Some Honeybee plants of Bas-Congo Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Paul Latham

A group of women beekeepers prepare to harvest honey near Kavwaya

This publication is an output from a project part funded by the United Kingdom Department for International Development for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID. [Advisory and Support Services Contract, project code ZX0077] Note: This is the English edition of a manual being produced in Kikongo and French to encourage beekeeping and the conservation and planting of useful bee plants in Bas-Congo Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many of the plants mentioned are however present in countries throughout the humid tropics of Africa so that it is hoped the manual will be of interest to development workers and beekeepers throughout this region.

Revised edition 2002

Introduction and acknowledgements

Following an initial trial period, carried out with the help of several Peace Corps volunteers, and funded by Christian Aid, training in beekeeping was provided by the Salvation Army to villagers near Mbanza Nzundu in the Bas-Congo Province in the early 1980’s. Many of them commenced placing hives near their homes and by 1990 there were nearly 400 beekeepers, each with one or more hives, producing an average honey surplus for sale of 7.3 kg each (Paterson 1991). That figure has now risen to over 1000 beekeepers with a total of nearly 2000 hives and an estimated production of 14 tonnes of honey. Although there are some beekeepers with up to 40 hives the majority still have only one or two and use the honey sold as a useful source of supplementary income.

I gratefully acknowledge the work and help of the following:-

Peter Paterson who provided the initial inspiration to see that beekeeping could provide villagers with a means of self support.

Commissioner Mbakanu Diakanwa of the Salvation Army who encouraged and supported the start up of the venture.

Greg Farino, Rod Snow, Barbara Dawicke (Peace Corps volunteers) who originally introduced beekeeping to Bas-Congo.

Captain Mayasi, Beyoz, Gros Jos, Erik Polrot, Heather Poxon, Jacques Miaglia, Captain Mankindu, Lemba Mayasi, Mvokolo Pierre, Lubaki Dipesa, Kuala Nkanza and Tata Nsimba for their work on the beekeeping programme at Mbanza Nzundu, Kavwaya and Kasangulu.

Kibungu Kembelo, the director of the Botanic Gardens at Kisantu, Dr. Herman Breyne, Dr. Kaj Vollesen, taxonomic botanist at Kew, and Dr. Luc Pauwels of the Botanic Garden at Meise in Belgium who identified many of the bee forage plants.

Christian Aid who have supported the project from the start and continue to do so.

The many beekeepers I have met and talked with in Bas-Congo.

Committee members of the honey co-operative (COABAC) for details of production.

This manual is dedicated to the memory of Tata Mabasa who provided the site for the initial beekeeping trials at Mbanza Nzundu. An outstanding Christian gentleman, he gave invaluable support and counsel to the project in its early years.

Unless otherwise stated the vernacular names are given in Kikongo.

“...the ground is holy, being even as it came from the Creator. Keep it, guard it, care for it, for it keeps men, guards men, cares for men. Destroy it and man is destroyed”.

(Alan Paton in Cry the Beloved Country).

Beekeeping in Bas-Congo

The Bas-Congo Province lies between the coast and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It covers an area of nearly 55,000 km sq. and has an estimated population of 3.9 million. Soils are either deep sand or clay in the districts of Cataractes and Lukaya where beekeeping is practised and a system of shifting cultivation is used to produce crops of cassava, maize, beans, groundnuts, sweet potatoes, pumpkins etc.

Traditionally areas of the bush/savannah have been protected from fire which has led to the establishment of forest reserves (called Nkuunku in Kikongo). After a certain number of years decided by the village chief, these are allocated to families for growing their field crops. These patches of forest were normally left for between 15 and 20 years but are now more likely to be cut down after 5 or 6 years because of the shortage of good fallow land. This has led to the invasion of coarse grass species and Chromolaena odorata (Siam weed) which are generally burnt during the dry season resulting in a further loss of forest species.

Nkuunku forest near Mayenga.

The forest fallow is the only practical method of maintaining soil fertility and providing the range of non timber products that maintain rural life in Bas-Congo. Unless land is returned to forest fallow after cropping it becomes virtually useless after a relatively short time and considerable effort is then needed to rehabilitate it.

Honey hunting has been a traditional activity in Bas-Congo, as in much of Africa, but beekeeping has only been practised in the area since the early 1980's. The beehive in common use is the top bar hive which has been introduced from Kenya. Beehives are always sited in areas of fairly thick bush or forest and therefore usually in the nkuunku. Beekeepers choose these areas to provide shade and seclusion and to enable them to get away from the hive without being followed by bees after inspection or

Cataractes and Lukaya Districts Bas-Congo Province

harvesting the hives. A twisting path leading to the back of the hive, away from the entrance, also helps the beekeeper leave it without being followed back home.

“Beware ! Forest with bees”.

A forest apiary near Kisantu. This site provides a quiet, safe place for keeping bees and also for rearing edible caterpillars* - an important food source in Bas-Congo.

“Nkuunku n’siki vwaangi” At first there was the protected bush, then there was the n'siki (Morinda lucida) tree that grew, and finally we have the forest.

Kikongo proverb (Ndia N’soki 1994)

* The Kikongo names of these are mentioned in the text and an appendix of scientific names, where known, is provided (see Edible caterpillar index). Caterpillars are comparatively rich in protein and are frequently found in sufficient quantities for them to be dried and stored for later use. A companion book is being produced describing some of the important species and the plants on which they feed.

The placing of hives in these forest fallow areas has encouraged villagers to leave them for as long as possible though in some cases, where the number of beekeepers in the village is small, there has been a clash of interests.

Beekeeping has provided considerable income to farmers and the return from several hives provides useful income to cover the cost of school fees, clothing and medical expenses. It thus provides the forest fallow with considerable additional value. It is not uncommon to find up to ten hives in a hectare of forest, yielding from 50 - 100 litres of honey per annum, which currently sells at $2 per litre.

Top Bar Hive below a mango tree near Kavwaya

The Top Bar Hive in Kenya has sloping sides, but these have not been found necessary in Bas-Congo and only hives with perpendicular sides are used. They are normally up to 1m long, 50 cm wide by 30 cm deep with top bars 50 cm long and 3.2 cm wide. A single entrance of 15 x 1 cm is cut at one end of the hive. The hives are protected from rain with a piece of corrugated metal sheet or with a roof made from split bamboo. The hives are usually placed on stands made from forked sticks and a cross member, though these tend to rot after a year or two, and many beekeepers use metal stands, especially where red or black ants are a problem. Ashes are spread round the hives to keep them away and their nests burned out if they can be found. The honey badger, which causes considerable trouble in some parts of Africa, does not appear to be present in Bas-Congo.

Hive showing top bars and bees around entrance. Note mosquito net square sewn into the beekeepers overall. The latter is made up from used flour sacks.

Inside the hive showing comb attached to top bar

Extracting a colony from a felled tree for transfer to a top bar hive

Wild comb being fastened to top bar

Bees normally enter hives that have been baited with beeswax, though some colonies are dug out of the ground or cut from tree trunks and several of the combs are then tied onto top bars in the new hive. However the risk of absconding is always greater if the bees have been transferred manually. Often catcher boxes, containing 5 or 6 bars, are used to attract colonies in particularly suitable sites or for the transport of wild colonies.

In recent years the shortage and expense of timber and corrugated iron sheet have encouraged people to use alternative materials. The range of substitutes includes old 200 litre chemical or fuel drums cut in half, their ends removed and their sides pushed together until they form an oblong approximately 50 cm wide to accommodate the top bars. Plastic basins and old truck fuel tanks have also been successfully converted. Hives have been built with bricks which have the additional advantage of being fire proof should a bush fire get out of control. Cheap hives can be made up from Nkooko (Raphia spp.) palm stems.

Hive made from papyrus and raffia palm stems

A wooden hive costs between $10 and $20 and usually lasts 4 to 5 years. Though the palm hive only lasts 2 to 3 years it is easy to replace, being made up locally and the top bars can simply be transferred to the new hive. Top bars are replaced following harvest or inspection as necessary. Instead of using purchased top bars many people now use straight pieces of Nkooko (Raphia sp.) of the correct width. As these have a groove on one side melted wax can be run along to provide a foundation for bees to begin constructing comb.

Locally made up smokers and overalls are used for inspection or harvesting the hives. These have also become expensive and are often shared by a group of beekeepers. The smokers are made from metal sheeting with the bellows made from an inner tube and half a bedspring. The coveralls are made from old flour sacks with a square of strong plastic netting sewn in to protect the face.

Though average yields of honey are from 10 - 15 kg per hive, yields of up to 35 kg have been known. About 1 kg of wax is also harvested from the melted down comb after the honey has been allowed to drain out.

Mama Matondo of Muingu village with a hive made from burnt clay bricks set on the ground. A strong colony and plenty of ashes scattered round the hive discourages ants.

A 200 litre drum cut in half makes a good hive. The top and bottom have been removed. The drum should be sunk into the ground sufficiently to prevent ants etc. getting to the honey.

An old truck fuel tank brought back into service as a beehive.

A cracked plastic basin similarly used as a hive.

The main honey flow occurs in June and July and harvesting takes place in August, though there may be a small flow in November. The chief honey source is from the introduced Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata). However a number of indigenous lianas, shrubs and trees are important pollen and nectar sources for maintaining the colony throughout the year. Of these Chaetocarpus africanus and Gaertnera paniculata are particularly important. Fruit trees such as mango and safoutier are good nectar producers, and the oil palm is a useful pollen source. Some varieties of cassava which flower over long periods during the rain season are also important. In tropical Africa many plants secrete nectar in the early morning and evening and honey bees are therefore more active during these times (FAO 1986).

Gros Jos, the village mechanic at Mbanza Nzundu, with items, including a smoker, made up from scrap metal and a car inner tube.

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. (Mimosaceae) Ecology Grown extensively in Bas-Congo. Grows on a wide range of deep, shallow and seasonally waterlogged soils. Particularly useful for poor sterile sandy soils, which are unsuitable for Eucalypts. Can be planted on steep soils for erosion control. Not fire resistant (Leloup 1956, ICRAF 1998).

Acacia auriculiformis in flower in January Uses Bees collect pollen in Bas-Congo. The tree produces a good fine grained timber. Useful for village fuel wood supply, yielding from 16 - 25 tons/ha. Makes a good charcoal. Useful for smothering coarse grasses including Imperata grass but Chromolaena odorata thrives beneath it. Because of its densely matted root system it is useful for stabilizing soils on steep sterile slopes. Produces a large amount of litter, which is nitrogen rich and builds up both fertility and tilth. Edible fungi grow on the wood (ICRAF 1998). Food plant for Kaba, Minsendi, Kwesu and Mvinsu edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Description A tree from 8 to 20 m high, heavily branched with a short, crooked stem. Branches are liable to break in high winds (Turnbull 1987). Propagation Seeds should be put in boiling water and allowed to cool and soak for 24 hours. Susceptible to weed competition in the early stages (Turnbull 1987). Cuttings can be taken from young twigs (ICRAF 1998). Management Coppices poorly but when trees are felled many seedlings emerge. Growth up to 6 m in 2 years. Rotations of 10 - 12 years give high yields of wood (NAS 1980). An unidentified disease affects many trees in Bas-Congo, so it may be advisable to plant mixed stands including indigenous species.

Adenia poggei Engl. (Passifloraceae) Common names Kimpemba Ecology Found in various types of forest environment, sometimes flooded, up to 575 m altitude in W. Cameroon, Gabon, R. D. Congo and the Republic of Central Africa (Robyns 1995).

Adenia poggei in secondary forest near Kasangulu Uses Bees forage actively for nectar in January. Other species e.g. A. cissampeloides, A. lobata and A. mannii are known to be bee forage plants in Gabon and the Ivory Coast (Lobreau Callen et al. 1988, Burkill 1997, Ambougou 1991). The leaves of this species and of A. lobata (Kalawanti) are eaten as a vegetable in R. D. Congo (Konda et al. 1992, Robyns 1995). Description A herbaceous creeper up to 20 m long. Leaves are 1.5 - 10 cm long and 1 - 7.5 cm wide. The plant produces an abundance of small flowers. Remarks A. gracilis is also called Kimpemba and is the food plant of Mumpembe and Mundele (white) edible caterpillars (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). References Robyns, A. (1995) Passifloracae, Flore d’Afrique centrale

Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth. (Mimosaceae) Common names Sela Ecology Found growing in the savannah in Bas-Congo. From Senegal to Uganda and south to Angola and R. D. Congo (Keay 1989).

Albizia ferruginea near Gombe Matadi Uses Bees work the flowers during September in Bas-Congo. Known as a bee forage in Gabon (Ambougou 1991). A good timber tree with possibilities as an oak substitute. The timber is hard, easy to work and resistant to decay (Irvine 1961, NAS 1979). It is often used for charcoal making in Bas-Congo. It is a promising afforestation species which coppices freely. Food plant for Minsangula, Mimpemba, N'kankiti, Masela and Minsendi edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). There is no record of nodulation but it is probable (Sutherland 1996). Description A forest tree growing to 45 m high. Spreading flat branches and a domed crown. Flowers are greenish-white, up to 12 mm long, and are borne in small clusters on hairy stalks and have long protruding stamens (Irvine 1961, Keay 1989). Propagation Can be grown from seed or wildlings.

Allium fistulosum L. (Alliaceae)

Common name Ciboule (Fr.), welsh onion, Japanese bunching onion.

Ecology Widely grown in tropical Africa. Prefers well drained soils with plenty of organic matter. Tolerates heavy rainfall. Prefers altitudes over 1000 m where it gives better yields (Brewster 1994).

Allium fistulosum in flower in September at Mbanza Ngungu

Uses An important source of nectar in areas where this plant is common (e.g. around Mbanza Ngungu where it is grown commercially). Leaves and bulbs are used for flavouring soups instead of onions in Bas-Congo. Flowering is induced by low temperatures once the plants reach a critical size (Brewster 1994).

Description Ciboule produces a relatively small bulb 2.5 cm in diameter. Lateral buds form a clump. Leaves are hollow, circular and from 15 - 30 cm long (Purseglove 1972).

Propagation Grown from seed or by division. Seedlings are transplanted when 15 - 20 cm high to 24 - 30 cm between rows and 15 - 20 cm in the row. The tops should be reduced by a third when dividing clumps (Brewster 1994).

Management Harvest may be prolonged by detaching the outer leafy shoots from the main cluster without disturbing the parent plant. Alternatively the whole plant can be lifted and divided. Plants are usually ready to harvest 60 - 120 days from planting depending on the particular cultivar. Average yield 20 tons/ha (Brewster 1994).

Reference Brewster, J.L. (1994) Onions and other vegetable Alliums. CAB

Annona senegalensis subsp. oulotricha Le Thomas (Annonaceae) Common names Kilolo, wild custard apple. Ecology A common savannah species in Bas-Congo. Found all over Africa in semi -arid to sub-humid regions. Grows mostly as an under-storey shrub on light, infertile and shallow soils. Grows best where water is readily available (ICRAF 1998).

Annona senegalensis bearing fruit in January near Kinsadi Uses Reported as a good bee plant flowering from September to November in Bas-Congo. The fruit is edible but the seeds should be spat out as they are poisonous if crushed. Stems are used in hut building and for tool handles. The timber makes a good firewood. Rope is made from young sucker shoots. The soluble wood ash can be used for making soap. The bark, leaves, roots and seeds have medicinal and insecticidal properties. The gum is applied to cuts and wounds to seal them. Eating the fruit is useful for the treatment of guinea worm (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976). The leaves are eaten by Kaba and Minsendi edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Description A spreading, slow growing shrub or small tree from 2 to 6m high. Established trees are fire resisting and sprout readily from the stumps (ICRAF 1998). Propagation Seedlings, root suckers and wildlings. Root suckers are produced after fire or by mechanical damage. Seeds germinate well on recently cultivated or burnt land. Scarification improves germination. Seeds are susceptible to insect damage and lose viability after 6 months (Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998).

Antigonon leptopus Hook & Arn. (Polygonaceae) Common names Liane corail (Fr.), Mexican creeper, coral creeper. Ecology A woody vine from Mexico and Central America. Needs a well drained fertile soil, a sunny site and shelter from strong winds (Jex-Blake 1957). Drought and to some extent heat tolerant (Macmillan 1991). Uses A good bee plant producing large amounts of nectar, especially on cloudy days. The honey produced is dark, does not granulate quickly and has a tangy, molasses like flavour (Morton 1964, Crane et al. 1984, Macmillan 1991). Bees collect nectar throughout the day during the rain season in Bas-Congo. Often planted for its attractive flowers which are produced over a long period. The tubers are reported to be edible with a nut-like flavour (Uphof 1968, SEPASAL 1999).

Bees collecting nectar from Antigonon leptopus Description A fast growing, evergreen, woody stemmed creeper with tendrils and pale green leaves. It has dense clusters of bright pink, sometimes red or white flowers. Flowers are produced through most of the year. Propagation Propagate by seed or soft wood cuttings. The plant needs careful watering and weeding when young (Crane et al. 1984).

Aoranthe cladantha (K. Schum.) Somers (Rubiaceae) Synonym Porterandia cladantha (K. Schum.) Keay Common names Kisamfi Ecology Found in forested areas from Nigeria to Cameroon and the Central African Republic and into Angola (Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993).

Aoranthe cladantha growing beside water near Kinsala Uses Bees were very active on this tree during the day in January collecting nectar. Also known as a bee forage in Gabon during December, January and March (Ambougou 1991). Two species of edible fungi, Bubwaka (red) and Buditu (black) grow on the leaf litter associated with the tree. Food plant of Malemba (also called Minsongo) edible caterpillars. If caterpillars have been feeding on this plant the stomach contents must be removed and caterpillars washed out as the plant is said to be toxic to man (Nganga 1998). Description Tree to 30 m high. Branches low down with a dense spreading crown. Creamy white flowers produced in great abundance, having a pleasant scent (Pauwels 1993). Remarks Two other species, A. castaneofulva and A. nalaensis, also likely to be good bee forage trees, are present in R.D. Congo (Pauwels 1993).

Barteria nigritiana Hook. f. subsp. fistulosa (Mast) Sleumer (Flacourtiaceae) Common names Minsumi sumi, munsakala, arbre à fourmis (Fr.). Ecology Range from western Nigeria to Uganda and Tanzania and present in Angola as well as R.D. Congo. Occurs in gaps in high forest, gallery forests and in forest regrowth (Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993).

Uses Bees are very much attracted to the flowers of this tree, especially early in the morning in Bas-Congo. The slightly acidic, juicy pulp from ripe fruits is eaten in Uganda (Katende et al. 1999). Makes a fairly good firewood. A useful browse tree, though not very leafy (Cobbina & Reynolds 1988). Wood is flexible and used in construction (Gillet & Pâque 1910). Reported to improve soil fertility in Bas-Congo. Description Shrub or tree from 6 - 19 m high. Leaves 26 - 45 cm long by 7 - 15 cm wide. Branchlets often hollow their whole length, and infested with large ants. Flowering takes place over relatively short periods (Pauwels 1993, Keay 1989).

Propagation Cuttings from base and middle of stem establish well and easily. It can also be grown from seed, though only 15% germinated after soaking in water overnight (Cobbina & Reynolds 1988). Management Coppices well with fast regrowth (Cobbina & Reynolds 1988). Barteria nigritiana in secondary forest flowering in January

Bidens oligoflora Wild. (Asteraceae) Synonym Coreopsis oligoflora Common names Nsolokoto (This name is also used for B. pilosa) Ecology A common weed of village compounds and waste places.

Uses Bees forage for nectar and pollen during the rain season in Bas-Congo. Description An annual plant from 0.3 - 1 m high. Leaves deeply divided. Propagation Can be grown from seed as an ornamental plant. Bidens oligoflora in the Kavwaya school compound.

Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. & Cross (Cruciferae) Common names Nkofi, épinard (Fr.), leaf mustard. Ecology Extensively cultivated in Africa. Will grow up to 2000 m but prefers lower altitudes. Tolerates heavy rainfall but most cultivars produce best during dry periods. Soils should be high in organic matter but well drained (Tindall 1983).

Uses Bees frequently collect pollen and nectar from Brassica spp. but honey produced tends to granulate rapidly. The leaves are used as a cooked vegetable, as are the thickened stems of some forms. The leaves should be boiled twice. It is an important oil seed crop in India, containing up to 35% oil, which is used in cooking and as a substitute for olive oil (Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983). Description An erect much branched, pungent annual herb to 1 m high; some varieties are headed, with bright yellow flowers. The plant flowers in its first year. Early flowering plants should be discarded for seed production. Propagation Seed is sown in nursery beds and transplanted when 7 - 8 cm tall. Where young plants are eaten whole, seed is sown densely. Adequate water is required (Terra 1966, Tindall 1983).

Brassica juncea growing at Boko Buansa Management Plants can be harvested 50 - 70 days after sowing, or 30 - 40 days from transplanting (Tindall 1983). Remarks Bees also collect pollen and nectar from Brassica rapa “Pointe noire” in Bas-Congo. This crop is widely grown during the dry season and is therefore an important bee forage. It is frequently grown for seed.

Brugmansia versicolor Lagerh. (Solanaceae) Common names Pufula, angel's trumpet, moonflower. Ecology Originally from south-eastern Brazil. Widely naturalized. It will grow up to 2400 m.

Brugmansia versicolor at Kavwaya school Uses Occasionally grown as an ornamental for its flowers. These are produced over a long period after the rains. Bees were seen collecting pollen and nectar. The plant has a number of medicinal uses but is known to be poisonous (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Description A shrub growing to 3 m. Leaves large, soft and hairy. Flowers cream (or white), trumpet shaped and sweet scented. Propagation Though the plant grows easily from cuttings, planting it for beekeeping is not recommended. Remarks In other countries the honey produced from this plant is reported to be poisonous (Morton 1964).

Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner (Mimosaceae) Common names Calliandra Ecology Originally from Central America. The tree requires a warm climate, full sunlight, slightly acid soils and does not tolerate water-logging (NFTA 1996).

Uses Flowers are produced over long periods and bees collect pollen and nectar in the early morning in Bas-Congo. Honey has a bitter-sweet flavour (Crane et al 1984). The wood is dense and burns well, but may be attacked by ants. It is a useful tree for soil conservation when planted on the contour. It can improve the soil fertility if cut down at 4 month intervals and the leaves left on the soil surface. It can also suppress Imperata grass. May be grown as a livestock forage (ICRAF 1998). Description A small fast growing tree up to 6 m high. Leaves may be shed during the dry season. Roots nodulate readily, fix nitrogen and a mycorrhizal fungus enables the plant to grow in phosphorus deficient soils (NAS 1983). Propagation Collect pods when they turn brown. Seeds can be stored at room temperature for up to one year. Before planting pour boiling water on the seed and allow to cool and soak for 24 hours. Seed can be sown direct, planted in plastic bags or sown in a nursery for stump planting. For the latter, lift the seedlings when they are 75 - 100 cm high, top and root prune them to about 30 and 20 cm respectively and remove all leaves. They can be stored in bundles in this state for up to one week before planting (NAS 1983). Management The tree coppices well when cut down to 50 cm. This should be done at the end of the dry season as the first rains will produce strong shoots. The vigour of the tree declines with age and trees should be replaced after 12 years.

Caloncoba welwitschii (Oliv.) Gilg. (Flacourtiaceae) Common names Kisani Ecology Common in forest re-growth in Bas-Congo. Uses Reported to be a good bee forage, though some say it produces a bitter honey. The fruit pulp is eaten in Bas-Congo. Poles are used for house construction and charcoal making. Food plant of Nsani, Mimpemba and Matambungu edible caterpillars. The leaves are sometimes used as a substitute for soap. In Central Africa the plant has considerable medicinal use. The seed oil has been used in Congo for leprosy, and the presence of chaulmoogric and hydnocarpic acids has been shown (Burkill 1994).

Caloncoba welwitschii with young fruits near Kikola. Photo taken in December Description Shrub to 5 - 6 m. Flowers are large and showy. Propagation by seedlings or cuttings. Management Can be coppiced. Remarks Some people say the wood should not be used to make hives or top bars as it causes the bees to die.

Calycobolus heudelotii (Baker ex Oliv.) Heine (Convolvulaceae) Common names Mvuka Ecology Grows in forest from Senegal to W. Cameroons (Burkill 1985).

Calycobolus heudelotii growing in secondary forest near Kasangulu. Uses Bees forage for nectar in February. The stems are used for tying on roof thatching. The plant is also used medicinally. For intestinal pain the abdomen is massaged with pulped bark. For stiffness of the limbs and for general fatigue, a decoction of the leaves is drunk or used in a steam bath (Burkill 1985, Neuwinger 2000). Description A creeper growing up to 15 m high.

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (Bombaceae) Common names Mfuma. kapok, silk cotton tree Ecology Cultivated or found in secondary forest in Bas-Congo (Pauwels 1993). Prefers deep, permeable, volcanic soils, free from water-logging (ICRAF 1998).

Uses A valuable honeybee forage yielding large amounts of nectar and pollen. Bees visit in the early morning as the flowers open at night. A light coloured honey is produced with characteristic taste. The floss has the advantage of being resistant to vermin. Hospital mattresses, using the floss, can be sterilized without losing their original quality. Because of its buoyancy and resistance to wetting it is used in life jackets and rafts and naval equipment. It can also be used as a substitute for cotton wool. Wood is of poor quality but easy to work and used for chairs, dishes, boxes and drums when seasoned. Wood ash is used as a salt substitute and for making soap. Young leaves can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable or used as a stock feed. Seeds yield an edible oil which can also be used in the manufacture of soap. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seeds, which retain their viability for up to one year at room temperature, should first be soaked in cold water for 24 hours before planting (Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998). Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded (Mbuya et al. 1994). Remarks The tree roots are shallow and the tree is liable to be blown over in high winds. The roots may damage buildings if planted nearby and the floss can cause breathing problems during fruit dispersal (Burkill 1985).

Chaetocarpus africanus Pax. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nkungu nteke, nkungulu teke, sesa. Ecology This shrub is common in secondary forest in Gabon, both Congos, Angola and Zambia (Pauwels 1993).

Chaetocarpus africanus bearing fruit in January Uses Bees forage actively for pollen and nectar over long periods during the rain season. The thin branches are widely used for making brushes in Bas-Congo (Renier 1948). Poles are used for house building, firewood and charcoal and the leaves are used as fodder for livestock (Gillet & Pâque 1910). It is a food plant for Kwesu edible caterpillars (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu 1996). Description A shrub from 2 to 7 m high. Chaetocarpus africanus flowering in January

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson (Asteraceae) Synonym Eupatorium odoratum (L.) Common names Kolera, elengieye, Siam weed. Ecology A weed of plantation crops and pastures of southern Asia and Western Africa. It is native to Mexico, the West Indies and tropical South America. It prefers well drained sites and grows in sunlight or partial shade. Found on wasteland and fire damaged areas, secondary forest, pastures and roadsides from 300 - 1650 m (Thapa & Wongsiri 1997).

Uses Bee forage. Probably the main source of honey in Bas-Congo but bees do not collect pollen (Crane et al. 1984). Produces a honey which is light at first changing to amber as it matures, with a pleasant aroma and fine flavour. Granulation is slow. The sap is used as a wound dressing and a crude extract is used as a pesticide in Thailand (Thapa & Wongsiri 1997). Introduced to south east Asia to suppress Imperata cylindrica. In Bas-Congo farmers believe that fertility is improved by this plant.

(This is confirmed by Chromolaena odorata in flower near Kavwaya Baxter 1995 who states that both mineral fertility and organic matter content are improved). Makes a useful companion plant to oil palm which is a good pollen producer. The plant is reported to reduce nematode attack in subsequent crops. Description A semi woody, perennial, scrambling shrub to 2.5 m tall in open spaces. Its aggressiveness is due to its rapid growth, profuse branching habit and its very prolific annual seed production. All plants tend to flower together after the rainy season ends thus providing adequate nectar for a honey flow (Holm et al 1977). Reference Thapa, R. & S. Wongsiri (1997) Eupatorium odoratum: a honey plant for beekeepers in Thailand. Bee World 78(4):175 - 178.

Cissus rubignosa (Welw. ex Baker) Planch. (Vitaceae) Common names Mpongo mpongo Ecology Found growing in the savannah at all altitudes from Sierra Leone, Togo, Nigeria, throughout the Congo basin and into East Africa (Burkill 2000).

Uses The plant is reported to be much visited by bees. It flowers in Bas-Congo during December/January (see Burkill 2000). Description A climbing or trailing herb. The leaves are covered with a reddish coat (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). Cissus rubigosa near Ndembo mission

"The low density and scattered distribution of individuals in many tropical tree populations greatly complicates the process of pollination. Given that the distance between con-specific individuals may be greater than 100 m in some cases, moving pollen from the flowers of one species to another can be a difficult proposition. Many tropical trees have overcome this problem by co-evolving relationships with a variety of animals, ranging from tiny thrips and midges to bees and large bats, that act as long distance vectors. These relationships can be quite specific, with one type of insect being solely responsible for pollinating the flowers of a particular species or genus, of forest trees (e.g. Wiebes, J.T. 1979 Co-evolution of figs and their insect pollinators. Ann. Rev. of Ecology & Systematic 10:1 - 12)" Sunderland, T.C.H., Clark, L.E., & Vantome, P. (1999) Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. FAO Non Wood Forest Products of Central Africa.

Citrus sinensis Osbeck (Rutaceae) Common names Didiya, sweet orange Ecology The most commonly cultivated citrus species in Bas-Congo. Prefers a deep, light loam or sandy soil which is free draining. A distinct dry season is needed to induce flowering which then takes place at the commencement of the rains (Davies & Albrigo 1994).

Uses Bees are the primary pollinators for citrus (Davies & Albrigo 1994). A very useful bee forage plant often yielding good quantities of nectar and pollen from October onwards. The application of pesticides can make it a dangerous crop for bees. Honey is light coloured and slow to granulate with characteristic flavour (Crane et al 1984). Description Rough lemon rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and very productive sweet orange, grapefruit, mandarin and lemon trees, particularly in deep sandy soils. The root system is extensive reaching 4.6 m depth, making trees drought tolerant with good adaptation

to a wide pH range. However fruit quality is often poor due to excess vigour (Davies & Albrigo 1994). Propagation Most citrus fruits are grown using budded stock in Bas-Congo. Rough lemon seedlings are grown for rootstocks and then Navel or Valencia scion material is grafted on. Nursery site should be open, free drained and on land not planted to citrus before. Seed should be washed to remove mucilage and placed in water at 51 °C for 10 minutes to control Phytopthera disease. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. Plant seeds after soaking in water. Good mineral fertilization is vital for adequate growth of young trees and for later fruit production. If commercial fertilizers are not available, only a few trees should be grown, preferably near the home, where they will receive as much household waste, ash and compost or manure as possible (Davies & Albrigo 1994). Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers which arise below the graft and thin out branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back may also be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. Insects should be removed by hand during regular inspection of the plants.

Clappertonia ficifolia (Willd.) Dec’ne. (Tiliaceae) Common names Mpungala mputu or mpungala ki masa. Ecology A weed of wet places, often found in hydromorphic soils and flood plains throughout tropical Africa but also in grassland and on rocky sites (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000).

Clappertonia ficifolia in a swamp on the Bateke Plateau. Inset Bee collecting pollen

Uses Bees forage for pollen in January. Stems yield an excellent fibre comparable to jute. The bast is suitable for paper making. Fruits and seeds can be eaten. Leaves are mucilaginous and used in Congo as a remedy for liver malfunction. If leafy stems are pounded in water a slimy liquid is produced which is added to cow dung and mud in plastering walls and floors. It is sometimes used to attract bees into catcher boxes and hives. Pieces of stem are used to make fishing floats (Busson 1965, Macmillan 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 2000). Description An erect hairy shrub, from 0.8 - 3 m. high with pink flowers. Propagation Sometimes planted as an ornamental in which case it can be grown from seed or root cuttings (Macmillan 1991).

Cocos nucifera L. (Palmaceae) Common names Ba di nkandi, cocotier (Fr.), coconut Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congo (Pauwels 1993). It prefers a warm, humid climate with adequate sunshine and good drainage. A deep, open soil is best (Frémond et al. 1966).

Uses The flesh from the nut is eaten and the liquid inside the kernel makes a pleasant drink. The coconut husk provides fibre for mats, floor coverings and sacks. The shells make good charcoal liked by blacksmiths. The leaves are used for thatching, matting, screens and baskets. Smoke from burning the husk is a good mosquito repellent. Listed as an important bee forage throughout the year in Congo Brazzaville (Castagné 1983). Insects are thought to be important for pollination. Honey bees visit male flowers for pollen and both male and female for nectar (Crane & Walker 1984). Propagation Select nuts from trees with the greatest number of heavy nuts. Allow nuts to ripen for a month before planting. Trim the germ end of the nut to assist the shoot to come through. Dig out a trench slightly wider than the length of the coconut and place them in this, lying across the furrow. Cover two thirds of the nuts with soil. Plant in full sunlight in light, rich soil. Select again in the seed bed. Those germinating first and with a large number of short leaves are best. The nut has considerable food reserves and can be transplanted with ease. Dig out a hole for each germinating nut 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.90 m and fill in with equal amounts of husks and manure (Frémond et al. 1966). Reference Frémond Y., Ziller, R. & de Nucé de Lamothe M. (1966) The coconut palm. International Potash Institute, Berne.

Combretum laxiflorum Welw. (ex Laws.) (Combretaceae) Common names Munzimba Ecology In Bas-Congo the tree is found in both savannah and open forest (Pauwels 1993).

Combretum laxiflorum. Photo taken in November at Nselu Uses Bee forage. The plant is an important source of nectar from November to January in some areas of Bas-Congo. The stem is burnt and the ash used in the treatment of conjunctivitis in Southern Africa (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Description Shrub or tree from 6 to 8 m. high. "The economic flight radius (at which a bee can collect more energy in the form of nectar and pollen than it consumes in flight) is only about 1 km. A colony at 1 km from the floral source can store only 60% of the honey collected by colonies nearer the source" (FAO 1986 p 22).

Combretum racemosum P. Beauv. (Combretaceae) Common names Nsumbila or nsumbala, Christmas rose, false bougainvillea Ecology Common in secondary forest. Widespread across Africa to Sudan, Kenya, R.D. Congo and Angola (Burkill 1985, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). Uses A good bee forage. Bees collect nectar in August in Bas-Congo. The leaves are

used in Sierra Leone to season soup. The young leaves are reported to be anthelmintic. There are various other medicinal uses (Burkill 1985). Nsumbila is the food plant for Kelekele and Bisu edible caterpillars (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). Description A straggling shrub or liana up to 15 m long with attractive crimson flowers. Propagation Can be grown from cuttings. Remarks A second species,

C. confertum (Benth.) Laws, is found in damp sites and is also probably a good bee forage. It is of similar habit. C. confertum flowering in January near Mbanza Nzundu

Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. ex G. Don) Benth. (Rubiaceae) Synonym C. kotschyana Fenzl. Common names Kigala, ordeal tree. Ecology A common savannah shrub in Bas-Congo (Pauwels 1993). Widely spread from Senegal to Sudan and from East Africa to Zimbabwe (Irvine 1961).

Crossopteryx febrifuga in flower in November Uses Bees forage for nectar in November in Bas-Congo (see also Villieres 1987, Kihwele 1999). Used for carving and making charcoal in Bas-Congo. Food plant for Ngala and N'kwati edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996, Gillet & Pâque 1910). The roots, stem and bark have various traditional medical uses in Tanzania, Central and West Africa but must be used carefully. In Tanzania the wood is soft, but in West Africa it is of very fine texture, hard and heavy, and takes a smooth polish. Used for making Koran tables. Powdered seeds used as a pomade (Dalziel 1937, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Williamson 1975, Iwu 1993, Beentje 1994 ). Description A small twisted tree with conspicuous flowers and persistent fruits. Propagation Can be grown from seed (Kibungu 2002).

Croton hirtus L’Herit. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Mansesa, mansiansa Ecology Native of tropical America, becoming naturalised throughout the tropics (Burkill 1994). It is a common weed in crop land in Bas-Congo.

Croton hirtus in cultivated land in January near Kavwaya Uses In Bas-Congo this plant is a nectar and pollen source for honeybees during the rain season, though Spermacoce latifolia appears to be preferred if both plants are flowering at the same time. Description An annual plant up to 50 cm high with hairy stems, leaves and bracts.

Croton mubango Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nbangu nbangu, saku Ecology Found in secondary forest, sometimes planted in the village. Also found in Angola (Pauwels 1993).

Croton mubango in flower in September

Uses A good bee forage, flowering from July to September. Bees were seen active in the early morning collecting pollen. The bark is used for seasoning food (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993). The tree also has several medicinal uses. For abdominal pain or worm control the bark is eaten together with seeds of Monodora myristica, for toothache the bark is pulped and then rubbed on the affected part. As a tonic, the body is rubbed with a maceration of the bark (Neuwinger 2000). Description A bush or small tree from 3 to 15 m high, flowering in the dry season. Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Cucurbita maxima Duch. (Lam.) (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Mbika malenge, courge, squash, pumpkin. Ecology Grown throughout Africa (Burkill 1985). Plants require a fairly high temperature, above 25 - 27 °C, during the growing season with fairly low humidity. Dry periods favour growth. Prefers fertile soils with some organic matter (Tindall 1983). The plant grows well in soils enriched with ashes or where burning has taken place (Dupriez & De Leener 1989).

Bees collecting nectar from Cucurbita maxima Uses Many species of Cucurbitaceae are attractive to honey bees and the male and female flowers provide them with nectar (Ambougou 1991, Fichtl & Adi 1994). Flowers open for one day only, often early in the morning. Bees are the main pollinators and the number and weight of the fruit increase with the amount of pollen deposited on the stigmas (Crane & Walker 1984, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997). Cultivated mainly for its edible seeds in Bas-Congo, though the leaves are also eaten (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). Propagation Normally 3 - 10 seeds are sown per site and then thinned out to 1 - 3 plants. Plant seed 2 - 4 cm deep. Management Harvest when the skin starts to harden.

Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam (Burseraceae) Synonyms Pachylobus edulis G. Don Common names Nsafu, safoutier (Fr.) Ecology Commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. It is a shade loving species of the humid tropics found from Nigeria to Angola. It can be grown in a wider variety of conditions than oil palms (Ngatchou & Kengu 1989).

Dacryodes edulis in a village compound in Bas-Congo

Uses It is a very important bee forage in Bas-Congo, particularly in August and September. The flowers are 82% pollinated by honeybees (Giacomo 1982 quoted in Ngatchou & Kengu 1989). The tree is planted for shade and for its edible fruit, which is either boiled in saltwater, roasted in hot ashes or fried. It is an important food in Bas-Congo. Fresh pulp is rich in fat (35 - 65%). The resin is used medicinally. Wood is greyish white to pink, heavy and elastic, and used for tool handles, particularly for axe shafts (Burkill 1985, FAO 1982). The production of oil for food or for cosmetic industries could reach 7 - 8 t/ha. compared with palm oil 3 t/ha. Wood can be used for veneers and cabinet work. Leaf juices and a decoction of the bark is used medicinally in Gabon. Food plant for Minsongo, Makedi kedi and Kaba edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). One of ICRAF's priority trees for domestication in the humid lowland tropics (Leakey & Simons 1998). Propagation Usually grown from seed, sown direct or in long polythene bags. Trees vary greatly in total fruit production and composition of fruit. So far no satisfactory methods of vegetative propagation have been developed, other than by layering. Propagation of good varieties using large cuttings (poles) is sometimes successful.

The top of the pole must be covered with soil, or a pad of leaves, and kept humid until the cutting has rooted (Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988). Plant at 10 x10 m. Seeds can be stored for up to 14 days once flesh has been removed but are best sown immediately. Germination takes place from 12 to 30 days after planting and is normally good (FAO 1982, Ngatchou & Kengu 1989).

Management Avoid breaking branches during harvest as this can delay the next flowering for a year. Cuts are sometimes made in the tree trunk to improve fruiting (Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988). Remarks The tree flowers over a 3 month period, with each tree normally flowering for 1 month (Ngatchou & Kengu 1989). Harvesting takes place in January/February in Bas-Congo. References Ngatchou, J.N. & J. Kengu (1989) Review of the African Plum tree (Dacryodes edulis) in New Crops for Food and Industry by Wickens G.E., Haq N. and Day P. Chapman & Hall.

Dalbergia kisantuensis De Wild. & Th. Dur. (Fabaceae) Common names Kifundi ki nseke Ecology Found in savannah and open forest in Bas-Congo. Uses Bees were very active collecting nectar in mid morning. Known as a bee forage in Congo Brazzaville (Castagné 1983). Food plant for Mfundi, Minsendi and Bisu edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Other species are also important nectar sources for honeybees (see Kihwele 1999). Description A vigorous creeper. Propagation Can be grown from root or shoot cuttings. D. kisantuensis in flower in January, scrambling over a tree near Nenga village

Dalbergia barteri Welw. is also an important bee forage plant

Dalbergia pachycarpa (De Wild. & T. Durand) Ulbricht ex De Wild. (Fabaceae) Common names Kifundi Ecology Sometimes common in areas of bush savannah and open secondary forest in Bas-Congo.

Uses Bee forage. Bees were seen collecting nectar in February. Description A robust creeper which scrambles over bushes and small trees. Dalbergia pachycarpa with fruit in February near Loa

Dialium englerianum Henriques (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym D. simii Phillips Common names Mboti, Kalahari pod berry Ecology Found in some areas of wooded savannah in Bas-Congo and throughout much of central Africa. Occurs on deep white sand with rainfall from 600 to 800 mm. Drought tolerant (Crane et al. 1984).

Dialium englerianum in flower in February near Kasangulu Uses Bee forage. Bees collect nectar from this plant in February in Bas-Congo. Reported to be one of the best nectar producing plants in Bas-Congo and in Angola (Renier 1947, Crane et al. 1984). Heartwood is red-brown, with a fine and even texture. Hard to saw but planes well. It has been used for rough furniture. An important medicinal plant. Infusion of bark used as an eye lotion. Root cooked with meal is eaten as a remedy for dysentery. Decoction of leaves is used as a cough remedy. Fruit is edible, often eaten boiled, and the seeds are also eaten boiled with maize meal. Fruits are eaten by cattle (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Fanshawe 1972, Wild et al.1972). Description Tree or creeper to 15 m. Flowers small, in open panicles.

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Palmae) Common names Ba di nsamba, oil palm Ecology Grown commercially in plantations in tropical Africa, Central America and Asia but scattered trees are left in the bush fallow throughout the humid tropics in Africa.

Uses An important bee forage in Bas-Congo. Bees collect nectar and the pollen is very attractive to them. The sap is also collected, much to the annoyance of palm wine collectors ! The honey produced is dark with a strong and unpleasant flavour (Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991). Oil for the production of margarine and soap is obtained from both the flesh surrounding the seeds, (red palm oil), and from the kernel (kernel oil). Red palm oil is important as a local food and for cooking, supplying fat in areas where cattle cannot be kept due to tsetse fly. It is a good source of vitamin A. The kernel oil becomes rancid quickly but is used for cooking. Palm worms (Mafundi = Oryctes sp.) are collected for eating from the decaying trunk. Edible mushrooms (Lumiengi = Psathyrella cf. tuberculata) are grown on the dead flowers which are heaped together and covered with palm leaves. Palm wine is then poured over the heap and the mushrooms are produced after 2 - 3 days. The shells are highly valued for fuel as they give out a considerable heat, and are therefore much favoured by blacksmiths (Burkill 1994). Propagation Seed requires some form of heat treatment before it will germinate and even then is slow and variable. Plant at 9 m spacing.

Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. (Poaceae) Common names Kimbansi, mbundu, mbundu-byala, pied-poule (Fr.), goose grass, wire grass Ecology A common weed and wayside plant which rapidly colonizes newly cleared or abandoned land after cultivation. It withstands drought (Burkill 1994).

Flower heads of Eleusine indica at Kasangulu Uses Bees collect pollen in January in Bas-Congo. A related species (E. floccifolia) provides bees with pollen in Ethiopia (Fichtl & Adi 1994). Foliage provides good grazing especially when young, but there are reports of livestock being poisoned. The plant is used medicinally in West Africa and the leaves are sometimes used for tying (Burkill 1994). Description A loosely tufted, glabrous annual grass, up to 60 cm high (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1994).

Eleutherine bulbosa (Mill.) Urb. (Iridaceae) Synonyms E. plicata Herb. Ecology Originally from tropical Central and South America and the West Indies. Naturalized in the Philippines and Indo-china (RHS 1992). Widely cultivated as an ornamental. Requires a well drained, fertile, sandy peat soil in full sun. In Bas-Congo it is often planted out in lines to mark football pitches, paths etc.

Uses Bees collect nectar from this plant in Bas-Congo during the evening (see Renier 1948). The plant flowers freely during the rains. The bulb is boiled in water which is then drunk “to strengthen the blood” in Bas-Congo. Description A bulb growing from 15 to 75 cm tall. Spathes 1 - 2 cm long. The white flowers are produced in stalked clusters, each being short-lived but produced in large numbers. Plants are usually sterile but occasionally bear seed (RHS 1992). Propagation Normally grown from offsets. Divide the bulbs which can be set out 5 cm deep. Do not allow them to dry out (Everett 1981, Bryan 1982).

References Bryan, J.E. (1989) Bulbs vol. 1 p 152 Eleutherine plicata near Kintudi village. The flowers open in the evening only.

Eucalyptus sp. (Myrtaceae) Common names Eucalyptus Ecology Will grow on a wide range of soils including waterlogged places and saline and poor stony soils. E. saligna, E. deglupta and E. citriodora prefer a well drained soil and a well distributed rainfall. E. robusta can withstand water logging. Altitude range 0 - 1100 m.

Uses E. robusta and E. citriodora are reliable honey producers. E. saligna flowers every two years giving high honey yields but other species may flower annually or every 2, 3 or 4 years. Eucalypts are used for firewood, charcoal, construction and windbreaks (Mbuya et al 1994). E. deglupta produces valuable timber. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves of E. citriodora and the leaves are put in boiling water to produce an inhalant to relieve colds. E. robusta is reported to have significant anti-malarial properties (Morton 1964, Crane et al 1984, ICRAF 1998). Description The most common species in Bas-Congo are E. citriodora, E. deglupta, E. robusta and E. saligna (Pauwels 1993). Propagation Normally grown from seed planted in a nursery. E. deglupta can be grown from branch cuttings less than 2 years old using a hormone rooting compound. Cuttings should have a stem node and a segment of leaf (ICRAF 1998). Management Fast growing but weed growth must be kept down for the first two years. Can be coppiced (Mbuya et al. 1994). Remarks Eucalypts should not be planted near crop land.

Euphorbia heterophylla L. (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym E. terracina Common names Euphorbe bicolore (Fr.), annual or wild poinsettia, spurge weed, Mexican fire plant, Japanese poinsettia, mole plant, paint leaf. Ecology Native of tropical and sub-tropical America but now found throughout the tropics. A common weed of cultivation and wasteland and sometimes troublesome. Some forms are cultivated as ornamentals (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, RHS 1992, Burkill 1994).

Euphorbia heterophylla at Kinsadi Uses Bee forage. Bees were active in the morning collecting nectar in January (See Macmillan 1991). The plant yields a red dye. The latex is used as an antidote for the irritation produced by other species of Euphorbia. Some antibacterial activity has been found in the leaf and flower (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Description An erect fast growing semi-woody annual or perennial herb from 80 cm to about 1 m high. Stems erect, simple or branched, pale green. Branches ascending or spreading. Leaves to 12 x 6 cm. Propagation Reproduces by seed (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987). Remarks The root and latex of the plant are highly toxic (Burkill 1994).

Gaertnera paniculata Benth. (Rubiaceae) Common names Kimbodi, kimbodia Ecology Moist deciduous forest and upper edge of fringing forest. Often on river sides. From Guinea to W. Cameroons and across the Congo basin to Zambia (Irvine 1961, Burkill 1997).

Gaertnera paniculata near Mbanza Nzundu in September

Uses Bees collect nectar often in sufficient quantities for a honey flow in some areas of Bas-Congo where the shrub is abundant (see Castagné 1983). The tree is also thought to improve fertility in forest fallow. Stems are used in house construction and for charcoal making (Lubaki 1996). Timber is reddish and used in Nigeria for pestles. Medicinal uses:- Leaves may be eaten to cure fever; the leaf pulp is sometimes applied externally for rheumatism; a bark decoction is taken to relieve cough and chest pain (see Neuwinger 2000). Foliage is eaten by goats. Young tender shoots are edible (De Wildeman 1934 p155, Walker & Sillans 1961, Drachoussoff 1947 p498). Saponin is present in moderate quantity in the roots (Burkill 1997). Description A shrub or small tree to 18 m. Propagation Seed germinates readily under mature trees. Remarks Three other related species present in Bas-Congo are also reported to be good nectar sources for bees.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (Asteraceae) Common names Kew weed, gallant soldier. Ecology A cosmopolitan weed originally from South America. Often present in vegetable gardens in Bas-Congo.

Uses Bees collect nectar and pollen. The herb is used occasionally for dressing wounds. Stems and leaves are chewed to cure colds or sores. The young leaves are cooked as a vegetable with simsim or groundnut paste in Uganda. They are also eaten in Tanzania and Indonesia and can be fed to livestock (Uphof 1968, Goode 1989, Kokwaro 1976, Burkill 1985, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1999). Description A small annual herb up to 20 cm high. The tiny flowers are produced all the year round. Reference Goode P.M. (1989) Edible plants of Uganda. FAO

Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. (Proteaceae) Common names Chêne argenté (Fr.). Ecology Grown throughout the subtropics. Will stand 6 - 8 dry months. Grows in sandy soils, loams of medium fertility and acid soils. Tends to be deep rooting. It does not tolerate water logging (NAS 1980). Cluster roots enable the tree to extract phosphorus from soil very low in available phosphorus.

Uses A valuable pollen and nectar source. The nectar secretion is abundant with high sugar concentration and the pollen yield is heavy. Bees forage all day and, when flowering is profuse, a surplus of honey is produced. The honey has a pronounced flavour and is reddish black with rapid granulation (Crane et al. 1984, Fichtl & Adi 1994). A valuable timber tree used for furniture making. Also good for firewood and charcoal making. Leaf litter makes a good mulch. Can be planted around fields (NAS 1980). Description A fast growing tree on good sites reaching 20 m in 15 - 20 years (NAS 1980). Propagation Large quantities of

seed are produced. Seed is difficult to collect as there are only 2 - 3 days between seed maturity and dispersal by wind. Wild seedlings can be transplanted. Seed is viable for up to 3 months but can be kept for 2 years stored in a refrigerator. Only mature seed can be used. Seed should be put out in sunlight for a few hours before planting. Germination rate is up to 65%. Natural seeding fairly common in cultivated land. Transplant when 60 cm (Leloup 1956, NAS 1980, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Mbuya et al 1994). Management Moderate to fast growing. When grown with food crops, branches are pruned and pollarded and lateral roots may also be pruned to reduce competition with the crop (Mbuya et al. 1994). Remarks Although not at present commonly grown throughout Bas-Congo some farmers are planting the tree and it is therefore a potentially important bee forage.

Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. (Clusiaceae) Common names Ntunu Ecology Most common in damp areas in Bas-Congo. Widespread in tropical Africa. Grows in clearings in forest regions and fringing forest in savannah regions (Keay 1989). Common even on very poor soils (Cobbina and Reynolds 1988). Uses The tree is an important source of nectar in February in Bas-Congo. Known as a honey source in Congo (Brazzaville)(Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984). Stems are used for house building and charcoal production in Bas-Congo. They make good firewood. Wood is light, orange-yellow, works well and is durable in contact with the soil. A yellow gum is obtained from the bark in Madagascar and East Africa which is used as a dye. The bark and leaves are used as a fumigant and the tree has various medicinal uses (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Irvine 1961 and Kokwaro 1976). The tree has been recommended for browse establishment in S.E. Nigeria and is reported to improve fertility in acid soils (Kang & Reynolds 1989:19). It is a vigorous colonizer being the first to occupy savannah after fire. Fruits are edible though laxative and are eaten in Uganda and Nigeria (Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1999). Food plant for Biswangi and Bidiaka edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996).

Harungana madagascariensis near Kinsambi in January Description Tree or shrub from 2 to 12 m high in Bas-Congo. Propagation Seed establishes well if fresh. The tree can be established from basal cuttings but with some difficulty and also from lateral roots. Any stress from lack of water results in death of the cuttings (Cobbina and Reynolds 1988). Management Grows back well after being cut down (Cobbina and Reynolds 1988).

Hymenocardia acida Tul. (Hymenocardiaceae) Common names Kigete Ecology A common savannah shrub. It grows from Senegal to Angola and from Ethiopia to Mozambique (Pauwels 1993).

Female flowers produced in September Winged fruits in January Uses Bees collect nectar from the female flowers in Bas-Congo (Renier 1947, Villieres 1987). It is a food plant for Kaba edible caterpillars (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983) and is used for firewood, charcoal making and for medicine. The charcoal is particularly liked by blacksmiths. Young fruits and shoots are acid in taste and occasionally eaten. The bark is used for tanning leather. Wood is pale brown to pink, becoming orange, close grained, hard, dense and durable. In Uganda it is made into pestles and bark-cloth mallets. Resistant to termites (Gillet & Pâque 1910, Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Burkill 1994, Beentje 1994, Martin et al. 1998). Description A shrub 3 - 6 m high with twisted branches and orange - brown bark. The red male catkins and the immature winged fruits are distinctive (Irvine 1961, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993).

Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy (Convolvulaceae) Synonym I. carnea ssp. fistulosa, I. crassicaulis Common names Bush morning glory Ecology An introduced climbing plant from tropical America. It should be grown in full sun (Macmillan 1991). Ipomoea sp. require a well drained sandy loam.

Uses Bees collect nectar. They were seen active on extra floral nectaries in the early morning at Bandundu in September (see also Macmillan 1991). Other species of Ipomoea are good bee forage plants (see Crane et al. 1984, Fichtl & Adi 1994). Description A branching sub shrub with stems to 3 m high. Propagation Ipomoea sp. can be grown from stem cuttings taken from terminal shoots. The basal leaves are removed and the stem inserted in soil to half its depth. The plant can also be grown from seed. Management Can be kept as a shrub by regular pruning. Bees were also collecting nectar from Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq. in January

Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Mpuluka, physic nut, purging nut Ecology The plant grows wild in many tropical regions especially in West Africa. Commonly grown for hedges around villages in Bas-Congo. Uses Bees collect pollen and nectar from this plant. The seed is the source of an oil which can be used as a substitute for diesel, or for paraffin for illumination. It has good potential as a smallholder crop. It also has a number of medicinal uses. Sap is used to treat hair loss in children in Bas-Congo and is effective against scabies.

Bees collecting pollen and nectar from Jatropha curcas at Kinsambi Description A shrub or small tree to 7 m. Pollinated by bees (Irvine 1961). Propagation Easily grown from cuttings which should be 45 - 100 cm long. Select these from the central trunk which should have short nodes. Dip the ends in ash. The cuttings are then buried in the soil and soon develop roots. Can also be grown from seed. The plants are termite resistant (Godin & Spensley 1971, Miaglia 1997). Management and processing Cut the branches back when the plant becomes old. The prunings can be used as firewood. The economic life of the plant is about 30 years. After harvesting the fruits are put into heaps to dry. The seeds are separated from the shell, roasted and ground and then boiled in water. The oil floats and can be collected. After extraction the residue pulp makes a good fertilizer with a similar value to chicken manure. It should be stored for 10 weeks before using.

Leptoderris congolensis (De Wild.) Dunn (Fabaceae) Common names Kifundi Ecology A climber of the forest zone in S. Nigeria and extending to Angola (Burkill 1995). Occurs in secondary forest and wooded savannah in Bas-Congo. Uses Food plant of Mfundi and Nziozu edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. A good source of nectar for bees in January. The plant contains rotenone and is used in Gabon as a fish poison (Burkill 1995).

Leptoderris congolensis in flower in January at Mbanza Nzundu

Description A climber with large rectangular shaped leaves. The stems are covered with a dense mat of fine brown hairs.

Lovoa trichiliodes Harms (Meliaceae) Common names Noyer d’Afrique (Fr.), African walnut Ecology Lowland rain forest from Sierra Leone to S. Nigeria and across equatorial Africa to Uganda and Angola. The tree requires fertile soil (Leloup 1956, Burkill 1997).

Uses Bees were seen collecting nectar very actively at midday on a tree at Ngembo mission in January. Listed as a bee forage in Gabon in November (Ambougou 1991). A valuable timber tree producing a white sap-wood and a clear brown heart-wood. The wood is strong, hard and resistant to termites and fungal attack but susceptible to borers. It seasons quite well if properly stacked and works well taking nails, glue and varnish (Leloup 1956, Burkill 1997). Pounded leaves are rubbed on the chest for lung complaints (Bouquet 1969). Description A tree to 45 m high. Often occurs gregariously (Keay 1989). Propagation Produces seed

every 3 - 4 years. Seed loses viability quickly but can be stored in sealed containers with ash to reduce insect damage. Sow seed with wings up and only partially cover with soil. Natural regeneration is normally good. Seedlings tolerate shade and grow quickly once the forest canopy is removed but they are often attacked by predators and insects (Burkill 1997, Katende 1995). Stumps or small striplings may be used for planting (Leloup 1956). Management Seedlings reach a height of 60 cm in about 15 months (Leloup 1956). Remarks This tree is heavily exploited and is not common in Bas-Congo.

Macaranga schweinfurthii Pax (Euphorbiaceae)

Common names Nfumfu Ecology Humid forests often beside water. Found from south eastern Nigeria to Uganda and Zambia (Pauwels 1993). Uses Bees gather pollen. Related species reported as bee forage in Gabon (Ambougou 1991). The wood ash is used in some areas as a salt substitute (De Wildeman 1934). Description A straggling shrub or tree from 6 - 25 m high with large leaves which can be from 25 to 50 cm long (Pauwels 1993).

Inset Bees collecting juice from fallen fruit which may flavour the honey

Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) Common names Nmanga, mango Ecology Thrives in the tropics and subtropics. A dry cool season of at least 3 months is required for good fruit production. Dry conditions promote flower initiation. Mangoes are drought tolerant. The soil should be deep and well drained.

Uses Fruit eaten fresh or processed. An important bee forage yielding abundant pollen and nectar. Nectar secretion is heavy in the early morning but is reduced by drought and cold. Honey is amber coloured with a distinct taste. Wood makes good firewood and charcoal. The timber is used for construction work, flooring, canoes, and furniture. The tree can be used to form a firebreak (Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984) Propagation Large, fully developed, fresh seeds germinate well, particularly if the seed is removed carefully from the outer coat. Seeds should be planted in containers or baskets to avoid damage to the tap root.

Grafting results in faster growth and earlier fruiting (Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998, Nakasone & Paull 1998). Management Transplant early in the rain season and plant with organic manure in a hole dug out 60 x 60 x 60 cm deep. Allow main stem to grow to 1 m before topping to produce a frame of well balanced branches (Nakasone & Paull 1998). Remarks Flowering in the tropics, as opposed to the sub-tropics, is erratic and a yield limiting factor. Some cultivars do not require cross-pollination. For those that do bees are the most effective and production of fruit has been shown to be increased by honey bees (Jones 1999). Rain and high humidity at blossoming encourage anthracnose and reduce pollination and fruit set.

Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Dyooko, manioc, cassava Ecology Generally grown in mixed stands in Bas-Congo. Light sandy loams of medium fertility give the best results, but it will grow in infertile soils if they are deeply cultivated to allow roots to penetrate. Uses Some varieties flower during the rain season and provide bees with pollen and nectar (see Castagné 1983). Bees also collect honeydew from the new leaf stalks. Cassava roots provide the staple food in Bas-Congo, but they are low in protein and lack vitamins. The carbohydrate is however easily digested. The leaves are cooked as the principal vegetable and are rich in protein, minerals and vitamins.

Bees collecting nectar from Nsangi nsangi variety in flower at Kikola Description A perennial shrub with enlarged tuberous roots. There are many cultivars some of which are bitter and others sweet.

Propagation Plant using cuttings with at least 3 buds and 22 - 30 cm long taken from the basal to mid section of plants at least 10 months old. Plant at the beginning of the rains in preferably flat fields, though ridges are best in wet areas. Plant cuttings at an angle of 30 - 40 °C . burying half their length. With vertical or angled planting, roots tend to penetrate deeper. Management Weed after 3 weeks and ridge up after 8 - 12 weeks to encourage tuber formation (Kay 1973). Leaves should not be harvested more frequently than at 2 - 3 month intervals otherwise tuber yield is affected (Burkill 1994).

Manihot glaziovii Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nkweso, Ceara rubber, tree cassava. Ecology Single trees are often found growing in villages in Bas-Congo. Native to NE Brazil but now widely grown in the tropics (Burkill 1994).

Manihot glaziovii in January near Muila Uses The flowers are a useful source of nectar during the rain season in Bas-Congo, but the resulting honey is reported to be unpleasant (Smith 1957, Crane et al. 1984). There appear to be two varieties in Bas-Congo. The latex of one is used to repair bicycle tyres and various utensils. Leaves of the other are eaten as a vegetable. The tree is a source of Ceara rubber. It is also grown as an ornamental and as a hedge. The root is rich in starch but hard and woody. Used medicinally. Can be crossed with M. esculenta to give pest and disease resistance to the latter (Uphof 1968, Burkill 1994). Description A tree reaching 10 m high with a short, crooked stem and bushy branching habit. Propagation by seed or cuttings (Walker & Sillans 1961).

Maprounea africana Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kisele sele Ecology Found growing in the savannah and open forest from Nigeria and Cameroon in the north to Mozambique and Angola (Pauwels 1993).

Uses Bees were seen collecting nectar in September in Bas-Congo (see Renier 1947). Twigs are used for cleaning teeth. The plant has a number of medicinal uses and is widely known for its purgative properties. Leaves are chewed and the bitter pulp is swallowed in R.D. Congo to relieve stomach problems. Toothache is also treated by chewing the leaves (Burkill 1994). Description A small tree from 3 to 7 m high.

Millettia eetveldeana (Micheli) Hauman (Fabaceae) Common names Kibuengi, mbwenge Ecology Tree of primary and secondary forests, forest borders, gallery forests, dry forests, woody savannah and fallows. Also present in Angola, Zambia and Mozambique (Pauwels 1993).

Uses Bees collect nectar and pollen in October. Food plant for Mbwengi, Malomba loka, Nsanga-nsanga and Nsiela edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). Commonly used to make live fences. The root sap is rubbed in or a leaf decoction added to bathing water for fatigue, and feverish stiffness (Bouquet 1969); Millettias contain the chemical rotenone, an insecticide. Description Tree to 25 m. Flowers all the year round. Propagation Cuttings grow well, sprouting after one week with a 75% take (Miaglia 1997). Millettia eetveldeana flowering in January near Kasangulu

Reference Bouquet, A. (1969) Féticheurs et médicines traditionelles du Congo. Mem. Orstom, Paris.

Millettia laurentii De Wild (Fabaceae) Common names Kiboto, bois noir (Fr.) Ecology Tree of tropical Africa (Congo, Gabon), found in closed forest, gallery forest and wooded savannah.

Millettia laurentii in September at Kasangulu primary school Uses Bees collect pollen and nectar from September to December. Wood of excellent quality, hard, dense, strong, elastic and resistant to fungus and insect attack. It takes a good polish. Used for house construction in Bas-Congo. Poison is extracted from tissues for arrows, for catching fish and making insecticides, vermifuges and febrifuges. Millettias contain rotenone (Allen & Allen 1981). Food plant for Munsona, N'boto and Ntesi edible caterpillars (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu 1996). Though caterpillars eating this plant are edible they can cause illness if not well cooked or are eaten in large quantities (Gillet & Pâque 1910). Thought to nodulate (Sutherland 1996). Description Tree to 30 m. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Cuttings had 40% take (Miaglia 1997).

Millettia macroura Pax (ex Harms) (Fabaceae) Synonym M. congolensis, M. macrophylla Common names Kifundi, fundi

Ecology Wooded savannah in Central Africa (Pauwels 1993). Locally common in Bas-Congo. Uses Used for construction and tying. Reported as a bee forage Description Small tree, shrub or creeper up to 9 m long (Pauwels 1993). Millettia macroura in August near Kasangulu

Millettia teuszii De Wild. (Fabaceae) Common names Kifundi ki masa

Ecology Found in secondary forests, forest edges, beside rivers, flooded areas, wooded savannah and cleared land in Bas-Congo. Uses Bees collect nectar in the early morning. The stems are used for construction and tying. Food plant for the mottled form of Mfundi edible caterpillar. Description Liana or shrub reaching 9 m. Attractive red flowers. Probably nodulates (Sutherland 1996). Millettia teuszii in damp ground at Kingunda flowering in December.

Millettia versicolor Welw. ex Bak. (Fabaceae) Common names Mbota, bois d'or (Fr.) Ecology Found in savannah and secondary forests in Gabon, Central African Republic, Congo and Angola.

Millettia versicolor providing shade to the bakery at Kinsambi village Uses A good bee forage. Also used for charcoal making in Bas-Congo. An ornamental shade tree. Thin straight branches are planted for fences around the compound. The fine golden brown wood is hard, elastic and used for carving and tool handles because the wood does not rot (Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988). Food plant for Mbota, Mbwengi and Munsona edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). The tree probably nodulates (Sutherland 1996). The tree is fire resistant and regrows well after fire. Description Tree grows to 20 - 30 m. Flowers all year round and coppices easily. Propagation Grows well from cuttings.

Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae) Common names Bikoki, kanga nzo, herbe sensibile (Fr.) Ecology Introduced from Brazil. A common weed along roadsides, in waste ground and troublesome in pastures. Often found near water in Bas-Congo.

Mimosa pudica on the roadside near Kavwaya Uses A pollen source in March in Bas-Congo and known as a bee plant in Gabon and Central America (Espina Perez & Ordetx Ros 1983, Ambougou 1991). Useful as a green manure. The tender shoots are browsed by livestock but regular grazing is needed to prevent the development of tough, thorny stems. It is not suitable for feeding poultry. There are numerous medicinal uses recorded (Burkill 1995). Description A prickly perennial herb that has sensitive leaves and usually prostrate stems that trail on the ground but which may reach 1 m high. The leaves close up at the slightest touch or during rain (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Macmillan 1991).

Mitragyna stipulosa (DC) O. Kuntze (Rubiaceae) Synonym Hallea stipulosa (DC) Leroy Common names Nlongu, tilleul d’Afrique (Fr.), African linden. Ecology Secondary forest from Gambia to Angola (Pauwels 1993). Swamp and savannah forest at low to medium elevations. Widespread over tropical Africa. The tree requires subsoil moisture throughout the year (Leloup 1956, Burkill 1997).

Uses Bee forage in Bas-Congo flowering in March and April. Wood is soft, fine grained but lacks character. It is subject to borer attack and decay but is regarded highly as a softwood for internal carpentry. It is used for drums, barrels, canoes, mortars and pestles etc. The wood is suitable for paper making. All parts, but especially the bark, are used as a febrifuge. There are several other medicinal uses (Burkill 1997). A useful species for the afforestation of swamps (Leloup 1956). Description A tree to 30 m with large stipules on the leaves up to 5 cm long. Flowers are small and white (Irvine 1961, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993). Propagation Can be planted from stumps, wildlings or transplants. It also grows from large cuttings and root suckers. Seeds germinate easily after 5 - 8 days. Plant in nursery using swamp soil and swamp water for irrigation (Leloup 1956).

Musa x paradisiaca L. (Musaceae) Common names Dinkondo, banana Ecology Commonly grown in home compounds in Bas-Congo. Deep friable loams and soils which are not compacted are preferred. High organic matter and fertility assure high yield. Bananas require an adequate water supply (Nakasone & Paull 1998).

Banana flowers are visited by bees throughout the day for nectar and pollen Uses Main use is for edible fruit. Bees forage for nectar and pollen though not all nectar is available to bees. Nectar secretion is increased by rain and damp soil. Flavour of honey is astringent, like tamarind (Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984). Propagation By sucker. Remove old roots and diseased parts and, if possible, put in water at 52 °C for 20 minutes to control nematodes and borers. For planting the best method is to dig out a hole 60 x 60 x 60 cm. Add 5 buckets of manure and mix with top soil in the base of the hole. Plant the sucker in the pit at the beginning of the rains and add household waste material and manure from time to time. Management Remove all dead leaves. There should be 6 to 8 healthy leaves remaining on the plant for adequate fruit development. Remove excess suckers (Nakasone & Paull 1998). Cut out old stems below ground level after harvest and cover the base with soil to reduce borer/weevil infestation. Chop up the stem to encourage it to dry out or rot down quickly.

Musanga cecropioides R. Br. (Cecropiaceae) Common names Nsenga, parasolier (Fr.), umbrella tree Ecology Found in secondary forests, often a pioneer species on fertile soils after clearing the forest. Sun loving. From Guinea to Angola (Pauwels 1993).

Uses Reported as a bee forage in Bas-Congo and known as a bee forage in Gabon (Lobreau-Callen 1988). The fruit is edible. Wood ash is used as salt and a lye for soap making. A dense leaf-litter is produced. Can be used as a coffee shade tree. Wood is very light, soft and coarse grained. Used for fence palings and for making household implements such as stools, musical instruments, baskets etc. The aerial roots yield large amounts of liquid which can be drunk instead of water (Burkill 1985, Peters et al. 1992). Description Tree to 20 m. Grows very rapidly and spreads by coppicing from the stilt roots (Burkill 1985, Keay 1989).

Musanga cecropioides at Bidinza in the Manianga

Palisota hirsuta (Thunb.) K. Schum. and P. ambigua CL. (Commelinaceae) Common names Bundabunda Ecology Both species are common in fallow and secondary forest in Bas-Congo and are also found throughout West Africa and the Congo basin (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985).

Palisota ambigua photographed near Kibombo village Uses Bees were seen collecting pollen during January in Bas-Congo. Bees are reported to visit both plants in Gabon (Lobreau-Callen et al. 1988, Ambougou 1991 and see Burkill 1985 who mentions that P.hirsuta is frequented by bees in West Africa). Palisota spp. are known as a bee forage in USA. Pulped stems or sap applied in a compress have analgesic and antiseptic properties. Stems are chewed as a sedative for coughing. The dried plant is used for making soap. Sometimes grown as an ornamental (Burkill 1985). Description A robust perennial herb to 3 m high or more with long leaves.

Pentaclethra eetveldeana De Wild & Th. Dur. (Mimosaceae) Common names Kiseka Ecology Secondary forests in Gabon, Cabinda and R.D. Congo (Pauwels 1993). A common tree in Bas-Congo.

Uses Bees forage for nectar in March in Bas-Congo (see also Castagné 1983 and Ambougou 1991. The latter reports that the honey produced is toxic causing nausea and colic). Makes a good fuel-wood and an important source of charcoal in Bas-Congo. The white wood is hard, durable and resists termites, fungal and insect attack. It also makes good construction timber. Used for pestles and mortars. Seed contains oil of similar quality to that of P. macrophylla. The large seeds are sometimes eaten (De Wildeman 1934, Drachoussoff 1947:244, Walker & Sillans 1961:244, Allen & Allen 1981) Food plant for Minsangula and Minsendi edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). Description Tree to 15 - 30m. Propagation Germinates unevenly but with a high percentage. Seeds are best planted direct into the field to avoid damaging the tap root. Management The tree coppices well after being cut down.

Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. (Mimosaceae) Common names Ngansi, oil bean tree. Ecology Growth can be good where rainfall is adequate. It will grow on relatively acid soils. Tolerates water logging, though the tree prefers a medium/loamy, well drained soil (Ladipo & Boland 1995, ICRAF 1998).

Shoot, flower and fruit of Pentaclethra macrophylla Uses An important source of nectar for honey bees in Bas-Congo. Bees are active throughout the day. The leaves are shed during the dry season and it is believed in Bas-Congo that the mulch improves soil fertility. Food plant of Minsendi and Minsangula edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). Elsewhere the tree is planted on the fringes of farmland for its edible seeds. The seeds are eaten after roasting or boiling for 12 hours. Flour from seeds can be used for bread making. The timber makes a good firewood, though it gives off an unpleasant smell. It also makes good charcoal. Seed pods can be used for fuel and when burnt to ash, yield a lye used in soap making. The tree is termite resistant (Burkill 1995, Ladipo & Boland 1995). Description Tree to 25 m high. Fast growing, seedlings attain 1.5 m in the first year. The tree nodulates (Pauwels 1993, Ladipo & Boland 1995). It has good natural regeneration after fire (Irvine 1961) Propagation Seed should be planted as soon as possible after harvest. Soaking seed in water for 24 hours improves germination. Seed is normally planted direct into the field as seedlings are difficult to transplant because of the long tap root produced.

Persea americana Mills. (Lauraceae) Common names Divoka, avocado pear. Ecology Avocados can be grown on sandy-loam soils, but are sensitive to poor drainage and water logging. A rainfall of 1250 - 1750 mm should be evenly distributed. Dry conditions are preferred during flowering. Mexican races are more tolerant to water stress and low humidity and also to a humid, warm climate with optimum temperatures around 25 - 28 °C. (Purseglove 1968, Nakasone & Paull 1998).

Uses Mainly grown for its edible fruit which is rich in fat, protein and vitamins. It is the most nutritious of all fruits. Nectar secretion is abundant in favourable conditions but is affected by climate and soil conditions. Honey produced is dark with a strong flavour. The nectar secretion is abundant when humidity is high (Crane et al. 1984, Fichtl & Adi 1994). Bees are known to increase yields of fruit (Jones 1999). Propagation Can be grown from seed but is best grafted. Seed remains viable for 2 - 3 weeks but can be stored for longer if kept dry. Quicker and better germination can be obtained if the seed coat is removed. Transplants are made with a ball of earth round the roots. Guatemalan and West Indian races produce the best rootstocks, however they are not compatible with West Indian scions. Seeds are planted in nurseries, 35 cm apart and should not be covered with more than 1 cm of soil. Stocks should be side grafted with terminal tips 6 cm long or older stocks may be shield budded. Budded and grafted plants can be transplanted after about 18 months (Purseglove 1968).

Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl. (Anacardiaceae) Common names Nyibu Ecology Found in deciduous fringing and secondary forests, in damp sites and often on stream banks occurring throughout West Africa (Pauwels 1993). Suitable for planting in wet areas (Lubaki 1996).

Pseudospondias microcarpa at Kisantu in August

Uses Provides bee forage in January and August in Bas-Congo. Pseudospondias spp. are known to provide bee forage in Gabon (Lobreau-Callen 1988, Ambougou 1991). Wood is soft to moderately hard and grey or greenish, liable to warp, perishable and liable to borer attack. Sometimes used for poles and planks. There are several medicinal uses. Tannin is produced in both bark and leaves. The fruits are sweet and edible (Burkill 1985, Peters et al. 1992, Katende et al. 1999). Description Tree grows from 6 to 20 m high. Male and female flowers produced on different shoots (Pauwels 1993). Propagation Can be grown from cuttings (Lubaki 1996).

Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) Common names Fulunta, guava Ecology Spread throughout the tropics, where it has become a noxious weed in some areas. Grows from sea level to 1,500 m. and is adaptable over a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. It can tolerate temporary water logging and high temperatures (Purseglove 1968, Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993).

Uses The flowers are frequently visited by honey bees (see also Ambougou 1991) and by Apis cerana in India for the heavy yields of pollen and moderate amounts of nectar. The honey produced is light yellow, has a thin viscosity and pleasant flavour (Lakshmi & Mohana Rao 1998). The fruits are variable in size and flavour, ranging from sweet to tart. Ripe juicy types are eaten fresh, or the flesh can be stewed. Guavas contain 2 - 5 times the vitamin content of fresh orange juice and dehydrated guava juice is a source of vitamin C. Guavas are also a fair source of vitamin A, iron, calcium and phosphorus. The wood is hard and is used for making tool handles. The leaves are used to make a tea to treat fever in R.D. Congo (Renier 1948). In some countries the leaves are used for dyeing and tanning (Purseglove 1968, Iwu 1993). Propagation Best to select a good variety and propagate by marcot (air layering). The tree may also be grown from suckers which can be induced by cutting the root 60 - 90 cm from the trunk (Purseglove 1968, Bekele -Tesemma et al. 1993). Management Trees come into bearing two years after transplanting and are in full bearing after 8 years.

Psorospermum febrifugum Spach (Clusiaceae) Common names Kisokosoko Ecology A common and widespread shrub of the savannah found from Guinea to Ethiopia and Mozambique (Pauwels 1993).

Psorospermum febrifugum flowering and fruiting in January Uses Bees collect nectar from this plant, which flowers during both dry and wet seasons in Bas-Congo. The bark, and particularly the root bark, is used for the treatment of skin problems in humans (Burkill 1994). In Bas-Congo the bark is crushed and mixed with a little water and rubbed on the affected part. The bark is also mixed with palm oil and used to treat scabies. It is also used to treat sores in domestic rabbits. A decoction of the roots and leaves is drunk to cure leprosy (Kokwaro 1976). The fruits are eaten in Tanzania (Burkill 1994). Description A shrub or small tree reaching to 6 m high. Bark is grey to brown, rough and rather corky, flaking or peeling in strips. Flowers are creamy-white, about 8 mm in diameter, sweet scented. The stalks are covered with rusty hairs. Fruit is a small red berry about 6 mm in diameter. Seen in flower in January and September in Bas-Congo (Palgrave 1983, Pauwels 1993). Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Rutidea smithii Hiern (Rubiaceae) Ecology Found in secondary forest/jungle or on forest margins from Sierra Leone to W. Cameroon and across the Congo basin to Sudan, Zambia and Angola (Burkill 1997).

Uses Bees were collecting nectar at midday near Kikola in January. The thin twigs are hollow and used as drinking straws. The leaves have a piquant smell. Dried and powdered they are inhaled as a sinus decongestant. Pounded roots are applied to wounds by the Igbo in Nigeria (Burkill 1997). Description A climbing shrub which grows up to 6 m long. R. olenotricha is also probably a source of nectar for bees.

Samanea leptophylla (Harms) Brenan & Brummitt (Mimosaceae) Common names Nsyesi Ecology Secondary forest in Central African Republic, and Bas-Congo, Kasai, Bas-Katanga provinces in R.D. Congo (Pauwels 1993). May also be present in Nigeria (Keay 1989).

Samanea leptophylla growing beside a river on the road to Muila Uses Bees were active on this plant in January. A decoction of the bark is given as an enema for pain in the abdomen (Neuwinger 2000). The leaves are eaten by Kaba and Minsendi edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). Description Tree to 25 m high. Propagation Direct seeding or from nursery grown plants. Seeds should be put in boiling water and allowed to cool and soak for 24 hours. Susceptible to weed competition in the early stages.

Sapium cornutum Pax (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kititi, ntiti Ecology Found in secondary forest from Cameroon, south to Angola and R.D. Congo. Often associated with sandy soils. Sapium spp. prefer well drained soils (Irvine 1961, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993).

Male inflorescence of Sapium cornutum photographed at Mbanza Nzundu Uses In Bas-Congo bees collect nectar from extra floral nectaries on the male flowers throughout the day. A decoction of the leaves is used for coughs in Bas-Congo (Mukoko Matondo 1991). Crushed leaves are applied to insect or snake bites. Food plant for Ntiti and Kaba edible caterpillars. Description A shrub or small tree from 1.5 to 12 m high. Leaves are oval-elliptic, with pointed tips and rounded at the base 10 - 13 x 4.5 - 6 cm. Male and female flowers on the same plant but quite distinct. Fruits are reddish (Irvine 1961, Pauwels 1993). Propagation Can be grown from seed.

Sarcocephalus latifolius (J.E. Smith) E.A. Bruce (Rubiaceae) Common names Kienga Ecology Grows in medium loamy, acid, well drained soil (ICRAF 1998). There are two forms one growing in the savannah and the other in the forest. Common throughout West Africa and across the Congo basin to Uganda (Burkill 1997). Uses Bees forage this tree from October to December in Bas-Congo. The wood is suitable for furniture making and veneers. It is used for charcoal making, firewood and for live stakes for fencing. The bark is an effective worm remedy. The roots are widely used for the treatment of fevers. The fruits are edible but not particularly liked (ICRAF 1998, Burkill 1997). Food plant for Makedi kedi and Munsona edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996).

Sarcocephalus latifolius flowering in November Description A climbing shrub or small tree 5 - 6 m high. Deep rooting. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings (ICRAF 1998). Seeds are even smaller than those of Eucalyptus. When the fruit is ripe it falls to the ground. Collect fruits together and allow the outer coat to decompose or the fruits can be mashed and floated in a pail of water. The seeds will then separate and sink to the bottom after which they can be collected and gradually dried. Store in a sealed container in a dry place. Plant within 2 months. Before planting immerse seed in hot water, allow it to cool and soak for 24 hours. Wildlings can be transplanted (Katende et al. 1995). Management The tree can be coppiced, lopped or pollarded (Katende et al. 1995).

Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S.F. Blake (Caesalpiniodeae) Synonym S. excelsum Vog. Common names Brazilian fire tree, yellow jacaranda (Macmillan 1991).

Ecology Found in coastal sub-tropical conditions, rain forest, dry savannah, in both fertile and poor soils (NAS 1979). It does best in deep rich moist soil in full sun but with shelter from strong winds. Needs plenty of water. Uses Reported to be a bee forage from September to December in Bas-Congo. An ornamental tree which can be used in paper making (NAS 1979). Description A tall slender, fast growing and often unbranched tree to 30 m. topped with a huge cluster of long fern like leaves. Propagation Can be grown from seed and is easily cultivated (NAS 1979).

In flower at Kinsambi in January

Sesamum orientale L. (Pedaliaceae) Common names Wangila, sesame, simsim. Ecology Native to Africa and often grown as a cash crop in areas with a short dry season. It is moderately drought resistant when established. Grows up to 1220 m altitude. Fertile loam soils preferred. It will not tolerate water logging. Rainfall 500 - 1100 mm. An average daily temperature 27 °C is needed (Godin & Spensely 1971).

Uses A good bee forage providing both nectar and pollen. The nectar secretion is higher the day after rain has fallen. The plant is an important honey source and worth cultivating for this purpose (Crane et al. 1984, Fichtl & Adi 1994). The seed is either eaten as a food or an oil is extracted from it for cooking. The seed is high in calcium and phosphorus and therefore a valuable food for children. The leaves of this species and of S. alatum and S. radiatum = Wangila wa mateba, are eaten when young, as a vegetable and used to thicken soup. They are also used as a remedy for coughs and sore eyes. The ash obtained from burning the stems is used medicinally and as a vegetable salt (Burkill 1997, Martin et al. 1998). Sesamin has insecticidal properties (Iwu 1993). Description An annual herb

to 1.5 m high. Some varieties have pods which do not shatter on ripening (Godin & Spensley 1971). Propagation Grown from seed which is broadcast on well cultivated land. Management Normally takes 3 - 4 months to ripen. The crop is cut when the lowest capsules on the stem begin to open and before the plants are fully ripe (Godin & Spensley 1971).

Sida acuta Burm. f. (Malvaceae) Common names Kimvumvu, Queensland hemp, wireweed. Ecology A common weed of the tropics, widespread in Bas-Congo, found on roadsides, grassland and disturbed areas. Frequently associated with homesteads.

Uses Bees occasionally work the flowers of this plant for pollen and nectar. The stems contain a good fibre which can be spun into silk, but it does not yield as much as jute. The whole plant is used for making brooms. In Uganda the leaves are cooked and added to sim-sim or groundnut paste (Katende et al. 1999). Livestock, other than cattle, will eat it. There are various medicinal uses. It is a purgative and the leaves are widely used as a healing dressing to cure abscesses. They are also used to assist childbirth in Bas-Congo. The stems are used for cleaning teeth (Burkill 1997). Description A very variable low perennial shrub. Sida acuta flowering in Kinsambi village in January

Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. (Rubiaceae) Synonym Borreria latifolia (Aubl.) K Schum. Common names Tekasala, kimbuena Ecology A common weed of cultivation in Bas-Congo, Tekasala means “you must first work before eating”. Found in open waste places; native of South America and now an established plant from Sierra Leone to Ghana and in eastern Africa. Recorded as a weed in Liberia, Ghana and of irrigated sugar cane in Somalia (Burkill 1997). Uses Bees frequently collect nectar from November to February, particularly in the early morning after heavy rain. It is the food plant of Mimbata edible caterpillar.

Spermacoce latifolia in an old cassava field near Kasangulu. Photo taken in January.

Stachytarpheta angustifolia Vahl. ? (Verbenaceae) Common names Vervain, rat’s tail. Ecology Frequently found beside footpaths and on roadsides in Bas-Congo. Found throughout West Africa. Stachytarpheta spp. are adapted to most soil conditions.

Uses Bees occasionally forage for nectar in Bas-Congo. Other species are grown as ornamentals (Jex-Blake 1957). S. indica is reported as a bee forage for honeybees and Dactylurines in Gabon from September to November (Ambougou 1991). The roots are sometimes used as an eye salve (Uphof 1968). Description Stachytarpheta spp. are annual herbs or small straggling shrubs up to 2 m high. Propagation Soft stem cuttings will root in a sand-peat mixture. Seed may also be used and should be surface sown. Repropagate after one to two years (RHS 1992). Management Young growth may be pinched out to give bushy plants (RHS 1992).

Strychnos cocculoides Baker (Loganiaceae) Common names Kala nkonki, nkonki, bush orange, monkey orange. Ecology Found in savannah and open forests from Gabon to the Transvaal (Pauwels 1993).

Inset flowering twig of Strychnos pungens Uses Bees collect nectar from this and other Strychnos spp. in Bas-Congo. Used for firewood and building poles. The wood is white, pliable and tough and suitable for tool handles. The fruit pulp is edible, but rather bitter, and is also used to prepare a non-alcoholic sweet-sour drink. The fruit is used to make a dye that provides protection from insects. The tree is planted to form a boundary around home compounds and as a barrier or support. The bark, leaves, roots and fruit are used medicinally (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Malaisse 1997, ICRAF 1998). Description Shrub or small tree to 6m branching from low down. Propagation Seedlings or root suckers can be used. Seeds are squeezed out of the pulp and then put in water. The empty seeds and pulp float to the top. The seeds can be dried and remain viable for up to 6 months. Germination of seed is good but slow, reaching 75% after 8 weeks (Msanga 1998, ICRAF 1998). Before planting soak the seed in cold water for 12 hours to hasten germination. Root suckers are produced when the root is damaged (Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998). Management Slow growing. The tree coppices well. Trees are often left in cultivated land for their fruit (Mbuya et al. 1994).

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. subsp. guineense (Myrtaceae) Common names Kikulu, nkulu, water berry

Syzygium guineense subsp guineense in flower in February near Luzumu Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa. Prefers water courses and swampy areas but also grows in well drained soils (Beentje 1994, ICRAF 1998). Uses Bees collect nectar from this tree and from S. jambos (Pommier-rose) (see Lobreau-Callen 1988). Used for firewood, charcoal and timber (furniture, general construction), poles, posts, tool handles and carving. The timber is red, hard and strong and though easily worked and very durable, is liable to split. Very ripe fruits are edible and are picked from the tree or collected from the ground. Bark used for tanning and for making a black dye. The bark, roots and leaves are used medicinally (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, FAO 1983, Mbuya et al. 1994). It is the food plant for Nkulu (Mfinda) and Bubuta edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo (Kibungu 1996). Description Evergreen tree or shrub to 20 m. Fruits 8 - 12 mm in diameter. Propagation Grown from seed. Ripe fruits are picked or collected from the ground. Soak the fruits in water for 6 hours and squeeze out the seeds. Seed can be stored for up to one month. Germination is good and very fast. No treatment necessary but seeds must be sown immediately. Sowing into pots is recommended. Tree produces suckers freely (Irvine 1961, FAO 1983, Mbuya et al. 1994, ICRAF 1998)

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. subsp. macrocarpum (Myrtaceae) Common names Nkisu Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa. A tree or shrub of the savannah regions subject to annual fires (Keay 1989).

Syzygium guineense subsp. macrocarpum in flower in August and with fruit in November near Kasangulu

Uses Edible fruit. Reported to be a bee forage plant in Bas-Congo and known as a bee forage in Gabon (Lobreau-Callen 1988). Host plant of Bubuta and Nkulu (Nseke) edible caterpillars (Kibungu 1996). Host plant of Lobobunaea saturnus and Gonimbrasia richelmanni edible caterpillar in Shaba (Malaisse 1980). The fruits are fed to edible fruit bats at Shefu, Bas-Congo when transporting them to market. Description Large fruits which turn purple 12 - 30 mm in diameter (Pauwels 1993). Propagation As for S. guineense subsp. guineense.

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston (Myrtaceae) Common names Pommier-rose (Fr.) Ecology Native to the Indo-Malaysian region. Grows well on most soils so long as they are not waterlogged. Young plants need shade and a moist environment. Established trees are hardy but not very drought resistant.

Uses A good bee forage capable of giving high yields of amber coloured honey with a mild taste (Irvine 1961, Crane et al 1984). The rose scented fruits can be eaten raw but are best cooked. They have a high pectin content and can be mixed with other more strongly flavoured fruit to make jam (Garner & Chaudhri 1988). The leaves are eaten by livestock. The tree makes a good hedge plant. The wood is hard but not durable in the ground and is readily attacked by termites. It makes good charcoal and firewood (FAO 1982). Description A shrub or small tree from 7.5 to 10 m. The white juicy, aromatic flesh is low in acid, sweet and crisp when ripe. Propagation Grows easily from seed providing they are fresh. The tree can also be layered or cuttings can be used for propagation (Garner & Chaudhri 1988). Plant layers out after 6 months. Air layered trees come into bearing after 3 - 5 years compared with 3 - 7 years for trees grown from seed (Veheij & Coronel 1991, Nakasone & Paull 1998). Management The fruit does not store well.

Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merrill & Perry (Myrtaceae) Common names Mazenya, pommier de Malaisie. Ecology Originally from Malaysia. Grows below 1000 m in the tropics. Frequently

grown in villages in Bas-Congo. Intolerant of long periods of drought and large temperature fluctuations (FAO 1982). Uses Bees are very much attracted to the flowers in Bas-Congo. Mainly grown for its fruit, but it also makes a good shade and ornamental tree. The fruit can be eaten raw, cooked or made into preserves. Heartwood is hard, heavy and difficult to work but is used for furniture. It makes a good charcoal (FAO 1982). Description Tree 6 - 8 m high. Flowers on old wood. Fruit white at first turning red when mature (Pauwels 1993).

Stamens are numerous and on falling form a red carpet below the tree. Fruit is red to purple, 5 - 7 cm long and 3 - 5 cm wide. Skin is thin and sweet and covers a white, spongy, juicy flesh, with a scent of rose and apple. Flowers and fruits are often produced throughout the year (FAO 1982). Propagation Easily grown from seed. Best results are obtained by budding on to seedling stock. Space at 8 - 10 m. (FAO 1982). Remarks Trees are often attacked by termites.

Tetracera poggei Gilg. (Dilleniaceae) Common names Kizyaazi ? (Kikongo for T. alnifolia), liane à eau (Fr.) Ecology Found growing over trees in savannah.

Tetracera poggei growing over a tree near Kinsambi Uses The flowers are very attractive to bees. Bees were seen foraging for nectar in the morning during January in Bas-Congo. T. alnifolia is known as a bee forage in Gabon (Ambougou 1991). The leaves of some species of Tetracera are used as sandpaper and the stems for cordage (Uphof 1968). Description A liana producing an abundance of flowers. Typical fruits of a Tetracera sp.

Tithonia rotundifolia S.F. Blake (Asteraceae) Synonyms Tagetes rotundifolia Mill., T. speciosa Hook. Common names Mexican sunflower Ecology Originally from Central Mexico to Panama (RHS 1992). Frequently planted as an ornamental in Bas-Congo.

Uses Bees were seen collecting pollen in the early morning in January. Description An annual plant normally growing from 1 to 2 m but can reach 4 m. The plant illustrated is possibly ‘Torch’ variety (RHS 1992). Propagation Can be grown from seed (RHS 1992).

Triumfetta cordifolia A. Rich. (Tiliaceae) Common names Mpungala Ecology A common weed of cultivated crops and bush regrowth in wet areas of the tropical forest regions (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987). Uses Reported to be a good bee forage providing nectar and pollen in Bas-Congo. Bees forage during December, July, August and October in Gabon (Ambougou 1991). Stem fibres (lupungala) are an important item of commerce in Bas-Congo (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). The leaves are edible (Peters et al. 1992). The bark of the leafy stems contain substances that give stews a typically sticky consistency. These substances are extracted in some countries by softening the bark in hot water, and then kneading it in a little clean water. During the kneading process the sticky agents are released into the water which is then added to the stew (Dupriez & De Leener 1989).

Triumfetta cordifolia in flower in August Extracting fibre from the stem Description An erect, perennial shrub to 3 m high, with hairy or sometimes smooth stems. Propagation By cuttings from leafy stems. Plant in moist soil. Management Earthing up, mulching and shade are beneficial. The stems are cut at harvest leaving one or two buds at the base. Plants can be harvested for many years. The bark may be stored after peeling from the stems (Dupriez & De Leener 1989).

Urena lobata Linn. (Malvaceae) Common names Pungala, dinkambwala Ecology A weed of cultivated crops, usually near settlements (Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987). Grows in full sunlight usually on fertile, well drained soils. Found throughout the tropics and sub-tropics (Burkill 1997, Busson 1965).

Urena lobata growing near water at Kavwaya Uses An important bee forage providing nectar over a long period (Morton 1964, Ambougou 1991). Occasionally cultivated for its fibre, called “Congo jute”, in Bas- Congo (Renier 1948, Busson 1965, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). The fibre is strong, fine, soft and lustrous. It has good spinning properties and can be used for cordage, textiles, carpets, packing materials, upholstery and, mixed with other fibres, for sacking. Resistant to termites and water. It makes a strong paper. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally (Burkill 1997). Young leaves are eaten in Gabon and the plant can be used as a livestock fodder. Description A fibrous woody shrub up to 3 m high. Propagation Grown from seed. Management The plant can be cut twice per year for fibre production, in which case it is normally grown as an annual. It requires a fertile soil and, as it is soil exhausting, rotation is necessary (Burkill 1997).

Vernonia amygdalina Del. (Asteraceae) Common names Mundudindudi, nlulanlula, bitter leaf. Ecology Often planted in villages in Bas-Congo (Daeleman & Pauwels 1983). Occurs throughout the tropics.

Uses Bees were seen collecting nectar in August in Bas-Congo. It is an important honey source elsewhere (Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1985). Crushed leaves are applied for skin infections in Bas-Congo (Mukoko Matondo 1991). The pith of the stems in particular is an effective medicine against intestinal worms. The leaves are edible but often very bitter and require considerable preparation. They are not usually eaten in Bas-Congo. The bitterness can be abated by pounding, boiling, or with young leaves, by soaking in several changes of water (Schippers 2000). Description Edible varieties

are variable and have long ovate, greyish leaves. Some of the cultivated varieties are almost free of bitterness. Propagation Usually planted from cuttings. Vernonia amygdalina growing in Muingu village.

Vernonia conferta Benth. and similar species (Asteraceae) Common names Mpukumpuku, cabbage tree, soap tree. Ecology In secondary forest and fallows on heavy soils in Bas-Congo. From Guinea to Angola and into Uganda (Pauwels 1993).

Uses Vernonia spp. are known to be good bee forage plants. When this plant is in flower the air is reported to smell of honey. Bees collect nectar early in the morning, though a little later in the rain season in Gabon (Ambougou 1991). Branches are burnt and the ash used for salt in R.D. Congo or for making soap in Sierra Leone. Young leafy shoots may be boiled into a soup and given to women to encourage their milk supply (Burkill 1985). Description A shrub or tree to 9 m high. The tree resembles an Anthocleista and has the same name in Kikongo. Leaves 45 - 90 cm long, up to 20 cm broad, narrowing gradually to the base with a coarsely lobed or wavy margin (Keay 1989).

Vernonia brazzavillensis Compére is another species present in Bas-Congo. It grows on sandy soils in secondary forest .

Vernonia potamophila Klatt (Asteraceae) Common names Kisuunsa, nlulanlula or ntita Ecology A low growing bush, common in some areas of the savannah bush/grassland in Bas-Congo. Also found in central Africa in dry evergreen woodland .

Vernonia potamophila at Mingadi in January Uses Bees were seen collecting nectar on some mornings in Bas-Congo during January. The leaves are chewed or a leaf maceration is used to relieve asthma in children (Neuwinger 2000). Description A lax or diffuse sub-shrub from 1 to 1.5 m tall. The flowers are often tinged purple.

Vitex doniana Sweet (Verbenaceae) Common names Fiolongo, black plum. Ecology Occurs throughout Africa, particularly in riverine and secondary forests in Bas-Congo (Pauwels 1993). Uses Reported as a good bee forage (see Irvine 1961). Fruit is sweet and edible. Leaves are used as a herb in cooking. The teak like, termite resistant timber is used for building boats and houses and for making crates and furniture. It can also be used for firewood and charcoal. The leaves, pods and seeds are used for fodder, the bark, leaves and roots for medicine and the bark for making a dye. The tree provides a useful shade and the roots fix nitrogen. (Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993, ICRAF 1998).

Vitex doniana coming into flower in September Description Tree from 8 to 18m high with a definite crown. Propagation By seed, cuttings or from wildlings. Remove the skin and pulp from around the seed when ripe with a knife. Wash and dry. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years at room temperature, but is best sown when fresh. Soak the seed for 24 hours, changing the water after 12 hours. Germination is good but may take up to 8 weeks (Msanga 1998). Management Medium growth rate. Can be grown in fields and along boundaries and can be coppiced (Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993). Remarks The species regenerates naturally by seed and root suckers. Forest fires may help to break the seed coat before germination (Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993).

Male flower head

Zea mays L. (Poaceae) Common names Saangu, maize. Ecology Will grow in a wide range of conditions. Essentially a crop of warm

countries with adequate moisture. Grows best on well drained, well aerated, deep, fertile loams. Often the first crop planted after the forest fallow in Bas-Congo. Uses Green maize is an important crop in Bas-Congo providing food when there is little else available. Bees frequently collect pollen from the male flowers during the rains and sometimes honeydew from the leaves. The latter may be gathered in sufficient quantities to give a honey flow (Howes 1979, Crane et al. 1984). Description A stout annual reaching 3 m. Distinct races are adapted to different areas. Propagation Seed. Normally planted with groundnuts or sweet potatoes and without fertilizer in Bas-Congo. Management Stalk borer is a major pest. It can be controlled by tobacco leaf

solution which is poured down the centre funnel into the plant (Stoll 2000).

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