Anthropometric profiles of Filipino badminton collegiate athletes

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ASIA LIFE SCIENCES 23(2): 429-444, 2014The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences

Received 19 January 2014; Accepted 20 February 2014©Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2014

Analyzing the ocular behaviors of golf website visitors using eye tracking measurement

HYUN DUCK KIM1 and ANGELITA B. CRUZ2*

Traditional strategies of promoting sports, products, and services are commonly used by sport-related organizations and businesses. Recently, with the establishment of modern technology such as the internet, wherein information can be accessed by people anytime and anywhere, a sport website is seen as another potential channel for organizations and companies to reach a wider audience. Therefore, creating an effective website is of vital importance for these sports companies. The purpose of the study was to identify sports customers’ ocular behavior on data characteristics of a sport website as well as analyze the differences in eye movements based on socio-demographical variables. Results showed that various features of web contents such as size, image type, location and typography affect gaze behavior of participants whereas age, internet usage and education were predictors how they perceived these web content features. Further exploration is needed in examining web user’s preferences pertaining to sports websites and combinations of quantitative and qualitative analyses are recommended.

Keywords: ocular behaviors, visual hierarchy, web contents, attention, sports website, individual differences, eye tracking measurement

1Department of Sport Marketing, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, Korea2Department of Physical Education, College of Physical Education, Keimyung University, Daegu,

Korea*Corresponding author: [email protected]

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INTRODUCTIONSport-related organizations and businesses commonly promote their sports,

products, and services by hosting sporting events, advertising in newspapers, radio, or television, and through sponsorships. With the establishment of modern technology such as the internet, a sport website is regarded as an essential channel for organizations to interact with the competitive market situations and their potential customers. In addition, since people nowadays tend to access information online, a sport website is a fast, easy, and convenient way to reach a wider audience thereby making a huge impact to a sport organization’s marketability. Therefore, in order to achieve these target benefits, creating an effective website is of vital importance for sports businesses and organizations (Laudon & Traver 2007). However, little data is available concerning sports websites, particularly the perceptions of sports web customers’ on webpage content. Hence, the purpose of the study was to identify sports customers’ ocular behavior on data characteristics of a sport website as well as analyze the differences in eye movements based on socio-demographical variables.

A website provides information and solutions as well as supports the interaction between individuals, places and events in promoting the goals and objectives of a company, business or organization in an online environment (Murtagh 2013). A website has various classifications based on its intended use. According to Lee and Koubek (2010), websites are categorized into four: (1) entertainment websites that provide users some leisure and relaxation, (2) information websites that impart useful information in a quick and easy manner, (3) communication websites that assist interaction or communication with other people, and (4) commercial websites that advertise or sell products and services. In the case of sports, sport organizations or clubs usually provide useful information about their goals and objectives and publicize their activities to their target clients. These ideas suggest that if a sport organization would create a website, then a sport website is an information website which can provide valuable information in a fast and easy manner in promoting the goals, objectives, products and services of the organization in an online environment. According to Internet World Stats (2012) more than 2 billion people have access to information and other services online as of 2012. This significant increase in the use of the internet could translate to a bigger potential for a sports website to reach a wider audience and consequently boost market share. Therefore, in order to have an effective sports website, sports clubs and organizations/companies should pay critical attention to information, particularly the quality of the content that they will put on their website.

Aside from usability (Castilla et al. 2013), navigation (Alkindi & Bouazza 2010), and design (Hsu 2011), web content is among the essential factors to consider for an effective website. Web contents are all perceptual things that can be seen on a website such as texts and images (Velasquez 2013). These perceptual elements, depending on how they are arranged would create a visual organization that would guide web users where to look (Faraday 2000). This visual organization or visual hierarchy is the sequence of visual information that the human eye identifies in the environment (Faraday 2000, Kim & Choi 2010). The idea originated from the

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Gestalt theory Law of Organization which states that the human brain have the natural tendency to construct different shapes, parts, or figures into one coherent and systematic whole (Faraday 2000, Buscher et al. 2009). In other words, our brain has an innate tendency to cluster visual elements and organize them based on their relationships. For instance, when we look at or read texts on the web, we can determine if the words are titles or paragraphs by the way these words are formatted. Similarly, we naturally take more notice of big or colorful images compared with small or pale images. These suggest that visual elements or web contents such as texts and images that we perceive on a website are significant features which can affect how we organize information.

Studies about visual hierarchy of web contents and its impacts on web users’ viewing behaviors have recently been the focus of attention of several researchers. In the study by the group of Djamasbi et al. (2010), they found that participants’ focus of attention within different areas of the web page were condensed toward large pictures or texts located mostly at the top and center spots on the website. In addition, participants’ initial attraction within the first few seconds of viewing were images/photos found on the center and top of the website. Roth et al. (2013) also found that participants fixated faster to texts or logos located on top of the page of different types of websites. These results demonstrated that size (Djamasbi et al. 2010, Faraday 2000), picture (Faraday 2000, Djamasbi et al. 2010), and location (Djamasbi et al. 2010, Roth et al. 2013) were features of web contents which attracted the attention of the participants. This being so, visual features of web contents can influence not only individuals’ focus of attention but also their visual organization and thereby important elements to take into account in creating a website. Hence, understanding the impact of visual hierarchy necessitates further exploration because of its influence on one’s gaze (Faraday 2000, Djamasbi et al. 2010). In addition, examining the various factors affecting visual hierarchy can also assist organizations to effectively convey information to target customers coming from different demographics (Djamasbi et al. 2007, Tuch et al. 2010).

Perceptions regarding web contents differ among various demographics which can affect their preference. For example, in the study by Reinecke and Gajos (2014), they found that education level affects people’s visual preferences for colorful and complex websites. People in the low education level preferred colorful websites, whereas highly educated web users favored otherwise. More so, the latter chose less visually complex websites compared with the former favoring more complex sites. They also looked at age differences and showed that in terms or colorfulness, older participants favored medium to high vivid websites than any other age group. In addition, higher visual complexity was preferred by participants as age increases, particularly with age more than 41 years old. On the contrary, Reinecke et al. (2013) showed that low visual complexity was favored by participants beyond 45 years of age. Meanwhile, Flores et al. (2014) demonstrated that regular internet users rated web contents with photographs and texts more appealing using two types of informational websites. Using an eye-tracking methodology, Djamasbi et al. (2010) also found that individuals with age ranging from 18 to 34 years prefer web sites which contain big images or photos. Similar results were also found by Roth et al.

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(2013) showing that participants from 15 to 57 years old initially looked at web objects regardless if it was in a text or image form. Given that people have different preferences depending on demographics, it is significant to recognize web users’ attention to web contents that suit their needs and interests. By tailoring websites that would appeal to the target audience, enhanced web presence and increased market share are viable and promising, especially for organizations that are geared towards conveying more detailed information to their existing and potential target customers.

In the field of sports, it is widely acknowledged that some of the primary goals of sport organizations are to communicate with sports fans and stakeholders and at the same time promote their products and services and therefore need to constantly look for effective strategies to convey their goals and further build brand awareness. Print materials such as brochures, banners, and signages, media broadcasting adverts in magazines, newspapers, radio, and televisions, sport events hosting, and sponsorships are some of the traditional methods of publicizing sports and their organization. On the other hand, with the development of online network technology, venturing in innovative and modern marketing strategies using the cyberspace could be another potential medium in achieving their goals and objectives. In the study by Seo et al. (2007), they showed that sense of commitment, cohesiveness, and attitude toward a website were associated with intention to use the website. Meanwhile, in a study of De Carlo (2010) who investigated the perception of people about various web contents and how these variables affect their intention to use and reuse sports websites, he found out that although sports website users preferred to use and reuse sports websites with humor and entertainment content, they also emphasized credibility and information contents as important variables sports websites should consider. These studies reveal that aside from sports web users’ dedication and positive point of view about websites, sports website’s effectiveness depends on the information it contains because of its influence on users’ perception and usage behavior.

All in all, if sports organizations would like to gain the utmost benefits of sports websites as an online marketing strategy to promote their goals and objectives, they should emphasize in providing reliable and high quality web content based on the needs and interests of their users and stakeholders. By doing so, the attractiveness of these websites will increase and eventually affects users’ willingness to utilize these websites because of the positive perception or attitude it cultivates. However, although literatures about sports websites exist, available data concerning this subject matter need further examination, particularly the perceptions of sports web customers’ on webpage content focusing on a more quantitative data collection and analysis using an eye-tracking system. Hence, the purpose of the study was to identify sports customers’ ocular behavior on data characteristics of a sport website as well as analyze the differences in eye movements based on socio-demographical variables.

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MATERIALS AND METHODSParticipants. A total of 52 participated in this study. Their ages ranged from 20 to 50 years old and were undergraduate and graduate students recruited in the college of physical education in exchange for a small honorarium. All were regular internet users with estimated time spent on the web ranges from less than 3 hours to over than 6 hours per day. People wearing corrective lenses or glasses were excluded due to the eye-tracking system’s limitations. All students provided informed consent and the research followed the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Eye Tracking System. In exploring the ocular behavior of the participants, scan path and fixation were recorded using NAC’s Eye Mark Recorder-9 (Model ST-725) which detects and records eye movement of a participant using a set of infrared-sensitive sensors attached to a head mount unit (see Figure 1). The participants were asked to gaze nine calibration dots (numbered) sequentially displayed on a 21-inch LG IPS LED monitor (resolution set at 1024 by 768 pixels). This nine-point calibration procedure determines whether the correction parameters match the visual field image eye markers with points truly seen by the participants (NAC user’s manual, 2009). Thus, successful calibration performance of a participant in each experiment is essential (see Figure 2). Moreover, this Eye Mark Recorder-9 system comes out with the EMR-dStation Software which designed to monitor and report streaming output images and fixation duration of eye movements.

Figure 1. NAC’s Eye Mark Recorder EMR-9 module and display monitor.

Procedure. Prior to the actual experiment, the participants were instructed about the fundamental purpose of the experiment and requested to fill-out the prepared questionnaire. Each participant sat on a chair facing a monitor. The experimenter placed the eye tracking glasses to the participant’s head and proceeded with the calibration process. After ensuring that the correct calibration was completed, the participant was then presented with a sport-website template consisting of six different content categories (see Figure 3) and was told to freely look at the webpage. A golf website was chosen due to the sport’s first-class reputation in the country

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Figure 2. Description of the calibration procedure.

and also its rising popularity in other Asian nations for the reason that a number of golfers nowadays who won major league golf competitions came from these countries. This signifies that golf has a strong market potential in Asia and having a well-designed golf website is another way to publicize the sport to this target population. The website template appeared for the duration of 10 seconds to provide the participants ample time to browse the webpage since subconscious perception could commence in 50 ms (Lindgaard et al. 2006), whereas 1 second is enough to establish conscious assessment of visual information (Branthwaite 2002). After the predetermined observation period, the participant was thanked for their involvement and dismissed. Ocular behavior variables. In exploring the determinants of ocular behavior, fixation durations and AOI (area of interest/s) were taken as important eye-tracking metrics. This analysis examined how they behaviorally responded to those different website contents. In this experiment of ocular behaviors concerning sport website visitors, mean fixation durations and Area of Interests (AOIs) are considered as the indicators of cognitive processes (Pan et al. 2004). For instance, fixation duration is considered to indicate cognitive information processing complexity. Short fixation suggests that a person is having no difficulty in processing the visual content, whereas longer fixation means that a person is exerting effort to process the object at which his focus of attention is directed (Loftus & Mackworth 1978, Rayner 1998). Also, fixation duration can also be used to estimate observer’s interest and preferences (Glaholot et al. 2009). This means, the longer the fixation time, the

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Figure 3. Website of professional sport team with various contents. Note: Sourced from www.kgt.co.kr; (MF = main frame, NS = news section, PI = players’ information, PG = photo gallery, SI = service information, and SL = sponsors’ logos).

more interested the person would be to the target visual object and vice versa. The webpage presented to the participants was categorized into six different contents, namely: (1) main frame (MF); (2) news section (NS); (3) players’ information (PI); (4) photo gallery (PG); (5) service information (SI and (6) sponsors’ logos (SL).

For more in depth analysis, this study also incorporated demographic variables including the level of internet usage per day and those eye-tracking metrics as dependent variables.

The EMR-dStation ver. 2 software reports fixation duration in centisecond. In order to perform inferential analyses concerning the variables, modifications to the data set were made to enhance the reliability of potential findings in this

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experiment. Any fixation duration which falls below 0.05 sec was considered no fixation in this experiment. That is, fixation (duration) data was adjusted to perform inferential statistics using SPSS ver. 19.0. Statistical Analysis. A 3-way (age x internet usage x education) ANOVA was used to assess differences in eye fixation duration between groups while Tukey HSD was utilized for the multiple comparisons while t-test was used for groups with two levels. Significance was set at p <0.05.

RESULTSThe result of ANOVA indicated that statistical difference in the mean fixation

duration were found on the basis of different age groups for the website contents of MF [F(3,48) = 3.749, p < 0.017], NS [F(3,48) = 2.895, p < 0.045], and SI [F(3,48) = 5.30, p < 0.003]. That is, the age effect was marginally significant for the ocular behavior of the participants. Finding from Tukey HSD confirmed pairwise comparisons in the mean fixation duration among the different age groups. For the website content of MF, the mean fixation duration of 20-23 year old group was lower than both the mean fixation duration of 31-40 year old and 41-50 year old groups. Moreover, for the pairwise comparison regarding the NS content, the mean fixation duration of 31-40 year old group was also lower than the mean fixation duration of 21-23 year old group. Lastly, the mean fixation duration of 41-50 year old group was statistically significant and higher than the mean fixation duration of 24-30 and 31-40 year old groups, whereas mean fixation duration of 20-23 year old group was higher than the 31-40 year old group for the website content of SI (see Table 1).

Table 1. Fixation Duration for the Website Contents based on AgeItem Age level Mean SD Sig Tukey HSD

MF

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

2.363.444.334.60

1.772.082.291.81

0.017*31-40 y/o > 20-23 y/o41-50 y/o > 20-23 y/o

NS

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

1.651.550.440.60

1.471.100.460.54

0.045* 20-23 y/o > 31-40 y/o

PI

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

2.863.113.160.90

1.811.833.480.41

0.229

PG

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

1.271.161.271.50

1.090.700.900.35

0.942

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SI

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

1.150.610.052.0.

1.190.600.160.70

0.003*20-23 y/o > 31-40 y/o41-50 y/o > 24-30 y/o41-50 y/p > 31-40 y/o

SL

20-23 y/o24-30 y/o31-40 y/o41-50 y/o

0.721.050.500.60

1.281.600.790.54

0.803

*Significance at p < 0.05 level. MF= main frame, NS=news section, PI=players’ information, PG=photo gallery, SI=service information and SL=sponsors’ logos.

The level of daily internet use was asked by three different categories such as: (1) less than 3 hours; (2) over 3 to less than 6 hours, and (3) over 6 hours. The analysis on eye tracking metrics concerning the level of daily Internet use confirms the significant effects of the independent variables on mean fixation duration for the website content of PI[F(2,49) = 3.639, p < 0.034]. Findings from Tukey HSD pair wise comparison indicates that the mean fixation duration of less than 3 hours group was higher than the mean fixation duration of over 6 hours group (see Table 2).

Table 2. Fixation duration for the website contents based on internet usage.Item Internet use Mean SD Sig Tukey HSD

MF< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

2.652.223.48

2.332.121.94

0.204

NS< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

0.951.881.28

1.010.891.44

0.285

PI< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

4.203.112.24

3.472.071.40

0.034*Less than 3 hours > more than 6 hours

PG< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

1.050.881.45

0.860.890.94

0.192

SI< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

0.500.771.13

0.661.061.16

0.236

SL< 3 hours3-6 hours> 6 hours

0.651.110.65

0.882.041.01

0.594

*Significance at p< 0.05 level.

The participants’ education levels were categorized into undergraduate and graduate students due to unique aspect of the participation pool. The findings from t-test analysis demonstrates that the mean fixation duration of undergraduates for the content of SI was longer the graduate students in general, t(50) = 2.271. However, mean fixation duration of undergraduates were shorter for the MP web content t(50) = -2.357 (see Table 3).

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Table 3. Fixation duration for the website contents based on education.

Item Education Mean SD Sig

MF UndergraduateGraduate

2.634.00

1.722.41 0.022*

NS UndergraduateGraduate

1.570.86

1.410.92 0.060

PI UndergraduateGraduate

2.882.55

2.142.22 0.608

PG UndergraduateGraduate

1.201.41

0.930.94 0.445

SI UndergraduateGraduate

1.190.50

1.160.74 0.027*

SL UndergraduateGraduate

0.790.61

1.400.71 0.609

* Significance at p = < 0.05 level.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONThe current investigation explores sport customers’ ocular behavior on data

characteristics of a sport website as well as analyzes potential differences in their fixation duration based on their demographic characteristics by collecting data through a quasi-experimental design.

Based on the concept of visual hierarchy of website contents, images, size and location are found to be critical elements that influence a person’s ocular behaviors. This research highlights and confirms that focus of attention is more concentrated towards images and perceptual objects with larger dimension and positioned at the top of the page (Faraday 2000). Majority of participants gazed longer at the main picture followed by players’ information, photo gallery or news section respectively which were mostly photo images that participants tend to process first (Djamasbi et al. 2010). Also, since these four items were considered large items because it occupied at least 40% of the web page, perceived visual importance was higher compared with the smaller objects (Djamasbi et al. 2010) thereby affecting participants’ fixation behavior.Age. For more detail, age differences in website navigating behavior were observed from applied research utilizing eye-tracking system in recent years (Madden & Whiting 2003, Grahame et al. 2004, Kim & Choi 2010, Son et al. 2011). Results of the study showed that the older groups (31-40 y/o and 41-50 y/o) had longer fixation toward the main picture compared with the 20-23 y/o group. Moreover, the 41-50 y/o participants gazed the service information section significantly longer compared with both the 24-30 y/o and 31-40 y/o groups. On the other hand, the youngest group paid more attention to the players’ information and service information web contents than the 31-40 y/o participants. This may be a reflection of the fact that older adults tend to be familiar with image-based information in searching a target link. That is, the age group of 31 to 40 years old is described as “the first digital native or Generation X,” who grew up and used

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technology at higher rates than people from past generations (Prensky 2001, Cobral 2010). This generation X may be the first to grow up with internet connection and adopted many aspects of the new technology for information. Younger generations including Generation X learned and socialized differently from their parents’ generations. That is, they are more comfortable with graphical images and used to the instantaneity of hypertext, which can be simple text, graphic or video that links different pages on the web to acquire other information through the internet rather than only plain text-based information which demand more cognitive effort to the visitors (Pan et al. 2004, Nielsen 2005, Perez 2008).

Figure 4. AOIs fixation duration based on age.

Internet usage. Although individual differences affecting eye movement behaviors are available, internet usage and its influence on visual perception of web contents still need further investigation. In the study by the group of Buscher et al. (2009) wherein they examined visual attention of participants based on the location characteristics of web pages during information foraging and page recognition tasks, they found that less experienced web users gazed longer at web pages during the latter tasks, particularly located on the upper left side of the web page. However, the result was not statistically significant. Interestingly, in this study, significant main effect was on internet usage. Further analysis revealed that participants with less than 3 hours of internet access per day fixated their attention longer at the players’ information section that was located on the upper left side of the web page compared with those who use the internet for more than 6 hours. Perhaps this difference between the two groups of participants might be attributed with their browsing skills. Web users with longer internet usage might have already learned how to automatically scan the contents that are interesting for them in a faster and more efficient way and consequently shortening their browsing time

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than those people who use the internet for a shorter period. Moreover, based on the fixation order of the AOIs (Figure 5), this result not only confirms previous studies (Faraday 2000, Buscher et al. 2009, Djamasbi et al. 2010) that visual organization is dependent on various features of web contents but more so showed the influence of internet use on visual perception of web contents and the first to demonstrate such findings using an eye-tracking analysis. Given this, perception of people about visual contents contained on websites is also dependent on the amount of internet usage which thereby affects their viewing behavior.

Figure 5. AOIs fixation duration based on internet usage.

Education. Significant main effects of education level on the main picture and service information web contents showing participants with higher level of education attainment had the longest fixation time toward the main picture, whereas undergraduate students gazed longer at the service information item than graduate students. The fixation outcomes of the two groups could be connected with the various important features of visual organization such as size and location (Faraday 2000) for the main picture and service information web contents respectively. Based on the results of the study and since fixation duration is a good determinant of attention (Chapman 2005), it is possible to assume that size and location were features that drew the interests of the participants. In addition, although service information was text-based, attention of undergraduate participants was still drawn to this area, whereas the graduate students did not pay much attention. Possible reasons might be the actual content contained in this section displaying concise and readable messages about the services being offered by the organization in which the undergraduate participants find interesting and eventually increased eye fixation duration that is also considered a reflection of how informative an item is (Rayner 1998, Kim & Choi 2010), while the graduate participants found it visually complex, which eventually affected their attraction to this area of interest. These data outcomes imply that having a large main image, appropriate location

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and typography have a significant part in establishing an impact to sport website visitors.

Notwithstanding that this present investigation not only confirmed the importance of various features influencing visual organization but also provided a fundamental stage in analyzing sport marketing-related research quantitatively, further exploration is needed to extend the knowledge about the congruence and distinctness of web users’ preferences about websites pertaining to sports and health such, as sports commitment, economic status, and ethnicity. Furthermore, other eye movement measurements should be added such as fixation count, which is the number of instances an individual would stop and revisit an item or image to first item attended, gaze directions, and pupil diameter to extrapolate visual attention as well as the cognitive state of people. Figure 6 shows the AOIs fixation duration based on education.

Figure 6. AOIs fixation duration based on education.

In the area of sport marketing, most studies tried to investigate internet advertising effectiveness by utilizing survey based research method. Explanatory analyses in terms of survey research method represent the general phenomenon and propositions about potential customers in a certain society (Babbie 1998). In essence, survey research method which has been adopted by many marketing agencies involves the collection and quantification of data (Malhotra & Birks 2007). Respondents are asked to report opinions on structured questions. That is, survey research method is designed to discover the distribution of certain traits or attributes for a larger group of samples (Babbie 2010). However, it is important to understand the attentional and visual process of human brain, including those regions implicated in eye movement generation. That is, eye movement which may be driven by certain visual features is supported to an extent by the identification of neural regions, responding to those features (Flanagin & Metzger 2007). Our analysis of ocular behavior (eye movement) indicated that participants responded differently to website data categories based on their demographic variables. This result is not surprising but still important issue in the study of investigating how website contents influence immediate responsiveness and reliability of a

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given website. The results of this study help marketers or practitioners of sport organizations to verify how website contents are properly presented and targeted precisely for more effective communication in the competitive market situation.

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