Baroque

For other uses, see Baroque (disambiguation).The Baroque (US /bəˈroʊk/ or UK /bəˈrɒk/) is often

The Triumph of the Immaculate byPaolo de Matteis

The Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, designed by GianLorenzo Bernini

thought of as a period of artistic style that used exagger-ated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to producedrama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture,painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater, and mu-

sic. The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy, andspread to most of Europe.[1]

The popularity and success of the Baroque style wasencouraged by the Catholic Church, which had de-cided at the time of the Council of Trent, in responseto the Protestant Reformation, that the arts shouldcommunicate religious themes in direct and emotionalinvolvement.[2] The aristocracy also saw the dramaticstyle of Baroque architecture and art as a means of im-pressing visitors and expressing triumph, power and con-trol. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance ofcourts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequen-tially increasing opulence. However, “baroque” has reso-nance and application that extend beyond a simple reduc-tion to either style or period.[3]

1 Etymology

Brooch of an African, Walters Art Museum

The French word baroque is derived from the Portugueseword “barroco” or Spanish “barrueco” both of which re-

1

2 3 DEVELOPMENT

fer to a “rough or imperfect pearl”, though whether it en-tered those languages via Latin, Arabic, or some othersource is uncertain.[4] It is also yields the Italian “barocco”andmodern Spanish “barroco”, German “Barock”, Dutch“Barok”, and so on. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica11th edition thought the term was derived from the Span-ish barrueco, a large, irregularly-shaped pearl, and that ithad for a time been confined to the craft of the jeweller.[5]Others derive it from the mnemonic term “Baroco”, asupposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholas-tica.[6] The Latin root can be found in bis-roca.[7]

In informal usage, the word baroque can simplymean thatsomething is “elaborate”, with many details, without ref-erence to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th cen-turies.The word “Baroque”, like most periodic or stylistic des-ignations, was invented by later critics rather than practi-tioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries.It is a French transliteration of the Portuguese phrase“pérola barroca”, which means “irregular pearl", and nat-ural pearls that deviate from the usual, regular forms sothey do not have an axis of rotation are known as "baroquepearls".[8]

The term “Baroque” was initially used in a derogatorysense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In par-ticular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redun-dancy and noisy abundance of details, which sharply con-trasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance.Although it was long thought that the word as a criticalterm was first applied to architecture, in fact it appearsearlier in reference to music, in an anonymous, satiricalreview of the première in October 1733 of Jean-PhilippeRameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure deFrance in May 1734. The critic implied that the nov-elty in this opera was “du barocque”, complaining that themusic lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with disso-nances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedilyran through every compositional device.[9]

2 Modern taste and usage

The Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin (1864–1945), started the rehabilitation of the word Baroquein his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identi-fied the Baroque as “movement imported into mass”, anart antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make thedistinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that mod-ern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the aca-demic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Longdespised, Baroque art and architecture became fashion-able between the two World Wars, and has largely re-mained in critical favour. For example, the often ex-treme Sicilian Baroque architecture is today recognisedlargely due to the work of Sir Sacheverall Sitwell, whoseSouthern Baroque Art of 1924 was the first book to ap-

preciate the style, followed by the more academic workof Anthony Blunt. In painting the gradual rise in popu-lar esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer ofmodern taste.In art history it has become common to recognise“Baroque” stylistic phases, characterized by energeticmovement and display, in earlier art, so that Sir JohnBoardman describes the ancient sculpture Laocoön andHis Sons as “one of the finest examples of the Hellenisticbaroque”,[10] and a later phase of Imperial Roman sculp-ture is also often called “Baroque”. William Watsondescribes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritualbronzes of the 11th century BC as “baroque”.[11]

The term “Baroque” may still be used, usually pejora-tively, describing works of art, craft, or design that arethought to have excessive ornamentation or complexityof line.

3 Development

Aeneas Flees Burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598

The Baroque originated around 1600, several decades af-ter the Council of Trent (1545–63), by which the RomanCatholic Church answered many questions of internal re-form, addressed the representational arts by demandingthat paintings and sculptures in church contexts shouldspeak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed.This turn toward a populist conception of the function ofecclesiastical art is seen by many art historians as driv-ing the innovations of Caravaggio and brothers Agostinoand Annibale Carracci, all of whom were working (andcompeting for commissions) in Rome around 1600.The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from thewitty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist artto a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed aniconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and theatri-cal (illustration, right). Baroque art drew on certain broadand heroic tendencies in Annibale Carracci and his cir-cle, and found inspiration in other artists like Correggioand Caravaggio and Federico Barocci (illustration, right),nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'. Germinal

3.1 Periods 3

ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work ofMichelangelo. Some general parallels in music make theexpression "Baroque music" useful: there are contrastingphrase lengths, harmony and counterpoint have oustedpolyphony, and orchestral color makes a stronger appear-ance. Even more generalized parallels perceived by someexperts in philosophy, prose style and poetry, are harderto pinpoint.Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by theRococo style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, espe-cially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, theBaroque style continued to be used in architecture un-til the advent of Neoclassicism in the later 18th century.See the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace(though in a chaste exterior) whose construction began in1752.

St. Nicholas Church in Lesser Town in Prague was founded in1703 under lead of Baroque architect Christoph Dientzenhofer.

In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Manner-ist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious,more like the stage gestures of opera, a major Baroque artform. Baroque poses depend on contrapposto (“counter-poise”), the tensionwithin the figures thatmove the planesof shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini’sDavid.The dryer, less dramatic and coloristic, chastened laterstages of 18th century Baroque architectural style areoften seen as a separate Late Baroque manifestation,for example in buildings by Claude Perrault. Academiccharacteristics in the neo-Palladian style, epitomized byWilliam Kent, are a parallel development in Britain andthe British colonies: within interiors, Kent’s furniture de-signs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture ofRome and Genoa, hierarchical tectonic sculptural ele-ments, meant never to be moved from their positions,completed the wall decoration. Baroque is a style of unityimposed upon rich, heavy detail.The Baroque was defined by Heinrich Wölfflin as the agewhere the oval replaced the circle as the center of com-position, that centralization replaced balance, and thatcoloristic and “painterly” effects began to become moreprominent. Art historians, often Protestant ones, havetraditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved

during a time in which the Roman Catholic Church hadto react against the many revolutionary cultural move-ments that produced a new science and new forms ofreligion—Reformation. It has been said that the mon-umental Baroque is a style that could give the Papacy,like secular absolute monarchies, a formal, imposingway of expression that could restore its prestige, at thepoint of becoming somehow symbolic of the Counter-Reformation.Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully de-veloped in Rome, where Baroque architecture widely re-newed the central areas with perhaps the most importanturbanistic revision.

3.1 Periods

The Baroque era is sometimes divided into roughly threephases for convenience:[12][13][14]

• Early Baroque, c. 1590 – c. 1625

• High Baroque, c. 1625 – c. 1660

• Late Baroque, c. 1660 – c. 1725

Late Baroque is also sometimes used synonymously withthe succeeding Rococo movement.

4 Painting

Main article: Baroque paintingA defining statement of what Baroque signifies in

Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns

painting is provided by the series of paintings exe-cuted by Peter Paul Rubens for Marie de Medici at theLuxembourg Palace in Paris (now at the Louvre),[15]in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic pa-tron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconogra-phy, handling of paint, and compositions as well as thedepiction of space and movement.

4 5 SCULPTURE

Baroque style featured “exaggerated lighting, intenseemotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artis-tic sensationalism”. Baroque art did not really depict thelife style of the people at that time; however, “closely tiedto the Counter-Reformation, this style melodramaticallyreaffirmed the emotional depths of the Catholic faith andglorified both church and monarchy” of their power andinfluence.[16]

There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroquepainting, from Caravaggio to Cortona; both approach-ing emotive dynamism with different styles. The mostprominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was DiegoVelázquez.[17]

Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is Bernini'sSaint Theresa in Ecstasy for the Cornaro chapel in SaintMaria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture,sculpture, and theatre into one grand conceit.[18]

Still-life, by Josefa de Óbidos, c. 1679, Santarém, Portugal, Mu-nicipal Library

The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more dec-orative Rococo.A rather different art developed out of northern realisttraditions in 17th century Dutch Golden Age painting,which had very little religious art, and little history paint-ing, instead playing a crucial part in developing secu-lar genres such as still life, genre paintings of everydayscenes, and landscape painting. While the Baroque na-ture of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less oftenused for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. FlemishBaroque painting shared a part in this trend, while alsocontinuing to produce the traditional categories.In a similar way the French classical style of painting ex-emplified by Poussin is often classed as Baroque, anddoes share many qualities of the Italian painting of thesame period, although the poise and restraint derivedfrom following classical ideas typically give it a very dif-ferent overall mood.

5 Sculpture

Main article: Baroque sculptureIn Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new im-portance and there was a dynamic movement and energy

Stanislaus Kostka on his deathbed by Pierre Le Gros the Younger

of human forms—they spiraled around an empty centralvortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space.For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multipleideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculp-ture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, con-cealed lighting, or water fountains. Aleijadinho in Brazilwas also one of the great names of baroque sculpture, andhis master work is the set of statues of the Santuário deBom Jesus de Matosinhos in Congonhas. The soapstonesculptures of old testament prophets around the terraceare considered amongst his finest work.The architecture, sculpture and fountains of Bernini(1598–1680) give highly charged characteristics ofBaroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most im-portant sculptor of the Baroque period. He approachedMichelangelo in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted,worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and stagedspectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most val-ued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carvingmarble and his ability to create figures that combine thephysical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor ofbust portraits in high demand among the powerful.

5.1 Bernini’s Cornaro chapel

A good example of Bernini’s Baroque work is his St.Theresa in Ecstasy (1645–52), created for the CornaroChapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria,Rome. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiaryspace along the side of the church, for the Cornaro fam-ily.Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a soft whitemarble statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble ar-

5

Bernini's Ecstasy of St. Teresa

chitectural framing. This structure conceals a windowwhich lights the statue from above. Figure-groups of theCornaro family sculpted in shallow relief inhabit operaboxes on the two side walls of the chapel. The settingplaces the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue withtheCornaro family leaning out of their box seats and cran-ing forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint.St. Theresa is highly idealized and in an imaginary set-ting. She was a popular saint of the Catholic Reforma-tion. She wrote of her mystical experiences for an audi-ence of the nuns of her Carmelite Order; these writingshad become popular reading among lay people interestedin spirituality. In her writings, she described the love ofGod as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Berninimaterializes this by placing St. Theresa on a butt whilea Cupid figure holds a golden arrow made of metal andsmiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparingto plunge the arrow into her heart—rather, he has with-drawn it. St. Theresa’s face reflects not the anticipationof ecstasy, but her current fulfillment.This work is widely considered a masterpiece of theBaroque, although the mix of religious and erotic im-agery (faithful to St Teresa’s own written account) mayraise modern eyebrows. However, Bernini was a devoutCatholic and was not attempting to satirize the experi-ence of a chaste nun. Rather, he aimed to portray re-ligious experience as an intensely physical one. Theresa

described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment ina language of ecstasy used bymanymystics, and Bernini’sdepiction is earnest.The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in thischapel; they are represented visually, but are placed onthe sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from bal-conies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a priv-ileged position in respect to the viewer, in their privatereserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has abetter view from the front. They attach their name to thechapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapelin the sense that no one could say mass on the altar be-neath the statue (in the 17th century and probably throughthe 19th) without permission from the family, but the onlything that divides the viewer from the image is the altarrail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration ofmysticism and as a piece of family pride.

6 Architecture

The main altar of St. John’s Co-Cathedral, Malta

Main article: Baroque architecture

In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placedon bold massing, colonnades, domes, light-and-shade(chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color effects, and the bold playof volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movementaround and through a void informed monumental stair-cases that had no parallel in previous architecture. Theother Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was thestate apartment, a sequence of increasingly rich interiorsthat culminated in a presence chamber or throne roomor a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairsfollowed by a state apartment was copied in smaller scaleeverywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasmin central Germany (see, e.g., Ludwigsburg Palaceand Zwinger, Dresden), Austria and Russia (see, e.g.,Peterhof). In England the culmination of Baroque archi-tecture was embodied in work by Sir Christopher Wren,Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor, from ca.

6 7 THEATRE

1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque archi-tecture and town planning are found in other Europeantowns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this pe-riod featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares,which took cues from Baroque garden plans. In Sicily,Baroque developed new shapes and themes as in Noto,Ragusa and Acireale “Basilica di San Sebastiano”.Another example of Baroque architecture is theCathedral of Morelia, Michoacán in Mexico. Built inthe 17th century by Vincenzo Barrochio, it is one of themany Baroque cathedrals in Mexico. Baroque churchesbuilt during the Spanish period are also seen in thePhilippines.Francis Ching described Baroque architecture as “a styleof architecture originating in Italy in the early 17th cen-tury and variously prevalent in Europe and theNewWorldfor a century and a half, characterized by free and sculp-tural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamicopposition and interpenetration of spaces, and the dra-matic combined effects of architecture, sculpture, paint-ing, and the decorative arts.”[19]

• Architecture

• Trevi Fountain in Rome

• Wilanów Palace in Warsaw

• Interior of the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria dellaVittoria church, Rome including the Cornaro por-traits, but omitting the lower parts of the chapel.

• Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg

7 Theatre

In theatre, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plotturns and a variety of situations characteristic ofMannerism, in Shakespeare’s tragedies for instance, weresuperseded by opera, which drew together all the arts intoa unified whole.Theatre evolved in the Baroque era and became amultimedia experience, starting with the actual architec-tural space. In fact, much of the technology used in cur-rent Broadway or commercial plays was invented and de-veloped during this era. The stage could change from aromantic garden to the interior of a palace in a matter ofseconds. The entire space became a framed selected areathat only allows the users to see a specific action, hidingall the machinery and technology – mostly ropes and pul-leys.This technology affected the content of the narratedor performed pieces, practicing at its best the Deus exMachina solution. Gods were finally able to come down– literally – from the heavens and rescue the hero in themost extreme and dangerous, even absurd situations.

18th-century painting of the Royal Theatre of Turin

The term Theatrum Mundi – the world is a stage – wasalso created. The social and political realm in the realworld is manipulated in exactly the same way the actorand the machines are presenting/limiting what is beingpresented on stage, hiding selectively all the machinerythat makes the actions happen.The films Vatel and Farinelli give a good idea of the styleof productions of the Baroque period. The Americanmusician William Christie and Les Arts Florissants haveperformed extensive research on all the French BaroqueOpera, performing pieces from Charpentier and Lully,among others that are extremely faithful to the original17th-century creations.

7.1 England

The influence of the Renaissance was also very late inEngland, and Baroque theatre is only partly a useful con-cept here, for example in discussing Restoration comedy.There was an 18-year break when the London theatreswere closed during the English Civil War and EnglishCommonwealth until the Restoration of Charles II in1660.

7.2 Germany

German theatre in the 17th century lacked major con-tributions. The best known playwright was AndreasCryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joostvan den Vondel and Cornielle. There was also JohannesVelten who combined the traditions of the English come-dians and the commedia del'arte with the classic theaterof Corneille and Moliere. His touring company was per-

7

haps the most significant and important of the 17th cen-tury.

7.3 Spain

Lope de Vega

The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative characterin Spain, following an Italian literary models during theRenaissance.[20] The Hispanic Baroque theater aimed fora public content with an ideal reality that manifested fun-damental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monarchistand national pride and honor originating from the chival-ric, knightly world.[21]

Two periods are known in the Barocan Spanish the-ater. The separation between them was emphasized in1630; the first period consists of a principle represen-tant who is Lope de Vega, and also Tirso de Molina,Gaspar de Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio Mira deAmescua, Luis Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz de Alar-cón, Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Luis Belmonte Bermúdez,Felipe Godínez, Luis Quiñones de Benavente or JuanPérez de Montalbán; and in the second period Calderónde la Barca and the other play writers Antonio Hurtado deMendoza, Álvaro Cubillo deAragón, Jerónimo deCáncery Velasco, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de MatosFragoso, Antonio Coello y Ochoa, Agustín Moreto orFrancisco de Bances Candamo.[22] It is possible to speakabout a loosely classification, because each author had hisown way and could occasionally adhere himself to theformula established by Lope. Perhaps, the “manner” ofLope was more liberal and structured than Calderon’s.[23]

Felix Lope de Vega y Carpio introduced through his Arte

nuevo de hacer comedias en este tiempo (1609) the newcomedy. He established a new dramatic formula thatbroke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school ofpoetry (action, time and place) and a forth unity of Aris-totle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic ele-ments showing different types of verses and stanzas uponwhat is represented.[24] Although Lope has a great knowl-edge of the plastic arts, he did not use it during the ma-jor part of his career nor in theater or scenography. TheLope’s comedy granted a second role to the visual aspectsof the theatrical representation.[25]

Tirso de Molina along with Lope de Vega and Caledronwere of the most important play writers in Spain duringthe golden era. Their works, known for its subtle intel-ligence and profound comprehension of a person’s hu-manity, could be considered a bridge between primitiveLope’s comedy and a more elaborate Calderon’s comedy.Although part of the critics argued their writings showingthat Tirso de Molina was known for two flawless works,The convicted suspicions, The Trickster of Seville, a prin-cipal sources of the Don Juan myth.[26]

Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to theSpanish court the most advanced theatrical techniquesof Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledgewere applied in palace exhibitions called “Fiestas” and inlavish exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called“Naumaquias”. He was in charge of styling the Gar-dens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela and of Aranjuez andthe construction of the theatrical building of Coliseo delBuen Retiro.[27] Lope’s formulas begins with a verse thatit unbefitting of the palace theater foundation and thebirth of new concepts that begun the careers of someplay writers like Pedro Calderon de la Barca. Mark-ing the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Com-edy, Calderon’s style marked many differences, with agreat deal of constructive care and attention to his in-ternal structure. Calderon’s work is in formal perfectionand a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vital-ity and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderon’s intel-lectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy itreflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in abovethe passion and the action, the work of Auto Sacramen-tales achieved high ranks.[28] The genre of Comedia ispolitical, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetictext interweaved with Medias and resources originatingfrom architecture, music and painting freeing the decep-tion that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from thelack of scenery and engaging the dialogue of action.[29]

8 Literature and philosophy

Further information: 17th century in literature, 17thcentury philosophy and Early Modern literature

For German Baroque literature, see German literature of

8 9 MUSIC

the Baroque period.

9 Music

Main article: Baroque musicThe term Baroque is also used to designate the style of

George Frideric Handel, 1733

Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748

Antonio Vivaldi, 1723

music composed during a period that overlaps with thatof Baroque art, but usually encompasses a slightly laterperiod.It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroquemusic shares aesthetic principles with the visual and lit-erary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, sharedelement is a love of ornamentation, and it is perhaps sig-nificant that the role of ornament was greatly diminishedin both music and architecture as the Baroque gave wayto the Classical period.The application of the term “Baroque” to music is a rel-atively recent development, although it has recently beenpointed out that the first use of the word “baroque” incriticism of any of the arts related to music, in an anony-mous, satirical review of the première in October 1733of Rameau’s Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercurede France in May 1734. The critic implied that the nov-elty in this opera was “du barocque,” complaining that themusic lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremit-ting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, andspeedily ran through every compositional device.[30]

However this was an isolated reference, and consistent usewas only begun in 1919, by Curt Sachs,[31] and it was notuntil 1940 that it was first used in English (in an articlepublished by Manfred Bukofzer).[30]

Many musical forms were born in that era, like theconcerto and sinfonia. Forms such as the sonata, cantataand oratorio flourished. Also, opera was born out of theexperimentation of the Florentine Camerata, the creatorsof monody, who attempted to recreate the theatrical artsof the Ancient Greeks. An important technique used inbaroque music was the use of ground bass, a repeated

9

bass line. Dido’s Lament by Henry Purcell is a famousexample of this technique.

9.1 Composers and examples

• Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554/1557–1612) Sonatapian' e forte (1597), In Ecclesiis (from Symphoniaesacrae book 2, 1615)

• Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), L'Orfeo, favolain musica (1610)

• Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), Musikalische Exe-quien (1629, 1647, 1650)

• Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676), L'Egisto (1643),Ercole amante (1662), Scipione affricano (1664)

• Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), Armide (1686)

• Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), Te Deum(1688–1698)

• Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704), MysterySonatas (1681)

• John Blow (1649–1708), Venus and Adonis (1680–1687)

• Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Canon in D (1680)

• Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), 12 concerti grossi,Op. 6 (1714)

• Marin Marais (1656–1728), Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris (1723)

• Henry Purcell (1659–1695), Dido and Aeneas(1688)

• Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), L'honestà negliamori (1680), Il Pompeo (1683),Mitridate Eupatore(1707)

• François Couperin (1668–1733), Les barricadesmystérieuses (1717)

• Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), Didone abbando-nata (1724)

• Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), The Four Seasons(1723)

• Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), Il Serpente diBronzo (1730),Missa Sanctissimae Trinitatis (1736)

• Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Der Tag desGerichts (1762)

• Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729)

• Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), Dardanus(1739)

• George Frideric Handel (1685–1759),Water Music(1717), Messiah (1741)

• Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harp-sichord

• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata andFugue in D minor (1703–1707), Brandenburg Con-certos (1721), St Matthew Passion (1727)

• Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), Semiramide riconosci-uta (1729)

• Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), StabatMater (1736)

10 See also• List of Baroque architecture

• Baroque in Brazil

• Czech Baroque architecture

• Dutch Baroque architecture

• English Baroque

• French Baroque architecture

• Italian Baroque

• Sicilian Baroque

• New Spanish Baroque

• Neoclassicism (music)

• Andean Baroque

• Polish Baroque

• Baroque architecture in Portugal

• Naryshkin Baroque

• Petrine Baroque

• Siberian Baroque

• Spanish Baroque architecture

• Ukrainian Baroque

11 Notes[1] Fargis, Paul (1998). The New York Public Library Desk

Reference (third ed.). New York: Macmillan GeneralReference. p. 262. ISBN 0-02-862169-7.

[2] Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya,Gardner’s Art Through the Ages (Belmont, CA: Thom-son/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516.

10 13 FURTHER READING

[3] Helen Hills (ed), Rethinking the Baroque (Farnham (Sur-rey) and Burlington (Vermont): Ashgate Publishing,2011):.

[4] OED Online. Accessed 6 June 2008.

[5] “Baroque”. Encyclopædia Britannica 1911. Retrieved 20April 2011.

[6] Panofsky, Erwin (1995). “Three Essays on Style”. TheMIT Press: 19. |contribution= ignored (help)

[7] “Baroque”. Vocabolario Etimologico della Lingua Italianadi Ottorino Pianigiani. Retrieved 26 July 2012.

[8] Diogo Mayo (1967-09-15). “Scale Regia”. Scalare-gia.blogspot.ca. Retrieved 2013-04-20.

[9] Claude V. Palisca, “Baroque”. The New Grove Dictionaryof Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by StanleySadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers,2001).

[10] Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art,1993, OUP, ISBN 0-19-814386-9

[11] WatsonW. (1974), Style in the Arts of China, p. 34, 1974,Penguin, ISBN 0-14-021863-7

[12] The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2011

[13] “Encyclopædia Britannica: Western painting”. Britan-nica.com. Retrieved 2013-04-20.

[14] Shearer West (ed.) The Bulfinch Guide to Art History:A Comprehensive Survey and Dictionary of Western Artand Architecture. Bullfinch 1996. ISBN 0-8212-2137-X

[15] Peter Paul Rubens The Life of Marie de' Medici.

[16] Hunt, Martin, Rosenwein, and Smith (2010). TheMakingof theWest (third ed.). Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin’s. pp.469

[17] González de Zarate, J. M. (1985). Las claves emblemáti-cas en la lectura del retrato barroco. Goya: Revista deArte, (187-188), 53-62.

[18] “Cornaro Chapel” at Bogelwood.com.

[19] Francis DK Ching, A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, p.133

[20] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literaturaespañola: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito-rial, UPR, pp. 1–2

[21] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literaturaespañola: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito-rial, UPR, p. 8.

[22] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literaturaespañola: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito-rial, UPR, p. 13

[23] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literaturaespañola: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito-rial, UPR, p. 91

[24] Lope de Vega, 2010, Comedias: El Remedio en la Des-dicha. El Mejor Alcalde El Rey, pp. 446–447

[25] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y elbarroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben-jamins Publishing Company, p. 6

[26] Wilson, Edward M.; Moir, Duncan (1992). Historia de laliteratura española: Siglo De Oro: Teatro (1492–1700).Editorial Ariel, pp. 155–158

[27] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y elbarroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben-jamins Publishing Company, pp. 26–27

[28] Molina Jiménez, María Belén (2008). El teatro musicalde Calderón de la Barca: Análisis textual. EDITUM, p.56

[29] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y elbarroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben-jamins Publishing Company, pp. 6–9

[30] Palisca 2001.

[31] Sachs, Curt (1919). Barockmusik [Baroque Music].Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters (in German) 26.Leipzig: Edition Peters. pp. 7–15.

12 References

• Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. “Baroque and RococoArt”, New York: H. N. Abrams.

• Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Rea-son: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage.

• Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J.Mamiya. 2005. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages,12th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7 (hardcover)

• Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961]. Baroque Mu-sic. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.). En-glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-058496-7. OCLC 318382784.

• Wakefield, Steve. 2004. Carpentier’s Baroque Fic-tion: Returning Medusa’s Gaze. Colección Támesis.Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tame-sis. ISBN 1-85566-107-1.

13 Further reading

• Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo.Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger.(Originally published in French, as Classique,baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English editionreprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York:Praeger, 1974)

11

• Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011. Rethinking the Baroque.Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN978-0-7546-6685-1.

• Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, The Aesthetics of Haemo-taphonomy. Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU. ISBN978-84-9948-991-9.

• Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Land-marks of the World’s Art. London: Hamlyn; NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

• Lambert, Gregg, 2004. Return of the Baroque inModern Culture. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-6648-8.

• Martin, John Rupert. 1977. Baroque. Icon Edi-tions. New York: Harper and Rowe. ISBN 0-06-435332-X (cloth); ISBN 0-06-430077-3 (pbk.)

• Wölfflin, Heinrich. 1964. Renaissance and Baroque(Reprinted 1984; originally published in German,1888) The classic study. ISBN 0-8014-9046-4

• Vuillemin, Jean-Claude, 2013. Episteme baroque: lemot et la chose. Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-8448-8.

14 External links• The baroque and rococo culture

• Webmuseum Paris

• barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien

• Baroque in the “History of Art”

• The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence

• Melvyn Bragg’s BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time:The Baroque

• “Baroque Style Guide”. British Galleries. Victoriaand Albert Museum. Archived from the original on19 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007.

12 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Baroque Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque?oldid=720994613 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Mav, Ap, Andre Engels,

Youssefsan, Gianfranco, William Avery, Heron, Sfdan, Olivier, Ram-Man, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Lexor, Jahsonic, Gabbe, Jke-tola, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Angela, Ugen64, Glenn, Nikai, Susurrus, Lancevortex, Ghewgill, Tobias Conradi, Raven in Orbit,JASpencer, Schneelocke, Alex S, Timwi, Viajero, Composer333, Andrewman327, Rednblu, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Gren-delkhan, Taxman, Sabbut, Mackensen, Opus33, Raul654, Wetman, Jerzy, Robbot, Chris Roy, Texture, Halibutt, Rasmus Faber, Smb1001,Mervyn, Hadal, Phthoggos, Wikibot, Mushroom, David Gerard, Stirling Newberry, Djinn112, Meursault2004, Lupin, Peruvianllama,Everyking, Leonard G., SWAdair, Bobblewik, Deus Ex, Stevietheman, Andycjp, Antandrus, OwenBlacker, RetiredUser2, NetgutuDD,C4~enwiki, JHCC, Neutrality, Burschik, Robin klein, Adashiel, Conte Giacomo, Apwoolrich, Switisweti, Mike Rosoft, Pfg, Ornil, Ham II,Diagonalfish, Discospinster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Kenwarren, Dbachmann, Goochelaar, Bender235, JoeSmack, Good-timetribe, CanisRufus, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Susvolans, Cacophony, Jpgordon, Thuresson, Bobo192, Wood Thrush, Chefox, Cmdrjameson, Vegalabs, Kaganer, Nk, Slambo, Joshhan, Thedarkestclear, Merope, HasharBot~enwiki, Ranveig, Alansohn, V2Blast,Walter Görlitz, Arthena, Jeltz, M7, JoaoRicardo, Jpenix, Giano, Dark Shikari, Spangineer, WikiParker, Hu, Snowolf, Binabik80, Im-manuel Giel, Bsadowski1, Ianblair23, Versageek, Ghirlandajo, HunterAmor, Stephen, Feezo, Woohookitty, Scriberius, Etacar11, Camw,PoccilScript, Pol098, MONGO, Kelisi, Bkwillwm, Xiong Chiamiov, Prashanthns, Dysepsion, Mandarax, Graham87, Magister Math-ematicae, Buxtehude, Jalada, Kbdank71, Mendaliv, Zbxgscqf, Missmarple, Afterwriting, TBHecht, TheGWO, Ev, FlaBot, HochauerW,Pumeleon, RachelBrown, Mark83, RexNL, Pcj, Wars, 8q67n4tqr5, Malencontreux, Chobot, Volunteer Marek, Antiuser, Bgwhite, Kummi,YurikBot, FrenchIsAwesome, Briaboru, Splash, Quintusdecimus, Jenks1987, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, The-Grappler, NawlinWiki, Insouciance, Wiki alf, Erielhonan, Welsh, Irishguy, Renata3, Banes, Larry laptop, Moe Epsilon, Misza13, Zwobot,DeadEyeArrow, Jeremy Visser, Rhmoore, CLW, 1717, Black Falcon, Igiffin, Dast, Lt-wiki-bot, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, Peter,Wikipeditor, Richar4034, Curpsbot-unicodify, DisambigBot, Katieh5584, NeilN, DVD R W, SmackBot, MattieTK, PiCo, Martinmeyer,Moeron, Pfly, Reedy, Probert, Davewild, Stephensuleeman, Hardyplants, Silverhand, Alsandro, Antidote, Yamaguchi , Aksi great,Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Jcarroll, Chris the speller, SauliH, Gaiacarra, Persian Poet Gal, Kleinzach, Blacksheepmails,Darth Panda, CARAVAGGISTI, Kavonjon, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, DiePerfekteWelle, OrphanBot, Mr.Reeves, Raynethackery,Spacedunce-5, Rrburke, KerathFreeman, Addshore, Nitrogenetic, Makemi, Nakon, Dreadstar, Jchild, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot,Lambiam, Khazar, Jan.Smolik, Edwy, Tacodave, Special-T, Werdan7, Mr Stephen, Optakeover, Neddyseagoon, MTSbot~enwiki, Zyborg,Norm mit, Megawattbulbman, Dekaels~enwiki, Shoeofdeath, Schizmatic, Shmget, Ewulp, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Sky-Walker, JForget, Denaar, Sleeping123, CmdrObot, Deon, Ale jrb, Fsouza, KyraVixen, El Paulio, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Ryan, P0LARIS,Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, JFreeman, Amandajm, BBBDBV, Kiske, Codetiger, DumbBOT, Starionwolf, Yuhiufai88~enwiki, SuperGerbil,GangstaEB, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, N5iln, Garcilaso, Marek69, Rmontcal, A3RO, Nezzadar, Eleuther, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Gioto, LunaSantin, Seaphoto, Turlo Lomon, Dr. Blofeld, Mdotley, Modernist, PloniAlmoni, LibLord, J-Bones, Gökhan, Mnasiri7, Res2216firestar,JAnDbot, Deflective, Husond, Digitalmaterial, MethaneIzKandy, MER-C, Skomorokh, Instinct, Grégory Leclair, Andonic, PhilKnight,Connormah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Jpod2, Jerome Kohl, Michael Goodyear, Skew-t, Twsx, Catgut, Cyktsui, Mbcarreiras,28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, DerHexer, JaGa, Pax:Vobiscum, Enaidmawr, Patstuart, Thompson.matthew, Samgarne, Lady Mon-degreen, Black Stripe, MartinBot, Michalws, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Lilac Soul, LedgendGamer, EdBever, Erockrph, Tgeairn,J.delanoy, AstroHurricane001, EscapingLife, Ginsengbomb, Johnbod, DarkFalls, James miuccio, Rocket71048576, Bushcarrot, NewEng-landYankee, Dividing, Aervanath, 83d40m, DiscordantNote, Zazpi, Group29, Nachoman1111, CardinalDan, Meiskam, Deor, VolkovBot,Thedjatclubrock, Advanced mathematics, Ndsg, Tesscass, Bewtros, Vlmastra, Aesopos, Barneca, Jedravent, Philip Trueman, Jooper-coopers, Berthold Werner, Malinaccier, Davehi1, Caster23, Z.E.R.O., Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Martin451, Zondi, Luuva, Jjmckool, Verbist,Dirkbb, Austen Redman, Lova Falk, Amwyll Rwden, Natehaded, Brianga, HiDrNick, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Stomme, The Realmsof Gold, EmxBot, Austriacus, Artypants, SieBot, Chien tat, Tresiden, Tiddly Tom, Speed Air Man, Gerakibot, Jbmurray, Happysailor,VAwebteam, Kybabiee, Allmightyduck, Oxymoron83, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Fratrep, OKBot, Sarmata~enwiki, Reginmund, Cold-creation, Umkalk, ALARICtheVISIGOTH, Mygerardromance, Geoff Plourde, Atom33, Into The Fray, Randy Kryn, ImageRemovalBot,Martarius, Gratedparmesan, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tomrulz757, Arakunem, DaveBeckwith,Ik807, PolarYukon, Hafspajen, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Orthoepy, Excirial, Anonymous101, Jusdafax, Iguadont, Oriolhernan,Eeekster, Extols, ParisianBlade, Kmaster, Kanisornl12, Grantri, Thingg, Mattissa, Burner0718, Shutcheson, Goodvac, Yiri~enwiki, Bri-dies, Pichpich, Crazybrat, Bobbob007, Rror, Toonieven, WikHead, SilvonenBot, PL290, Alexius08, Mr.alfman, Addbot, Freepenguin,Proofreader77, Cxz111, Blanche of King’s Lynn, TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion, Some jerk on the Internet, M88averick, Captain-tucker, Azoiensis, Gul e, Older and ... well older, Scientus, CanadianLinuxUser, Jpoelma13, Cst17, Nirajdoshi, Assdog, Glane23, Anders-Bot, Favonian, Tyw7, Last5, CaptainNicodemus, Fablealbion, Numbo3-bot, Pladyx, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Pietrow, Krano, MuZemike, Jar-ble, Ettrig, Bermicourt, Megaman en m, Puppenbenutzer, Alfie66, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Hulek, ArchonMagnus, Taxisfolder, KamikazeBot,Carolynorth, 1oddbins1, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Jim1138, Rejedef, Kingpin13, Giants27, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, Colorson-trial, Lqstuart, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Rythemrider, Rnpham10, Crookesmoor, Ryomaandres, 4twenty42o, Jmundo, NFD9001, Almabot,GrouchoBot, KaplanDK, MeDrake, RibotBOT, Amaury, Shadowjams, A.amitkumar, Zwfcbfxghn, Zack4444GTM, Tobby72, Seank888,Finalius, Citation bot 1, WQUlrich, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Eagles247, Bennny123, RedBot, Btilm, Fumitol, Helddeven, RoboCop, Kryssolis, Windlake, SkyMachine, Gerda Arendt, FoxBot, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Vrenator, Citycale, Begoon, RaidonKane, Aoidh, Jeffrd10, Stevengregory, MegaSloth, Leeky94, Keegscee, Tjks10, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Umnecessary?, Mean as cus-tard, Yaya22dd, RjwilmsiBot, DASHBot, , EmausBot, Look2See1, HiMyNameIsFrancesca, Jrstrehlow, Junatom, Thetohmi, Solarra,Slightsmile, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Darkfight, Thecheesykid, Werieth, Daisy Cutter 2, Doctorpedia, Fæ, Shuipzv3, TMZ 1111, QEDK,Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, TyA, Brandmeister, Philafrenzy, Donner60, DASHBotAV, Spicemix, Wilson5000, ToniSant, Spe-cial Cases, Xxmaster27xx, Saverin45, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, MelbourneStar, This lousy T-shirt, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, Ju-rium, Widr, Maxterplaxter, Bstephens393, Tarfume, Helpful Pixie Bot, Stormy summer night, Axonix, CDOG118, Vaselli, Lowercasesigmabot, Murry1975, Krenair, Hz.tiang, JiminLee, Gonhin~enwiki, Tigsisawesome, Bondaruk85, Dan653, Vû zavé, Altaïr, Boleeva,Daedalus&Ikaros, Smmmaniruzzaman, Snow Blizzard, Db900, Worldiswatching, Patfalk, Anbu121, Vvven, BattyBot, Millennium bug,Mdann52, Nayhorrorn, Kobainz, JAMESPRATLEY, ChrisGualtieri, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, HelicopterLlama, Honerpol-isher, Frosty, Hair, Graphium, Erlisitz, Cor Ferrum, Epicgenius, Ruby Murray, Harharhardyharhar, NobelTyrop, Lfdder, 1canuckbuck,Barocchista, Cpsmatthewho4970, Hubertl, زيادة ,مي Ugog Nizdast, WoodyinNYC, Oliszydlowski, Mjlphd, Kind Tennis Fan, Luckynut-ter, Lewishogarth, Palindromicon, KaleKAN6, MahyAttar, Wplmage, Helen.hills, TerryAlex, FirelordPhoenix2014, HMSLavender, HellaDead, KasparBot, Continentaleurope, KinG Pythonz, Pauklein, A,Ocram, Swhouge, DACC23, SpontaneousCookie, Pierersi, Aannaloro,Frenchie1309 and Anonymous: 1015

15.2 Images 13

15.2 Images• File:1710-15_de_Matteis_Triumph_of_the_Immaculate_anagoria.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

2/27/1710-15_de_Matteis_Triumph_of_the_Immaculate_anagoria.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, anagoria Origi-nal artist: Paolo de Matteis

• File:Aeneas’{}_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Aeneas%27_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art, Uploaded toen.wikipedia 03:45 28 Jul 2004 by en:User:Wetman. Original artist: Federico Barocci

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg License:CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: [1]

• File:German_-_Brooch_of_an_African_-_Walters_57887_-_Back.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/German_-_Brooch_of_an_African_-_Walters_57887_-_Back.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Mu-seum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png'width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-height='128'/></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/31558' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Germany)

• File:Haendel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Haendel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Up-loaded to nl.wikipedia 21 apr 2004 01:13 by nl:Gebruiker:Robbot. Original artist: Balthasar Denner

• File:Hauptaltar_der_St._John’s_Co-Cathedral.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Hauptaltar_der_St._John%E2%80%99s_Co-Cathedral.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: A,Ocram

• File:Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach-hausmann.jpg Original artist: Elias Gottlob Haussmann

• File:JosefaObidos4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/JosefaObidos4.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: http://www.ci.uc.pt/artes/6spp/josefa_de_obidos.html Original artist: Josefa de Óbidos

• File:Lope_felix_vega.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Lope_felix_vega.jpg License: GFDL Contrib-utors: http://www.kalipedia.com/kalipediamedia/lenguayliteratura/media/200704/18/literaturacastellana/20070418klplyllic_77.Ies.SCO.jpg Original artist: Lope de Vega

• File:Michelangelo_Merisi,_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Michelangelo_Merisi%2C_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: yAGZLO5MaPVjfQ at Google Cultural Institute maximumzoom level Original artist: Caravaggio

• File:Pierre_Le_Gros_(II)_-_The_Death_of_St_Stanislas_Kostka_-_WGA12562.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Pierre_Le_Gros_%28II%29_-_The_Death_of_St_Stanislas_Kostka_-_WGA12562.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/le_gros/kostka.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><imgalt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x,https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/le_gros/kostka.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Pierre Le Gros the Younger

• File:Pietro_Domenico_Oliviero_-_The_Royal_Theater_in_Turin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Pietro_Domenico_Oliviero_-_The_Royal_Theater_in_Turin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Italia, Turin, Palazzo Madama- Museo civico d'arte antica Original artist: Giovanni Michele Graneri (Torino, 1708-1762)

• File:Prager_Burg_-_Nikolauskirche_Kuppel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Prager_Burg_-_Nikolauskirche_Kuppel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wolfgang Sauber

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Sant'Andrea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Sant%27Andrea.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contrib-utors: Flickr Original artist: Anthony M. from Rome, Italy

• File:Vivaldi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Vivaldi.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: (Old image: Taken from the en.wikipedia) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a>

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

14 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0