ATITUDINAL DISPOSITION OF STUDENTS TO HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN

SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA

Abstract

The current trend of human trafficking in Nigeria is disturbing.The fact that the victims, largely women raised a genderquestion. The paper focuses on the attitude of undergraduatestudents in Southwestern Nigeria. Survey design using ex-postefactor design was employed to carry out the study. Six hundredstudents from three universities were randomly selected as studysample. A self constructed questionnaire was used to obtaineddata from the respondents and data obtained was analyzed with theaid of simple percentage and t-test. The one null hypothesis wastested against the data collected was discovered to be valid. Alarger percentage of the students find it averse to engage inhuman trafficking and prostitution, while a significant smallpercentage approved the practices. Deviant theory was used toexplain the seemingly normal situation in the eyes ofunsuspecting society.

1

Introduction

Towards the end of 1990s, another form of social vices by the

name human trafficking surfaced in the vocabulary of social

problems in Nigeria. Earlier before this time, drug trafficking,

smuggling, and so on were the battle focus of the federal

government as far issue of migration offense is concerned.

Human trafficking is an international crime with international

consequences. While some countries are source or countries of

origin, some serve as countries of destination. Virtually,

developed, developing and poor countries of the world are

involved. Prostitution is the final option for most of the

trafficked women. Though unknowingly to the victims, it has

always being the predetermined focus of their captors.

2

Because prostitution is as old as human race, so is the fight

against it. In modern times, fight against human trafficking

could be traced to the work of religious leaders. William and

Catherine Booth of Salvation Army were prominent forces that

stimulated the establishment of Criminal Act in Britain in 1885.

The Act raised the age of consent from 13 to 16 years. Army

Carmichael was sent by the Church of England to India to fight

against child prostitution. In the 90s the problem of human

trafficking became explosive and gained world attention. In a

swift reaction to curtail its occurrence, Dr. Laura Lederer

started the Protection Project in 1994. The body documented the

scope of human trafficking around the world. In the same year,

the Italian government led the anti-trafficking movement by

offering residency permits to victims and provided local shelters

for them. In 1996, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation aired a

documentary on human trafficking tagged, “The Selling of

Innocence”. In May 2011, War Against Trafficking Alliance was

formed (ShareHope, 2002).

In Nigeria, the problem is worrisome. The country is being used

as a source and transits route by the traffickers. It is

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estimated that about 3,000 Nigerians work as prostitutes in Italy

(Sabana & Ballon, 2000). Surprisingly some of the exploiters are

guardians and acquaintances (Christian, 2000). There abound

numerous Cartels and syndicates in Nigeria responsible for

recruiting innocent girls on the pretext of providing jobs for

them abroad. Benzi (2001) declared that he had met many Nigerian

girls on Italian streets, cheated, exploited, enslaved, tortured

and forced into prostitution by fellow Nigerians! As soon as they

arrived Italy, some of them had their traveling documents

confiscated by their captors. Their residency locations are

constantly changed within a short time interval to avoid being

arrested by law enforcement agents. Those who refused to

cooperate are tortured with ice cold showers, beatings, biting of

nipples with teeth, raping, and so on. Some are made to undergo

rituals or “juju” rite so that they will not run away. Sometimes

they are often forced to give hairs from their heads, armpits,

pubic zones, pieces of their nails, and menstrual blood. Threat

is not limited to the victims alone, their parents and relations

are often subject of attack and harassment especially if there

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was prior agreement that involves such parents or relations

(Orssie, 2001: Sturman, 2001).

In Nigeria, the official response to the problem of human

trafficking was in 1999 when the wife of former vice-president –

Mrs. Titi Abubakar started an NGO - Women Trafficking and Child

Labour Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF). The official newsletter

of WOTCLEF showed that the incidence was not limited to

illiterates, university graduates have also fall victims.

Information technology and globalization promoted by the internet

increased the dimension and volume of sex trafficking. Many

Nigerians lady were trafficked to Europe notably Italy to engage

in forced labour and a sex trades route.

In a research carried out by the Women’s Health and Action

Research Centre (a community based research centre in Benin, Edo

state, Nigeria) on the extent of human trafficking in Benin, out

of 1,456 respondents who serve as sample for the study, 97

percent of them have heard about human trafficking, 48 percent

know somebody who is involved in the acts most of whom are their

friends or relatives. Some of them went because they lacked

economic means and the countries they went to include Italy,

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Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Belgium. 83 percent were still there

as at 2002, while 17 percent have come back, out of which 83

percent of them were deported, while the rest 20 percent came

back out of their volition (WARCLT, 2002).

Three cases of victim of human trafficking are stated below as

reported by Women Trafficking and Child labour Eradication

Foundation – (WOTCLEF, 2002).

Shirley is a graduate of Lagos State University. A Nigeria woman

encouraged her to go to Italy for a profitable job on getting to

Italy; she was sent to work in the street as prostitute.

Sandra was born in Benin, Edo state Nigeria. Her mother’s friend

lured her to Italy, her travelling expenses/deal amount to

70,000,000 Italian liras. She was sent to street to prostitute

to pay the debt.

Rose was 24years old and lived in Lagos. She made acquaintance

with Loveth who had just returned from Europe. Loveth informed

Sandra about prospect of getting better employment in Europe. On

getting to Europe, the only available job was prostitution.

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Table 1

The table below shows victims deported in Nigerians between 1999

– 2000

Country Number Month and Year DeportedItaly 68 March 1999Italy 35 Sept 1999Italy 15 Nov 1999Italy 85 Dec 1999SaudiArabia

17 March 2000

Italy 78 March 2000

Source (WOTCLEF, 2002)

What is Human Trafficking?

Human trafficking is a form of modern day slavery though limited

to women and children. It involves recruitment, abduction,

transportation, harboring, transfer and sales of human beings

within and across national borders.

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International Organization on Migration (IOM) (1999) working

definition of human trafficking highlights that, “Trafficking

occurs when a migrant is illicitly (recruited, kidnapped, sold,

etc) and/or moved, either within national border or across

international border through intermediaries (traffickers) during

any part of this process obtain economic gains that violate the

fundamental human rights of migrants”.

Wijers (1998) highlighted various perspective one can view human

trafficking.

(i) a moral problem

(ii) a criminal problem

(iii) a migration problem

(iv) human rights problem; and lastly

(v) a public health order problem

Human trafficking is a cross-border issue that affects many

nations of the world with diverse ideology economic goals,

cultural values, aspirations and expectations. For example,

prostitution is state endorsed in some countries with legal

certificates for the brothels operators (Abubakar, 2003). From

government perspective, it is a case of illegal migrant; Non-

8

Governmental Organizations (NGOs) argues that human trafficking

is an infringement of fundamental human rights of the victims.

These various perceptions make prevention and eradication of

human trafficking a complex issue.

The Migrants and Methods of Trafficking

Traffickers adopt subtle methods in their operations. Most of the

victims are ignorant of their fate. Technology, communication

advancement, transportation networks and existing networks of

other forms of traffickers such as drug trafficking have

facilitated successful operations.

Schloenhardt (1999) categorized the traffickers into the

following groups:

1. Investors: They are responsible for the funding and

overseeing the whole operation, but , “ are sheltered by

an organisational structure that protects their

anonymity”.

2. Recruiters: They are usually members of the migrant’s

culture. They are responsible for searching out the

potential victims and secure their commitment.

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3. Transporters: The transporters assist the migrants to

leave their home countries for their destinations by

road, air or sea.

4. Corrupt Public Officers or Protectors: They are

government workers in charge of immigration services.

They assist migrants to obtain fake traveling documents

or they accepts bribe to enable the migrants exit or

entry through illegal means.

5. Informers: Informers gather information and facts on

important matters on border surveillance, immigration and

transit procedure, asylum system, and law enforcement

agents activities.

6. Guide and Crew Members: They aid illegal migrants from

one transits point to the other until they reach

countries of destinations.

7. Enforcers: They ensure migrants compliance to their game

plan.

8. Supporting Personnel and Specialists who provide

assistance in form of accommodation and feeding along the

transit routes.

10

9. Debt collectors who are to collect money from the

victims ounce they started prostitution

10. Money-Movers who launder the proceeds of crime disguising

their origin or investing them in legitimate businesses.

Beare (1999) highlights various categories of migrants. They

include:

(i) Legal – Legal – This category gains entry through legal

means and remains legal migrants.

(ii) Illegal-Legal: They gain entry through illegal means but

changed their status on arriving at the countries of

their destinations.

(iii) Legal-Illegal: The migrants enter the country legally

with time-specified but failed to return at the specified

period.

(iv) Illegal-Illegal (Independent): This group enters

illegally and remains so without the assistance of any

organised criminal group.

(v) Illegal-Illegal (Indentured): They enter illegally with

the assistance of organised criminal groups. They are

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under the control of the criminal groups and are

extremely vulnerable.

(vi) Legal-Legal (Indentured): They are legal migrants, but

are subject to external control usually their financer

who is responsible for their traveling expenses. They are

also vulnerable group depending on the motive of their

financiers.

Effect of Human Trafficking

The effect of human trafficking is hydra-headed and multi-

faceted. It ranges from HIV/AIDS infections, negative

national image, assault, abuses, physical injury, etc.

Raymond et al (2002) reported that among Filipino victims, over

seventy percentages (70%) had experienced physical harm, sexual

assault, emotional abuse. Over sixty percent (60%) had endured

verbal threats and constant use of drug. Among the Russian and

Newly Independent States (NIS) victims, seventy seven (77%) had

being bruised, twenty three percent (23%) had experienced vaginal

bleeding, fifty four percent (54%) had experienced head trauma

etc. Among the Nepali victims, sixty five percent (65%) are HIV

positive.

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Theoretical Framework -Feminist Theory

There have been various theories of exclusion and confinement of

feminism. The first theory addressed the traditional and

historical dichotomy of sex roles. To be a feminist is to point

out the ignored ideas arising from this traditional and

historical dichotomy. The effort of this feminist group is to

wipe out various differences between male and female to an

appreciable degree (Camille, 1990).

The second theory sees the “existing current societal systems and

norms as not human but as a product of male experience and

values,” while women’s values are completely neglected. Men’s

values over time have transformed to societal values. To bridge

the imbalance, feminine ideas and values such as nurturance, home

cleaning, family sustenance, reproductive process, etc should

equally be celebrated and not left behind in quest for equality

(Hawkesworth, 1990).

The third theory argues that real differences between male and

female are not necessarily induced by race, class, history and

culture, but most female values and behaviour have developed to

13

support and justify a context of a male dominated society

(Ketzenster, 1984).

This unequal status is what the traffickers have always

capitalized upon. Women have been seen as sexual objects, mere

properties, servants, object of pleasure and commodity for sale.

Martin (1994) argued that the postulates of educational

philosophers such as Pestalozzi and Rousseau have also reinforced

male’s values dominance in curriculum. The picture portrayed by

these philosophers has supported a patriarchal society in which

men are to teach, and women to nurture and carry on the

reproductive process. The main argument is that, even the

philosophers in educational thought have undermined the position

of women. Women are distorted according to male image and

masculine mould. Martin (1994) argued further that for as long as

there is no epistemological equality for women, education will

serve patriarchal policy.

Statement of the Problem

The official newsletter of Women Trafficking and Child Labour

Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF) reported an incident of Shirly

who was a graduate of Lagos State University as among the victims

14

of human trafficking (WOTCLEF, 2000). One would have taught the

victims are restricted to illiterates and that recruiting a

university graduate is a far cry. What really went wrong? Was

Shirly tricked or became a prostitute in Italy by choice? This

raised the question of investigating attitude of male and female

students toward human trafficking in Nigeria

Purpose of the Study

The main objectives of the research are to:

i. assess the attitude of students towards the practices and

activities of human trafficking.

ii. establish a relationship between the school system and

human trafficking

iii. investigate how school system contribute to the problem

of human trafficking.

Research Hypotheses

The study will be guided by this hypothesis.

i. There is no significant difference between male and

female students’ perception of the practices of human

trafficking.

Research Questions

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1. Does our educational system contribute to the problem of

human trafficking?

2. Can education be used as a means of combating human

trafficking?

Methodology

The study employed the use of survey design. Six hundred students

from three universities in southwestern Nigeria were used as

study sample for the study, two hundred from each of the three

universities. Questionnaire items were designed to obtain data

from the respondents. The focus of the questionnaire was to find

out the relevance of school system using variables such as

inadequate curriculum planning, lack of relevant textbook on

human trafficking; lack of adequate teachers to teach concept of

human trafficking.

The instrument was validated and administered to students on one

on one basis. Descriptive method of analysis using simple

percentage and t-test were used to analyse the data obtained for

the study.

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Findings and Discussions

Testing for Hypothesis

Male and Female Students’ Perception of the Cause of Human

Trafficking

Hypothesis I

Student’s Perception of the Practices and Activities of Human

Trafficking

There is no significant difference between male and female

students' perception of practices and activities of human

trafficking. The aim of this hypothesis is to assess the

perception of male and female students on the practices and

activities or human trafficking.

Figure 1

t-test Table the Testing for Students' Perception of Practices of

Human Trafficking

N Mean SD df tc tt

Male 300 79.14 17.01 299 1.807 1.960

Female 3030 72.78 27.7

17

The calculated value is 1.807 while t-test table value at P=0.05

level of significance is 1.960. Testing the hypothesis t-test,

the calculated value was lower than the table value; hence we

accept the hypothesis that there is no significant difference

between male and female students' perception practices and

activities of human trafficking.

Research Question I

Do our educational systems contribute to the problem of human

trafficking?

Education as a Cause of Human Trafficking

Educational variables such as inadequate curriculum, relevant

textbooks on human trafficking and trained teacher on human

trafficking were used to collect data on education as a cause of

human trafficking. The variables were computed together and the

average determined as shown below:

Table 2

Education as cause of Human Trafficking in %

Questionnaires Items Responses Category

18

Variables Agree Undecided DisagreeLack of adequate teacher toteach human trafficking

30 25 48

Lack of relevant textbooks onhuman trafficking

21 30 49

Inadequate curriculumplanning

28 29 43

Average 26 28 46

A greater percentage of respondents disagreed that education is

responsible for human trafficking, an average of average of forty

six percent (46%). However, twenty six percentage (26%) of the

respondent agreed that, school could be a problem, while a

disturbing percentage of twenty eight (28%) could not express a

definite opinion.

Research Question II

Can education be used as a means of combating human trafficking?

Education as a Solution to Human Trafficking

The relationship between society and education is like a Siamese

twins; quite inseparable. Education touches every aspect of human

existence. Though most of the respondents do not see education as

19

a cause of the problem of human trafficking, majority agreed that

it could be used as an effective tool to solve the problem. This

is shown in the table below:

Table 3

Education and Human Trafficking in Percentages (%)

Questionnaires Items Responses CategoryVariables Disagree Undecided Agreed

1 There is need forawareness on humantrafficking

10 3 87

2 School subjectscan excrete suchawareness

11 2 87

3 School system canbe usedeffectively toprevent humantrafficking

12 4 84

4 Methods used bytraffickers can beexposed by schoolsubjects

10 3 87

5 Curriculum can beplanned to allowfor creativity andlimit the problemof unemployment

10 4 86

6 State how theawareness can becreated

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Awareness through the School System

The greater percentage of the respondents supports the relevance

and efficacy of school system towards prevention and amelioration

of human trafficking through creation of awareness among the

school age citizens. Eighty seven percent (87%) of the

respondents were of the opinion that using school sub sector to

create such awareness can yield positive results. Also, eighty

percent believe that school system can serve as preventive

measure to expose traffickers’ subtle methods and also the use of

innovative curriculum to enhance the skill and competence of

students. The finding supports the position of Nwosu-Okoli (2001)

opinion. She wrote that;

Schools should integrate into their curricular a comprehensivecounseling programme, which will assist every student to deriveoptional benefit from schooling, such a programme, should bespecially directed at giving information in the implications ofhuman trafficking, the traffickers and the society at large.

One of the action focuses of the United States towards prevention

of human trafficking is to make education compulsory to the age

of sixteen (16) and that school programmes should be tailored

towards education of potential victims about the realities of

human trafficking and the recruiting methods.

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Table 4: Human Trafficking and Attitudinal Disposition of

Students in Percentage

Questionnaires Items Responses CategoryDisagree

Undecided

Agree

Prostitution should normallybe a way of living

79 2 19

Nothing is really bad in prostitution for a period tofinance one’s education

68 3 29

Nothing may really be bad intrafficking for an unemployed, poverty stricken, yet intelligent graduates

63 6 31

In Europe where one is not known to lessen being stigmatized, it not really bad going to such society toprostitutes.

68 6 26

Prostitution should be legalized to reduce social stigma.

62 2 9

Average 70 5 25

A small percentage of the subjects view human trafficking as not

particularly abnormal. The implication is that if there is

“pressing, difficulty situation” and every barrier is removed,

such a group of small percentage may indulge or result to the act

either as recruiters or as prostitutes. There is a direct link

22

between poverty and crime. In a situation where poor are

constrained to obtain their legitimate needs through legalized,

ethical, institutionalized means, they are likely to resort to

anomie as a means of fulfilling their aspirations. This tendency

often accounts for deviants behavior in society (Quinne, 1980;

Fadayomi et. al., 1990).

There is disproportionate structure of per capita income and

standard of living between source countries and countries of

destination. This can stimulate blind migration in which case the

migrants had limited knowledge of economic and social prospects

of destination countries before they migrate. Information of

“success” of known persons who had migrated in time past often

inspires migration even when the source of the “success” is

unknown.

The table below shows per capita income of some selected

destination and origin countries.

Table 5 a&b

SOURCE COUNTRIES PER CAPITAL INCOME US $

1 Cambodia 715

23

2 Indonesia 4,600

3 Myanmar 1,190

4 Pakistan 2,600

5 Philippines 3,200

6 Thailand 8,800

7 China 3,460

DESTINATION COUNTRIES PER CAPITAL INCOME US $

1 Australia 21,400

2 Canada 21,700

3 Myanmar 1,190

4 Italy 21,500

5 Hong kong 26,800

6 Japan 24,500

7 China 3,460

Source: ( CIA World Fact Book, 1998)

The income realized from trafficking is also tempting. Hajdinjak

(2002) listed the following reasons why human trafficking is a

flourishing business.

24

1. The profits are incomparably higher than the risk

involved;

2. Unlike other forms of trafficking, illegal human

trafficking is considered a minor offence in some

countries;

3. No special equipment is needed just as organized

network of distribution is absolutely inessential;

4. When possibility danger is noticed, traffickers can

easily abandon their victims;

5. The existence of organized groups and syndicates

previously engaging in drug peddling and weapon

smuggling that can easily diverts to human trafficking;

and

6. The financial gains from human trafficking are awesome.

The table below shows the “value” market of a trafficked person

in some selected countries.

Table 6 : Monetary Value of Trafficking in US $

Countries Monetary Values inUS $ Australia 2,500South East & Eastern Europe 2,500

25

China 24,000Central & South Asia 11,000Albania 950Montenegrin 1,250Middle East 7,500Balkan States 1,500Italian Mafia 3,000Philippine 1,650

Compiled from: Smuggling in Southeast Europe by Hajdinjak (2002)

The education implication of this among students is hydra-headed.

In a society where education is solely perceived as a means of

acquiring financial freedom through paid employment or government

jobs, school enrolment may likely reduce. This is predicated on

the fact that there is unconventional ways of acquiring wealth.

Curriculum should be design to cater for this subtle negative

trend. Awareness can be created in the school through debates,

establishment of clubs and social organization in the schools.

Curriculum could and should be structured to allow critical

thinking and creative skills to enhance learners, such that

instead of looking for paid employment they can be employers of

labour. These seemly small percentage should be given serious

attention by the government, non-governmental organization and

26

school in such a way that they will not turn out to be deviants.

It takes only a minute few to be deviants, but the negative

consequence is borne by the larger society.

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