus, and dentalium also reflect specific and well established exchange networks that contour the economic area of the KGK VI cul-tural complex (e. g. Todorova 1995; Hansen 2oo9; Ivanova 2o12). According to these findings, one may equally assume that the provenance of the Varna gold lay within this econo-mic region. As argued above, presumably several placer gold occurrences were exploited that ensured a constant stream of raw gold to produce the numerous deposited objects. The production of these objects then supposedly happened in workshops in the Varna region (Todorova/Vajsov 2oo1). Even if the exact mining sites remain elusive, the recent archaeo-logical and geological research changed the perception that most of the gold was imported from afar, for example from the Caucasus as Hartmann (1982, 4o) suggested. Hartmann concluded from the presence of platinum in some gold arte-facts from Varna that the raw gold was imported, because at that time no mineralisations of PGE in south-east Europe were known (Lichardus 1988, 1o6). According to the recent

14 Černych 1988; Weisgerber/Pernicka 1995; Pernicka et al. 1997; Dimitrov 2oo2; Gale et al. 2oo3.

1 10 100 0,01

0,1

1

10

Cu

(in %

)

Ag (in %)

Grave no. 43 Complex no. 36

Fig. 15 Distribution of gold groups within the complex no. 36 and the grave no. 43 that show mutually distinct material foci. Abb. 15 Verteilung der Goldgruppen innerhalb des Komplexes 36 und des Grabes 43, die deutlich zu unterscheidende Materialschwerpunkte aufweisen.



investigations an import of the gold from distant regions is no more compelling. In addition, considering also the other commodities that were found at Varna, a local supply com-prising the region of the KGK VI cultural complex and its adjacent areas seems more likely as already was suggested by C. Renfrew (1978).

Conclusion

Some aspects of early goldworking and use were discussed on the basis of new analyses of the gold objects from the Late Chalcolithic cemetery Varna I in Bulgaria. Numerous publications already exist about this earliest »gold indus-try«, as Todorova and Vajsov (2oo1) once called it, but since the discovery of the site no coherent presentation of all finds and features has been brought forward so far. Despite the fact that the previous technological studies and analy-ses of the gold objects were limited to a rather small num-ber, many important insights could be gained already. These insights have been complemented and expanded by the recent investigations of practically all gold objects from the cemetery. For instance, very elaborate production tech-niques could be identified and confirmed that attest a high level of the organisation of production and distribution. For example, evidence for alloying with copper, complex cast-ing techniques, and serial production has been found. Fur-thermore, the diversity of different gold compositions (mostly natural variations of gold) shows certain patterns that point to restrictive mechanisms of distribution. More-over, they indicate the exploitation of various gold occur-rences and a well organised supply with the raw gold.

But besides these insights there remain some open ques-tions, as for example for the exact localisation of the gold sources. Also the technological relationship between cop-per and gold metallurgy requires more research. A careful evaluation of the intra-site distribution patterns of the Varna gold is still in progress and will be presented in more

detail in a PhD thesis by V. Leusch. In this respect, the pre-liminary results of the seriation (see Krauß et al. in the pres-ent volume) add further insights into the social structure of the site.

Acknowledgements

At the end of this contribution the authors wish to thank several persons who were very important for the progress of this study. V. Slavčev provided important information about the archaeological record and figures of the presented finds. As curator he also made it possible for us to work in the archaeological museum of Varna and, together with O. Pele-vina, kindly provided access to the finds. To S. Tsaneva we owe the possibility to analyse the objects from the grave no. 1 from Varna, which are part of the collection of the National Museum of History in Sofia. K. Dimitrov was in charge of the sampling as well as the documentation and technological examination of the gold objects that was essential and very helpful for our work. The geological studies were conducted by D. Yovchev and V. Kovachev, Sofia University »St. Kliment Ohridski«, who gratefully shared their insights and thus helped to elucidate the geo-economic prerequisites for gold exploitation of the region under investigation. To R. Krauß the authors owe a holistic view of the Varna material which he and his students pa- tiently summarised and evaluated statistically. Further, great thanks are given to the reviewer of this article for the constructive criticism and to M. Radivojević for helpful comments, linguisitc revision, and inspiring discussion. Also we want to thank all col leagues, who supported us by critical and fruitful discussions. Last but not least, sincere thanks are also given to the organisers of the 6th Archaeo-logical Conference of Central Germany and the editing team for making it possible to present and discuss these results.



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source of figures

1 a K. Dimitrov, Bulgarian Academy of Science; b–c B. Armbruster; d K. Dimitrov, Bulgarian Aca-demy of Science

2 K. Dimitrov, Bulgarian Academy of Science

3 a V. Leusch; b B. Armbruster

4 a drawing ceramic tuyère after Lichardus 1988, 1o6 Fig. 58; a–b photos and drawings R. Kostadinova, R. Docsan, V. Slavčev, all Varna Museum of Archaeology

5 B. Armbruster 6 V. Leusch

7 B. Armbruster 8 V. Leusch 9 a after Echt et al. 1991, 651 Fig. 7;

b–c B. Armbruster 1o–11 B. Armbruster 12–15 V. Leusch

Tab. 1 V. Leusch

addresses

Verena Leusch M. A.Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie gGmbH (CEZA)D6, 3D-68159 [email protected] Karls Universität TübingenInstitut für Ur- und Frühgeschichte und Archäologie des MittelaltersSchloss HohentübingenBurgsteige 11D-72o7o Tübingen

Prof. Dr. Ernst PernickaCurt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie gGmbH (CEZA)D6, 3D-68159 [email protected]ät HeidelbergInstitut für GeowissenschaftenIm Neuenheimer Feld 236D-6912o [email protected]

Dr. Barbara ArmbrusterCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)Travaux et Recherches Archéologiques sur les Cultures, les Espaces et les Sociétés (T.R.A.C.E.S) – UMR 56o8Maison de la Recherche Université de Toulouse le Mirail5, allée Antonio MachadoF-31o58 Toulouse Cedex [email protected]


Bislang erschienene Bände in der reihe »Tagungsbände des Landesmuseums für

Vorgeschichte halle«

Die Reihe der Tagungsbände des Landesmuseums wurde 2oo8 ins Leben gerufen. Anlass dazu war die Konferenz »Luthers Lebenswelten«, die im Jahr 2oo7 in Halle ausge-richtet wurde. Bereits der zweite Tagungsband widmete sich mit dem Thema »Schlachtfeldarchäologie« dem Mitteldeut-schen Archäologentag, der seit 2oo8 jährlich von Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt veran-staltet und zeitnah publiziert wird. Dem großen Anteil inter-

nationaler Autorinnen und Autoren entsprechend, erschei-nen viele Beiträge dieser Reihe in englischer Sprache mit deutscher Zusammenfassung.

Mit dem bislang zuletzt erschienenen Tagungsband konnten die Vorträge und Posterpräsentationen des 5. Mittel-deutschen Archäologentags »Rot – Die Archäologie bekennt Farbe« in zahlreichen Artikeln renommierter Forscher ver-schiedenster Fachdisziplinen vorgelegt werden.

Lieferbar sind folgende Bände:

Band 1/2oo8 Harald Meller/Stefan Rhein/Hans-Georg Stephan (Hrsg.), Luthers Lebenswelten.

Tagung vom 25. bis 27. September 2oo7 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-22-3, € 39,oo

Band 2/2oo9 Harald Meller (Hrsg.), Schlachtfeldarchäologie. Battlefield Archaeology.

1. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom o9. bis 11. Oktober 2oo8 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-41-4, € 35,oo

Band 3/2o1o Harald Meller/Kurt W. Alt (Hrsg.), Anthropologie, Isotopie und DNA –

biografische Annäherung an namenlose vorge-schichtliche Skelette? 2. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom o8. bis 1o. Oktober 2oo9 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-53-7, € 29,oo

Band 4/2o1o Harald Meller/Regine Maraszek (Hrsg.), Masken der Vorzeit in Europa I.

Internationale Tagung vom 2o. bis 22. November 2oo9 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-54-4, € 32,oo

Band 5/2o11 Harald Meller/François Bertemes (Hrsg.), Der Griff nach den Sternen. Wie Europas Eliten

zu Macht und Reichtum kamen. Internationales Symposium in Halle (Saale) 16.–21. Februar 2oo5 (2 Bände). ISBN 978-3-939414-28-5, € 128,oo

Band 6/2o11 Hans-Rudolf Bork/Harald Meller/ Renate Gerlach (Hrsg.), Umweltarchäologie – Naturkatastrophen und

Umweltwandel im archäologischen Befund. 3. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom o7. bis o9. Oktober 2o1o in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-64-3, € 32,oo

Band 7/2o12 Harald Meller/Regine Maraszek (Hrsg.), Masken der Vorzeit in Europa II.

Internationale Tagung vom 19. bis 21. November 2o1o in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-939414-9o-2, € 32,oo


Erhältlich im Buchhandel oder direkt beim Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-AnhaltLandesmuseum für VorgeschichteRichard-Wagner-Str. 9D-o6114 Halle (Saale)

Tel.: +49-345-5247-332Fax: +49-345-5247-351E-Mail: [email protected]

Band 8/2o12 François Bertemes/Harald Meller (Hrsg.), Neolithische Kreisgabenanlagen in Europa.

Neolithic Circular Enclosures in Europe. Internationale Arbeitstagung 7. bis 9. Mai 2oo4 in Goseck (Sachsen-Anhalt). ISBN 978-3-939414-33-9, € 59,oo

Band 9/2o13 Harald Meller/Francois Bertemes/ Hans-Rudolf Bork/Roberto Risch (Hrsg.), 16oo – Kultureller Umbruch im Schatten des

Thera-Ausbruchs? 16oo – Cultural change in the shadow of the Thera-Eruption? 4. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom 14. bis 16. Oktober 2o11 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-9445o7-oo-2, € 69,oo

Band 1o/2o13 Harald Meller/Christian-Heinrich Wunder-lich/Franziska Knoll (Hrsg.), Rot – die Archäologie bekennt Farbe.

5. Mitteldeutscher Archäologentag vom o4. bis o6. Oktober 2o12 in Halle (Saale). ISBN 978-3-9445o7-o1-9, € 49,oo

Chalcolithic Gold from Varna - Provenance, circulation, processing, and function

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Transcript of Chalcolithic Gold from Varna - Provenance, circulation, processing, and function