Apprenticeships in the Film Industry: An ethical analysis. Do Apprenticeships have ethical value to...

Apprenticeships in the Film Industry:An ethical analysis.

Do Apprenticeships have ethical value to the Film Industry?

Dominique [email protected]

01753 553 374

West London Business School: University of West London

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MBA

January 2014

Ethics: Apprenticeships By: Dominique Unsworth UWL Supervisor: Roger Cook

Acknowledgements

University of West London Supervisor: Roger Cook

Mariam Rafiq and Amanda Dorsett of Resource Productions

Debra Wooton, Harry Pepper and Kenzie Brown of Webra

Emma Norman, Paige Clifford, John Chase, Sam and Luke of Pinewood Studios

Arit Eminue and Cherokee Seebalack of DiVa, Apprenticeship Training Provider

Terry Ackland-Snow of Film Design International

Fran Treifus of The Production Guild of Great Britain

Fred Grindrod and Graham Randle of the T.U.C.

With special thanks to

Marie-Desiree Oliver for transcribing all interviews.

Andrew Unsworth for proof-reading.

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Abstract Apprenticeships have been recognised in the UK since the 1500’s but have been most

recently revived first by the Labour government in 1999 and then by the Conservative-Liberal

government in 2012. The UK Film Industry has historically valued the concept of the master

and apprentice in the development of its workforce and the training of its craftspeople and

technicians. However, less than a quarter of employers within the film Industry currently

engage with formal government-backed Apprenticeships. This paper aims to explore why the

Government is so keen to encourage apprenticeships and why the Film sector is not more

enthusiastic about engaging with it.

This paper aims to investigate the ethical challenges and opportunities that Apprenticeships

bring to the Film sector by exploring the proposition that whilst several aspects of the UK’s

current Apprenticeship programme may be potentially unethical, in the hands of an ethical

employer/company it could result in positive outcomes within the film sector.

A qualitative approach is adopted, by collecting data from and analysing three distinct Film

Industry case studies who currently engage with apprenticeships. One micro-business, one

Small to Medium Enterprise (SME), and one large employer. Kohlberg’s rational process of

Moral Development (Pre Conventional, Conventional and Post Conventional) complimented

by Trevino’s Person-Situation Interactionist Model is then used to analyse the ethical value

placed by each case study on apprenticeships.

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List of Contents

1.Introduction p5

2.Literature Review p11

3.Objectives p17

4.Methodology p18

5.Analysis of results p23

6.Limitations p35

7.Conclusions p36

8.References p38

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1.Introduction The Creative Media Industries Employer Survey (Skillset, 2010), found that only 9% of

employers within the Creative Media sector currently offered apprenticeships. However

50% of employers said they would consider offering apprenticeships in the future. Digging

down into the specific sub-sector of Film, 23% of employers within this sub-sector actually

already offered apprenticeships, compared to just 5% in the comparable sub-sector of

publishing. This places the Film sub-sector as a potential Creative Industries sector leader

in the advocacy of apprenticeships.

The 2010 Skillset survey highlighted that 60% of Creative Media Industry employers did

not value formal qualifications and just 2% valued Apprenticeships. That 2% was then av-

eraged between the Medium-large employers (50+ employees) placing most value, then

Small Employers (11-50 employees) placing less value and Micro-businesses (1-10 em-

ployees) placed least value on them. “Micro-businesses are much less likely than small or

medium-large employers to offer apprenticeships, though 41% say they would consider

doing so.” (Skillset, 2010) However a disproportionate 14% (in comparison to the signific-

antly smaller percentages valued by comparable sub-sectors like publishing) of the Film

Production sub-set of employers did value apprenticeships.

As part of the Employer survey, employers were also asked to rate which would be the top

ten occupations in which they would consider offering apprenticeships. Here are the ten

occupations listed. (Skillset Employer Survey 2010, Fig. 8.31, p117)

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The top reason that Film sector employers cited for not offering apprenticeships (after ‘no

particular reason’), is that they were not financially viable for the business.

The Strategic Skills Assessment for the Creative Media Industries in the UK (Skillset,

2010) gave five Policy recommendations, of which two focused on Apprenticeships. ‘Re-

commendation One’ asked for the “Launch a Professional Apprenticeship and Internship

Programme... to incentivise employers to recruit and train graduates and grow the UK’s

pool of experienced Creative Media professionals.” and ‘Recommendation Two’ urged “the

film and television industries to provide more equal access to training and skills-based ca-

reer development through greater use of apprenticeships and graduate internships.” The

same assessment cited the mismatch of applicant skills with the reality of skills required

for jobs available within the sector as a key issue to be addressed by these recommenda-

tions.

The numerous references to and focus on apprenticeships within the 2010 Survey is sur-

prising when you consider that the previous Census of the Creative Media Industries

(Skillset, 2009) made absolutely no reference to apprenticeships nor did the previously

conducted Feature Film Production Workforce Survey (Skillset/UK Film Council 2005).

This made me question the motivation behind this sudden re-focus on Apprenticeships.

Was this motivation genuinely employer-led, merely a knee-jerk response to government

training agendas or something else? Are Apprenticeships really an opportunity to provide

more equal access to training and skills-based career development and grow the UK’s

pool of experienced Creative Media professionals? This led me to examine the evolution

of apprenticeships in the UK to see why they were being re-invigorated at this time. What

actual lay behind the ‘no particular reason’ for employers not really engaging with Appren-

ticeships?

Whilst this paper does not seek to give an in-depth historical account of Apprenticeships, it

is worth referencing the work of Minns and Wallis (2012) who examined the origins of the

apprenticeship in the UK and reported that when the Statute of Artificers rolled out the Ap-

prenticeship practice’s of London across England back in 1563 “Apprentices served for at

least seven years, working in exchange for instruction: the fruits of their labour belonged to

their masters. In corporate cities, contracts had to be registered with guild, city, or both.

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Apprentices were under the quasi-parental authority of their masters: their manners, enter-

tainment, and freedom to marry were limited. On completion, the apprentice gained signi-

ficant legal privileges, including settlement for poor relief, and the right to use his trade and

take his own apprentices.”

Move forward then to 1999 and the Labour Government published a White Paper which

flagged the need for, “help with recruitment for Modern Apprenticeships”. It noted an im-

provement in the UK’s global position as a leading developer of Apprenticeships, but

stated that in 1998 the proportion of adults in the UK with qualifications at technician level

and above was still only half that of Germany. The government felt that this was mainly

due to the large number of Germans who had gone through apprenticeship training. “The

strengths of the past apprenticeship and craft system need to be replicated in a new age,

while meeting the challenge of a rapidly

changing competitive economy. In the digital age, learning must take place ‘on-site’ in

small and medium sized companies as well as in large businesses.”

The same paper went on to position Apprenticeships as the answer to “skill shortages and

recruitment difficulties for employers” Although it seemed that many employers were en-

gaged with Modern Apprenticeships and Investors in People, there were still major recruit-

ment problems in some occupations. They also noted skills gaps between the skills em-

ployers need to meet their business objectives and the skills that people possess. “Evid-

ence suggests that recruitment difficulties are roughly at the same level as 1990, and they

are particularly acute in small businesses and the new technology industries. Over 80% of

IT companies recruiting in 1997 experienced difficulties in finding suitable staff”.

In 2000, Wicks raised concerns about “problems of poor retention, attainment and comple-

tion” and highlighted the need to develop work-based training that would continue to meet

business needs and return on investment, “whilst maintaining for the individual the highest

possible standards of achievement and opportunities for progression.”

If we then fast forward again to the current Conservative and Liberal coalition government,

Apprenticeships are once again under the spotlight. The current government also wanted

to improve the UK’s delivery of and reputation for skills development through apprentice-

ships and they commissioned the ‘Richard Review of Apprenticeships’ (Richard, 2012).

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This review recommended improvements of quality that would impact both on employer

and learner demand for apprenticeships. He was concerned that employers should not be

put off by what they might see as a low quality educational experience. He wanted to put

employers in control offsetting the standards for apprenticeships, standard testing and the

flow of funding. This, Richard said, would result in employers feeling that apprenticeships

focused on their needs and the needs of their businesses, rather than an abstract govern-

ment agenda or arguably I might infer ‘societal ethical value’. In the same way, Richard felt

that learners would be more attracted to apprenticeships if they consistently believed that

they were receiving a worthwhile experience that led to a meaningful job or job opportunit-

ies. It is perhaps over-analytical to note Richard’s use of the words ‘feel’ and ‘believe’ how-

ever these aspirational terms are repeated throughout his paper and re-iterate the import-

ance placed on perception and emotional responses rather than actual practical need and

demand.

Richard did take us back to what he regarded to be at the core of this learning model and I

have included it in its entirety only by way of forcing a comparison with the not dissimilar

1856 description of apprenticeships quoted above.

“An apprenticeship is a form of education that is based in the workplace. Apprentices ac-

quire skills, knowledge and understanding through on and off the job-learning, and devel-

op their skills as they do their job, by testing and applying theoretical knowledge and meth-

ods directly to the practical world of work. It is this interaction between work and education

that defines what an apprenticeship is at its core.”

What concerned me was that all three reports/reviews/articles referenced above, assumed

that Apprenticeships were fundamentally a good thing, for individual apprentices, for em-

ployers and society as a whole and that they were therefore ethical and should be encour-

aged. However, as a small employer, who regularly recruits new and often young staff, I

wanted to know who exactly benefits from an apprenticeship. Is it the individual, the com-

pany they work for or wider society who most benefit from an apprenticeship – or perhaps

none?

On first investigation I found that the apprenticeship wage was significantly lower than the

standard minimum wage, which meant that employers could potentially use the scheme to

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keep costs down in lower-grades, and that the government could use the resulting em-

ployment statistics to mask youth unemployment. This seemed potentially very unethical

to me.

So what are the ethical issues around both the Apprenticeship programme?The Apprenticeship Pay Survey (BIS, 2013) states that “The median rate of gross hourly

pay received by apprentices in England was £6.09” but if you look at the results by age,

you see that the median rate for those aged under 19 is actually just £3.00 per hour. The

same survey tells us that 71% of apprentices already worked for their employers before

enrolling on an apprenticeship. So this suggests that if the average apprenticeship wage

for under 19s is £3.00 and the average national minimum wage for under 19s is £3.68 and

c71% of them had already worked for the same employer, then the employer was

potentially making a direct financial saving of 68p per hour by engaging with

apprenticeships for employees aged 16 and 17, up to £1.98 per hour, aged 18. Another

potential unethical incentive for larger employers to engage in the programme, is the

ability to achieve an economy of scale and keep costs down by rolling this out

apprenticeships to replace lower grades across their organisation.

In her Review of Apprenticeship research Gambin (2013) includes Unwin’s report on

recommendations regarding apprenticeship training. This report sets out a number of

recommendations for facilitating the role of Group Training Associations in the

Government’s plans for economic growth and rebalancing the economy. This statement

puts apprenticeships at the heart of an ethical challenge to increase the stocks of technical

and higher level skills, during a time of austerity, by expanding and improving

Apprenticeships.

It is worth noting, that in all my research into my apprenticeships, this is the only occasion

when another researcher has raised the issue of ethics. Unwin (p13) states that the

Government should adopt the Group Training Association (GTA) Framework, which is

underpinned by the GTA Code of Ethics (Unwin, p.14) in order to acknowledge and

conserve the distinctive features of GTAs. It is suggested that the Government and its

agencies should work with GTA England to plan the development of new GTAs in other

areas of the country (where they do not exist already or where they have a limited

presence) and also to plan the expansion of existing GTAs. It is also proposed that GTA

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England should manage the accreditation process for new GTAs and that any expansion

of GTAs must be ‘rooted in the needs and circumstances of local areas and in the

potential for growth in new and emergent sectors’. This paper both raises concerns about

the growing role/power of the ‘Training Provider’ in the apprenticeship model and

conversely reassures that their is an interest in aligning the Apprenticeship programme to

an established ethical framework.

This formed the starting point of my research from which point I conducted a Literature Review.

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2.Literature Review

ApprenticeshipsThere have been numerous articles written about Apprenticeships over the last ten years.

Each article raises, but does not resolve, yet another ethical issue about the programme.

In 2008 the literature reviewed indicates an apparent government/industry disconnect,

highlighting the “marginal involvement of employers” (Gospel et al. 2008, p4) in developing

and delivering Apprenticeships. There are some repeated themes amongst more recent

articles, including the need to prove value for money and whether the money invested in

Apprenticeships is providing “a great return on public money” (Grailey, 2012, p7). Another

hot topic is around what constitutes fair pay for this unique role, with some Apprentices be-

ing “paid below the minimum wage of £2.65 an hour” (Key, 2012, p7). There is also regular

questioning as to whether apprenticeships “unfairly disadvantage older applicants” (BIS

2013, p10) due to the provision of government subsidies for 16-25 year olds.

In 2012, The Department for Business Innovation and Skills commissioned the independ-

ent Richard Review of Apprenticeships (Richard, 2012). Richard’s recommendations and

the resulting responses Next Steps (BIS, March 2013) Implementation Plan (BIS, October

2013) and Guidance for Trailblazers (BIS, October 2013) will also inform this paper. Sever-

al other journals including Adults Learning, also make reference to the Richard Review,

highlighting issues around some employers use of apprenticeships as retraining pro-

grammes for those already in Work (Hamer, 2012, p35). There are several references to

the lack of consistency of the programme and a serious attempt to prioritise quality over

quantity (Fuller and Unwin, 2012, p34) rather than a coherent, sustainable and widely dis-

tributed capacity for skill formation for young people and adults. The British journal of in-

dustrial relations features an article that notes the “lack of consistency” across Apprentice-

ship providers and employers. It alleges that large employers will always prioritise invest-

ment in Human resource systems and internal training development over and above ad-

opting an external programme like apprenticeships – “the appeal of apprenticeship to large

employers might be expected to be weak” (Gospel et al, 2007).

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Conversely the literature also praises Apprenticeships as a globally valued “model of skill

formation” (Beck et al. 2006). This article highlights the need for the development and

support of apprenticeships by flagging the UK’s unique European position in:

a) Having a vast number of school-leavers aged just 16, whilst employers are not obliged

to offer any training to this target group

b) A lack of government intervention in employment practices.

c) A lack of a tradition of long-term ‘time-served’.

However this article highlights yet another concern. At the time of writing the article, only

one-third of apprentices had actually completed the programme (Apprenticeships Task

Force, 2005).

Lee (2011, p2) looks positively at Apprenticeships as an answer to unemployment “When

almost one million 16- to 24-year-olds are out of work, and when soaring university fees

are discouraging even the brightest students from realising their full potential, the need for

this apprenticeship scheme couldn't be more apparent.” Whilst Gospel et al (2008, p3)

propose that apprenticeships will only ever be delivered in small numbers, as the scale of

Apprenticeships is limited both in terms of the numbers of Apprentices being trained and

also in terms of employers’ own willingness and ability to invest in training. In addition

Phillips (2007, p15) flags a skills mismatch, with the boost to UK skills which are offered

through apprenticeships, not responding directly to actual labour market needs.

In addition to the articles and journals referenced above, I have reviewed over ten

consultation and research papers on Apprenticeships, commissioned by government

departments including the National Apprenticeship Service and the Department for

Business Innovation and Skills.

Internships

In order to examine the ethical nature of Apprenticeships, it is necessary to examine one

of its major competitors within the Creative Industries, the ‘Internship’. O’Keefe and Hib-

bert (2003, p24) flagged the fine line between gaining experience and taking advantage

and McKanic (2010, p65) commented that the unpaid nature of internships restricts ac-

cess from minority groups, whilst Kiplinger (2011, p14) expressly cites internships as ex-

ploitative if the intern is given menial tasks and no opportunity for professional growth.

Montgomery (2009, p5) called for an Internship code of conduct and two years later Killick

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(2011, p24) states that “if internships were formalised and legalised then there would be

more opportunities for young people who may be currently excluded because they are out-

side the current networks of friends and families. A nationwide internship/apprenticeship

scheme would be far preferable to young people going straight from school or college onto

benefits.”

Balfour (2007, p23) highlights the legal issues around unethical sidestepping of national

minimum wage by labelling interns as exempt students or volunteers, but four years later,

Adults Learning (2011, p6) announced Nick Clegg’s launch of the social mobility strategy

which sought to replace nepotistic internships with more programmes like apprenticeships.

However more recently Weiner (2013, p5) comments (in US magazine The Nation) on ac-

tion by Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, reported by The Times, who cited UK com-

panies for “breaching minimum wage legislation”. Noting that under British law, a position

that has “set hours and set duties” is a job subject to the laws establishing a minimum

wage.

The unpaid internship is a global issue and one particularly prevalent in Creative Indus-

tries, with one case this year against Fox Searchlight, setting a president for future action

by interns. Payroll Manager’s Report (2013, p5) reports the case of a former intern who

successfully sued Fox Searchlight Pictures Inc. The case was won around the case that

the training offered to the intern, must be similar to an educational environment. “It is not

enough that the interns learned what the function of a production office was through ex-

perience” as the employer claimed, the court said. “The interns accomplished that, just as

their paid co-workers did, by simply being there and not because the internship was engin-

eered to be educational.” This puts a spotlight on the delicate balance between worker

and trainee, employee and student, which will assist in my analysis as to whether appren-

ticeships maintain that ethical balance.

Film IndustryThe concept of an Apprenticeship is embedded within the history of the Film and Media

Industry and Tropiano (1997, p123) interchanges the word internship with apprenticeship

as though they had one single meaning. His article in the Cinema Journal places

Internship at the centre of a film student's education. “Experience in the ‘real world’ of a

movie set, a film company, or an archive can contribute enormously to a student's

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intellectual and artistic growth, as well as provide the opportunity to utilize his/her talents

and skills in a professional setting. A successful internship is a transitional period during

which the student assesses not only his/her abilities but his/her personal commitment to

the field! Consequently, a semester in the ‘real world’ can have a profound effect not only

on a student's skill level but also on his/her self-esteem.”

Conversely, Oakley (2011, p285) notes the inequity of this sector which “has an over-sup-

ply of labour, high levels of self-employment, very small firms, strong social networks and

a suspicion of formal qualifications. Therefore the employment of those without relevant

social contacts, or unable to support unpaid work, has always been problematic.” Unpaid

work, either in the form of internships, free labour or the expansion of volunteering, re-

mains a barrier to entry, progression and retention (Lawton & Potter, 2010).

The lack of literature on Apprenticeships and business ethics within the Film Industry reit-

erates the need for this research and has led me to use primary source interviews with

Film Industry case studies as integral to my research.

To further investigate the Creative and Media Sectors I have also obtained a wide range of

sector specific research papers and reports including several detailed in the bibliography

from the Film Sector Skills Agency – Creative Skillset, a number from the British Film

Institute’s research department (including those produced by the now disbanded UK Film

Council) as well as research from Arts Council England and Creative and Cultural Skills.

Ethics and Human Resources Mellahi and Wood (2003) explore the Ethical obligations between employer and

employees and reference Hoffmann and Moore’s (1990) “notion of a free contract between

the two parties, essentially for their mutual benefit.” This is a starting point for ascertaining

whether we ethically accept an Apprentice as an Employee, or a student or a hybrid?

Mellahi and Wood further explore relevant areas of human resource ethics which I will

touch upon, including the debate over protection of employees’ interests and rights vs

protection of shareholders interests and rights. This will enable me to investigate whether

the Apprenticeship programme seeks to help the individual, the company, society or a

combination of the aforementioned. They also refer to ethical issues around lack of job

security and potential manipulation of social norms to create corporate culture. There is a

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discussion around the role of ethics in relation to competitiveness and return on

investment and their work investigates the Winners and Losers concept where a company

develops a core team, alongside the ad hoc use of ‘disposable’ contract workers with no

progression. This lack of progression is a potential issue for apprentices and I hope to

reference this work closely by also looking at the dangers of using employees as

‘resources’ and prioritising the relative of importance of workers. Finally this text offers a

background in the wider context of an overall movement away from collective rights (eg

unions) and movement towards individual rights and will enable me to question what right

to redress a disgruntled individual apprentice actually has.

Moral Development I intend to use Kohlberg’s Rational Process of Moral Development, using the framework of

Pre-Conventional, Conventional and Post-Conventional Moral Reasoning as a basic

structure for analysis of the ethics of the UK Apprenticeship programme.

Dienhart (2000) offers a clear overview of the Moral reasoning model – based on

Kohlberg...

1) Analyse problem

2) Analyse institutional setting in which the problem arose

3) Evaluate the reasoning we use in in 1 and 2.

Level 1: The Pre-conventional Level

Level 2: The Conventional Level

Level 3: The Post Conventional Level

In addition Black and Roberts (2011) describe Kohlberg’s model more simply as Level 1:

Self, Level 2: other and Level 3: law. This can be applied to the apprenticeship scenario as

follows:

• Self: Do what you’re told to avoid trouble. – Conform and get paid.

• Other: Get on with peers, be a good worker. – It’s what everyone else is doing.

• Law: Are we doing the right thing for society. – Is this ethical?

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This work also compares morality of Justice with morality of care which I hope to touch

upon in looking at the apprentice and employer’s responsibilities to themselves, to their

company/sector and to wider society.

Person-Situation Interactionist ModelLinda Trevino’s (2001) article on Ethical decision making in organisations, again

references Kohlberg’s moral development but seeks to combine individual variables with

situational variables ‘to explain and predict’ ethical decision-making both of individuals and

organisations. This paper, combined with Trevino’s work on the Person-situation

interactionist (1986) model of ethical decision making and her work on Moral

disengagement and unethical organisational behaviour (2012) provides a background

from which to explore whether the employers and politicians involved in developing the

Apprenticeship programme are acting from pure self-interest or are affected by both the

personal and situational context. Something that may appear unethical in certain situations

with certain individuals – may actually be entirely ethical in alternative situations with

different individuals. This is something I want to explore in relation to low-paid workers, the

Media Industry and the comparison of Internships and Apprenticeships.

Opposition to KohlbergAs this work places Kohlberg at the core of my analysis, it is important to note that his

work is not universally accepted. He has a number of critics which are noted by Crane and

Matten (2004) and Lovell (1997) also extensively reviews “some of the significant

criticisms which have been levelled against the assumptions upon which the hierarchy is

based”. Issues have been raised around: Kohlberg’s male-focused empirical studies, the

discrepancy between moral reasoning and actual moral behaviour, the challenges of

industry norms and the notion of a moral atmosphere are also not taken into account -

which may also influence reasoning. Lovell also notes that the guiding principle for judging

one level of moral reasoning as superior to another is based entirely on justice and does

not take into account other criteria such as care or compassion.

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3.Objectives The core objective of this paper is to ascertain how apprenticeships might be conducted

ethically within the context of the UK Film Industry. However in order to achieve this overall

objective we must first define what constitutes an Apprenticeship, explore alternatives to

apprenticeships within the Film Industry and ultimately examine the ethical issues around

the Apprenticeship programme within this sector.

In order to address this overall objective, we must first investigate a set of 11 secondary or

supporting objectives which include:

1. Understanding apprentice and employer motivations for engagement.

2. Defining whether apprentices are employees or trainees.

3. Investigating the accountability of apprenticeships for the

individual/company/society.

4. Exploring whether apprentices are included as part of the core workforce.

5. Identifying whether apprenticeships lead to long-term jobs within the Industry.

6. Assessing the legal and ethical rights of the apprentice.

7. Establishing whether the apprenticeship wage is ‘fair’.

8. Discussing whether apprenticeships bias against the over 24s.

9. Comparing alternative opportunities like Internships.

10.Offering a gauge as to the relative academic value of apprenticeships.

11. Offering a gauge as to the relative film industry value of apprenticeships.

This examination will involve gathering literature and case-study qualitative evidence,

which I will then ethically analyse, using Trevino’s interactionist model of ethical decision

making in organisations (Dienhart, 2000, p88) to frame my findings.

This collection and analysis of qualitative data will enable me to put forward the case for

why Apprenticeships are of ethical value to the UK Film Industry.

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4.Methodology This is inductive research which will fall within the Interpretivist paradigm, using qualitative

methodologies. The mode of enquiry will be Interviews through the Case Study research

type, using three case studies of a micro, Small to Medium Enterprise (SME) and a large

Media business with experience of employing Apprentices. An Apprentice, Training

Provider and Apprentice employer will be interviewed for each case study.

Data CollectionThis research will also focus on the collection and review of secondary data (McNeill and

Chapman , 2005, p131) academic articles and education journals as well as national

government and sector skills agency reports and research.

In addition, primary data will be collected through individual in-depth interviews will be

carried out with employees and employers. These interviews require the use of probing

questions enabling the collection of detailed information, the opportunity for the

interviewee to elaborate and clarify their responses to ensure mutual understanding and

avoid misinterpretation. Example Case Study interview questions are attached in

Appendix A , B and C alongside Appendix D an example face sheet (Warren and Karner,

201, p133) which can be given out for completion during the set-up of any recording

devices, and which asks a series of basic background questions relating to the

interviewees demographics. Case study interviews will also be followed up with an

anonymous online survey to compare and hopefully corroborate data obtained through

interview.

Through qualitative inquiry, actions and words are the data to be collected and methods

will include the collection and review of documents, photographs and videos, observation

of participants at work and during individual and group interviews. These methods will

enable the capture of language and behaviour of corporate, community and individual. In

addition I will voice-record and transcribe all interviews.

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I intend to employ the analytical technique of explanation building (Yin, 2009, p141) in

order to explain ‘why’ apprenticeships might be ethical within this context. Although the

explanation-building process is iterative, I anticipate that it will roughly follow a journey

from

a) The establishment of a proposition

b) Comparison of Case 1 against proposition

c) Revision of proposition

d) Comparison of details of Case 1 against revised proposition

e) Comparison of Cases 2 and 3 against revised proposition

f) Repetition of process to achieve conclusion

When using this method of analysing Case Study evidence, it is essential that I collate a

verifiable database of Case study data collected and stay focused on the original aim of

the inquiry. This database will take the form of an analysis grid (Gillham, 2000, p74)

summarising substantive statements and categorising them in relation to the proposition.

The grid can be seen in Appendix E.

PropositionsMy study questions focus on ascertaining the ethical value that employer and apprentice

place on Apprenticeships within their Industry, through a series of ‘how’ and ‘why’s’. I have

constructed the questions in order to enable me to draw out information from the case

studies that will directly support or challenge my own propositions.

My study propositions or Hypotheses can be summarised as follows:

1. Motivations

Young people (aged 16 to 24) are motivated to become apprentices as there are limited

entry-level jobs in Film. Film companies take on apprentices to fill low-grade jobs in the

Industry at low-cost whilst also publicly demonstrating accessibility.

2. Identity

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Apprentices view themselves as employees whilst employers regard apprentices as

trainees.

3. Accountability

Apprenticeships benefit the individual, the company and society by removing barriers to

entry, developing a diverse and cost-effective workforce and by reducing unemployment

and skills gaps.

4. Inclusion

Apprentices are viewed as separate to the core workforce and potentially disposable.

5. Employability

Apprentices can identify routes into the film industry, but this is not a simple or

straightforward transition and does not consistently result in a career in Film.

6. Rights

Apprentices are not aware of their rights and do not understand when they are being

mistreated in the workplace.

7. Fair Wage

The apprenticeship wage is not a fair wage, as it still provides a barrier to entry for young

people however it does reward the participant more than studying at Sixth Form or

College. Employers do not fully appreciate the value for money that investing in

apprenticeships offers in the long-term.

8. Youth focus

Employers primarily take on under 24s in order to obtain the training grant, which has

increased barriers for those aged 25 and above.

9. Alternatives

Apprenticeships offer a more ethical alternative than un-regulated Internships within the

sector.

10.Academic value

20


Apprenticeships are perceived as something for ‘working-class’ people and are not as

academically well-regarded as A-Levels and degrees.

11. Film Industry Value

The nature of apprenticeships is embedded within the Industry but only for craft and

technology career paths.

I can summarise these into one core proposition

Whilst several aspects of the Apprenticeship programme may be potentially unethical, in the hands of an ethical employer/company it can result in positive outcomes within the film sector.

The Unit of analysis or ‘cases’ referred to in this piece of work will be individual

apprentices, employers, training providers and others involved in the delivery of

Apprenticeships or training within the Film Industry. However embedded within these

cases - there is also the option to view and analyse findings in two alternate ways. I can

analyse the ‘case study’ of the collective responses of individual apprentices, with that of

the collective responses of individual employers and the collective responses of individual

training providers. Alternatively I can group the cases as Micro, SME and Large employer

studies and focus on the analysis of the Individual, Corporate and Societal ethics.

As data collected through interviewing inevitably produces a joint output (researcher and

interviewee both input) it is essential that the record made and used for analysis is an

accurate representation of the interaction. The intention is to act and take notes as an

active learner, attempting to view the subject of the research from the viewpoint of the

participant being observed or interviewed. An objective approach has been taken to the

analysis of the findings.

21


Analysis

I will use Trevino’s interactionist model of ethical decision making in organisations

(Dienhart, 2000, p88) to frame my findings and analyse the ethical value of

Apprenticeships to the Film Industry.

The reasoning behind the choice in methodology is embedded in my ability to spend time

in the field. There is the opportunity for me to gain inside access the Film-based

workplaces in order to investigate the case studies by observing contributors in their

natural settings. In addition the nature of the underlying research question is a ‘why’

question, which are often better answered through qualitative inquiry, rather than

quantitative (Yin, 2009, p26).

Finally, the target audience for this research is varied and includes government officials,

civil servants, training providers, schools and colleges, NGOs and employers within the

UK Media Sector and so it needs to be illustrative, easily readable, relatable and

understandable to a wide range of individuals who may be unfamiliar with elements of

quantitative research.

22


5.Analysis of Results Case Study 1: Micro Business The employer focused initially on motivations around taking on someone that you can

teach your skills and knowledge and that ‘can grow with the business’, however they also

listed cost effectiveness and filling a gap within the workforce as key motivations. They

had never thought of the apprentice as a student, just an ‘employee that’s learning’.

Benefits to the apprentice included learning whilst earning and getting to know the

business. For the business’ point of view new input and commitment were key benefits,

whilst they felt wider society benefited from the programme as it offered disadvantaged

groups a route into the professional world. They were able to place the apprentice at

somewhere between a runner and production assistant within the hierarchy of the film

industry and they felt that there were lots of opportunities to create apprenticeship roles

within that industry. The interviewee noted that almost everyone within the industry started

as a runner and that this created a similar but alternate route in.

It was clear that both the training provider and employer offered the apprentice access to

information, but job security was thought to really only last one year, as employers may be

unable to see how they can take the apprentice to the next level. That said they felt that

there were opportunities to support the apprentices into further learning through

foundation degrees. They were explicit in their belief that apprenticeships are intended as

an ongoing process and should not be viewed as just one year. The employer

acknowledged that the apprentice was getting paid less than regular minimum wage, but

they justified this stating that they’re getting their college and course tuition all paid and

that’s part of the package.

An internship was seen as something short-term, whilst an apprenticeship was viewed as

‘a gradual progressive programme where you will be investing your time and money to

develop someone personally and professionally’. The academic value was clearly placed

as an alternative to University for those unable or uninterested in accessing this route.

They noted the importance of apprenticeships as an access route to ‘get into professions

that would otherwise be deemed as unreachable’. They went so far as to call it ‘an

inspiring offer’.

23


In conclusion they did feel that apprentices are being trained up in areas where there is

not a need, whilst there are many opportunities where apprenticeships might actually be

needed – but are not on offer.

The Apprentice from the micro business felt that University was ‘really forced’ as school

but they didn’t really want to go to University, so they were motivated by someone who

came into talk during an IT class to talk about apprenticeships. They independently looked

into apprenticeships and ‘applied for loads’. They identified themselves as an employee,

but did note that they felt like a student when at college, but as soon as they came back to

the workplace – they were an employee. For them it was a chance ‘to learn and earn’

whilst they felt it offered the company the chance to train-up someone in their own

systems. They saw the benefits to society as an opportunity for those who didn’t get

certain qualifications like GCSEs to get alternative qualifications. The interviewee felt like

part of the team and positioned themselves as the equivalent of a ‘production assistant’.

From their personal perspective they had been offered a job at the end of the

apprenticeship and so the job security seemed good and they felt that there were

opportunities to do higher level apprenticeships. It’s also worth noting that they, like their

employer felt that if a company trains you themselves they are likely to want to keep you

on. The low wage was not raised as an ethical issue and nor was the potential youth bias.

When comparing Apprenticeships and Internships, they once again repeated the phrase

‘learning whilst earning’ and saw internships as work-experience. They commented that

their training provider was ‘really good’ and personally valued the apprenticeship

academically as they felt they were being taught directly by a ‘real person’ from the

industry rather than a teacher. They also noted that you can’t really pay for all the

experience you get. In summing up they felt that apprentices had a better chance of

getting a job in the Industry than a University student who has no experience.

On balance, the employers responses, as analysed in Appendix E and summarised

above, appear to suggest a potentially post-conventional level of cognitive moral

development, whilst the apprentice exhibits signs of a more conventional level of

development. The apprentice was “externally focused on others but is less self-centred”

24


(Trevino & Nelson, 2004, p79) however the employer appeared more concerned with

societal needs rather that prioritising those of themselves or their immediate

company/industry.

Case Study 2: SME Business The employer immediately identified others motivations being possibly to secure ‘slave

labour’ however they strongly identified their own motivations as to both develop their

business and workforce, whilst ‘passing on their knowledge’. They viewed and treated

their Apprentices as employees, but did feel pressure to treat them as students. ‘Hands-on

experience’ was listed as the main benefit for an apprentice, whilst for the company they

felt that they provided an ‘extra level of support for the main core team’. The societal

impact was enabling people to learn in a work environment rather than in a classroom.

The employer viewed the Apprentice as on a similar level to a runner and reiterated the

inevitability of starting at the bottom and working your way up, as being core to the Film

Industry. The opportunity to learn whilst developing a personal portfolio of work was also

mentioned as a key outcome that might lead to future employment. However they did

highlight a mismatch between the apprenticeships on offer and the specialist graphic

design skills currently in demand, leading to a mis-match between training on offer and the

labour needs of the business.

When questioned about rights, the employer immediately referenced the importance of

good contracts, HR systems and their equality with all other staff, but also noted that other

companies may not follow these practices. They acknowledged that they were getting

employees at a reduced rate, but qualified this by noting that they put in the ‘time, energy

and effort’ to train their apprentices to do the jobs required of them. They did not reference

any youth bias when asked about ethical issues that occurred to them.

Internships were viewed as a short term alternative, whilst it was acknowledged that

apprentices take four to twelve weeks just to settle-in. Their concerns around the

academic value seemed to focus on enabling the apprentice to stay in the workplace for

up to three years by incentivising the employer and supporting a higher level – degree

standard qualification.

25


This employer clearly valued apprenticeships, however they felt that there was a

misunderstanding that as it is a predominately freelance Industry, you can’t take on an

Apprentice. They did put forward that there needs to be a simpler way of communicating

the role of an apprentice to this predominately freelance sector.

The first SME Apprentice was motivated by not getting the results they wanted at ‘A-Level’

and regarded the apprenticeship as an A-Level equivalent. As they were based in a

business they felt they were an employee and weren’t treated like a student. For them the

apprenticeship offered them the experience that they felt they wouldn’t get at University or

in a job if they started from the bottom. ‘cheap labour’ was the only clear benefit that they

identified for the company whilst they did feel that it offered society and a way for ‘younger

people...to have a job and experience what life is actually like in the working world’. This

apprentice viewed their position as being ‘at the bottom’ and didn’t know if they could get a

job after this, noting that ‘it’s only secure for as long as it lasts’. They did feel that there

was a need for the skills they were learning, particularly transferable skills like ‘office

skills’.

They seemed unsure and uninterested in their rights, but felt their wage was better than

getting nothing. The value of the qualification that comes as part of the apprenticeship was

foremost in their mind and they were clear that alternatives like internships did not offer

this. Whilst they could not articulate the value that the film industry placed on

apprenticeships they did have a clear view on its academic value as ‘proper training for

practically free which you’re getting paid for; as opposed to University, which ‘you may not

have been able to afford’.

The second Apprentice was motivated by a period of unemployment and wanting to get

into the media, but not having enough qualifications or experience. Even though they were

able to identify three direct motivators they still referred to their decision to become an

apprentice as ‘completely accidental’ and something which ultimately was directly

motivated by the suggestion of a close peer who was also seeking to do an

apprenticeship. They viewed themselves as an employee and commented that they never

really thought about their college work. It was clearly an opportunity to ‘get a foot in the

door’ and they strongly felt that ‘there’s no other way they would be here’. Although they

did feel the main company motivator was cheap labour, they said this was fine because it

26


helped them personally too. They struggled to see any value to society, whilst at the same

time clearly listed the benefits that a plumbing or mechanic apprentice would offer to

society. The placed themselves at the bottom of the hierarchy as ‘the lowest person’ yet

simultaneously noted that without apprentices the company would struggle. Then again

contradicted this by stating that they didn’t think that in this Industry ‘anyone really needs

anyone.’ Although they had personally been offered a job at the end of their

apprenticeship they were unable to see where an apprenticeship, in general, might lead

you. It was noted that they didn’t actually know anyone who had completed an

apprenticeship, everyone they knew ‘goes to university and gets a job’. They didn’t feel

that their apprenticeship qualification necessarily meant that someone would take them

on, but their direct employer had offered them immediate job security.

Two notable phrases were that they ‘did whatever their employer wanted them to do’

‘haven’t earned the right to start picking and choosing’ came up in discussion around who

they might ask for help if they had a problem, but they were able to list clear access points

for advice and guidance within the workplace and college. They commented that the

apprenticeship programme was dependent on people being willing to not make any money

at all, but did also state that after their apprenticeship they wouldn’t again work for less

than standard minimum wage. Another comparison was drawn to their mates at university

who ‘get given money’ and there was a clear frustration that ‘you don’t get any help from

the government at all’. On a practical level they noted that they were operating on a month

to month basis and that they do still have to live ‘at home’ (ass. with parents).

Whilst virtually all other interviewees raised no real concerns over the ethical issues

around age, this interviewee noted that whilst at the Job centre, when looking for

apprenticeships, they did intimate that if you were over 24, you could not apply for an

apprenticeship. They felt it was harder to get an apprenticeship when you were over 21

because less grants were available to assist companies with training. They strongly felt

that this was fundamentally unfair and stated that ‘I can’t ever agree with it, I don’t really

understand why there’s a limit’. Their opinion was that if you had a degree then it was

understandable that your training should not be subsidised, however whatever your age, if

you have no GCSEs or other qualifications, then you should be supported to do an

apprenticeship.

27


Once again this apprentice, like others, regarded an internship as unpaid work-experience

and once again used the phrase ‘learn as you earn’ in reference to apprenticeships.

Academically they compared an apprenticeship directly to a degree, however did say that

‘it doesn’t really mean anything’ to others who might ‘understand about a degree’. There

was again discussion around the higher value placed on University students who could

access additional loans, free bank overdrafts and other benefits that an apprentice can

not, which seemed to de-value the qualification in the interviewees eyes - academically.

In regards to Industry value they noted that they had been referred to as ‘a jack of all

trades, master of none’ which had been disheartening. However it was noted that within

the Film industry the oldest working generation, the over 60s placed real value on an

apprenticeship, as this was something they had done, they could relate to and highly

valued within the sector. In addition awareness was growing amongst their own

generation, however the middle generation (those of the age of the parents of the

interviewee) had not grown up with apprenticeships and so did not value them.

Unfortunately most employers within the Film Industry seem come from that middle

generation.

In summary, whilst the employer did indicate conventional tendencies to “follow rules or

laws” (Trevino & Nelson, 2004, p79) their primary focus was around the reciprocal

relationships, which placed both themselves and their apprentices more at a

preconventional cognitive level.

Case Study 3: Large Business This employer clearly identified apprenticeships as being a low-cost way of getting a job

going, but they were also acutely aware that it also ‘looks good’ for a company to have

apprentices. On a more personal level they felt that you see the benefits more with

apprenticeships, than when someone just takes on the job for the salary, they felt they

were ‘more involved’. They regarded the apprentice as an ‘in-between’ role between

student and employee and suggested that it offered the participant the ‘backing and

funding to do what they really want to do’. They felt apprentices were more committed

than employees which was a benefit to the company, whilst society benefitted by the

programme ‘encouraging people to work and be employed’. They later commented that

within this Industry ‘if we didn’t have apprentices, there’d be no young people to learn, to

28


grow into the roles’. In terms of the Industry hierarchy they placed apprentices as integral

to the company ding jobs that need to be done, they did not place them above or below

any other grade. For this interviewee they saw apprenticeships not as something for a

year but as something that the employer invested time and money into and was therefore

a long term solution and in this way felt employment prospects were good. They

highlighted that they only ran apprenticeships in roles where they needed people and if

they recruited someone who was eager to learn then ‘all going well, they will have a job’.

In fact they felt they had more job security than if you were just going to employ someone.

They clearly identified three access points that the apprentice had to seek help and

identify support through their line manager, HR department or tutor. The salary was noted

as being a challenge, but the aspiration was that ‘they will get rewarded hopefully, for

sticking at it and qualifying’. Again internships were regarded as a kind of work-experience

whereas an apprenticeships was viewed as ‘a training course leading to a job’. The

academic value was exemplified through reference to an apprentice who began as a

runner and recently qualified as an engineer and will now be taking over from a member of

staff who was retiring. This was clearly valued by the interviewee and the company at

large, which is extremely influential within the UK Film Industry.

For the first apprentice looking for a job was the main motivator and they identified

themselves solely as an employee. For them an apprenticeship had enabled them to

accrue knowledge that they felt they wouldn’t have learned any other way, by being on the

job and constantly improving your skills. They felt that the company got as much out of

apprenticeships as the apprentices and they felt that apprenticeships were important to

society and more people should look forward to this kind of opportunity. Although they had

just completed their apprenticeship this apprentice felt that whilst everyone starts as a

runner, by the point of completing his apprenticeship they felt somewhere in the middle of

the hierarchy of their department, competent at what they do and able to communicate

across departments. They regarded themselves as ‘lucky’ because they ‘fell into this small

department at a time when its growing’. They felt it had to be ‘right time, right place,

because its hard to get into this industry’.

They felt comfortable in knowing who to go to if they had a problem and they felt secure as

their line manager had talked about them in reference to ten years in the future in relation

29


to their role within the company. In regards to wages, they had been unable to move out of

home (ass. parents) until later than their peers, they felt it was a financial struggle but that

‘with what your gaining from it, its worth it in the end’. They made no reference to youth

bias, but did see apprenticeships as being ‘more fair’ than internships, ‘because you

actually get paid’. They commented that ‘an apprenticeship seems more official’. Whilst

they couldn’t articulate any explicit industry value placed on apprenticeships, they did

recognise its academic value as ‘good training’ learning from work colleagues rather than

text books.

The second Apprentice from this case study felt that school wasn’t for them and the best

way for them to learn was to ‘go and use my hands’. As their college course was very

specialist and involved extensive travel, they did, at times, feel more like a student, but

when they were back at work they felt like an employee. Skills and the potential of a job

were the main benefits for this apprentice. They thought that having a job to start off with

and getting skills and getting paid for it for three years, was a lot better ‘than having to pay

debt back for years after studying’. As another employer at this company had also

identified, they felt that the company got someone who was more committed and

determined to do well. They also explained how they thought the apprenticeship model

benefitted society by preparing the industry for years to come. Their working situation

followed a one on one model, where they worked supporting one specialist with no one

else below or above them. This individual had also recently secured a job and was looking

at transitioning into a regular employee.

They were aware that they could seek help from their line manager, HR department or

their college tutors and raised no ethical concerns about wages or youth bias. They did

however raise the ethical issue of male domination. They noted that on their college

course ‘only one or two out of about 50 were female’.

An internship was regarded as something internal to a company whilst an apprenticeship

provided a ‘first step into the company’. They also used the term ‘youngster’ in reference

to apprenticeship but not in reference to internships. For this apprentice University was

viewed as something that would probably have been a waste of their time and that would

have involved a level of debt that they would have had to pay back. They felt they wouldn’t

have got as much out of university as they had done from the apprenticeship.

30


On reflection both employer and one apprentice clearly positioned themselves at the

conventional stage of moral development by consistently reiterating the importance they

placed on “interpersonal trust and social approval” (Trevino & Nelson, 2004, p80).

However the second apprentice went on to reveal their movement towards the

postconventional stage of development, through their own interpretation of what might be

‘just’, by highlighting issues around accessibility.

Additional IntervieweesIn addition to the three case studies analysed above, I conducted five additional support-

ing interviews. The first was with one individual who had recently completed an appren-

ticeship. The second and third interviews were with two Apprenticeship specialists from the

Trades Union Congress (T.U.C.). The third and fourth were with two well respected Film

Industry Training providers who do not currently engage with formal apprenticeships.

My interviews at the T.U.C. reiterated the need for both apprentice and employer to invest

in the apprenticeship from the start in order to get a sufficiently higher return at the end.

They noted that the employer needs to invest in the training and development of an indi-

vidual in order to get a higher a more productive and more loyal worker upon completion.

Whilst the apprentice takes a lower wage, (which should increase as they progress) in or-

der to get a better wage, a better career and an occupational discipline with which they

can build up their quality of life. They felt that society as a whole could benefit from this

process by building up the skills needed to help fill skills gaps and build a more productive

economy.

The more committed the employer is to the apprenticeship the more commitment the ap-

prentice is going to have, if they have more of a vision of what their employer does. If they

have a long term strategy around recruiting and developing apprentices and placing those

apprentices within its workforce, then these interviewees felt that the employer would be

more likely to be rewarded with fully productive workers.

However these interviewees did also highlight that an organisation does have to value and

want to invest in the development of skills throughout its organisation in order to ethically

manage an apprenticeship programme.

31


Through discussion with two specialist Film Industry training providers (who deliver their

own alternatives to the current government Apprenticeships) it became clear that both felt

that what particular film departments (ranging from Accounting to Art) do can not be replic-

ated in a College environment. One commented that you “Can’t teach what we teach in

colleges”. The fact that the apprenticeships were being accredited through an external col-

lege and not the industry itself seems to be a fundamental obstacle to fully engaging the

Industry in Apprenticeships.

However the concept of an ‘apprenticeship’ and the necessity to seek out new talent that

can be trained and moulded to create the next generation of craft and technical filmmakers

was something that both providers did feel passionately about. Both felt that their existing

programmes facilitated this already and therefore formal government Apprenticeships

were not something that were needed on valued.

There was limited awareness of or interest in the formal government agenda, offer or

value of apprenticeship. There was a clear wariness of using pre-written college-based

diplomas or qualifications that both felt were irrelevant to the specialist departments for

which they were training up their own trainees.

One interviewee did comment on the ethical challenges in relation to accessibility to an in-

dustry that demanded a great deal of physical, mental and financial stamina from its work-

force. Noting that “nobody in the film business has job security, it doesn’t exist, it’s a freel-

ance industry, you go job to job, you’re only as good as your last job which puts a hell of a

pressure on people to continually have to perform”. Within such an environment diverse

selection of trainees can be challenging particularly in reference to disability, gender and

age. This was flagged as an ongoing concern that still needed addressing.

Finally both training providers raised the importance of the apprentice feeling less like a

cog in a wheel in a big company, but opting instead to ensure they got to work in small

companies where they might gain better experience and understanding of all the workings

of a film production. The same point was reiterated in relation to departments and ensur-

ing that apprentices really understood the roles of each department and worked intens-

32


ively within their chosen department, honing their craft and skill for a real job in a real

team.

I conducted these interviews in order to enable me to add context to my case studies and

draw out emerging ethical themes below.

Emergent ThemesAcross all three case studies there were some common findings. All interviewees were

able to identify and articulate clear reciprocal benefits for both employer and employee

when engaging with the apprenticeship programme. Common benefits most referenced by

the employers were low-cost labour, ability to train your own and ability to grow the

business. Common benefits most referenced by employees were the opportunity to earn

while you learn the ability to gain hand-on-experience and the potential to enter into a job

upon completion. The shared challenge was for individuals to be able to identify wider

benefits to the Industry and society as a whole. When pushed, several interviewees were

able to identify these benefits, but it was not something that they immediately saw

relevance or value in. However, the more articulate and explicit that the employers were

about the value of the apprentice to the company, the industry and wider society, the

higher their moral reasoning and that of their apprentices.

There was a general consensus between employers and apprentices that apprentices

both felt like and were treated as employees not students within the workplace. The only

variances to this were when apprentices were required to attend specialist off-site college-

based training, when apprentices felt very much like students. This led to discussions

around whether if they were students, why were they unable to benefit from things like

student loans, overdrafts and grants.

Another united view was around internships. Generally these were perceived to me short-

term, internal opportunities that offered no formal training, accreditation, pay or clear job-

prospects. In comparison, apprenticeships were universally identified as long-term, formal

training, accredited with pay and the prospect of a job upon completion.

All participants seemed unified in their belief that apprentices got most and gave most

when operating within a small business or clearly delineated team or department within a

33


large company. The freelance nature of Industry and its overall lack of job security was

also a key challenge to reaping the rewards of investing in an apprenticeship. TThere was

an overall agreement that both employer and apprentice felt more commitment to their

employer than if they were just an employee and at least half of those interviewed felt that

apprenticeships were core to developing the next generation of workers, but that the gov-

ernment setting film industry training standards can pose problems.

34


6.Limitations It was essential that inherent bias was not brought to this research by the researcher as

the findings of the work may have a potential practical application for government

departments, sector skills agencies, training providers and Media businesses as well as

potentially influencing future decisions regarding the ethical arguments for and against

Apprenticeships. In addition, it is essential that the researcher did not seek to find a

positive bias in the work for or against Apprenticeships in the hope of receiving paid work

within the film industry or local praise for producing evidence that supports the scheme.

This has been addressed to some extent by making all interviewees anonymous and the

author interviewing other members of their team, rather than using their own point of view

as a case study.

The use of just three case studies and eight interviews has enabled the examination of

three different sizes of businesses, however more in-depth analysis may have been

possible through looking at and contracting just two cases.

Although the context of this work is the Film sector and the Creative Industries, the

findings can seemingly be applied to multiple sectors and there has not been space or

time to explore the intricacies and ethical anomalies of this niche sector within this work.

This paper does not extensively address why an employer or apprentices might com-

pletely morally disengage, as this would involve further intensive analysis of individual to

ascertain; morally relevant personality traits, and dispositional moral emotions (Moore et

al, 2012, p3) in addition to the level of moral reasoning discussed here. This work is based

on the assumption that all three case studies and individual interviewees ultimately aspire

and intend to act ethically.

Other limitations include focusing on the three stages of cognitive moral development as a

framework for analysis. As detailed in the Literature Review, this is a relatively subjective

and method of analysis, which I have attempted to apply as methodically as possible to

the case studies used.

35


7.Conclusions In order to then address the initial question “Do Apprenticeships have ethical value to the

film industry” I have analysed eleven problems that need to be addressed when

considering delivering or participating in an apprenticeship. I have also analysed one

specific setting within the film industry using three distinct companies (micro, small and

large) within that setting. I have then gone on to analyse and now evaluate the reasoning

applied by employers and apprentices involved in delivering apprenticeships within this

setting when addressing the problems.

Out of the eight interviewees, two were at a postconventional level of cognitive moral

development, four at a conventional and two at preconventional stages. So we can

summise that the majority of our interviewees and therefore case studies were operating

at a conventional level or above.

In order to act ‘ethically’ (Black &Roberts, 2011, p396) note that you need to have

accountability to yourself. You need to be able to make a decision that fits with your own

thoughts and behaviour and therefore meets your own ethical framework. So if a decision

is at odds with your thoughts and behaviour or ethical framework then “cognitive

dissonance” will set in which will cause mental and emotional discomfort. “To regain that

internal harmony of your thoughts, you must (1) reject one of those competing thoughts, or

(2) justify (or rationalise) your thoughts or actions.”

Looking at the responses from our case studies, it is still currently more challenging for an

Employer or potential apprentices to justify or rationalise the apparent low wage, inability

to identify progression routes and perceived lack of academic or industry value. In this way

they will be unable the make the apprenticeship model match their own ethical framework

and will simply be forced to reject competing thoughts, take the simplest ethical option and

most likely not engage with apprenticeships. These issues need to be explicitly addressed

before Apprenticeships can have true ethical value to the Film Industry and the broadest

range of individuals who work within it.

There is still the potential for the ethical value placed on an individual ‘accountability to

others’ to encourage increased understanding and individual ethical analysis of the

36


apprenticeship programme within the film sector. However this will primarily arise from

those individuals within the industry operating at the highest level of cognitive moral

development. As Black and Roberts also note “The higher the level of moral development,

the wider the collection of people and groups to which we feel accountable”. (2011, p398).

This again reiterates the point that the ethical value and success of Apprenticeships within

the film industry is almost entirely dependent on the ethical development, values and

behaviours of those employers and apprentices who seek to engage with and partake in

the programme.

So in response to my initial proposition I would make just three revisions, ‘Whilst several aspects of the Apprenticeship programme may initially appear unethical, in the hands of a postconventional ethical employer/company and apprentice it can affect positive ethical change and outcomes within the film sector and broader society.’

Future areas to explore might include the wider ethical value of Apprenticeships to the UK

as a whole and the ethics around entry-level jobs within the Film Industry.

37


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opportunities. Innocence and Experience 11 January 2007, People Management, p23.

Beck V., Fuller A. and Unwin L. (2006) Centre for Labour Market Studies, University of

Leicester, UK; School of Education, University of Southampton, UK; Institute of

Education, University of London, UK. British Educational Research Journal Vol. 32, No.

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