Animals Discussing the Fundamental Prin Ciples and R Eviewing ...

A Practical Treatise on the Feeding of Farm

Animals Discussing the FundamentalPrin

ciples andR eviewing the BestPractices

of Feeding for Largest R eturns

By

CHARLES WILLIAM BURKE“

Collar: of Agdcallun cudMocha “: Ark . and Damqf lb Kam aAgdcullural Expu imed Std .“

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

PAUL. TRENCH. TRUBNER C0, limited

19 16

Copyright. 1912. byORANG E JUDD COMPANY

All Rights Rou n d

Entered at Stationen' Hall

LONDON . ENGLAND

PRINTED IN U . S . A .

PREFACE

The fundamental princ iples of feeding an imalsare appl icable to al l parts of the country and to al lparts of the world . For many years invest igatorshave been at work on problems of nutrit ion and oninterpret ing the data obtained . A s a result the

student farmer has now at hand useful suggest ionsthat will assis t in handl ing the feeding problemsof the farm to the best advantage . The man whofeeds in a scientific m anner is able not only to useh is feed ing stufl’s more economical ly but he canobtain an imal products more cheaply than can h isneighbor who ignores the helps that science offershim . To these facts the author h imsel f can test i fy .

He not only has been a teacher of an imal nutrit ionfor many years,but has had a l ife- t ime experienceal so with the pract ical problem s of feeding in feedlots and stabl es .The volume herewith presented discusses the firstprinc iples of scientific feeding and aims to interpretthem so as to be equally useful to student, stockmanand farmer . In th is presentat ion, the n eeds of theteacher of an imal feed ing have also been kept inmind at every step, the object be ing to set forth theseveral phases in pedagogical as wel l as ut i l itarianform .

C. W . Burkett .

New York, July, 1912 .

0 0 0 0 1 P:

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ITm: SOIL, THE PLANT, THE AN IMALHow Nature is balanced—Plant food a smal l part ofsoi l—Elements of p lant and animal l i fe—Elements are

united—Cycle of l i fe—The farm and the an imals—Supp ly of plant food— Poor grass, poor cattle—Soi l improv ement and l ive stock—Role of the legumes—Natural manures and ferti l izers—An imals change raw

materials.

CHAPTER I IWHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTA IN

Plant cel ls—Bui lding p lant tissue—Starch—How p lantsuse starch— Protein— Fat or oil—What p lant bui ldingmeans— Ash or m ineral materials—Water—Crude fiber—Grouping the p lant consti tuen ts—What the p lant hasdone—Elements and their symbols.

CHAPTER I IIHow Fooo Is Dxcssrsm

Making ready for digestion—What is done in the mouth—From mouth to stomach—The compartments of the

cow’

s stomach— Stomach secretion—From stomach to

intestines—The tw o intestines—From intestines to bloodVi l l i ce l ls—Respiration .

CHAPTER IVUS ING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTSDigestibi lity l ittle influenced by quanti ty—The indiv idual character of the animal- Digestibi l ity decreases as

p lants mature—Shal l grain be ground— Steam ing andcooking food .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER VCOMPOSITION or AN IMALSCombustible rnatter

—Water-f Range of variation of maten als—Prmexpal ash constituents—Percentage of increase in fatten ing—Group constituents—What thesecompounds do.

CHAPTER VIF000 NUTRIENTS

Nutrients defined—Most feeding stafl'

s are unbalanced—Digestibi lity defined— How digestibi lity of a food isdeterm ined—First step is to obtain composition—Diges

Bible nutrients—Correct rations are based on d igesti

l ity.

CHAPTER VI ISOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS m FEEDING

The animal as a mach ine—Reducing fat to carbohydrates—Determin ing the nutritiv e ratio—Wide or nar

row nutritiv e ratio—Balanced ration—Feed ing standards—Feeding standards on ly a guide.

CHAPTER VIIITm: COMPUTATION op RATION SAn imal uses of food—Three kinds of rations—M ixedfood—How a ration is made—Feed ing for heavy m i lkers—Using the standard in practical work—What foodsto choose.

CHAPTER IXBA S ING STANDARDS ON QUALITY or MILK

Hae'

cker’

s inv estigations—The Haecker standard—Howto establ ish a standard— Compared w ith Wolff standard .

CHAPTER XCOMPUTING RATION S ON BAS IS or STARCH VALUESStarch v alue i l lustrated—Re lativ e starch values—Howto obtain starch value—Actual starch value be low calcu

lated starch value—Calculating starch values on basis ofavai labi lity—Feeding stufl

'

s w ith much fiber—Starch v alues for all classes of stock—Feeding standards on basisof starch values.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIUsm e ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATION SFeeding stuffs possess energy—Units of measuring heat—Waste of chem ical energy—Energy values in feedsRequirements for maintenance—Requirements for

grow th—Requirements for fatten ing—Requirements form i lk—Requirements for w ork—Computing a ration forsteers—Computing a ration for dairy cows.

CHAPTER XI ITHE COST OF THE Ramon

The practical question—Two rations compared on basisof cost—Two rations for horses compared—Feedingstuffs vary in price—Easy to swap feeds—Use judgmentin purchasing feeds -Grow the legumes.

CHAPTER XI I ICosr OF NUTRIENTS

Bulk food should be home grown—Protein not solelypurchased—Purchase of protein—On basis of totaldigestible nutrients—Using judgment in getting proteinoughage materials.

CHAPTER XIVFEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS

Food requirements of the young—Colostrum—Rationshould be changed as age advances—Nature w idens theration—From w hole to skim m i lk—Little trouble w ithsuck l ing an imals—Calf feeds—Feed ing the dairy cal fFeed ing the bee f cal f—The feeding of lambs—Thefeeding of pigs—Feeding the foal .

CHAPTER XVTHE FEEDING op BREEDING ANIMALS

Feed ing the dairy cow when carrying cal f—At calv ingtime—The brood sow—Exercise for brood sow s—Thebrood mare—The ew e—At lambing time.

x TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVIFEEDING FARM Houses

Fcod requirements for horses—A fundamental rinciplein horse feeding—Nature of food—Character 0? foodRequirements for w ork—Giving water—Order of hay,grain and w ater—Regularity in feeding and wateringRoughage feeds for horses—Grain feeds for horsesSelecting the ration—Feeding the stal lion—Fatteninghorses for market—Feeding mules.

CHAPTER XVIIFm:nm c DAIRY CATTLEFood requirements of dairy cattle—The m i lk-yieldingfunction—How often to m i lk—What age of cow is best—What influences the quality of m i lk—Pastures are

ideal basic rations—Feeding grain on pasture—Whenpastures are short and parched—Letting feeding standards serv e as guides—Producing m i lk econom ical lyProtein requiremen ts—Feeding dairy cow s in w interNature of the food—Foods that all ma grow—Avai lable green feeds—Grain and qual ity 0 butter—Feeding young dairy stock—During the first w inter—Satisfactory grain m ixtures—During the second w interStable management— Salt and w ater—The tuberculintest—The herd bul l—The order of supplying the foodSome samp le rations—For dairy calv es, dry cow s in

summer, dry cow s in w inter, for cow s yie lding 16 to 2 5pounds of m i lk dai ly, for cow s yielding from 25 to 40

pounds of mi lk dai ly.

CHAPTER XVIIIFEEDING BEEF CATTLEFood requirements for beef—Wi ld,

cattle seldom fatGood and bad beef stock—Character of a good steer—Two classes of bee f an imals—Nature of the rationFrom cal f to steer—Feeding calves intended for beefThe skim-m i lk cal f— (falv es on w hole m i lk—Makingv eal—Feeding during the fi rst w inter—Finishing beev esunder 18 months—Baby beeves finished on grassBeev es finished at tw o years of age—Objections againstbaby bee f—Summer feeding on grass—Fal l feeding on

grass— Feeding ful l -grow n cattle—Older steers are sti l lmarketed—Fatten the hei fers early— Prom inent feed ing

TABLE OF CONTENTS

stuffs—Many kinds of roughage foods—Leading grainfoods—Some sample rations—Maintenance ration forbreeding cow s—Winter yearl ings w ith andw ithout grainRations for fatten ing steers.

CHAPTER XIXFammo Sam

Ifood requirements for sheep—Wool andmutton—Re lati ve economy of sheep, steers and pigs—W ide variety offeed for sheep—Choosing the feed—Roots always finefor sheep—Sheep require w ater—When turn ing to pasture—Proportion of grain to roughage—How often to

feed sheep—Feeding corn in the field—Rape an excel lentsheep feed—Roughage feeds—Temporary fences bymeans of hurd les—Putting sheep on ful l grain rationsSome of the best grains—Feed ing lambs for marketFattening grow n sheep—Some sample rations for lambsw eighing 50 to 60 pounds—For lambs w eigh ing 60 to 80pounds—For lambs w eigh ing 80 to 100 pounds—Forsheep in w inter—Sheep on ful l feed—For ew es w ithlambs at side.

CHAPTER XXFEEDING SWINE

Food requirements for sw ine—Hogs consume much andgive generous returns—Fastest gains are made duringearly grow th—Rations are narrow at first—M ineralmatter andcharcoal—Making a S lop—Pasture for pigsGraz ing runs for hogs—Forage for cheap gain—Fattening hogs—Mak ing good bacon—Hogging off corn

Hogs as harv esters—Some sa

le rations for young

p igs—For pigs three to six mont s of age—P igs on pasture.

CHAPTER XXIFEEDING FARM POULTRYEggs chem ical ly analyzed—Various rations requiredFeed for l ittle chicks—Weaned chicks on good range

Feeding larger chicks—Fattening the cockerels—Grainfeed for fow ls—Green feeds—Meat or animal feed important—Grit is necessary—Hens in summer—Duungthe molt—Feeding for eggs in w inter.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXI ITm; SILO AND S ILAGE.

Economy in si lage—Capacity of si los—Corn the best silage crop—Essentials of a good si lo—Calculating size ofsi lo—Fil ling the si lo—Feeding si lage—Feeding si lageafter m i lking—Crops for si lage—Cutting corn for si lageBui lding the si lo—Get a sol id foundation—Other types

of si los—Hol low clay blocks.

CHAPTER XXIIITHE Somme SYSTEM

Good pastures alw ays popular—Rape supplements pastures—Soi l ing crops in favor— Soi l ing crops hav e a

p lace—A l fal fa ranks first—Green corn for summer

Root crops not to be le ft out—Advantages of soi l ingSmal ler area needed—Few er fences needed—Food destroyed by tramping—Less acreage required—Soi l Improv ement more read i ly obtained—Objections to thepractice of soi l ing—Suggestions for a soi ling scheme.

CHAPTER XXIVRELATION or F000 10 MANURE.

Quality of manure—Value of farm manures—Doublevalue m feeds—Sel l ing ferti l ity—Loss of ferti l ity con

tained in feed—Poor manure— Why ful l v alue of fer

tility of feeds is not secured to lands—The ful l valueof a feeding stufi

'

.

APPENDIX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Rational Feeding P lus Rational BreedingCfoss Section of Root HairStomata or Leaf MouthsTwo Sources of PhosphorusPoor Cattle O ften Indicate Poor LandDouble Good from Soy BeansWhat the Ferti lizing Elements A re WorthConverting Raw Material into Finished ProductsHow an An imal Ce l l Div idesUnderside of a LeafStarch Cel lsLeaf Ce l lsGrow ing Plants Contain Much Water

How the Sap Currents Mov e

Stomach of Rum inantB lood PlasmaVi ll i Cel lsHow the B lood Circulates Through the BodyCorn in Good ShocksA Steer that Was a Poor FeederMaking Good Hay Is a Fine ArtFrom a Grain of

Cheapest Gains Are Made w ith Young An imalsFood Consumed During Fatten ing PeriodWhat an Animal ContainsCycle of Li feCow peas a Rich Food . .

M ineral Matter in Some Common FoodsWhat Field Corn ContainsWhat Corn Stover ContainsHe Had a Good RationNutritive Ratio of Some Common Feeding Stufi s

xlll

xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Balancing the Ration Improves ItWhen the Feeding Period Is ExtendedTimothy Not a Balanced FoodM ixing Their Ow n RationHeavy Milkers Require Big RationsWhere Science Helps to FattenIt Pays to Give the Right FeedDairy Cow s Should Be FedM i lk-Stimulating RationsTypical Steer for FeedingA l fal fa Ready for CuttingLaboratory Where Food Values Are Determ inedRevealing Facts About DigestionMature Steers Nearly Ready for MarketCats and Peas A re Excel lent for Hay or Soi l ingConverting Corn into CoinRemarkable Leghorn and Her AchievementsThe New ly Born Require ColostrumYoung Calves Should Be Kept Steadi ly on the GainGathering up What the Steers DropReady for Their Break fastBeef in the MakingBred for BeefThri fty Lambs Fol low Good Care andWise FeedingLarge Litter of Vigorous PigsResting in the Pasture FieldAn Inexpensiv e Colt CreepToo Fat for Good BreedersFeeding Box for A l fal fa HayA Portable Hog HouseMaking Pork from RapeRounding Them up in the PastureWel l Bred and We l l FedEqual to Any TaskShow ing Them 06 .

Exercise Necessary Even on FarmsStal l ion for Farm Use

Horses Sel l Best When FatThe M i lk-Yielding Function Exemplified

A Clear Case of Dairy Type

LIST OF ILLUSTRATION S

Dairy Cow s Thoroughly Contented in Pasture Fie ldMatrons of the Dairy HerdAn Inexpensiv e Covered BarnyardTurned Out for ExerciseS i lage One of Best Dairy FeedsP icked Out for the DairyWater Avai lable A l l the TimeA Bunch That Topped the MarketThe Same Cow , Side andRearA Beef Steer of H igh Qual ityRough FeedersSe lected for Baby Bee fGood VealBaby BeefPrime S teersHerd of Angus in M idd le West

Cattle on A l falfa.

Fam i l iar Scene on the Stock FarmFeeding Bee f Cattle in the Open.

Champion Steers

Track Contrivance for Feeding CattleThe Pasture Is Good and the Sheep A re Satisfied

Sheep Range in the Northw est

Temporary Pastures Best for SheepSheep on Rape PastureOut at

Ready for MarketPoor Way to Feed SheepBunch of Hogs Ready to Be S laughteredThey A te Much and Developed Rapid lyVery Sanitary and Very CostlyLegume Pastures Ideal for PigsP lan of Grazing Runs for HogsEnjoying the Charcoal BoxGetting Their Rations in a Portable PenHogging Off the CornBusiness Flock of Light Brahmas“

Green Feed

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Combination HOpper for Field or Yard UseLeghorn Flock at RangeCrate Feeding for Fancy MarketProtected Feed TroughFccd Hoppers Fi l led from A l leyThe Double-Yarding SystemInterior of Wel l-Arranged Poultry PenFeed HOpper

Feed andWork house of Large Poultry FarmOpen Feed Trough for Fow ls at RangeM ixed Flock Eating GrainNeat Si lo for Long Serv iceHarv esting the S i lage CornFil l ing the S i loConcrete S i losHauling Soi l ing Crops to the BarnWheat a Good Soiling CropA l fal fa the Best Soi ling CropBarnyard M i l let a Heavy Y ie lderCrop of Cow peas and Kafir CornCrimson Clov er for Soi lingEither Too Much or Too Little !

Removal of Ferti l ityHow Farm Manure Is Wasted

CHAPTER 1'

THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE AN IMAL

How Nature Is Balanced.— The soil, the plant,

and the an imal represent the three great fields ofagricultural act iv ity . They are dependent upon oneanother,each giv ing to,or receiving from, the othersthe things vital to its very existence . W ithout asoil, there would be,of course, neither plant nor an imal l ife ; without plants there could be no an imalsand without plants or an imals there would be a useless, i f not a barren soil .The three divis ions of nature have come in naturalorder. First, the soil ; then t iny plants, that were

succeeded in t ime by other plants of a h igher form,

to which an imals welcomed themselves, sat isfyingtheir appet ites and nourish ing their bodies withwhat they secured as food . Soi l is food for plants,the plant is food for an imals, and the dead an imal orplant is food for the soil .Plant Food a Small Part of Soil .—The whole of

the soil is not plant food—only certain elements

chemical elements,we cal l them . In al l nature thereare 81 known dist inct substances or elements . Theyare cal led elements because they represent dist inctsubstances not one of which can be broken up into

tw o or more other d ist inct substances . Commontable salt i s not an element, s ince it can be separated

into tw o elements, sodium and chlorine . N either

sod ium nor chlorine can be divided into tw o or moresubstances, and hence each is a fixed unit or sub

stance,known by the term element .

Oi the 81 elements to be found in the world only12 enter in the l ife of plants and animals . These 1 2are very important because they are posit ively

n e c e s s a r y t o

plants or animals .They are the verybasis of l ife . Thebody of the an imal i s composedof the elementsfound in plants,

yet the plant mustgrow in order tomake it possiblefor the an imal togrow. From the

air and the soilCnoss Sacrlou or Roar HA IR O u r cult ivated

Soluble plant food is carried into the plantthrough root hairs . These are very smal l . Plants gather the

n i t d h is a md.The P! Pc m y m m chem ical el ementstogether, and with them build plant t issue . By

means of roots, the soil is searched in every dircet ioh for soluble plant food, and th is is drawn in tothe plant . The leaves in the air, also at work, ent iceinto the ir be ing the floating carbon which, trappedand held, is mixed, as it were, by means of cellularl ife with the soi l e lements that have been carriedinto the plant in the soi l water. A s a result com

pounds are formed, the cel l s enlarge and increase,

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4 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

Carbon,a princ ipal substance of plants and animals .It is found in so i l and air . An imals give it offin breathing and plants take it in throughtheir leaves . Un ited with oxygen it makescarbon dioxide of the ai r, the princ ipal sourcefor plants to get their supply.

N itrogen, a gas in its free state . Both plants andan imals require it, and four-fifths of theair iscomposed of it .

E l e m e n t s a r e

U n i t e d.— F e w of

these elements exist in the soil in afree state . Two ormore have un ited .

In th is associat ionthey exist as compounds . Thus n itrogen, potass ium andoxygen un ited formpotassium n itrate

STOMATA, on Law Mourn s

As seen under the m icroscope on the (KNO3 ) and hydro“

unders ide of the leaf. Carbon through

the stomsta is admitted to the plants in g C n and oxygen

25dor carbon dioxide or carbon ic un ited form water

(HgO) . So,throughout the world, various combinat ions of these elements are found and are known as chemical compounds .

Cycle of Life .—The elements here described as

essential to plant growth are needed by an imals also .

But an imals ne ither can gather them from the soiland the air, nor w ould it be possible for an imals to

THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 5

use them i f they could . Obtained in the form that

plants ut i l ize they would be poison to an imal l i fe .

Nature ’s way is different . Plants grow whichmeans they feed on the element compounds . But,

young or mature, these same plants are food for an imals . The elements, by means of the plant cel ls,have been worked up into plant t issue ; and as suchan imal forms of l ife are sustained .

The animal cannot feed from soil and air direct .

Two Sounces or Puosruonus

In the early days bones were gathered for fert il izing . The Indians usedfish . Today the phosphoric acid of fertil izers is secured largely fromground bone or finely ground phosphate rr

I t is necessary for the plant to take these elementsand build them into tissue first. On this plant tissuethe an imal feeds . A fter the animal dies, with itsdecay and decomposit ion , come the changes of

an imal t issue back to so i l and air— back to the

original material s they go again,as they were beforethe t ime when captured by roots and leaves andmade into plants . But once back in soil and air thesame story is repeated : another capture is made by

6 FEEDING FARM AN IMALS

other roots or leaves, that new plant t issue may bemade for another generat ion of an imal l i fe .It is in th is manner that the plant grows out of

the soil and the air, the animal out of the plant, thesoil out of the an imal . The animal when l iv ingcontributes act ive suppl ies, and when dead bothhumus and mineral ingredients are returned to the

soil the soil thus rein forced favors the new plantsnow growing in it ; and the new plants, now moreabundantly nourished,more effect ively take care ofthe an imals . Thus we have the cycle of l ife : fromthe plant is fed the animal ; from the an imal is sustained the soil ; from the soil is nourished the plan t .

The Farm and the Animals .—The best system of

agricul ture is based upon good crops and wel l-bredl ive stock . W ith these to be poss ible the following proposit ions must always be kept in mind :1 . The soil must be rich in the s imple elements of

plant food, that there may be an abundanceof farm crops .

2 . The farm crops must be adapted to the ir cl imat ic and soil environmen ts so as to producefrom the e lements in the soi l the largestgrowth of desi rable plant l ife for an imalfood .

3 . Superior farm stock must be raised in order toproduce cheaply the max imum quant ity ofh igh-qual ity meat and milk or wool and laborwith the least expenditure of food .

Supply ofPlant Food.—The farmer, to make agri

cul ture remunerat ive, must adapt his work to whatfal ls with in these l ines . He must enrich the soil .

THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE AN IMAL 7

He must aid nature in her efforts to maintain thepresent supply of plant food, to increase it, and tomake unavailable plant food available so as to beassimilable to plants . A fter death of plant oranimal the plant food contained in these organicforms is st i l l unusab le by plants unt i l decay anddecomposit ion have done their work . In a l ikemanner the soil itsel f holds locked-up plant food in

Pooa CArrLs OFTEN lumen s Poon LANDlf soils have been inte l l igently t il led end manured they produce good

pas ture and profi table crops . These in turn furnish appetiz ing and nutrit iousfeed for the rap id deve lo ment of farm stock . If the grass in scanty l ivestock w il l roncet the com!tion of the land.

its storehouses . The farmer’s work is to hnd the

key that will unlock th is plant food . Shallow plowing, removal of organ ic matter, carelessness in t i l lage, excessive water, bad bacteria, all un ite in making soi ls hard, dead and l ifeless, and when so madethey refuse to release the ir soil - food possessions,a condit ion that e ither prevents plant growth altogether ; or, i f not that severe, in so lessen ing the

vigor as to give a crop of smal l worth .


Poor G rass, Poor Catt le .-If the plow be turned

loose in these so i l s, and the land be drained andl imed and careful ly and intel l igently t i l led and cult iv ated; at the same t ime if organic matter be addedby means of stable manure, legumes or green crops,the soils wil l qu ickly change from the ir unproduct ive cond it ion in to the other state that producesremunerat ive crops . When the soil is poor the

DOUBLE Goon FROM Sor BEANSThis magnificent crop of soy beans w il l be a bless ing to both soil and

animals. They enrich the land and prov ide a feeding crop of the h ighest

exce once.

crops are poor ; when the crops are poor the

an imals are poor ; when the an imals are poor the

soils are poorly nourished .

Soil Improv ement and Liv e Stock .— The ideal

agriculture maintains itsel f . Every system of farming should consist of both plant product ion andan imal feeding . The importance of th is is seenfrom the fol lowing :

1 . Clov er, cowpeas, alfalfa and other legumesare needed to bu ild up the soil . These, together

THE SOIL, THE PLANT, THE ANIMAL 9

w ith the cereal crops, are the very k inds of plantsw e want for horses, cattle, sheep and swine . Theyshould be grown, and espec ial ly the legumes, to improve the soil ; wh ich done there wil l fol low largeryields of grain, forage and grass crops that, e itherdirectly as money crops, or indirectly as feedingcrops, wil l make larger the total farm returns in

money or product ion .

WHAT rue Fear tuzmc ELEMENTS Ana WORTHThe draw ing shows the money value of the fertilizlng materiel: of several

term products in e ton of eech substance . These should be cons idered in

connect ion w ith the commerc ial worth of each product .

2 . Natural manures andfertilizers are needed forimproving the soil . The more l ive stock there ison each farm the greater wil l be the quant ity ofmanure made, and hence a less amount of purchased fert i l izers wil l be required . The fert i l izerb il l is a great farm tax . A part of it would be un

necessary if business- l ike farming were fol lowed . It

shou ld be a set pol icy to purchase as much of the

I O FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

fert i l izers as possible in the form of feeding stuffs .Take a dollar and get cottonseed meal,gluten, branor tankage,but instead of applying these direct tothe soi l as sources of n itrogen, phosphorus andpotassium, first feed them to l ive stock to get the

Couvsarmc RAv Mu rmu r. mro Fm isuen Paooucrs

Dairy cows are excel lent mach ines for converting the rough products ofthe term into human food.

value of the organized nature of the elements asfeed . Then, th is accompl ished, the result ingmanure wi ll provide plant food for the land .

The important difference between plant food orfert i l izers and animal food or plants is in the factthat plants take the unorgan ized chemical elementsand manufacture or build or organ ize them intol iv ing t issue, which is the plant or the fruit of the

CHAPTER II

WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTA IN

How Plants Grow .— Plants get their food from

the soil and the air. When suppl ied abundantlywith food, and surrounded by favorable cond it ionsl ike warmth, moisture, sunl ight and an agreeabl esoi l free of weeds and insect enemies, they grow

8How AN Ammu. Cam. Dmoes

Here is shown nuclear and cell div lelon . The lettere A, B and C indicatethe success ive stages . The reg ion or the nucleus is a; cytop lasm or pro

toplu m. b; end the beginn ings of the daughter nuclei, c. The letter d shown

how the original ce l l has dlv ided internal ly into two, each w ith e largenucleus . (After Gulznerd. )

rap idly and produce bount i fu l ly. Their method ofusing food is much different from that of an imals ;and thei r d igest ive system is of another order.Plant Cells .

—A plant is formed of myriads ofcells . These increase in numbers as the plantgrows larger. Stated in a s imple way, the cell i s aninclosed sac with in whose wal ls are the j u ices andother substances required for growth and develop

12

WHAT FEEDING STUFFS CONTAIN I 3

ment . The cell wal ls are made up of a woody substance cal led cellulose. In green and growingplants this ce llulose is th in and tender, but as the

plant matures it becomes hard and woody .

The roots, trunk, l eaves and al l other parts of theplant are formed of cells . Plant food in the soil ismade solub l e in soil moisture, and by means of thecell s comprising the roots the soluble substancesare sucked in and carried in water to all parts ofthe plant . The process by which th is is done isknown as osmosis . The soluble plant food l eft inthe cel ls as the water passes along is met by the

carbon that has also been passed into the cel ls, notthrough the roots, however,but through the leaves,and thus brought together al l building materials areat hand for the manu facture of the plant compounds .The master bu ilder is the protoplasm tucked awayin the cel ls . No one knows just what protoplasmis,but it represents l i fe,without which there couldbe no growth .

Building Plant Tissue .—The bu ilding work is

done in the plant cel l s,with in whose t iny wal ls thecompounds are form ed . These cel l s with in whichth is process is going on are either enlarged themselves or else the compounds are used for makingnew cel l s . Every l ive, act ive cel l contains protoplasm, the l ife princ iple . Herein is contained thevital spark that makes al l growth possible .

Starch .—When the soluble soil material or plant

food has been carried up through the long channel ofcel ls and reaches the leaves, it is brough t in contact

with the carbon dioxide that has been pul led into

14 FEEDIN G FARM ANIMALS

the l eaf through the l ittl e mouths on the unders idesof the l eaves . There these various compounds areupset and disintegrated through the act ion of heat,sunl ight,protoplasm and chlorophyl l,with the resultthat a grain of starch is made out of the water and

i

Unoeasms or A LEAP

When studied under the microscope the underside of e leaf eppeere es

elrtet

tc

’

he

il e

'bove . The letter a ehowa the etomete or mouths. and b the ce l ls

0 t e on

carbon ic ac id gas . Some of these starch grains arechanged by protoplasm into sugar, which, beingreadi ly solubl e, soon is transferred by diffusion fromcell to cel l and left in those cel ls that need it themost .

How Plants Use Starch .—Starch is not the l ife

substance of the plant,but helps to make it . It is

WHAT FEEDIN G STUFFS CON TAIN I S

necessary, because not only more l i fe substance isrequired as the plant grows larger, but because inone kind of work that the plant does some of thel i fe substance is used up . Not al l of the starch,there fore, remains as original ly formed ; some of itis ass imilated along with other foods taken up bythe roots, and l iv ing material is made .

Protein . T h eformat ion of the

p r o t c i n constit

uents is more com

p l e x t h a n t h ef o r m a t i o n o fstarch . In a general way it may besaid that starch orsome starch derivative is united in thecel ls with nitratesand sulphur thathave been brought Sn acu em s

This is the way the starch ce l ls from potatointo the plant fromtubers look when seen under the m icroscope .

the 5011. The hv

ing matter, or protoplasm, then breaks up the

n itrates in the act ive cel ls, unit ing them in some

way with starch,with the result that a protein com

oound i s formed .

Fat or Oil.— Oil i s made out of the same chemical

elements that enter into the bu ilding of starch

grains . Both are formed of carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen . In the oil compounds there is a larger


number of the carbon and hydrogen un its in proport ion to the oxygen than in the case of starch .

While al l plants contain some oil or fat in their

w oodv t issue, the great bulk of it i s deposited in theseed or the fruit .

Protein differs in composit ion from oil or starchin hav ing n itrogen and sulphurin addit ion to carbon,hydrogen andoxygen .

What P l a n tBuilding Means .

Before the simplee l e m e n t s aret a k e n into the

plant they are ofl itt le value . No

animal can usethem as food ;they cannot beburned to furn ishheat ; and they

ROTOPLASM store up no en

ergy to carry onLu v Cm s any of the world ’s

How the cel ls from the interior of a leaf work . What alook when seen under the m icroscope .

change the plantmakes of them ! W ithout value in soil and air, theseelements when taken into the plant and bu ilt intot issue at once become of vast importance . They become the source of al l an imal food, and, constructed

NUCLEUS

WHAT FEEDIN G srurrs CONTAIN 17

into vegetab le l ife, supply the human race with mostof the essential th ings for comfort, l ife and food .

A sh or Mineral Materials.— Starch, oil and pro

te in are not the only const ituents found in plants ;ash or mineral matter is found in every form ofplant l i fe . This is observed when any vegetablematerial has been burned . The organized condit ion

Gnov mc Pumrs CONTA IN Mucu WArenSevere!common feeding otufls are here compared to show the large quen

tltlee of water they contain . Note the change when hm eeted and curedas dry provendere.

is destroyed,but the ash remains . In green plantsor fodder or the vegetabl es the minerals are alwaysat hand, and when eaten by man or beast they goto form bone, teeth and other t issue structures ofthe body . In most feed ing stuffs sodium andchlorine are lacking,but the deficiency is correctedby the art ificial supply of common salt . Poor teeth,smal l and weak bones in ch ildren and domestican imals result when an insuffi cient amount of ash

18 5 151 FARM ANIMALS

or mineral material is furn ished in the food . A

variety of food, includ ing coarse fodders and the

l egumes, makes it possible to supply the mineralmaterials in abundance .

Water i s found inal l plants, even inthose dead and airdry. Young growing plants containmuch, often threefourths or more oftheir weight . Do

you wonder nowwhy water in the soili s so important forthe product ion ofgood crops ? Theplant not only musthave the water, butthe only way it canmake use of it is tocarry it into the

plant through the

l’oots .

WATER AND" mm,“

Water serves as aHow rue SAP Cunnw rs Move carrier Of plant food

The unmanufectured u p current taken through the roots tointo the plant through the roots moves upward, wh i le the menufectured product of every part of thethe leaves moves downward.

plant . It is to the

plant what blood is to the an imal . Some peopl eth ink that dew or rain on the leaves is of value to


What the Plant Has Done .—The relat ion between

soil and plant is now apparent . The soi l e lementshave been taken into the plant . From now on theylose their individual ident ity and, un ited in variousways, they now become organ ized compounds .They are no longer carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,but starch or sugar, or oil ; or, i f n itrogen and sul

phur are added, they become prote in compounds .The plant has now fulfilled its dest iny and is ready

to be used as food for the support of an imal l i fe .Elements and Their Symbols .

—For the sake ofbrevity the symbols or letters represent ing the

various agricultural elements are often used, andfor the purpose of becoming acquainted with themthe l ist below is given :

O—Oxygen P—PhosphorusH—Hydrogen K—Potassium

N— N itrogen Mg—Magnes ium

C—Carbon A l—A luminum

Cl—Chlorine Fe—IronNa—Sodium Si— S i l icon

S—Sulphur Ca—Calc ium

CHAPTER I I I

HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED

Making Ready for Digestion .—Digest ion is more

than chewing and swal lowing. Both of these areimportant, but they are only the beginn ing of acompl icated act that has to do with every constituent taken into the mouth as food, regardlessof its nature,whether of vegetab le or an imal origin .

Before the several ingred ients composing the plantcan be used as food they must be prepared for ahsorpt ion into the system of the animal . This preparat ion takes place in the mouth, the e sophagus

tube, the stomach and the intest ines . Throughoutthe process various secret ions are suppl ied to makeass imilat ion and absorpt ion into the system pos

s ible .What Is Done in the Mouth .

—When food is

taken into the mouth, it is mast icated by the teeth .

Wh ile th is is going on there are poured into themouth large quant it ies of saliva, which soften and

soak the foods and start digest ion . The act iveprinc iple of sal iva is a soluble ferment cal led ptyalinthat converts the starch into sugar. One authoritystates that the sal iva of a horse wil l convert rawstarch into sugar in 15 minutes . The organ ic matter contained in th is secret ion is formed by the cel lscompris ing the structure of the sal ivary glands .A l arge amount of sal iva is soaked up by the food .

This is often expressed as be ing as much as one

2 2 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

tenth of the weight of the an imal . Col in states that84 pounds is secreted by the horse and 1 12 pounds

by the cow in a single day . A s a matter of fact,the nature of the food great ly influences the flow,

although the control rests with the nervous system .

The ferment of the sal iva is inact ive in youngan imals . It bears a close relat ionsh ip to the de

v elopment of the teeth . Starchy food, there fore, isnot desirable for newly born farm an imals nor forthe human young. Wh ile bread,potatoes and othersoft food of a starchy nature are frequently, i f notcommonly, given to ch ildren, it can be only to theirhurt, for the reason the teeth slowly develop, thusfail ing to provide the ferment to prepare the

starches for digest ion, although moisture is

natural ly secreted by the glands .

From Mouth to Stomach .—The food, after be ing

ground and mixed with the sal iva, i s forwarded tothe stomach . Horses, hogs and humans have a

s ingle stomach compartment,while cows, sheep andgoats have a different arrangement, embodying fourdivis ions . With the former the stomach is com

parativ ely s imple . It is a s ingle sac not capable ofhold ing a large quant ity at one t ime . On the otherhand, in the ruminants, the family to which cattle andsheep belong, the stomach is large, and capable o f considerable extension . The capacity o f the stomach of theaverage horse runs from three to four gallons, and

of the cow to as much as 50 gal lons or more .

The Compartments of the Cow ’

s Stomach are

known as the mmen, or pcmnch, the reticulum, the

HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED 2 3

omasum, and the abomasum . The last is the truedigest ive stomach, the others are largely storage

p l aces for the sal iva-mixed food . The first of thesecompartments is very decidedly a storing placew here the food is placed unt i l it i s thrown back to

STOMACH OP RUM INANTThe four main div is ions of the rumlnent’e stomach are p ictured here . The

fi rst three div is ions are the etorehousee for food until it is prepared for thefourth or true stomach.

the mouth for further mast icat ion . This act, or

cud chewing, refers to rechewing the food so as

to get it finer and better ground for digest ion . Thefood, on leaving the mouth the second t ime, ispassed through the rumen into the ret iculum, then

to the omasum and finally into the abomasum, ortrue stomach, where digest ion is cont inued.

In the first compartment, or rumen, a churn ingprocess is carried on cont inual ly. Some th ink thisd ivision of the stomach is never whol ly empty. An

alkaline fluid is furn ished here, as is the case also


in the second compartment . Food in the third com

partment is subjected to a squeeze wh ich dries it,forcing the extracted juices into the true stomachor fourth compartment .

Stomach Secretion .—The stomach of every class

of an imal s is l ined by tw o kinds of membrane : one,s imilar in nature to the l in ing of the oesophagustube,and the other that admits of secret ion . Thesedo not form a double coat but one blends into theother. The sect ion giving otl? the secret ion isknown as the v illous coat. It extends to the posterior end, and to the point where the small intestincjoins with the stomach .

Wh i le in the stomach, the sal iva cont inues the

digest ion of the starchy matter, and is assisted by

the gastric juice that pours in from the stomach lining.

This secretion has three constituents, acid, rennet and

pepsin . The pepsin is a ferment, its work being tospl it up the prote in compounds . The rennet is also

a ferment, w hich assists in the digest ion of milk .

There is much of this secret ion in calves . Thegastric ju ice converts the prote in substances intopeptones .

The mucus glands of the stomach secrete mucin,a substance that l ines the walls of the stomach, at alltimes .

From Stomach to Intestines.—The constant

churn ing movement in the stomach causes the foodto travel from the entrance to the exit, the smallintest ine . Up to th is t ime there has been no ah

sorpt ion of the food into the body. Nor i s d iges

HOW poor) IS DIGESTED 2 5

t ion yet complete . When the partly digested material or thyme leaves the stomach it passes into

the duodenum, one of the three parts of the smal lintest ine, and is subjected to further act ion of otherdigest ive ju ices . Here the bile, the pancreatic andintestinal j uices are admitted to complete the work.

The b ile, dark green or b rownish in color, is secreted by the l iver and acts in conjunct ion with the

BLOOD PLASMAThis ebowe blood plu me pass ing out of the cepilleriee to feed the cells.

It is there taken up by the lymph vesse l.

pancreat ic ju ice . The pancreat ic juice, alkal ine andwatery, is secreted by the pancreas, or

“ sweetbread .

” The bil e acts as a bowel regulator whenthe l iver is act ive and healthy . The pancreat ic ju icehas a treble funct ion : it is able to change starch intosugar, protein into peptones, and the oils into fattyac ids . The intest inal j u ices perform s imilar work .

The Tw o Intestines are not only important forstorage purposes, but in them, part icularly the


smaller, the real digest ive act, the absorpt ion of the

nutriment in the food by the blood, takes p lace .Up to this point, although the fluids have been at

work, there has been l ittl e i f any act ive absorpt ion

into the system . The food up to now is in

a sense outside the body ; and there is no entrance

or Open ing for it to get into the body, save through

the ce ll s that l ine this part of the digest ive tract .

In a way similar to that by which soluble plant food

is admitted into the

plant roots throughthe cel l wal ls, so isthe digested food,after it has beenbroken up and mades o l u b l e, absorbedthrough the cel lwal ls of the intest ines into the bloodsystem of the an imal .

m u Cam . From Intestines toSection of intestine show ing v llll. The

perts ere as fol lows : a, erteriee ; b v i l l i ; 3 10°C" When food

is absorbed it is adve ins ; end 10, wel l of lnteetlne . min ed e ither to the

capillaries of the blood or to the lymphatic system .

If col lected by the capil laries the absorbed foodis carried to the portal v ein, thence to the l ive rand finally to the heart, where it is poured withthe blue blood as it is brought in from all partsof the body . A t this point the b lood contains


Respiration .—When the impure blood passes

through the lungs, carbonic ac id gas and otherimpurit ies are held back and in breathing are exhaled and thrown out of the system . A t the samet ime oxygen is taken in with “ great greediness by

the cel ls of the blood, which distribute it whereneeded in al l parts of the body . When plants aregrowing, oxygen is released and thrown into the

How 1 113 BLOOD Cmcuuvrss THROUGH 1 118 Boar

The blood is col lected from the bod end de l ivered into the right enriele,which on contracting, forces the bloo into the right ventricle ; this in turn

contrects end forces the blood into the lungs, where oxygen is teken on endcerbonic ecid gee end other impurities ere thrown off. From the lungs theblood is returned to the left s ide of the heert and distributed through erteries

end cepilleriee to all parts of the body.

air. At the same t ime, by means of l eaves, the carbon ie ac id gas is drawn in and used in the construe

t ion of the plant compounds . This was got fromthe ai r . The an imal, in performing its funct ionsand in build ing its t issue, inhales oxygen from, and

exhales carbon dioxide into, the air. Thus it is thatan imals use what is waste to the plant and the

p lants use what is poison to the an imal .

CHAPTER IV

USING FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS

Foods Must be Appetizing.— Plants are most

l iked when young and tender. They are then agreeabl e to the taste and induce a maximum consump

t ion . A t this stage of growth l ittle woody t issuehas developed, the ju ices are abundant, the sub

stances are freely acted upon by the secret ions, and

Com m Goon Suocxs

Corn mey be preserved for e t ime in shocks in the field. 1! left untilw inter, rains and snows ceuse repid deterioration and greet loss of feeding

v e ue .

the largest amount of nutriment is absorbed intothe system . Feeds that are unappet iz ing and dis


agreeab l e to smel l or taste wil l be rej ected, or ifeaten at al l wil l be only to sat isfy hunger. The goodfeeder endeavors to tempt the taste and increase theappet ite of h is an imals, that the largest poss ibleconsumpt ion o f food may be had to secure the

quickest and largest returns .

Sou s G rum ss AND Sou s S cnues

Scrub anlmals u e rule are not good feeders . Pure-bred enlmale renderamuch better account ofwhat they eat.

S ince growth can result only from the food consumed, it fol lows as an undisputed conclusion thatl ight feeding wil l retard development . Hence, not

only good food must be provided, but much foodalso . Many a feeder owes h is success to h is abi l ityto get before h is an imal a bount i ful ration that is

both wholesome and nutrit ious . Hunger may make

Usm c FEEDS FOR'

BEST'

RESULTS 3 1

his an imals partake of almost any k ind of food,butnoth ing he can do wil l induce these same animals

to eat a disagreeable or unappet iz ing food heart i lyenough to get a response much beyond the ir main

tenance needs . G rowth and product ion are invariab ly assoc iated with wel l-fiavored and appet iz ingfood, even though they add noth ing to the energyor nutrit ive value of the food .

Digestibility Little Influenced by Quantity.

O rdinarily digest ion is but s l ightly influenced byb ig appet ites . Heavy eaters are usual ly the most

profitable an imals . Fed to their ful l capac ity theygive as good an account of thei r food as when l imited to hal f feeds . Food is digested and ass imilatedjust as complete ly in ful l as in hal f-fi lled stomachs .The most rapid growth, or the largest milk flow , is

to be had when the animal is permitted to eat to its

full capacity ; and this is another reason why the rationmust be palatable and attractive to taste and sme l l .

The Indiv idual Character of the Animal undoubtedly affects the proport ion digested . A rmsby hasfound that a pure-bred animal of superior breedingrenders a better account of its food than a scrub .

Of tw o animals suppl ied with the same feed, onewi ll often pers istent ly digest a larger proport ionthan the other. Often very greedy eaters show verypoor fattening qual it ies .

In young animals the digest ive power is apparently equal to an imals of mature age .

Digestibility Decreases as Plants Mature .—A ll

classes of plants show a striking d iminut ion in


digest ib il ity as they approach maturity, and th is isvery equally spread over al l the const ituents . Thecomposit ion varies also, and for the same reason .

Hence, no fixed nutrit ive value can be ascribed tothe hay and fodder crops except in a general way .

The young plant is always the most nutrit ious . Thesuperior fattening qual ity of a pasture, as compared

MAKING Goon HAY is A Fme Anr

Hey often is lm roperly nu de . if cut lete it is less nutritious and appet iting. it soaked w th re ins, or the finer perte ere lost by bed treatment, thefeeding velue w i l l be decreased.

with that of the hay made from it, i s c learly due tothe fact that on land cont inuously grazed the an imalis fed ent i rely on young forage, while hay wil ll argely cons ist of the mature or nearly maturedplants . If hay making is care ful ly carried out ingood weather so the finer parts are not lost by badtreatment,or the soluble matter is not washed out byrain , the digest ib i l ity wil l not be d imin ished considerably.

US IN G FEEDS FOR BEST RESULTS 33

Every kind of hay should be cured in the shockbe fore being placed in the mow ; otherwise it maybecome brown by heat ing and the digest ib i l ity of theprote in and soluble carbohydrates be dimin ished .

Early cut hay is richer in protein and containsl ess c rude fiber than that cut late . The increasedweight, due to the longer growing period, chicfly

develops cellulose . A s the plant ripens the morenutrit ious compounds move into the seed, and leavethe food part of hay less valuabl e . The best t imefor cutt ing hay is when the plants are in blossomthe nutrit ious compounds at this t ime are dis

tributed throughout the plants, and there is correspondingly l ess woody t issue .Shall Grain Be Ground?— Many grain feeds increase the ir d igest ib i l ity i f they are ground . Corn,oats,wheat and other grains often are so hard thati f passed into the stomach without mast icat ion thedigest ive juices fai l to do their ful l duty . While thisis a true and an un fortunate condit ion, it does not

always fol low that it is good business managementto grind these feeds . Experiments show that whencorn, for instance, is ground the returns are increased from 8 to 15 per cent ; yet the labor of hauling to and from the mi l l or of grinding the grain athome may mean a loss in the end .

This factor must be determ ined by each individual, for no cut- and-dried rule wil l apply . The custom of fol lowing cattle and horses with pigs to pickup the undigested grain or other food is both wiseand profitable, and sat isfactorily meets th is condition .


Steaming and Cooking Food.—A great many de

vices have been placed on the market for the preparat ion of feeding stuffs for l ive stock . The laborand expense connected with the pract ice is usual lyunwarranted and uneconomical .What Most Influences Digestion .

—Feeding farmstock is a gentl e art . The old adage,

“

the hand ofthe master fattens the flock,

” i s a clear expressionof the int imate relat ion that should exist between

FROM A Gu m or WH EATTraverse eection neer the outs ide of e whent gre in . The letters show thefol low ing : a, the husk (pericerp, integuments ) ; b, cells w ith prote in gren

ulee ; c, starch ce l ls . (After Techirch . )

the feeder and the an imals in h is charge . Two menmay provide the same feed for tw o lots of l ive stock,s imilar in kind, and far different results wil l be obtainedat the end of a given period . The one studiesh is individual animals, knows each as if by name,takes an interest in its progress, endeavors at al l

t imes to help in case of mishap, and actual ly en

courages, as if to induce greater endeavor. Theother feeds the stock and lets it go at that .

CHAPTER V

COMPOSITION OF AN IMALS

Combustible Matter.—An imals are often de

stroyed by fire ; they possess, there fore, combust ible materials . These consist largely of the n itrog

enous substances, and the fats, both of which arepresent in the frame, t issue and other organ ic port ions of the body. In the skeleton, or frame, threeclasses of substances are formed— protein, ge lat i

Cnu rssr Gu ns Ans Mum wm t YOUNG AN IMALSAs an imals advance in eze the coat of food for meintenenee end increase

edvencee eleo. Compare the four classes of cattle u sketched above.

nous matter,and horny matter. Oi fi rst importanceis the protein,w h ich forms the greater part of themuscular t issue, the v arious organs, the material ofwhich the nerv ous system is made, and the majorport ion of the sol id matter of blood . Connect ive

t issue, the combust ible part of the cart i lage andbone, and the skin, are formed of the gelat inousmatter. Horn, hair, wool, and feathers const itutethe horny matter. The animal ju ices are of a n itrogenous origin also. The fats contain no n itrogen,but arecombustible andare either of a hard or a fluid nature .

COMPOSITION or ANIMALS 37

Incombustible Matter.—The bones contain the

largest part of the incombust ibl e const ituents . Hereare found calc ium phosphate, calc ium carbonateand magnes ium phosphate in greatest abundance .Potassium phosphate heads the l ist in the t issues .These m ineral substances const itute from three tofi v e per cent of the l ive weight of the an imal .Water.

—More than hal f of the ent ire weight ofthe an imal is water. It is to be found in al l partsof the body and is as essent ial for the developmentof sol id t i ssue as any of the other ingredients .Young and growing an imals, l ike young and growing p lants, contain the h ighest percentage of water.A s the animal matures the proportion of water diminishes until it reaches about one-hal f of the total weight .

Range of Variation of Materials .—The amounts

of water, n itrogenous matter, fat, and the mineralconst ituents present i n a large number of animalshave been determined at Rothamsted Station in England . The table following shows the range of variationo f the various constituents and for different animals .

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION or WHOLE ANIMAL

(WARR INGTON )

The smallest amounts of both ash and proteinare found in the pig, the largest in the ox. Fat is


found in greatest quant ity in the pig and least inthe cal f . The ingredient in largest quant ity is water .Principal Ash Constituents .

— It is of interest, andworth while also, to know what quant it ies of nitrogen, phosphoric ac id and potash are to be found invarious an imals and their products . This informat ion is of value in determining the quant ity of eachremoved from the farm when an an imal i s sold orits products sent to market . In the fol lowing tablethese data are given .

NITROGEN, PHOSPHORIC ACID AN D POTASH INPOUNDS (WARRIN GTON )

Phosp horicAn imal N i trogen ac id Potash

Fat CalfFat OxFat LambFat Sh eepS tore PigFat PigWashed WoolM i lk

In the fat calf and the fat ox the largest amount ofthese three important fert i l iz ing elements isremoved, and in the fat pig the least . Hog rais ing,therefore, i s less hard on the land than beef product ion . Dairying is more favorable even than pork .

If we assume a cow produces pounds of milkduring a lacteal period and th is milk is sold to the

c ity, the loss to the l and wil l be 29 pounds of n itrogen, 10 pounds of phosphoric ac id and pounds ofpotash . Rat ing the n itrogen at 16 cents a pound,

COMPOSITION or ANIMALS 39

the phosphoric ac id at 5 cents and potash at 5 cents,the total money loss wil l be The m ilk, i fsold at 4 cents a quart,would bring $100. Consid

ering the large amount of feed furnished and the

large amount of manure result ing therefrom, the

loss in p lant food is small . If, instead of sel l ingmilk, butter is sold, the loss of these three elementswil l be insign ificant .

F000 Consumer) Duumo FATTEN ING PawooDuring a ten week fattening period w ith boss the food consumption in

creases more than 50 per cent togroduce 100 pouah of increu e . 1

‘

here it

a l imit to wh ich hogspcan be pro tebly led.

Percentage of Increase in Fattening.—When an i

mals are fattened for market an increase of al l constituents is not iced . This is shown in the tablebelow .

INCREASE DURING FATTENING STAGE (WARRINGTON )

Water Protein

The sheep, during the fattening period, stores upful ly four t imes as much ash as the pig. The sign ificant thing brought out in th is table is the fact


that the protein increase is very simi lar in the threeclasses, and that the fat increase ranges betweeneight and nine t imes the quant ity of the protein .

Group Constituents .—The substances of the ani

mal ’s body may be grouped under four heads1 . Water.2 . Ash or mineral matter.

3 . Protein .

4 . Fat .

WHAT AR Ammu. CONTA INSProtein, the dark red substance ; let, the white stripe ; bone or mineral

matter; and weter, comprise the dist inct groups of substances that form the

an imal body.

This grouping differs l ittl e from that of plants .S ince starch, the vegetable gums, sugar, cel lulose,etc ., are derived from the same elements and havethe same fuel value when ass imilated by the animal,they can be classed as carbohydrates . The carbo

0014903 11 1011 OF AN IMALS 4 1

hydrates are formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy

gen the last two elements are in the proport ion to

form water, hence the name . When all the plant

const ituents are grouped together the fiv e div is ions

are as follows

1 . Water.

2 . Ash .

3 . Prote in .

4. Fat.

5. Carbohydrates.

Crew or Lira

From the plant is fed the an imal ; from the an imal lo sustained the soil ;from the soil and air is nourished the plant.


From the standpoint of composit ion the only d ifference between plants and an imals is in the factthat the former contain carbohydrates and the latterdo not .

What These Compounds Do.—Protein is the

muscle maker” o f the body ; fat and carbohydrates,the

“ heat and energy producers .” The prote in ofthe plant is changed into the prote in of the an imal .In the an imal th is const ituent comprises the musculat t issue, blood, hair and nerv es, the internalorgans, skin, etc . In addit ion the protein is used inthe repair work of the body . Every beat of theheart, every c ircu it of the blood, and every moveof a muscle, demands that some protein sub

stance be used up . To keep the an imal mach ine ingood working order these parts must be kept inrepair. Hence, prote in at all t imes must replacethe broken parts with a new supply . If this supplysatisfies the waste, the weight of the an imal wil l

remain unchanged . When the supply is l iberal, or

exceeds the demands of the system, material maybe stored in the body as flesh or fat, and the an imalwil l gain in weight .

Food is needed to keep an imals warm . As wood

gives off heat when burned in the stove, so foodconsumed in the body furnishes heat . This con

sumpt ion of fuel food i s so wel l regulated in ahealthy animal that the temperature remains at the

same point at al l t imes . Carbohydrates and fats

are mainly the sources of the heat supply . These

same ingredients are used for the product ion of fat

CHAPTER VI

FOOD NUTRIENTS

Nutrients Defined.— Any substance absorbed into

the system in the process of digest ion or that contributes to the support of animal l ife is a nutrient.

Hence,the albumen of an egg, the starch of a potato,

COWPEAS A RICH F001)

Much nutrition is obtained from cowpees and other legum inous crops .

These are re latively rich in prote in, and hence should have e p iece in ev ery

system of terming .

the salts of an apple, the ash of wheat bran, the fiberof pasture grass, are al l nutrients and as such pro

mote the well-being of animals wh ich can grow, dowork,giv

'

e milk or lay on fat or flesh .

44

FOOD NUTRIENTS 45

Most Feeding Stuffs are Unbalanced.— If every

food were whol ly digest ible and the digest ible prote in, digest ibl e carbohydrates and digest ibl e fatswere un ited in every feeding stufi

’ in just the rightproport ion to meet the needs of the part icular an imal,,fl e feed ing of farm an imals would be a s impleproblem . But plants vary in composit ion ; the irfood const ituents are ne ither al l nor yet equallyd igest ible ; some are much concentrated in form,

wh ile others place thei r food nutrients in large bulk .

Because of these differences in the nature of feeding stuffs it is necessary to resort to wide varietyand to blend or mix the provender that the varyingneeds of the various classes under cohtinuous

change of method of feeding or of age or of purpose may be met . This gives rise to the compounding of rat ions for each spec ial class of l ive stock .

But few single feeding stuffs furn ish the requ iredquant it ies of protein, carbohydrates and fat ; themost economical and best results are secured whentw o or more are combined . By such a combinat ion,i f one feed is lacking in prote in, for instance, th isdeficiency may be met in the rat ion through the

select ion of another substance possessing the protein element in unusual abundance . In th is manner the shortage of the one is balanced by the

abundance of the other .Digestibility Defined.

— Every feeding stuff contains prote in, carbohydrates, fat,ash and water. Oi

each of these there is a dist inct proport ion absorbed,and the remainder is rej ected and excreted in the

feces . The proport ion which represents the quan


t ity absorbed is spoken of as the amount digested orabsorbed into the system . Digestibility re fers to thetrue food value of any nutrient . Every food, therefore, regardless of the balance of its proximateprinciples, con tains both digest ible and ind igest iblematter . To know the proport ion of each part is

Mutan t. Mar ten m Son s Common Focus

The total number of ounde of mineral matter in e ton of certain substance is here shown . otice how sme l l is the quantity in e ton of wheatnour. Wheat bran, on the other hand, is abundantly suppl ied. in our

t

lnetiii

lode of menutecture term an imals profi t at the expense of the humen

‘m y.

necessary if the feeder is to make use of h is feedsto the best advantage .

How Digestibi lity of a Food Is Determined—Thegeneral method of invest igat ion to obtain the diges

t ibility of the various const ituents of a feeding stuffhas been to supply an an imal with weighed quant i

t ies of food the composit ion of wh ich has been ascertained by chemical analysis . W ith in the periodduring wh ich such an experiment is being con

roon NUTRIENTS 47

ducted, the sol id excrements are col lected,weighedand analyzed by the same chemical methods appliedpreviously to the food . By this plan the amountof each const ituent of the food which has passedthrough the animal unabsorbed is determined . I t

i s a s imp le matter now to subtract th is quant ityfrom the amount found to have been present in thefood original ly and to obtain the difference, whichi s the amount digested and absorbed .

First Step Is to Obtain Composition—Chemistshave analyzed al l the important feeding stuffs.

S l ight variat ion is noted, which is due largely to

d ifference of variety, soil, cl imate, season, fert i l izat ion and culture . Based on averages, the result ingfigures of composit ion are suffi ciently accurate forall purposes of rat ion bu il ding. In the tabl e fol lowing a few common feeding stuffs are included forass istance in determin ing the real nutrit ive value ofeach const ituent.

COMPOSITION OF SOME COMMON FEEDING STUFFS

I n 100 pounds of fresh substance

Feeding s tuffs Protein

Corn stov erfl eld cured

R ed c lov er hayT imoth y hayCot tonseed hul ls .

Corn—den tW h eat. branCottons eed meal .

G luten feed


By th is tab l e not only a wide d ifference in the

quant ity of each const ituent of each feeding stuff isnot iced,but also that th is obtains in al l feeds, withno regularity of quant ity for any const ituent . Theamount of protein varies from pounds in cornstover to pounds in cottonseed meal . In respect

WHAT Flew Conn ConrAmsWhen corn is analyzed n itrogen-free extract. or starch, is found to be

present in the largest uentity. The amount of rote ln is not large end thessh supp ly is emai l . orn as an exclus ive to would insufficiently supplythe mineral e lements . and there would be too l ittle prote in in proportion to

the starch and let.

to crude fiber the amount ranges from poundsin corn to pounds in cottonseed hul ls . The

greatest variat ion is with the n itrogen- free extract ;it runs from pounds in cottonseed meal topounds in corn . Much difference is observed alsoin the fat ; pound is present in corn stover,but

th is advances to ten t imes that in the cotton meal .

FOOD NUTRIENTS 49

Coefi cient of Digestibility.— In the composit ion

of feeding stufl’s, both the digested and unabsorbed

materials are included . The absorbed matter onlyis of importance as food . The data obtained throughthe digest ion trials make known the percentage ofeach nutrient digested . Such figures express thedigestion coefi

‘icient for each const ituent of the foodconsumed . In the table fol low ing are given the

figures represent ing the coefi‘icients of digest ibi l ityfor each const ituent of each feeding stuff previouslygiven .

DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF SOME COMMON FEEDINGSTUFFS

Percen tage diges t ible

F eeding s tufl s

Prote in

Corn s tov erR ed c lov er hay .

Timothy hayCot tonseed hul lsCornW h eat branCot tonseed mealG luten feed

A marked variat ion is shown in th is tabl e . Noneof the const ituents are equally well digested. In

few instances are more than threefourths of anyone substance absorbed into the system . With cot

tonseed hul l s but 6 per cent of the protein isd igested,but a large amount of the fat—79 per cent—is absorbed.


Digestible Nutrients.—With both the composit ion

and the digest ibl e percentage known, it i s a com

parativ ely s imple matter to determine the digest iblequant ity of each const ituent . This is done by mult i

Wmvr Conn Srovan CommuteCorn stover contains more ash, water and fibre, and less prote in, starch

and fat than corn . Ber corn contains the same food ingredients, but theseare more valuable because less fibrous and more concentrated. The reelworth-whlle nutrients are prote in, starch, and fat.

plying the figures represent ing the total amount ofeach const ituent by the coefl‘icien t of digest ib il ity,the result ing product being the quant ity digested .

For example,corn stover contains pounds of prote in, pounds of crude fiber, pounds of n itro


al l feeding rat ions on the digest ible matter ratherthan on the total composit ion is clearly

'

seen . Onlya part of the food taken into the stomach is assimilated— just a part ; somet imes 90 per cent, somet imes 75 per cent, some t imes 50 per cent and in thecase of some foods as little as 2 5 per cent i s digest ib le . Hence, in every feed there is a part lost and

H8 HAD A Goon mmouTh is is e p icture of the champ ion grade steer at the 1909 internationallive s

lt

l

ock show . He wee fed e variety of food, and w ith greet care andt 0113 t.

wasted to the an imal ; therefore, th is serves no contribution to the nutriment of the body .

Nor can one const ituent be used wholly to take

the place of any other . S ince protein contains n itro

gen and sulphur in addit ion to carbon,hydrogen andoxygen, it i s evident that neither the carbohydratesnor the fats which contain carbon, hydrogen and

soon 1101 111s 53

oxygen only can be subst ituted for protein . Just as

the phosphorus or potass ium of a fert i liz er cannot t eplace n it rogen, so the carbohydrates or the fats cannot replace the prote in of a food . Wh ile it is truethat prote in may be subst ituted for the carbohydrates and fats, it is to a l imited extent, and onlyfor a l imited t ime . Even though the well-be ing ofthe an imal would permit of th is subst itut ion the

added expense would be against the pract ice.

CHAPTER VII

SOME SCIENTIFIC TERMS IN FEEDING

The Animal as a Machine .—Considered as a ma

ch ine, the an imal body needs tw o classes of foodone, to furn ish the materials by which the mach inemay be constructed and kept in repair ; and a second, or sustain ing reserve, to develop heat to keepthe body warm and to supply energy for the product ion of internal and external work . Water, ashand protein are the essent ial bu ilding material s andthe fats and carbohydrates the primary fuel substances . This dist inct ion gives rise to the groupingof feeding stufl’s as being either of a building or fuelnature . A ll ind ividual foods contain both, but invarying proport ions ; some are heavy carriers of thefi rst, others of the second, and st i l l others with inthese tw o extremes . Food values, therefore, aresomewhat dependent upon the manner in whichthey are classified th is, of course, being consistentwith the nature of their digest ible nutrients .Nutritiv e Ratio.

— A point of some importance indetermin ing the su itab il ity of a feeding stuff as anart ic l e of diet is the proport ion betw een the digest ibl e protein and the digest ible non-prote in organ icconst ituents . This relat ion is most convenient lytermed the nutritiv e ratio of the food . S imply defined, th is term means the rat io which existsbetween the amount of digest ible prote in to the

combined digest ible carbohydrates and fat . I t is

64

SOME 50115111 11 10 TERMS IN FEEDING 55

Nurmrive RATlO or Sous Common FEBDlNG Srurrs


obtained as fol lows : The fat i s reduced to its car

bohydrate equivalent and added to the digest ibl ecarbohydrates . The sum of the tw o, represent ingthe non-protein, is then divided by the figure or figures represent ing the quant ity of protein . The

resulting figure is the second factor,which means thatfor each pound of prote in in the feed or ration thereare so many pounds of non-protein or carbohydrates.Reducing Fat to Carbohydrates.

—The nonprotein const ituents of a feed—starch, fiber, fats,etc.—are used to develop heat, energy and fat in

the animal body . Their efliciency for th is purposehas been ascertained by numerous experiments,which show that a pound of fat wil l develop asmuch heat energy as pounds of starch . Hence,th is more concentrated energy must be taken inconsideration in combin ing the carbohydrates andfat as a single unit group ifa definite,accurate valueis to be obtained with reference to any feeding stuff.

In all calcu lations from now on th is h igher effi ciencyof fat wil l be given its proper weight .Determining the Nutritiv e Ratio.

—In a previoustab le the digest ib le nutrients in 100 pounds of cornwere shown to be as fol lows : Protein pounds,carbohydrates pounds and fat pounds . Thefat first is reduced to its carbohydrate equ ivalent bymult iplying the number of pounds represent ing it bythe authoritat ively taken factor wh ich beingdone, shows that pounds of fat equal poundsof the carbohydrates in produc ing heat and energy .

The fat,now having been reduced to a carbohydratebasis, can be added to the amount of carbo

50115 5015111 15 10 1 5 11115 111 5 5 501110 57

hydrates in corn, wh ich gives pounds of totalcarbohydrates . This sum divided by the numberrepresent ing the quant ity of prote in, w h i rh in the

case of corn is pounds, gives the final factorof the rat io, orIn the form of proportion the stages are as follows

(1) The amount of prote in is to the amount of thecarbohydrates as 1 is to the factor to bedetermined .

(2 ) Prote in Carbohydrates 1 x

(3) 7-8 (66 -9) I x

(4) 1

The nutrit ive rat io of corn is therefore I to

w h ich means that in th is feeding stufi for everypound of digest ible protein there are pounds ofd igest ible carbohydrates and fat equivalent .

Wide or Narrow Nutritiv e Ratio.—A wide dif

ference exists among feeds as to the proport ion ofprote in wh ich they contain . The oil meals and thelegumes, espec ial ly their seeds, are rich in protein,roots and straw very poor, while cereal grain andtheir products occupy a middle place . These differences give rise to the terms w ide and narrow nutri

tiv e ratios which apply both to single feeds and rations.

A feed or a rat ion has a “ narrow” nutrit ive rat iowhen the digest ible protein contained in it is h igh incomparison to the carbohydrates and fat,and wide

”

w hen the reverse to this ; that is, l ittle protein and

much of the carbohydrates and fat.Balanced Ration .

— S ince al l feed ing stuffs, withthe poss ible except ion of pasture grass,are unfit ass ingle food substances, they naturally fal l in a class


as being e ither wide or narrow . If tw o or more arecombined in the proper proport ions to furn ish al lthe digest ible nutrients, w ith no excess or shortageof any nutrient,but in just the quant ity needed bva certain class of an imal s fed for a dist inct purpose,the combinat ion is then sat isfactory, and does prov ide a balanced ration .

Bau mcme 1 115 Ru ral! lmrnoves 11

The tw0 larger p igs at the right have been fed corn and tenkege, wh ilethe two smal ler ones at the left have been fed corn only. This shows why e

balanced ration is worth while.

Feeding Standards .— For many years invest i

gators have been conduct ing feeding tests to learnthe amount of digest ible protein, carbohydrates andfat best for farm an imals under average condit ions .They have studied the results of various foods andvarying amounts in thousands of an imals . The results are embodied in what are cal led feeding stand

ards . These tell the proper amounts of the nutri

60 1 5 501110 FARM ANIMALS

the stal l . They showed, also, that a dairy cow giving l itt le or no milk does not requ ire nearly as largea quant ity of food as one in fu l l flow of milk . Oi

course, every farmer knows th is ; but these invest igators prepared a gu ide giving the quant ity ofdigest ible prote in, carbohydrates and fat so as tomeet the maintenance needs o f the dry cow.

The dry cow does need daily a certain amount ofeach of the food nutrients . She must keep her bodywarm,maintain the regular blood supply, repair thebroken-down t issues and meet al l the requ irementsof l ife and health . These things are obtained fromthe food . If more food is provided than necessaryto meet these daily demands, the animal will increasein weight . If too l ittle food is given, then the re

verse wil l happen, the an imal wil l lose in weight,and, as popularly expressed,will become thin in flesh,or poor. Working from th is point, these nutrit ioninvest igators care fu l ly prepared standards for cowsgiving various quant it ies of milk, for steers at different stages of fatten ing, for horses doing l itt le ormuch work, and for hogs and sheep at their variousperiods of growth and fatten ing.

Standards for Farm Animals.—These feeding

standards as gu ides indicate for feeders whatamount of each nutrient is requ ired in the body, notonly for maintenance and support,but also for milkor bee f, wool or mutton, and labor. A differentstandard is provided for different an imals and consistent with the purposes for wh ich the an imals arefed . A cow giving l itt l e milk, according to the

standard, i s to be given smal ler quant it ies of food

s01t 5 5015 111 11 10 1 5 11115 11: 1 5 5 131110 61

than another in heav y m ilk flow . Lik ewise rationsfor beeves differ con siderably from those for horsesor pigs. These feeding standards, though easily understood, are still very complicated,but they clearly showthat the practice of feeding is not only an interestingart,but one that calls for much skill and training also.

WOLFF-LEHMAN N FEEDIN G STANDARDS

Dal ly al lotm en t on bas is p ounds l iv e w e igh t

D iges tible nutrien ts in

pounds

CarhoProtein hydrates Fat

M i lk cow s w h en g iv ingda i ly1 1 pounds of m i lk2 2 pounds of m i lk

pounds of m i lk

Fatten ing ca ttleF i rs t per iodSecond p er iodTh ird period

S heepcom e WOO! d e e e e o e e

F ine w ool

Ew es w i th lambs

F at ten ing sheepF irs t p eriodS econd per iod

Horses

L igh t w ork e e o e e fl e e e o

M edium w orkv y w ork

B rood sow s

Fat ten ing hogsF irs t p eriodS econd p er iodTh ird p er iod

These standards are based on pounds l iveweight . For anima ls weighing less, as sheep and


swine, the quant ity prescribed would be proportionately decreased . A sheep, for instance, weighing100 pounds would be fed one- tenth the quantity calledfor in the standard . Ah animal weighing more than

pounds would require a proportionate increase .Feeding Standard Only a Guide .

—No one shouldrely absolutely on the feeding standard as his soleaid in feeding any class of an imals . Standards areto be taken as guides only and are to be varied ormodified as c ircumstances require . In fatten ingfarm stock it is clearly the best sense to supply thelargest amount of food that the stock fed can make

profitable use oi. In feeding dairy cows, so long ashay, fodder, and s i lage are home- raised and abundant,the cows may safely be given as much as theycan be tempted to eat, provided of course, the concentrated feeds are not den ied proper places in therat ion . Those responding in heavy milk yields areent itl ed to the largest amounts of the concentrates,while those that are milking l ittl e wil l not requiremuch, i f any, food of a grain or concentrate nature .

Not only the obj ect sought but the food also wi llgovern . So does the season of the year exert itsinfluence . Then too, and not the least e ither, thes ize of the an imal afi

'

ects the food consumpt ion inrespect to the general results . A great part of thedemand for food is determined by the surface of thean imal rather than by its weight . W ith these c ircumstances in mind as examples of various factors

that must be considered, the feeding standard maywel l be used as a start ing point in the pract ical feeding of the farm l ive stock

CHAPTER VIII

THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS

An Animal Uses Food for fiv e dist inct purposes1 . To replace the waste from al l parts of the body .

2 . To produce heat to keep the body warm .

3 . To produce energy so that work may be done.

4 . To provide the bu ild ing materials for largergrowth or increase in muscle, fat, flesh, andbone .

5. To have material s in reserve for the format ionof milk, wool, etc .

These fiv e purposes develop after the food is ab

sorbed, and originate from the digest ible nutrientsexpressed in terms of protein,carbohydrates and fat .

To provide these nutrients in the quant ity and proport ions that they should be fed, 50 as to sat is fyone or more of the fiv e ends of feeding,makes necessary the select ion and compounding of rat ions .Three Kinds of Rations.

—As an example of howa mixture of feeding stuffs may be devised so as toyie ld the requisite amounts of the protein andenergy nutrients and at the same t ime be neithertoo bulky nor too concentrated, one of the fol lowing courses is general ly open . Suppose a rat ion iswanted for a herd of dairy cows . What class of foodshal l be placed before the an imals ? In answer to

this quest ion it is possib le to furn ish any one of


three kinds of rat ions . One of these might consistof the roughage food raised on the farm l ike straw,corn stover, the usual farm hays, and a small feedof ear corn ; on the other hand, a rat ion might be

furn ished consist ing largely ofgrain feed or coneen

‘

l‘

mornr Nor A BALANCED FoooAlthough one of the most popular hey crops. timothy contains e smell

amount of protein . it is an excel lent horse food but not as good for dairycows es clover, alfalfa, or cowpens .

trates,with a smal l al lowance of some cheap roughage for feeding.

Neither of these is uncommon . On many farms

the cows are given the very feeds here ment ioned .

In vil lages,and in herds near large c it ies,other cowsare fed largely the by-products of certain manufac

1 115 COMPUTATION or m u ons 65

turing enterp rises or on chop feeds and other grainmaterial s that may be purchased often as cheaplyas bay. The result is, in neither instance are thecows fed as they ought to be . The cow in the

count ry gets too l itt le prote in and too much carbohydrates and fat the vi llage cow too much of prote in and too l ittle of the carbohydrates and fat ; and

M G Taste Own RATlON

These cows have the run or e large area in wh ich several kinds of greaseshont ish. Rape is growing in the foreground.

the best results are not obtained in e ither case . Thecountry cow loses in weight ; she gets poor ; she isforced to take from her own body much proteinstored in flesh to use for milk and t issue repair.The vil lage cow may or may not th in down,but thenecessity of using the protein in the food for meeting al l the funct ions of the nutrients acts to her disadvantage and she is never able to be at her best.

66 1 5 501110 FARM 4 111111115

Mixed Foods .—Best results are always secured

when these tw o methods are merged : when the

country cow is given concentrates in addit ion to thefarm- raised roughages, and the vi l lage cow gets hayand stover in addit ion to the feed-store mill feeds .It is not enough to secure grain as concentrates for

the country cow either ; the select ion must be madeon the basis of the composit ion ; and, s ince the country cow

’s rat ion is al ready out of proport ion becauseof the excess of carbohydrates and fat, it would not

help the matter any by a purchase of a grain foodalso low in prote in .

In pract ice many feeders buy corn meal as a dairyconcentrate ; instead of improving the rat ion th ismakes th ings worse, because corn meal added to

the grass hay, corn stover, straw rat ion only in

creases the cost without supplying any appreciableincrease of prote in . The way out of this difficultyis to study the available concentrates and select one

or more that contains protein, and not starch and

fat, in greatest abundance .How a Ration is Made .

—Rat ions are usually com

puted on the basis of pounds l ive weight for

the an imals . If the an imals weigh more, a propor

tionate increase of food is al lotted ; i f less, a pro

portionate decrease .The first step in comput ing a rat ion is to consider

the feeding standard for the class of an imals to befed . If it is assumed that a rat ion is wanted for adairy cow giving 2 2 pounds of milk dai ly, the tableof standards is to be consulted . For dairy cowsg iv ing 2 2 pounds of milk the standard cal ls for 29

68 FEEDING FARM 4 111111t

The 100 pounds of corn stover contain :pounds of dry matter,pounds of protein,pounds of carbohydrates,pounds of fat.

I f 100 pounds of corn stover contain these quant it ies of digest ible nutrients, then 1 pound containsjust one one-hundredth as much, or the fol lowing

quantitiw z

.595 pounds of dry matter,

.014 pounds of prote in,

.324 pounds of carbohydrates,007 pounds of fat .

Ten pounds, of course,wil l contain ten t imes thequant ity of 1 pound, or the fol lowing

pounds of dry matter,. 14 pounds of protein,pounds of carbohydrates,

.07 pounds of fat .

The d igest ib le nutrients in 30 pounds of corns ilage are ascertained in the same manner

I n 100

poundsDry matter 100Prote in 100

Carbohydrates 1 100

100

Making the same computat ion for each constitu

ent in c lover hay,w e have the fol lowing :

In 100

poundsD ry matterProteinCarbohydrates

0 0 0 0 0 0 108

1 11 5 00111 01 1 1 1011 05 11111 10115 69

I f we arrange these figures in a table and add the

nutrients together,we shal l have a statement of the

quant ity of each const ituent suppl ied in these feeds,and wil l be in a posit ion to compare with the stand

ard to know what nutrients are insuffi ciently pro

v ided. This is done as below

D iges tlble nutr ien ts

Carbomat ter Protein hydrates

10 lbs corn s tov er .

30 lbs corn s ilage ”

15 lbs clov er hay

Totals

F eeding s tandard.

Comparing the nutrients in the feeds as used

above with the standard, it wil l be seen there is adeficiency in every instance . It wil l now be neces

sary to introduce into the rat ion one or more otherfeeds in order to correct the faults so evident in thetable . S ince the greatest deficiency is in the prote in,we must seek a supply from among such feed ing

stufi'

s as are part icularly rich in prote in . The oil

meals and the gluten meals are of th is k ind . If,

then, w e add 2% pounds of cottonseed meal, w e

shal l very nearly approximate the standard . The

digest ible nutrients for th is feed are ascertained in

the same manner as before, and a second trial made .


FEEDING RATION FOR DAIRY COW

D iges t ible nutrien ts

F eeding s tunsDry

mat ter Prote in

I n preceding2 96 lbs cot tonseedmeal

F eeding s tandard .

In this ration no serious faul ts are not iced . We

have the correct amount of protein , but an excessin carbohydrates of .28 pounds and of fat .28 pounds .The dry matter is sl ightly under the standard . Thisdoes not matter, however, so long as the quant itydoes not so great ly overrun the standard as to givegreater bulk than the average cow has room to ac

commodate . This deficiency can be considerableand st il l not affect the efficiency of the rat ion . Theexcess of the fuel foods is so smal l as to be of noimportance at al l . Were a pound less of clover hayand a quarter of a pound more of cottonseed mealto be used in the rat ion,the rat ion would correspondto the standard with considerab le exactness.Feeding for Heavy Milkers.

—This rat ion is fordairy cows averaging 2 2 pounds of milk a day .

Suppose a rat ion is wanted for the same cows at

another period when they are giving more milk

than in the case just c ited, say pounds daily .

How shal l we proceed to adjust th is rat ion to the

new requ irements, using as nearly as possible the

1 115 COMPUTATION 05 111 1 10115 71

same feeding stufi'

s as before ? The first step is toconsult the standard . This we find cal l s for 32

pounds of dry matter ; pounds of protein ; 13

pounds of carbohydrates ; pound of fat .Our second step wil l be to cons ider the feeding

stufi'

s as to the quant ity to be used . Obviously,each cow has a certain l imit as to storage and digest ion capacity for bulky feeds . In the precedingrat ion we have provided for about al l of the corn

HEAVY 0111 11 5 115 125001115 3 10 RATIONSThe more milk e cow gives the more she must eat. The biggest esters are

usually the heav iest producers.

stover, si lage and clover hay that the average cowcan handle . Her l imit, therefore, i s reached as faras the roughage foods are concerned . We resort,in consequence, to the concentrated mil l feeds tosupply the addit ional food requ ired because of the

extra milk produced .

S ince the rat ion al ready contains just about al lthat a cow of th is size can eat, we wil l prepare a

72 1 5 501110 FARM 1 11 111111 5

place in the ration by withdrawing three pounds ofthe clover hay . We will increase the cottonseedmeal to four pounds and add 2% pounds of glutenfeed . This done we have the fol lowing

D iges tlble nutr ients

Foeding stunsDry Carbo

mat ter Prote in hydrates

10 lbs corn s tov er30 lbs corn s i lag e12 lbs c lov er hay .

4 lbs cottonseedm eal

2 % lbs g luten feed

Totals

S tandard

This rat ion agrees closely with the standard andis assumed to sat isfy al l the requi rements for a cowyielding pounds of milk dai ly and weigh ing

pounds .Using the Standard in Practical Work .

—Toomany people take feeding standards and balancedrat ions far too seriously . They fail to understand

that it i s in the spirit and not in the ir l iteral use

that these feeding aids are to be adopted . The bal

anced rat ion at best can be made to approach onlyapproximately the food requirements for any ani

mal or set of an imals . This has been pointed out

before . The composit ion of a feeding stufi’ is alwaysopen to considerable variat ion, and what adds st i l lto the uncertainty is the fact that foods are not

digested with equal fac i l ity or completeness by dif

THE COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 73

ferent an imals, even in the same herd andgiven theident ical feeding stufi

’

s. Moreover, it is both impossible and impracticab l e to provide a rat ion forevery individual in a herd . To do th is would re

quire as many difi erent rat ions as there are an imalsto be fed, and definite weigh ings of every feedingstuff contained in the rat ion . But all th is i s unnecessary and no exponent of the balanced rat ionasks that it be done .

“1115 115 8015 1105 Haw s 10 FA11 511

The men who approximates the feeding standards has an advantage over hiscompetitor who ignores them.

The aim of th is scheme in feeding stock is to avoidserious faults in the use of feeding stuffs . Used onbroad l ines, the balanced rat ion enab les the stockfeeder to ut il ize to the best advantage the plantproducts which he raises . In case he needs an additional supply he wil l be ful ly advised as to whatclass of available purchased feeds he should obtainin order to secure the greatest efiiciency from the

food.

FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

What Foods to Choose .—On every farm some

feeding stufi s are grown that possess l ittle commercial value . These should form the basis of thatrat ion . Corn stover, the straws, legume hays, ands ilage are al l splendid bulk foods, are easily raisedon the farm and should be used freely in rat ion making. They will supply also the greater part of thecarbohydrates and fat . The farm, there fore, i s thebest factory for the product ion of the fuel nutrients .In the legumes and cereal grains much of the protein wil l be obtained . If any prote in shortage existsit i s good business sense to meet it, even thoughexpensive concentrates must be purchased .

The wise farmer wil l figure the cost of foodstuffsvery careful ly to findout what is most profitable tofeed . It is often best to sel l some of the food havinga wide nutrit ive ratio, such as t imothy, corn , oats,and wheat, and to purchase foods having a narrownutrit ive ratio, such as the oil meals, and the factoryby—products . Very often this exchange is made ;

and not only is the rat ion improved, thus bringingabout better results from the an imals under feed,but a money profi t is secured in addition to thatobtained because of the greater eflimency of the

rat ion .


I t must be remembered that these standards weremade many years ago when scientific appl ianceswere less adequate than now, and when l ittl e wasknown about e ither food or an imals . The experi

ments were also made with G erman feeds whengiven to G erman animals; a c ircumstance that may

11 PAYS 10 GM : 1 1111 1210111 Pam

Two rations for dairy cows have been compared. From the one pounds

of butter were produced from one dol lar’s worth of feed wh ile from the

other but pounds of butter was obtained from one dol lar’s worth offeed. Th is shows how two rat ions may cost the same and one may beworth a great deal more for final returns .

111 51110 51 11110111105 011 QUALITY 05 11t 77

be suffi cient to modify the standards when Americanfeeds are given American—raised l ive stock.

Another factor that enters into the problem is

the ever—increas ing improved qual ity of our farmanimals . Ou the same food, as A rmsby has determined, the pure-bred steer will make better gainsthan the scrub . If our farm an imals are selected forh igh product ion, are we not warranted in contribut

ing some part of th is increase to the d igest ive apparatus of the wel l-bred an imal ? If the selected strainis better in other respects, does it not improve alsoin ab il ity to d igest and ut i l ize food to the best advantage ? Moreover, our feeding stuffs are grownunder diffe rent soil and cl imatic conditions andare fedunder different environments, and these may accountin part for the higher efficiency of our feeding stuffs.Haecker

’

s Inv estigations .—A fter a study in vari

ous parts of the country of dai ry rat ions some ofwhich demonstrate very pract ical ly that less proteinwould give the same results, Professor Haecker ofthe Minnesota stat ion undertook a series of experiments to determine, i f poss ible, j ust what the foodrequirements are when dairy cows are caredfor under average conditions . The results suggested by these experiments are the fol lowing1 . That less protein is required in the rat ion than

called for in the old standard for dairy cows .2 . That the food nutrients should correspond to

the quant ity of milk given .

3 . That the amount of butter fat in the m ilk mustbe given due w eight in prov iding the foodnutrients.

13115111 0 STANDARDS 011 QUALITY 05 M ILK 79

4 . That s ize and weight of the an imal influence thefood requ irements s imilarly as worked out inthe old standards .

T he Haecker Standard is based on tw o generalproposit ions : F irst, the maintenance requ irementsof a cow weigh ing pounds ; and, second, anaddit ional and sh ift ing al lowance of d igest ible nutrients that is dependent on the per cent of butter fatcontained in the milk . The maintenance factor ispound of protein, pound of carbohydrates

and pound of fat . For cows weigh ing morethan pounds these quantities are proportionatelyincreased,and for cows weighing less than pounds

they are proportionately decreased . I f, for instance. acow weighs pounds, the amounts of each nutrient for maintenance would be as fol lows : Protein, .77pound ; carbohydrates, .77 pound and fat, . 1 1 pound .

The addit ional food requirements are dependenton the quant ity and the fat content of the milk asarranged below

NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY THE HAECKER STANDARD

In accordance w ith w eigh tFor m i lk production of cow

80 5 5 501110 5 10111 ANIMALS

How to Establish a Standard.—It wil l be observed

that no defin ite standard is provided. I t al l dependson what the maintenance requirements are, whatamount of milk the dai ly y ield is, and on the percent of butter fat contained . A ssuming that a cowweigh ing pounds daily gives 2 2 pounds of

milk, wh ich tests 5 per cent fat, what wil l be theactual requirements of digest ib le nutrients accord

ing to the Haecker standard ? The first step is toconsult the table for the nutrient al lowance as givenfor milk of the grade under considerat ion . This

we find to be as fol lows : Protein, carbohydrates, and fat, But the cow gives 2 2

pounds dai ly, in which case the quantit ies for onepound wi l l be mult ipl ied by 2 2 to meet the real daily

product ion . The form is as fol lows

I n 1 I n 22

pound poundsProteln .05 1 x 22Carbohydrates . 27 x 22Fat .021 x 22 46

These amounts added to what i s required for themaintenance of a cow weigh ing pounds and

giving 2 2 pounds of fiv e per cent milk are shown in

the table fol lowing

D igest ible nutrients

Prote in

Ma in tenance re uirements

N eed for m i lk y eid

Totals

5 1 51110 51 11110111105 011 QUALITY 05 81

Compared w ith WO13 Standard—From th is it i sobserved that by the Haecker standard when a cowweighs pounds and gives daily 2 2 pounds of 5per cent milk she will requ ire pounds of protein, pounds of carbohydrates, and .56 poundof fat . The Wolfi

’ standard cal ls for pounds ofprote in, 13 pounds of carbohydrates, and .5 poundof fat, which conforms very nearly to the Haeckerstandard in al l but the protein, where a differenceof .68 pound is observed .

CHAPTER X

COMPUTING RATIONS ON BASIS OF

STARCH VALUES

Starch as the Standard Nutrient .—In the G ermaninvest igat ions with fatten ing oxen conducted byKellner typical representat ives of the several foodnutrients were obtained and added one at a t ime toa rat ion that gave a s l ight gain in weight . The

amounts of lean meat and fat were determ ined bothbefore and after the addit ion of the extra food . Thedifi

‘erence between the tw o gains was then assumed

as be ing a reasonable measure of the fattening efi’ect

of the added food . A fter repeated trials it seemedadvisable to use starch as a standard by wh ich othernutrients or feeding stufi’s might be measured . Theuse of th is nutrient in this Way has given rise to theterm starch value, which means the quant ity byweight of any nutrient,or foodstuff,or rat ion that isequivalent to starch for fatten ing or other product ive purposes .

Starch Value I llustrated.—In one of Kel lner’s ex

periments, a certain sample of l inseed cake wasfound to contain per cent of digest ible protein ;per cent of digest ible carbohydrates, including

the fiber ; and per cent of digest ible fat . When100 pounds of th is was fed to a fatten ing ox, it w asfound that the increase was the same as when 77pounds of starch were fed . From th is it was con


nearly on a par with starch . The fiber,when made easi lydigestible by pulping, isa lmost exactly equal to starch .

How to Obtain Starch Value .-By means of the

above table it is an easy matter to calculate thestarch value ofany feeding stuff or rat ion . The formis as fol lows :Mult iply the digest ib le prote in by .94 ;

add to th is the carbohydrates,fiber,and the fat aftermult iplying the digest ib le fat by the percentage cor

Trn cm. 81 5 511 5011 Fasomo

in plann ing to fatten beeves make certain that the feeding stock is of a highgrade. This steer is a fancy selected feeder.

responding to its source Expressed arithmet ical lywe have the following

(Digest ibl e protein x .94) digest ible carbohydrates digest ibl e fiber (digest ib le fat X

or or starch value of 100pounds .

Using the digest ible nutrients in l inseed cake, aspreviously given,we have the following :

X .94) 26-1 x 78-7

0011501 1110 111111 1011 5 BY STARCH VALUES 85

Thus the pounds represent the calculatedstarch value of 100 pounds of l inseed cake, whichactual ly had the same fatten ing increase as 77pounds of starch .

Actual Starch Value Below Calculated StarchValue.

—When put to actual tests the calculatedstarch values fail ed to show an increase in product ion that the values really indicated them to possess .This is part icularly the case with foods contain ingmuch fiber. The difference is accounted for in thework occas ioned in d igest ing the foodstuff. Foodsl ike cottonseed meal, l inseed meal,corn,etc .,possessl itt le fiber, and therefore, the work of mast icat ionand d igest ion requ ires only a small part of the nutrients contained in them for their necessary but unproduct ive purposes . Foods like wheat bran, oatstraw, hay, etc ., on the other hand, require muchlabor in the digest ive processes, and consequentlymuch of their nutriment is used up in th is way .

Kel lner has met th is difficulty by assigning co

efficients of availabi l ity to each feed ing stuff basedon its calculated and actual starch values . Some ofthese are given on the next page .

Cons iderab le variat ion is here noted. The oil

meals,which carry l itt l e fiber, are very largely available on the bas is of their calculated starch values .Wheat bran has more fiber and its coefficient ofavai lab i l ity drops to 77 . The more fibrous meadowhay drops to 70, while oat and wheat straw, withmuch fiber,go down to 6 1 and 29 respect ively .

Calculating Starch Values on Basis of Av ailability.—To reduce the calculated starch values to the ir

86 5 5 501110 FARM 1 11 111 4 15

actual value as indicated by the availab i l ity of thedigest ib le nutrients, the fol lowing method is pursued : Mult iply the digest ibl e protein by its starchequivalent ; add to th is the digest ible carbohydrates,fiber, and the fats after the fat has been mult ipl iedby its starch equivalent then mult ip ly this sum bythe coeffi cient of availab i l ity . The arithmet ical re

OBTAINING 1 115 ACTUAL STARCH VALUE (115 1 1 11 5 11 )

S tarch v alue in100 pounds

Feeding stuns Percentage ofac tual as agains t

Calculated Found calcu lated

Decort icated cot tonseed meal

Potatoesinseed cak e

R ye m ealMange lsD r ied g ra i nsWh eat branMeadow hayOat s traw

W heat s traw

sult will be the actual starch value . To illustrateIn l inseed oil cake contain ing pounds ofdigest ible prote in, pounds of digest ible carbohydrates and fiber and pounds of fat what isthe actual starch value of 100 pounds of the freshsubstance ? The process is as follows

x -94) x x -97 76 3Thus the actual starch value of 100 pounds of l inseed cake is


of digest ible prote in, 38 per cent digest ible carbohydrates and fiber, the total crude fiber being 2 5per cent ; and per cent fat . The process is asfol lowsStarch value of 100 pounds x .94) (38

(2 5 X X pounds .The protein is mult ipl ied by .94, the starch equ iv

alent for prote in ; the carbohydrates and fiber arereduced in accordance with the reduct ion factor asass igned for the per cent of the total crude fiber ;the fat is mult ipl ied by the starch equivalentfor fat in clover hay . When these changes are madethe starch value of 100 pounds of clover hay is foundto be pounds .In case a green fodder is used the process is verysimilar. Take green al fal fa as an example, the

digest ible nutrients contained in it being as fol lowsDigest ible prote in, 2 per cent ; digest ib le carbohydrates and fiber,9 per cent total c rude fiber, 7 percent ; digest ible fat, per cent .

Starch value of 100 pounds (2 x .94) (9 (7x X pounds .

Starch Values for A ll Classes of Stock .—While

Kel lner obtained his results from fatten ing oxen, itis bel ieved the starch values wil l apply equal ly wel lto all classes of an imals and for al l kinds of produc

t ive purposes,provided,of course, enough protein isfurn ished to meet the body requirements for th isfood nutrient . A reasonable amount of fat is alsonecessary if the ful l starch value of any comb inat ionof feeding stuffs is to be secured .

Feeding Standards on Basis of Starch Values .— In

COMPUTING RATIONS BY STARCH VALUES 89

the tabl e below are given the daily food requirements for the several c lasses of farm an imals asdevised by Kel lner and on the bas is of poundsl ive weight

FOOD REQUIREMENTS ON BASIS OF STARCH VALUES

(KELLN ER )

D lges t lbleK ind of an imal p rote in

Catt leMain tenan ce of s teer

Fatten lng s teer

A ge L iv e w e ig h t0to 12 11103 55012 to 18 mos 77018 to 24 mos 950

Sheep6 to 7 111037 to 9 mos

9 to 11 mos

6 to 8 mos 1989 to 12 mos 286Las t fat ten ing s tag e

Mi lk cow s

Y ielding 20 lbs m i lkY ie lding 30 lbs m i lkY ielding 40 lbs m i lk

Il orsesL ig h t w orkMedium w orkHeav y w ork

S ee App endix for comp le te l is t. of Ke l lner standards .

Methodof Computing a Ration .—There are avail

able for feed ing a herd of cows clover hay, oats,green al fal fa and l inseed cake . These feeding stufi

'

s,

i f of goodaverage qual ity,wil l furn ish in 100 poundsthe nutrients as given on the next page.


D ig es tible nutr ien ts

Feeding stuffsCarbo

mat ter Protein hydrates Fat

C lov er hayOatsL inseed cak eA l fa l fa (g reen )

The cows average, let as say, pounds inweight, and yield on an average 30 pounds of milkdaily . A ccording to the standard the total feedrequirements per day and head wil l be as fol lows :Dry matter, 2 7 to 33 pounds digest ible protein,to pounds ; starch value, to pounds .The first step is to determine the starch value ofeach of these feeding stuffs . Taking the feeds inorder, the fol lowing calculat ion wil l be made1 . Starch value, 100 pounds l inseed cake (2 5

x .94) 32 x x .972 . Starch value, 100 pounds oats (9 X .94)

45 (5 x 2 -I ) ) X .95= 608

3 . Starch value, 100 pounds clover hay X-94) (38 (2 5 x (1 -5 x

30-9

4 . Starch value, 100 pounds green al falfa

x .94) (9 (7 x 36) (0-5 x

The next step in the construct ion of the rat ion is

to choose the quant ity of each feed that is to be used .

This wil l be governed by what is good pract ice,l eaving the actual balanc ing of the ration to the con

cen trates that are to be suppl ied in addit ion . A s a


clover hay, 20 pounds of green alfal fa, 7 pounds ofoats and 3 pounds of l inseed cake meal make a satisfactory rat ion for dairy cows giving 30 pounds ofmilk daily and weighing pounds . This is inaccordance with the Kellner standard, i s in l ine withgood pract ice, and in general is consistent with theother standards used in the calculat ions of rat ionsfor dairy cows .

CHAPTER XI

USING ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTINGRATION S

Feeding Stuffs Possess Energy.—When food is

consumed and ut i l ized in the an imal system vitaland muscular energy is produced . Any feedingstuff, therefore, is fuel for the an imal that consumesit . The chemical energy contained in that foodwil l be set free just as the energy stored in coal orwood or oi l or alcohol is set free when burned in anengine . In either case heat i s deve loped and workresults .The value of any material as a fuel substance wil lnatural ly depend on how much chemical energy thatmaterial contains . Both the quant ity and the quality must be determined in order to get a fair measure of its energy value . A rm sby

1 has worked out aplan for ut i l iz ing these energy values in feedingfarm animals . He not only has prepared. tables thatshow the energy value of a number. of feeding stuffs,but has formulated feeding standards and a prae

‘Th e idea. of us ing energy v alues in th e computat ion ofrat ions for farm an imals or ig inated w i th Dr. Ke l l ner of

G ermany. Dr. Hen ry Pre n t iss A rm sby. D irec tor of th e I ns titute of An imal N utr i t ion of th e Pen nsyl van ia. S tate Col leg e,has exp res sed the energy v alue of th e feed in s t i l l anoth ermanner . Ke l lner attem p ted to exp res s energy v alue as s tarchv alue because th is is so fam il iar ly k now n . A rm sby, on theother hand, has fol low ed th e s im p ler and more di rect mann er

of exp ress ing'

the se v alues by com ing out boldly and en t ire lyto th e energy notat ions, us in g th e th erm as th e un it ins teadof th e calor ie, s imp ly to av oid unn ecessar i ly large numbers .

E ith er manner of express ion is en t ire ly jus tifiable. and 1n‘th e

tw o meth ods the values are ident ical .


t ical plan for comput ing rat ions for farm an imals

based on them .

Units of Measuring Heat .-Qu ite general ly the

fuel value of any material is expressed in calories .

A calorie is the amount of heat requ ired to raise onepound of water four degrees Fahrenheit . In the

LAeo'

aA l'

onr Wan e F000 Vs s Ans Den m mm

This p icture gives a general v iew or Armsby’c respiration apparatus for

determlnlng the net energy of the feeding stuns .

A rmsby standards the fuel or net energy value isexpressed in therm . A therm is the quant ity of heatrequired to raise the temperature of kilogramsof water one degree cent igrade ; it equals calories and therefore represents the amount of heatrequ ired to raise pounds of water four degreesFahrenheit .


DRY MATTER,DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN, AND ENERGY VALUES

111 100 POUNDS (ARMSBY )

Total dry D lg es t lbleFeeding s tuffs matter prote in

G reen fodder and s i lageA lfal faC lov er (cr im son )Clov er (red)Corn fodder (green )Corn s i lageHungar ian grass

ay andd coarse foddersA lfa lfaC lov er ha

a

y

y

(red )Corn forage, (fi eldcured

Corn s tov er

Cow p ea hayHun ar lan hOat aySoy bean hayTimothy hay

R oots and tubersCarrotsMange l -w urz e lsPotatoesR utabagasTurn ips

G rainsBar ley

Corn-and-cobmeal

Pea m eal

By-p roductsB rew ers

’

grain s (dried)'

B rew ers’

g ra in (w et )Buckw h eat m lddl lngsCot tonseed meal

EN ERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS

F eeding s tuffs

By p roduc ts—Con t lnuedD ls t ll lers

’

rains (dried)Princlpa ly corn

Pr lncl a l ly rye

G luten eedy(dr ied)

G luten m eal (Buffa lo)G luten m eal (Ch icago)L inseed meal (oldp rocess )L inseed m eal (newp rocess )

Mal t sp routsR ye branSugar-bee t pulp (fresh )Sugar-bee t pu lp (dried)Wh eat branWh eat m tddl tng s

Total dry‘

D tg es t lblematter p rote in

Ravan me mm Aaour 010331 1011

The steer la harnessed ln apparatus as used by Dr. Arn eby in his digestionexperiments .

97

Requirements for Maintenance.—A rm sby has in

cluded the results of Kel lner’s experiments with hisown, and from these he has devised certain gu idesto be used in connect ion with the food requirementsfor d ifferent classes of farm animal s . He first takes


up the maintenance requ irements, or the amount ofdigest ible prote in and net energy necessary for anan imal when making no growth or other produc

t ion, or when doing no work . Standards for swineare not included,as no sat isfactory figures are available . The maintenance standards suggested are asfol lows :

MAINTENANCE STANDARD FOR CATTLE, HORSES ANDSHEEP (ARMSBY )

Cattle Horses Sheep

Th erms Lbs Th erm : Lbs204060

1001 20

9 20 140

Requirements for Grow th .—Young animals con

sume more food than adult an imals in relat ion to theweight of the body . They lay on much less fat andcarry much more water in the ir increase . A s theygrow older and exerc ise more freely, addit ional sappl ies of food are necessary for the product ion of heatand mechanical work . These demands give rise toa constant ly changing balance of food nutrients .The following est imates are for growing cattl e andsheep


age will require approximately therms a poundof gain in l ive weight .

Requirements for Milk .—A rmsby est imates that

for the product ion of milk contain ing 13 per centof total sol ids and 4 per cent of fat approximatelyof one therm of product ion value in the feed wil l

be requ ired dailyRequirements for Work .

—The est imate below isfor work horses weigh ing pounds . Both thework and maintenance requ irements are included

REQUIREMENTS 11011 WORK 110115 155 (ARMSBY )

K ind of w ork D iges ttble p rote in Energy v alue

For l igh t w orkFor m edium w orkFor heavy w ork

Computing a Ration for Steers.— Suppose a steer

weigh ing pounds is to be brought to weighpounds in 2 50 days . This wil l mean an aver

age daily gain of tw o pounds, j ust what in pract iceis considered sat isfactory . Our problem is to prepare a su itable rat ion at reasonable cost to do th is .How shal l we proceed ?A s a sat isfactory start ing point we wil l need todetermine the number of therms of energy valueneeded for tw o pounds of daily increase . Taking thestandard, therms for one pound of gain, this steerwould requ ire 7 therms of energy value each dayas the fatten ing requirement . Taking pounds

as the average weight during the feeding period,

ENERGY VALUES FOR rm

the maintenance requirements as set forth by A rmsby will be 7 therms for an animal making th is dailygain in weight . This, added to what is requ ired forfatten ing increase, wil l bring the total energy t e

quirement to 14 therms of net energy for each dayup to the t ime when the steer weighs pounds .The prote in requirements for th is steer, as given

Mn uaa 81 1111115 NEARLY READY 11011 MARKETMany ateara are finished at pasture, the grain aupply be ing increased as

the fatten ing period advances . Pasture as the sole feed is not beat forfinishing fattening an imals .

previously, are pounds daily The completestandard, then, wil l be as follows : D igest ible prote in, pounds ; energy value, 14 therms .Our second step is to select the feeding staffs and

to combine them in such proport ion as wil l bestmeet the feeding standard . Let as assume that

'

clove r hay is available as roughage, and corn andcob meal as a concentrate . In pract ice we know

FARM ANIMALS

that IO pounds of hay and 15 pounds of grain areoften used in that proport ion as a beef rat ion . Our

problem is to learn how nearly this combinat ion ofthe amounts given approaches the standard and i fany addit ional food may be given 50 as to improveon the rat ion . By

’ consult ing the table giving theprotein and energy values of feeding stufi s, we findthat in 100 pounds of clover hay there aretherms energy value, and in corn and cob mealtherms . Therefore we hav e

I n 100 pounds of clov er hayI n 150 pounds of corn and cob m eal

I n 250 pounds of feedI n 1 pound

To supply 14 therms divide 14 by .565 to obtainthe number of pounds of th is combinat ion for thedaily energy requirements .Thus, 14 .565 pounds, of wh ich orpounds, is to be clover hay and ”A5 , or

pounds,is to be com and cob meal,or IO and 15 poundseach approximately. This quantity meets the energyrequirement,but is there enough or too much protein ?

Th is will be determined by proceeding as below :

D ig es t ible nutr ien ts

Feeding s tuffs D rym at ter Prote in

Pounds Pounds Therma

10 pounds c lov er hay15 pounds corn and cob m eal

Totals

S tandard

104 1 121101110 FARM ANIMALS

pounds of milk there wil l be needed X2 5) pounds of digest ible protein and X 2 5)therms of energy value . The total dai ly food requirements per animal wil l therefore be :

Purpose D iges t ible p rote in Energy v alue

For main tenanceFor 25 pounds m i lk

Totals

The second step in the computat ion is to dec ideon the kind and quant ity of the feeding stuffs .A ssuming that corn stover, corn silage, and cloverhay are available, we wil l use such quant it ies ashave been found in pract ice to be sat isfactory,although used in varying quant it ies . As a start ingpoint,we wil l use 5 pounds of corn stover, 10 poundsof clover hay and 30 pounds of corn silage . Con

sulting the table giving the digest ible protein andenergy values, we find that in 100 pounds of eachof the above feeding stufl’s the fol lowing will be furn ished

D i ges tibleFeeding s tuffs Dry m at ter p rote in Energy v alue

We now calculate the amounts of digest ible pro

te in and of energy contained in the quant ity of eachfeed selected and arrange them as below :

ENERGY VALUES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS 105

TRYING OUT THE RATION COMPARED W ITH THE ARMSBY

STANDARD

D iges tible EnergyF eeding s tuffs mat ter p rote in v al ue

Pounds Th erma

5 pounds corn s tov er10 pounds c lov er hay30 pounds corn s ilage .

Totals

S tandard

Compared with the standard we find a deficiencyin every instance, therefore it will now be necessaryto introduce into the rat ion one or more feeds to correct the faults so evident in this trial rat ion . S incethere is a greater lack of the protein than of energyvalue,we will select concentrates from among suchfeeding stuffs as are particularly rich in protein . Sup

pose we use 1 pound of gluten meal, 1 pound of cottonseed meal and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp, andadd these to the rat ion .

SECOND TRIAL RATION FOR DAIRY COWS

D igest ible E nergyF eeding s tuffs p rote in v alue

5 pounds corn stov er10 pounds c lov er h ay30 pounds corn s i lage

pound cottonseed meal1 pound g luten m eal3 pounds dr ied beet pu lp

S tandard 1

Pounds Th erm:


The second trial corresponds very nearly to the

standard . The protein does this with exactness,while the energy value is just sl ightly under whatthe standard cal ls for . This is of smal l importances ince,as explained heretofore, it is not expected thatthe rat ions shal l be made to meet the standards withmathemat ical accuracy . The aim should be to ap

proximate them . From th is we learn that, according to the A rmsby standard,a sat isfactory rat ion formilk cows weigh ing pounds and yielding 2 5pounds of milk daily may consist of 5 pounds of cornstover, 10 pounds of clover hay, 30 pounds of silage,1 pound of cottonseed meal, 1 pound of gluten meal,and 3 pounds of dried beet pulp .

THE COST OF THE RATION 109

induce larger consumpt ion— two condit ions alwaysconsistent with large production with any class ofanimals . However,there is much obj ect ion to heavygrain feeding, as every pract ical feeder knows .What profit is there in expending much for grain ifthe addit ional product ion is

'

whol ly absorbed in thefeed bil ls ? Much has been said and written in re

cent years about the proper proport ion of grain toroughage in the feeding rat ion . In the past, perhaps, the roughage al lotment in proport ion to the

grain was too large, and today perhaps it i s thereverse .Tw o Rations Compared on Basis of Cost—Someyears ago tw o rat ions were compared in milk product ion at the Oh io stat ion . One consisted largelyof a corn- soybean- cowpea s ilage, and mixed hay ;and the other of more than half grain . The firstproduced pounds of milk for each 100 pounds,based on the dry matter contained in it, and the second pounds of milk for each 100 pounds, basedon the dry matter in it . In the one,the silage rat ion,89 per cent was of a roughage nature or farm- raisedfood, while in the other, 43 per cent, or just abouthal f as much,was farm- raised . The tw o rat ions aregiven in the table on the following page .

The pract ical quest ion that arises is this : I f bothare available today, which would cost the more ?That depends on the prices at which each could bepurchased ; and each and every feeder will need todetermine that point for himsel f . How ever, let usassume the follow ing as fair prices for the feeds :Cornsi lage, $2 a ton ; corn stover, $5 ; mixed hay, $12 ;

I IO FEEDING FARM AN IM LS

l inseed oil meal, $34 ; wheat bran, $30 ; and cornmeal, $30. A t these prices a pound of s i lage wil lbe worth . 1 cent ; of corn stover, .4 cent ; mixedhay, .6 cent ; oil meal, cents bran, cents ; andcorn meal, cents . The cost of the two rat ionswould there fore be as follows

S ilage (58 X . 1 ) x .6) (2 X

(2 X

G rain (4-7 x .4) x 6) (2 -5 x

(5 x 1 -5) (6 x 2 5 97

cents, the difference 1n cost

of the rat ions .

S ILAGE VERSUS GRAIN FOR M ILK COWS

Protei

Pound

I—S llage rat ion

I I—G raln rat ion

‘ I h these rat ions the total compos it ion is g iv en, and not

the dlgeatlble nutrients.


subst itutes may be chosen . Corn, wheat bran, oilmeal, cottonseed meal, brewers

’ grains and manyother feeding stufi s can be subst ituted for oats .Suppose we use 9 pounds of corn and 2 pounds ofoi l meal in place of 14 pounds of oats . The nutrientsof the tw o will be as follows :

OATS VERSUS CORN AND OIL MEAL

I

D iges t ible nutrienta

F eedProte in Carbohydrates

14 pounds oats9 p ounds corn and2 pounds 011 m eal

From the standpoint of nutrients these tw o areapproximately equal . Let us compare the tw o asto cost when oats are worth 56 cents a bushel, com65 cents a bushel, and oil meal $30 a ton . In bothrat ions 10 pounds of hay are to be given, and hencethe cost will rest with the kind of grain provided .

The cost of the tw o grain rat ions will be as fol lowsCorn and oil meal (9 X (2 X

cents

Oats 14 X 32 ) centsThus at prices quoted,but subst itut ing 9 poundso f corn and 2 pounds of oi l meal for 14 pounds ofoats,the same quant ity of d igest ible nutrients can beobtained and at a daily saving of cents a horse .

If six horses are kept and are fed in accordance withth is saving for the working period of n ine months

a net saving of would resu lt .

THE COST OF THE RATION 1 13

Feeding Stuffs Vary in Price.—The wise feeder

w atches the market prices of the various feeds . Toa certain extent the law of supply and demand fixesthe prices for most feeds . When the corn cr0p islarge the price drops, and even influences the valueof other feeds, although there may be a short cropof each . . Yet from year to year farm grains, hays,and commerc ial feed crops fluctuate with in certain

limits from month to month and from year to year.By taking cogn izance of th is fact and by studyingthe market values of availabl e and desirab le feeding stufi s in relat ion to their digest ible ingredients,subst itut ions can be made, often at a great savingand frequently with even more favorab le resultsthan through the use of the more famil iar feeds .See that the combination gives a balanced rat ion,and then seek good feeds that wil l cont inue the balance, select ing those that wil l most cheaply do it .In this way a handsome profit may often be securedin addit ion to greater efiiciency.

Easy to Sw ap Feeds .— S ince transportat ion is

now so easy, an exchange of one class for anotheris easily made, furnish ing no reason why each sect ion should not have such nutrients as it needs tobalance properly its standard feeding rations . Thefarmer who has an abundance of t imothy and corn,which he is now feeding h is farm stock, can wel lafi ord to dispose of a part of one or both and expendthe ent i re receipts for some good subst itute of equalor greater efiiciency. By so doing he need not ih

crease his outlay at all ; but he wil l supply his ani

mals with a more sat isfactory rat ion.

1 14 1 15501110 FARM 1111 111111 5

But there are large quant it ies of food each yeargoing to waste in every sect ion . Thousands andthousands of tons of corn stover, cottonseed meal,and the by-products of the slaughtering houses rot

each year in American farm fields. The quant ityof th is rich an imal food and real wealth is so vastas to be almost beyond est imat ion . Much of it is

wasted and unut i l ized each year. Of course, these

Convsa'

rmc Coat: 11110 Com

materials help the soil,but they could help the animal first, and to the land might go the resultingmanure, doing the land as much good as the rawan imal food .

Use Judgm ent in Purchasing Feeds .—Often very

poor judgment is shown in the purchase of feeds .

Just think of the great quant it ies of t imothy andother hays that are each year sent into some sec

tion to be fed to l ive stock ! It is not wise farm

1 16 1 2 1101110 FARM ANIMALS

from growing al fal fa, cowpeas and clover when youcan get from three to s ix tons of the former and aton and a hal f to three tons an acre of the latter tw ocrops from the land, and by so doing get feed ingcrops that actual ly are unexcelled ?

CHAPTER XII I

COST OF NUTR IENTS

Bulk Food Should Be Home-Grow n .—Little

needs to be said about the importance of growingon the farm al l the bulk food requ ired for l ive stock .

For one th ing, the greater part of the feeding stuffscan be grown cheaper than they can be bought ofsomeone else . Pract ical ly al l materials grown onthe farm and used for feeding purposes are low inprote in but correspondingly h igh in other nutrients.

The farmer can raise all the carbohydrates and fatn eeded for e ither the dai ry or the block ; but, unfortunately, there are no feeding stufi s made upwhol ly of prote in . I f there were, the balanc ing ofrat ion s in reference to cost would be a very s impleprocess indeed .

Protein Not Solely Purchased.—Though prote in

is the const ituent most needed on most farm s whenpurchased,other nutrients must be taken along withthe prote in . Carbohydrates and fat are present inal l feeding stuffs, and they have a commerc ial value .Consequently when we buy prote in we get carbohydrates and fat also . It should not be understoodthat these latter const ituents are a trouble or a nuisance they have a value. But you readily see it isun fortunate to purchase them when the ir like can

be secured at home. It suggests the same idea that

117


to grow all the protein on the farm . Hence th isnutrient must be secured elsewhere . This is donee ither through purchase of grain materials not raisedon the farm, or the purchase of by-products frommanufacturing concerns . Bran comes from flour

mills, gluten products and meal from the manufac

turing of starch, and cottonseed meal from the oilmil ls, and various other mill products from otherforms of manufacture . There is a long l ist of concentrates as the source of prote in consumpt ion . Thefeeder is interested in knowing which of them heshall purchase . Three th ings wil l a id h im in the

select ion : The prote in content, the total digest ib lenutrients, and the market price of the feeding stuff.

A wise select ion requires the three to be considered together. For instance, the following foodstufi s at market prices are availab le to a feeder :

Corn 65 cen ts a bush elOats 56 cen ts a bushelG luten mea l $30 a ton

Cot tonseed m eal $3 2 a ton

B ran $30 a ton

Using the above as examples, which shal l beselected if the feeder s imply desires to get prote infor the purpose of balanc ing a rat ion, having as itsbas ic const ituents feed ing stuffs raised on the farm ?

In other words, i f the feeder is abundantly suppl iedwith roughage material s l ike corn stover, s ilage,grass, and legume hays, what concentrate shal l he

select in order to get protein to balance h is rat ion ?

The sensible th ing to do is to determine wh ichfood furn ishes a pound of prote in at least cost . We

find in 100 pounds of each of these feeds the following quant it ies of prote in are to be obtained

COST OF NUTRIENTS 12 1

PROTEIN IN CERTAIN FEEDING STUFFS

Pounds of diges t ible p rote in

Feeding stuttsI n 100pounds I n 1 ton

CornOatsG luten m ealCottonseed mealB ran

A ton of corn contains 158 pounds of protein,wh ich is worth 65 cents a bushel, or $2 5 a ton . One

pound of protein wil l therefore cost divided by158,or 15 8+ cents a pound .

In l ike manner the cost of a pound of protein ineach feeding stuff is determined, giving us the following

Pounds diges Cos t per poundFeeding stuffs Price per t ible p rote in p rote in in

ton per ton cen ts

CornOatsG luten

.

m eal

Cot tonseed m ea lB ran

Here we see that at the prices assumed cottonseedmeal and gluten meal are by far the cheapest sourcesof prote in .

The same method is fol lowed in determin ing theprote in value of every other foodstuff. So s imple isit, every feeder and stockman should make it a pointto determine always the feeding values of differentfeeding stuffs in th is comparat ive manner.


On Basis of Total Digestible Nutrients.— The

comparat ive cost of digest ible nutrients is determined in the same way and has an important bearing on feeding farm an imals . I f it is necessary topurchase some grain or concentrated feeding stuff,in addit ion to a comparison of the prote in, let thequant ity of total d igest ible nutrients be taken inconsiderat ion also . A feeding stuff that wil l furn ishnot only the prote in,but the total digest ible nutrients, at the cheapest cost per pound, other th ingsbeing satisfactory, should ce rtainly be the one chosen .

Us ing the same feeds as before,we have the following

D iges t ible nutrien ts in 100pounds

Totaldiges t ible

Feeding s tuffs Carbo nutr ien tsProte in hydrates Fat Total In one ton

CornOatsG luten m ealCottonseed m ealBran

In the following table is shown the price a poundof digest ibl e nutrients when the market price a tonand total d igest ible nutrients are given °

Price in cen tser pound

Feeding s tutta o diges t iblenutr ien ts

CornOatsG lu ten m ealCot ton seed m ealB ran


sell corn and oats and make an outright purchaseof cottonseed meal, gluten mea l and bran, if dairycows are to be fed . Often one can sell roughagematerials to good advantage and secure others thatcontain more of the const ituents desired, and in sodoing the amount of concentrated foods can be cutdown .

I f the feeder uses corn stover and t imothy hay, hewi ll necessarily be forced to balance h is rat ions withconcentrated materials . Ou the other hand, if heuses cowpea hay, al fal fa or clov er hay in the mainfor roughage, the necessary grain material will besmal l . In many markets t imothy hay is sold for $20to $30 a ton and up,while cowpea hay, al falfa andclover sel l for $20 a ton and under. You see at oncethat the legume hays are the most economical, forthey contain several t imes more digest ible prote in

than t imothy . I t is to the feeder’s advantage to dispose of the t imothy,often,and with the same moneypurchase the legume hays . The saving in corn andbran or other concentrates wil l be clear profit . Of

course, the des irable way is to grow the legumes inabundance ; then,with much si lage, the cal l for purchased grain, or concentrates, wil l be of l ittle consequence.

CHAPTER XIV

FEEDING YOUNG AN IMALS

Food Requirements of the Young.— Young an i

mals requ ire food that will form t issue and bonerapidly . Hence,n itrogenous and mineral substancesmust be suppl ied abundantly ; and from sources thatappeal to the taste and that are easily digested . In

th is supply milk comes fi rst . It is nature ’s choice,

T1111 Nav ur Bonn REQUIRE Cow sraum

When an 00091111; is born, the darn for a period of a few days secretes

colostrum . This milk acts beneficially on the digestive tract.

and for young an imals is the most desi rable . It

contains the necessary nutrients in a properly balanced form, in most cases is l iberal ly provided bythe mother, and in al l respects is the ideal food tostart the offsp ring on its way to maturity.


‘Mi lk contains not on ly protein and ash, but fat,sugar and water also . But the prote in of milk is ina much larger proport ion to the fat than is the casewith other food that meets al l nutrit ive requ irementsat later periods of growth . Andat the t ime of b irthth is is part icularly the case. When a cal f, for instance, has ~just been born, the dam for a period ofa few days secretes colostrum. This fluid, or firstmilk, i s of a very concentrated descript ion . It isyel low or yel lowish in color, is of a visc id nature,possesses a pecul iar smell and salty taste. A s it iss l ightly purgat ive, it acts benefic ially on the digestive tract,and, i f the young is to be started forwardfavorably, it should not be withheld .

Colostrum .—Compared with ordinary milk,colos

trum is rich in protein and the mineral substances,but relat ively lower in milk sugar and fat . In fi v edays to a week after b irth the secret ion of milk in

creases,and the composit ion gradual ly changes fromcolostrum to ordinary milk . The composit ion ofcow’s milk at calving and at a later period shows theh igher food value of the first milk. Th is wil l beobserved below

0105 51 15 5 5 1101 1115 11 1 5 05 cow’

s M ILK 111 100 POUNDS

D iges t ible nutrien ts

D ry Carbo N utrit iv eK ind matter Prote in hydrates Fat rat io

Colos trumOrdinary m llk

FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS

older, adding age and weight, the nature of the ra

t ion changes through dec’

reasing demands for prote in and in increasing demands for the carbohydrates . In its early days a cal f takes on weight veryrapidly . Compared with its weight the amount offood consumed is very large . Often a smal l cal fwill gain in weight as fast as a mature steer ten timesas big. Oi course the flesh is less sol id, the increase iso f a more watery nature, and the food consumption inproport ion to the s ize of the animal is enormous .Nature Widens the Ration .

— During the babyhood of the cal f, or of any other an imal, not muchexercise is taken ; hence, less of the heat and energymaterials are cal led for ; but as th is condit ionchanges, there arises a need for more of the carbohydrates and fats to provide for mechan ical workboth with in and without the body . A s these aresuppl ied the rat ion takes on more of each and decreases proport ionately the protein.

Nature suppl ies the needed carbohydrates bycreat ing an appet ite for grass and roughage materials . Just after b irth a cal f,partaking of colostrum,

is fed abundantly with prote in in a few days th isgiv es way to ordinary milk,with less of protein andmore of sugar and fat ; and then a week or tw o l ater

the cal l of nature is further met by means of then ibbles of grass or grain wherein is stored st i l l largerquant it ies of the carbohydrates and fat to meet thecravings occasioned by exercise, energy and mechanical work . In th is manner every offspringgradual ly adjusts its food to its needs and verylargely balances its ow n rat ion.


From Whole to Skim Milk .— It i s not uncommon

to give whole milk to a young cal f for a short periodafter be ing removed from its mother. The period,during wh ich whole milk is suppl ied varies moreor less, depending on the value of the cal f or theuse to which milk on the part icular farm is put .

Sooner or later, however, skim milk is subst itutedfor the whole milk . If the subst itut ion is graduallymade, and i f some addit ional food is provided, noobj ect ion to the change will arise . But too fre

quently skim milk is abruptly subst ituted, and itonly is fed . This is bad pract ice .

Skim milk contains l itt l e if any fat consequen tly,the young an imal is deprived of th is nutrient andwil l not thrive in a sat isfactory manner . Nor willincreasing the quant ity of sk im milk help . Deathwil l ult imately fol low if the skim milk rat ion is cont inuously fed and not balanced by means of somesubst itut ion for the fat removed from the milk . Be

low are shown the digest ible nutrients in whole and

skim milk

WHOLE A ND SKIM M ILK COMPARED

D ig es t ible nutr ien ts In 100pounds

K ind Prote ln Carboh ydrates Fat

W ho le m i lkS k im m i lk

When the fat i s removed by skimming and the

remain ing l iqu id fed exclus ively, the cal f or the pigdevelops slowly,shows dissat isfact ion with the food,


Calves, on the other hand, present a differentcase . Their original food has a great commerc ialvalue and whole milk for the market or for butteris too valuable to be used as a feed for averagecalves . Consequently, milk is not set before themunt i l after the butter fat has been removed .

A pract ical way is to feed the new born cal f wholemilk for a week or ten days, then gradual ly changefrom whole milk to skim milk . During, or following this change, the young cal f will begin to eat

corn and oil meal, and never wil l not ice the sub

stitution either in temper or dev elogment . W ith oilmeal worth a cent and a half a pound, and butterfat worth 2 5 or 30 cents a pound, it is apparent thatit is a heavy loss to feed butter fat when oil meal isas wholesome and nutrit ious .Calf Feeds .

—Many especial ly prepared cal f feedsare on the market as subst itutes for milk or for butter fat . Many of these are excellent and perfectlysat isfactory. Their one object ion is their cost . A

ton of prepared cal f food may cost $50 to $ 100,butpract ical ly all of the substances were obtainabl e at

$20 to $35 a ton . When l inseed oil meal, boiled flaxseed, corn and pea meal, etc ., are available, it ispossible for every farmer to secure his own supplyand to obtain a sat isfactory subst itute for the butterfat that he removes from his milk .

Feeding the Dairy Calf.— Opin ions vary as to

whether it is best to remove the cal f from its mother

at once or to wait unt i l some days after bi rth . I t i sbecoming more and more a custom to remove thecalf early, with in tw o or three days at the most.

5 5 501110 YOUN G ANIMALS 133

The cal f is allowed to nurse at its mother’s s ide atfirst . It is then removed to a box stal l or an openlot away from its dam, and allowed to get hungry .

Then,with three or four pints of its mother’s milk,

it is taught to drink . This t each ing may runthrough a period of two or three trials . Two orthree feeds a day should be given, three being better than tw o. If the calf is not very strong, fourfeeds are des irable .

R51 0? 105 Tuem 8 1151 115115 1

This s imple contrivance is much esteemed where many calves are fed andraised. Each gets ita own ration w ithout fuss, confualon or fight .

The milk used should be from the mother and notfrom another cow, because it is the colostrum thatis des ired and th is milk should be fed wh ile warmfrom the cow . This should be kept up unt i l the cal fhas a good start and is drinking wel l . Some dairymen begin to change from whole to partly wholeand skim milk in a week or ten days, while others

FEEDING FARM AN IMALS

cont inue the whole milk for a period covering tw oor three weeks . Some t ime between ten days andthree weeks skim milk may be subst ituted for apart of the whole milk . To the al lotment of wholemilk add about onefourth more of skim milk andkeep increasing the skim milk for a week or tendays, unt i l the whole milk has been ent i rely displaced by skim milk . When the skim milk has beenstarted, a teaspoon fu l of l inseed oil meal may bemixed with a hal f cup of warm water, then addedto the milk,which is,of course, part ial ly skim milk .

The calf at this t ime wil l be taking tw o quarts three

t imes a day .

It is worth while to be careful not to overfeed .

Overfeeding on skim milk always stunts a cal f.During this early feeding period not more thanthree quarts should be fed at a t ime and three feedsa day should be given .

The oil meal is to be gradual ly increased unt i l,in the course of a few months, a hal f pint is feddaily . Some dairymen get excel lent results by usinga flaxseed j el ly in the sk im milk . To make th is j el ly,soak whole flaxseed in hot water . Many cal f raisers th ink this food far superior for young calves toany cal f meal used as a subst itu te for milk . The bestsubst itute for the fiaxseed is l inseed oil meal .

When the cal f is tw o or three weeks old a l ittl ewhole corn and oats in the box where the calves can

get at it wil l be eaten and rel ished . The cal f willsoon take to hay . The aim should be to keep thecal f growing steadily and in a thrifty condit ion .

Spring calves can soon be turned in a pasture lot . If


milked thereafter . This pract ice is permissible with

cows of a poor grade . It is injurious in high milk

product ion, and inevitably leads to the destruct ion

of the herd, because many of the good dairy calvesare vealed and forever lost as dairy prospects . If

calves are al lowed to suck their dams for as long a

period as required for making good veal, the valueof the cow as a milk producer is somewhat l essened .

8 1150 5011 8 5 5 5

Th e pure -bred Shorthorn cal! was left w ith its mother for a week . Afterthat time it was fed whole mi lk, then whole and sk im mi lk m ixed, then

sk im m i lk and oil meal .

Object ion to the pract ice of first milking the cowsand giving the whole milk to the veal calves is raised

because of the labor expense . Some farmers meet

th is by removing some of the butter fat and prov iding subst itu tes as previously described for the creamremoved . Where calves intended for beef stock areremoved from their mothers cream subst itutes can

FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS 137

be given in addit ion to skim milk, as described fordairy calves . They should be fed 50 as to obtain

qu ick development . Larger quant it ies of coneen

trated grains are admiss ible in proport ion to the

roughage materials than where whole milk is fed ;

yet the aim is not to fatten this young stock,but to

grow beef . This means gradual ly to widen the

rat ion, basing it on good grass, sk im milk,oil meal,and corn,and later,on silage, i f avai lable, and a reasonable amount of hay, the l egume k ind preferred .

Where beef is raised exclus ively, part icularly onthe western ranges and in beef herds produced frombeef breeding stock, calves are al lowed to suckletheir mothers unt i l natural ly weaned . If al lowed

the run of the pasture with the mother, l ittl e, i f any,food is given in addit ion to what is obtained bysuckl ing the dam and by graz ing. These beef damsare not heavy milkers as a rule ; consequently, thefood supply from the milk is much smal ler than i fthe same pract ice were fol lowed in the dairy herd .

A S weaning t ime approaches either an abundance ofsucculent grass should be available, or else substitutes should be provided in the way of concentratesand hay . During their first winter beef calves raisedin th i s manner, either whi le on or off the cows,should be given grain, si lage if avai lable, and goodbright hay . The quant ity of each wil l vary withindiv idual s . The aim should be to provide the pro

te in l iberal ly . If good hay and silage are availablethe proper balance of food material wil l fol low .

The Feeding of Lamb5 .—A t b i rth the main thing

is to see that the lamb gets its moth er’s milk . The

140 5 5 501110 ANIMALS

When the day of separat ion has arrived,get the flockin the inclosure earl ier than ordinary, feed, and thenhold unt i l nearly t ime to turn out . Now sort theewes,then feed the lambs, and take the ewes to somedistant field out of hearing of the lambs . A fter thelambs have had a good feed of grain turn them back

Lu ca 05 c onous PIGSCreepa for young p ica In wh ich they ma cc for slop food are dealrable .

Both mother and 11 ga benefit.

to the ir old pasture ground, and they wil l go to

pick ing up grass at once . The lambs should betaken up each day, fed a fairly l iberal port ion ofgrain, be given access to al l the water needed andplenty of grass, and they wil l make good growthwithout further bother .

5 5 501110 YOUNG ANIMALS 14 1

The Feeding ofPig5 .—The sow while nursing re

quires l iberal feeding, as the rearing of a large l itteris a severe drain on her system . Skim milk, buttermilk, bran, shorts, ground oats, wheat and barley,with a run on pasture grass,will meet the s ituat ion .

No care or attent ion wil l be needed to get the l ittlepigs to drink when tw o or three weeks old . A goodmethod is to provide a shal low, flat-bottom troughin a smal l inclosure in one corner of the lot where

the sow is fed,al lowing the young pigs access to th isat will,but where the sow cannot reach it . For thefi rst day or tw o a l ittl e fresh milk can be used ; afterwards give sweet skim milk, properly warmed . Ifskim milk is not available, then middl ings or shortsmixed in a th in slop are a good subst itute . This canbe fed twice daily .

The pigs should not be w eaned abruptly, becauseof the in jury that would result to the sow . There is

a large flow of milk,which should be dried up grad

ually. It is not a good plan, either, to remove some

of the pigs, al lowing the remain ing ones to stay

with the mother a few days or a week or so. This

is admissible, however, i f part of the l itter has

profited at the expense of other members . In case

th is is so, the larger ones can be removed after they

have become satisfiedwith their 5100 rat ion, and thel ess thrifty ones kept back to dry off the sow .

Wean ing should be done gradually ; then there wil l

be no sudden check e ither to the pigs or the mother .If the sow is fed a spare diet consist ing of a l ittl edry grain or given the run of an old pasture, the

142 5 5 501110 5 4 1111 ANIMALS

secret ion of milk wil l be arrested and both sow andpigs wil l adjust themselves to the new order.When the young p igs have learned freely to takeslop made of shorts or middl ings and skim milk,they are ready for weaning. This usual ly takesplace at seven to ten weeks of age . If skim milkis not available, then the longer the pigs remain on

1155 1 1110 111 1 115 Pasruaa FIBLD

The brood mare may be worked pract ical ly up to foal ing time . Afte rfoallng {or 10 daya or two w eeta ahe la entitled to u se and rest . In aum ~

mer the

cFu ture or paddock la the best place for her and plenty of fresh

water an graln ahould he aupplled.

the dam the better . In no case should they beweaned unt i l they take food freely apart from the irmother. A fter being weaned,give them access to agood pasture and a grain slop of middl ings, short“

or corn meal twice daily . The amount of meal fedwill depend upon the condit ion of the pasture .

144 5 5 501110 5 1111111 ANIMALS

mother as milk . For a week or ten days after b i rththe mother should be given rest in the pasture field,after which she can be started in again on l ightwork . Ordinarily, it i s best to train the foal to re

main in its stal l while the mother is at work . Whenthe mare is started in at work again, the foal shouldbe al lowed for a while to have its mother’s milk at

l east once in the forenoon and once in the afternoon,and to remain at its mother’s s ide during the noonhour,and from quitt ing t ime in the even ing unt i l themare is put to work in the morn ing.

If al lowed to stand at its mother’s s ide, the foalwil l soon eat of grain in the manger, and in th isway learn to eat both grain and hay, in addit ion tograss in the pasture fi eld. By wean ing t ime the foalshould know how to eat what it subsequent ly wil l begiven . Corn, oats, bran, and oil meal make an excellent mixture and can be given in equal parts,though at fi rst only in small amounts . G rass is anideal food when supplemented with oats or with thecombinat ion just ment ioned . The wean ing shouldbe done gradually ; then ne ither foal nor the damwil l suffer. A fter wean ing, increase the grain andprovide good bright hay for roughage . Handled in

th is manner, the foal wil l go through the winter

n icely and when turned out to pasture in the springwill show thrift and make rapid grow th .

CHAPTER XV

THE FEEDING OF BREEDING AN IMALS

The excessive feeding of breeding stock is harmful ; indeed, more 50 than when an imals are underfed . This is especial ly true when the feeding rat ioncontains an overabundance of carbonaceous foods .When such are suppl ied to mature breeding stock,

Too FAT 505 0000 8 5 5 505 55

Breeding atock'

should be thrifty, but not excess iv ely fat. Otherw iae the irbreeding qual ities w il l sooner or later be impaired.

the an imals often become very fat, and are not as

prolific as they otherwise might be . The adult an imal, i f properly nourished, neither gains nor losesin weight . It requires food for the repair of t issues,to maintain its regular supply of hair, wool and


horn, and to produce heat and mechan ical work bycombust ion of the food in the body .

In addit ion, breeding an imals must have foodenough to provide for the growth of the fetal young .

This means blood and t issue for every part of theofi

‘spring . Carbohydrates and fat cannot ass ist in

providing this material . It must come solely fromthe protein of the food . Consequent ly, every pregnant animal should be given cons iderable prote inin her rat ion,both for her own use and for the developing progeny .

Feeding the Dairy Cow When Carrying Calf.A fter calv ing, and then for a period of severalmonths, the good dairy cow drops off in flesh, even

though l iberal ly suppl ied with food . She shouldnever be fat as that condit ion is known in respectto the beef cow . A fter she has caught her gait inmilk product ion,her weight is maintained for a considerable period, and if the food supply is st i l l l iberal, she wil l gain in weight and flesh . Ordinarily,the rat ions of the dairy stable are sat isfactory bothfor milk product ion and for the support o f the fetalcal f.Heavy concentrated grains may be inj urious,hence caut ion wil l not be out of place i f taken at thet ime the cow approaches parturit ion . During the

latter part of her lactat ion period concentrated feedsl ike cottonseed meal or gluten meal should be lessened or discont inued altogether and food l ike wheatbran or some of the laxat ive commercial feeds giveninstead . Some grain wil l be necessary at this period

in order to maintain the milk flow , even though it

148 5 5 50111 0 AN IMALS

months prior to calving, the dairy cow or the beefcow should rece ive daily a pound or tw o of wheatbran, four or fiv e pounds of al fal fa, clover, or cowpea hay, for needed protein and the ash const ituents .This is part icularly needed during the winter andduring the summer or the fal l when the pasturegrass is short or withered .

At Calv ing Time the cow should be put 011 byhersel f. Bran, clover, al fal fa, or cowpea hay, to

gether with s ilage or some other succu lent food,should compose the daily rat ion . A fter calving, cutout the rat ion ent i rely for a day or so ; feed only a

l ittle bran and succulent food . The quant ity of foodmay be increased from the second day gradual ly until the cow is placed on her ful l rat ion . It is not wel lto be in too b ig a hurry to get the cow on a full rat ion or to bring her up to the full capacity as a milkproducer. It is often a wise pract ice to use a fullmonth to get the cow on full feed and to her product ion capac ity .

The bee f cow usual ly is given the range of theheld in wh ich she may drop her cal f. She is placed

under condit ions more natural to her, and hence,usually, will take care of hersel f and her offspring.

If pasture is abundant, supplementary feeds wil l notbe requ ired ; but i f she is an important breeding

cow hersel f, in h igh breeding form and flesh, and if,because of her breeding, it is des ired to secure thequickest and ful lest development of the cal f, additional food in form of concentrates may be given toadvantage . If the herbage is scant or otherwise insufli cient or improper, a grain rat ion shou ld be pro

THE FEEDIN G OF BREEDIN G AN IMALS 149

v ided. In e ither case the ord inary commerc ial feedsl ike cottonseed meal, the glutens, wheat bran, oilmeal or corn may be furn ished singly or in combinations, depending on the cost or the ease of obtain ing them .

The Brood Sow .— Corn has been connected for so

long a t ime with hog feeding that it st i l l holds a h ighplace as a food for the brood sow . To a certain extent th is pract ice is wrong,but though many lead

F5 501110 Box 505 HAY

Hoga re l ish alfalfa during all seasons of the year. in w inter d haymay be filaced in a box as here shown and much less w i l l be waste thanwhen thrown on the ground or p laced in racks .

ing hog men caut ion against the heavy use of corn,they nevertheless do resort to it more or less . Thisis part ly because in the important hog sect ions cornis always avai lable and usually abundant as a hogfood, and because it i s home raised and seldom re

fused or rej ected .

Food of a more protein nature should be fed thesow previous to the t ime of dropping her pigs and


wh i l e she is suckl ing them . This does not meanthat corn should be cut out of the rat ion altogether .In sect ions where corn is not freely produced, andwhere its commercial value is h igh, subst itutes aremore general ly provided and the object ions to itsuse are not usual ly met .

A Ponn at e Hoc Housa

Here is shown a hog house that can be moved to various parts of the

acld, insuring clean ly quarters and new feeding grounds . Both are itemsof great importance in hog raising .

The food o f the brood sow should be s imilar tothat given the dairy cow, part icularly the grain partof the rat ion . Even si lage is good, as are also al fal faand clover hay . To those unaccustomed to the use ofal fal fa or clover hay it may seem impossible that thebrood sow would use either to any great extent .

Nevertheless, the consumpt ion of such is pract ical lyas great as when either is fed to horses or cows .


In a day or tw o the food supply should be increased . It should consist of milk- st imulat ing andmilk-produc ing foods l ike middl ings, shorts, gluten,l inseed oil meal,pea meal,skim milk,etc. A l ittle cornor corn meal may be given,but this should be limited.

Exercise for Brood Sow s.— See that the brood

sows take exercise and that they get succulent food .

It is doubt ful if any other factor in hog raising hasbrought about quite as much inj ury as the pract iceof placing brood sows in l ittl e pens,prevent ing themfrom gett ing ju icy roots or green foods and cutt ingofl' their opportunity for exerc ise ent irely . The runof the pasture field, or in the winter of rye or wheatlots, or in fal l of harvest ing peanuts, art ichokes,cowpeas, or of clean ing up old meadows, al l addvigor to the sows, largely wipe out the cost of keep,and increase the vital ity of the coming offspring.

The best mother is one that suppl ies a heavy flow ofmilk . To do th is she must be healthy, strong, andbe l iberal ly suppl ied with food . From well fedbrood sows, therefore, usual ly come the health iestand quickest maturing offspring.

The BroodMare .—There is no obj ect ion to work

ing the brood mare or of exerc is ing her right up tofoal ing t ime . Liberal feeding on oats, or bran, balancedwith corn and hay,wil l furn ish a sat isfactoryrat ion for the mare before and after foal ing. Thesame precaut ion should be taken to dimin ish the

food supply when the colt is born as when the cal fis born . The mother at foal ing t ime is in a feverish condit ion, and weak also . She should be fedon ly what is needed for appeasing the appet ite .

1 11 5 5 5 501110 05 0115 50111 0 ANIMALS 153

Succulent grass is cool ing and is never obj ect ionable . The grain al lotment for a day or tw o, however, should be smal l and should consist of groundoats or wheat bran, or both,without corn .

A fter a day or tw o the milk secret ion wil l becomeact ive and the mare wil l recover her appet ite . Fora week or ten days she should have complete rest,preferably in a paddock,or the run of a pasture wil l

8001101110 T1155 U5 111 1 11 5 PA31 0“

do . When put to work at the end of this rest period,her tasks should be of a l ight nature at fi rst, not oflong durat ion, and not in excessive heat or sunsh ine .

G radual ly increase the rat ions unt i l a l iberal supply is given 50 as to meet the demand occasioned bywork and the product ion of milk .

The Ew e.— In local it ies where the ground re

mains uncov ered during much of winter flock masters are fortunate because of the pasture and thetough sod on which the sheep can at t imes begrazed . Lambs wil l not come large and strong unl ess the ewes have been properly fed, properly


housed, and properly exercised . Where pasture isnot available during the winter, no feeds are quiteas good as al fal fa and clover hay . Either may befed once or tw ice a day . Ifbut one feed of either isgiven, then good corn stover, or mil let, or even oat

straw,may be used as a roughage for the other feed .

Peas and oats, vetches, and cowpea hay, are al l excellent roughage feeds for breeding ewes .When thus suppl ied with good fodder, the ewesdo not need much grain unt i l tow ard the approachof the l ambing season . They wil l be in better cond it ion, however, at lambing t ime if they have beenfed a smal l quant ity of grain previously . Whole oatsare very suitable for them, but what is better is al itt le bran or oil cake along with the oats . Ne itherthe bran nor the oil cake is necessary,but either orboth wil l add to the effi ciency of the rat ion . Fieldroots are also excel lent,but before lambing it is notnecessary to feed more than tw o or three pounds aday . If roots cannot be had,and corn silage is available, it wil l be in order to feed si lage at least once aday . Either clover or al fal fa goes admirably withsilage .Sheep wil l take ample exerc ise i f given the free

dom of one or more fields when the snow is not deepor altogether absent . I t is only when snow is deepand the ewes are unable to move about that they arein danger of becoming too sluggish . The morehighly they are fed, the more sluggish they become .To avoid th is, it may be necessary to put some of thefeed in racks some distance away from the shed,butpreferably in a secluded and protected spot . The

CHAPTER XVI

FEEDING FARM HORSES

FoodRequirements for Horses .—Work horses t e

quire protein to repair the broken-down t issues ; fatsand carbohydrates to produce heat and energy . Theharder an animal works, the more food required .

The Wolff-Lehmann standards for feeding farmhorses are shown in the table below . They indicate

the amount of food required per pounds l iveweight

.

and are for horses when doing l ight,moderate and heavy work .

WOLFF-LEHMAN N STANDARDS FOR HORSES

D ig es t ible nutrlen ts

Nature of w ork D ry Carbo N utr i t i v emat ter Prote ln h ydra tes Fat rat io

L igh t ly w ork edModerate ly w ork ed

H eav i ly w orked

A Fundamental Principle in Horse Feeding is touse a relat ively smaller quant ity of roughage and acorrespondingly larger amount of concentrates thanfor bovines . The kind of work to which horses are

put cal ls for the l east possible load on the digest iveorgans, which even in the heavy draft breeds aresmall, part icularly the stomach . Hence, the food

156

55 5mm; FARM 1101255 5 157

of the horse should be nutrit ious in qual ity, be suppl ied frequently, and in comparat ively smal l quant it ies .Nature of Food.

—The food,of whatever varietyand it may include a wide range of feeding mater ials— must be clean,wholesome,and sound ;but beyond

th is no specific rules can be laid down, except that,general ly speaking, reasonable attent ion should begiven to the digest ible nutrients, in that they should

WBLL BRBD AND WELL Fen

bear the proper proport ion one to another . Theamount and character of the food must vary withthe size of the horse and the purpose for which it i sused, the cl imate and the season, and the sect ionin wh ich it is used .

Character of Food.—The horse feeds on a wider

range of food substances than is popularly supposed .

In A rabia, where stamina and s inew are famous,the principal food is barley and scant herbage ; in

I58 FEEDING FARM AN IMALS

Ireland it is dried fish mainly ; in England hay,oats,and beans comprise the food supply largely ; on thecont inent of Europe, rye, barley and inferior w heatmake up the grain port ion of the rat ions ; while inth is country many feeding stufi’s, covering a wide

range of roughage and grain,find their way into the

feed mangers and sat isfactori ly keep the horse stockin health and vigor.

It is not so much the k ind of food,but the purityand character, that count . Moldy hay and graincause many of the i l l s that the horse is he ir to and

imperfect methods of preparat ion and curing havecast an odor of unpopularity on many meritorious

feeds that, i f properly handled, would be eagerlysought because of their ease of product ion or rela

tiv ely less cost when compared with the standardhorse feeds of each part icular section .

Requirements for Work.—Natural ly the work de

manded of a horse wil l influence the choice and

amount of food its caretaker gives it . The race

horse or the roadster, fed on coarse roughage andl ittl e grain , wi l l be greatly handicapped i f in compet it ion with another that has been suppl ied withnutrit ious and appet iz ing concentrates and l ittlerough fodder in the rat ion . In winter the draft horsecan subsist very n icely on hay or fodder and l ittl eor no grain, providing the work is l ight and the

hours of labor few . But th is same horse,when put

to hard labor in spring and summer, at plow, cu lt iy ator or harvester, wil l demand less hay and moregrain i f the highest efficiency is to be had.


quest ioned that with our feeds and under our workcondit ions less protein is required than what the\Volfi standards set forth .

Qu ite recently Kel lner, the celebrated Germanauthority, as a result of his experimen ts, stated thatthe large quant it ies of prote in cal led for in the oldstandards are unnecessary for working animals,therebeing required only enough for the general maintenance o f the animal mach ine and to insure the com

plete digest ion of the food . To bring th is about thenutrit ive rat io of the rat ion can range from onepound of prote in to eight or even ten of carbohydrates and fat .

This view is substant iated by many tests in th iscountry . Hence the conclus ion that tw o pounds ofprotein wil l answer the requirements for that nutrient for a pound horse doing heavy work canbe accepted as both conservat ive and wise becauseof the less expense at wh ich energy can be obtained .

Oi course young animals not ful ly matured wil lfare much better when rat ions are prepared containing more protein . In cases l ike these, and wherehorses are put to very severe work, the older standard for protein is to be recommended .

G iv ing Water .— In a state of nature horses feedupon j u icy herbage and drink at pleasure only purewater when that is availab le . No an imal is moredel icate and fast id ious about its drink than the

horse, and often these animals wil l suffer agon iesof thirst rather than quench it with impure, stale ortepid water. Water should be g iven frequently andin smal l quant it ies .

5 5 5 131110 FARM 1105 55 5 161

Some horses require more water than others, thequant ity varying with the nature and amount of therat ion, the propens ity to sweat,and the season of theyear. In a test at the New Hampsh ire stat ion theamount of water drunk by fiv e horses was recorded,showing a variat ion of from pounds topounds in the course of a year. Stale or foul waterfrom a neglected c istern is unfit for a horse and wil lbe refused, except in case of extreme th irst or whenno other kind is provided .

The custom of not giving horses a drink duringthe forenoon or the afternoon when working in thefield i s frequent ly condemned but general ly followed . In our larger cit ies horses are often nevergiven water between morn ing and even ing. This iscruel, of course . The good horseman wil l be morethoughtfu l of these dumb beasts intrusted to his

charge . Not only should the horse be permitted todrink h is fi ll at noon,but during hot weather in thedusty fields a cool drink should be provided also .

Order ofHay,Grain andWater.— In a broad way,

drinking water should be given at least three t imesa day to horses at rest, and more frequent ly whenat work . Smal l quant it ies of water may be givenhorses at work, even though they are hot and t ired .

The custom is rather general to give water first,and then after the water some hay, with the grainfol lowing later. When horses are put to heavy worktheir noon feed should consist largely of grain . A fterbe ing watered the grain is fed and some hay given,that the horse may eat of it between h is fin ishing the

grain and the t ime he is taken out to work .

162 5 5 5mm; FARM ANIMALS

Many horses show impat ience when taken to thestable at noon and are given hay before the grain .

For the even ing meal the grain should come fi rst,and then, after a brief interval, the hay port ion ofthe rat ion . A drink of water after feeding is bothhumane and desirabl e .

Regularity in Feeding andWatering.—Whatever

system of feeding and watering is followed,it should

Suov mc Tum 01111

be strictly adhered to during the season. Habit ispart of the rat ion . To be given water one day before meals and the fol lowing day after meals, i s asunsat isfying to the horse as it would be to man . If

accustomed to grain before the hay at noon, there

wil l be d issat is fact ion i f th is procedure is reversed

the fol lowing day . Drink and food should be givenat about the same t ime each day .


cowpea hay, corn stover, the cereal hays with orwithout vetch, and other legumes and grasses, adm it of considerable choice and variety . A lthoughc rimson clover is frequently fed to horses it is nota desirable roughage because of the fuzzy condit ion of the clover head . Frequently th is fuzz curlsup into bal ls, lodges in the intest inal organs, andcauses digest ive disorders and somet imes death .

Bxenmse NECESSARY Even on FARMS

When not worked farm horses require exerc ise . I! at pasture this is un

necessary. but during w inter, or if pas tures or paddocks are not avai lable,they should be driven or led about.

In the western states many of the cereal hays,brome grass, al fal fa, prairie hay, corn stover, t imothy and the clovers are availabl e . These al low awide range of roughage material s for horses . In

every sect ion mil let grows wel l and is frequent lyfed . If cut and cured just as the fi rst blossoms appear, a hay scarcely in ferior to t imothy is made .

Overripe m il l et should not be fed to horses .

5 5 501110 FARM HORSES 165°

Corn stover is a better feed than is general ly supposed,but it must be bright, c lean and wel l cured .

I f allowed to stand in the fi eld for months, the topsand leaves being exposed to the weather, it becomesunfit for fodder. On the other hand, if stored in thebarn w hen damp, it is qu ite certain to mold, and iffed in th is condit ion will bring on trouble— digest ive and nervous disorders . Corn stover is not awel l-balanced food . I t carries l itt le protein andmuch of the carbohydrates . W ith it should go someoats, or oats and corn, or corn and bran, or cornand bran and one of the oil meals .

The truth of the matter is, it does not matter verymuch what kind of roughage is fed to horses, prov iding the roughage is wel l cured, free from dust,and wholesome . A n important th ing is to provideconcentrates that wil l carry the nutrient or nutrients lacking in the roughage but which are abundantly suppl ied in the concentrates . Thus, if legumehays are fed the concentrates need not be h igh inprotein, and if the roughage is of a carbonaceousnature, l ike t imothy or corn stover, some coneentrate l ike bran or oil meal should be introduced intothe rat ion .

Grain Feeds for Horses .—It used to be thought

that oats were indispensable for horses . There seemsto be some const ituent of th is grain that gives met

tle and energy. For horses of the roadster type and

those where quick act ion is demanded, oats should

be,and no doubt wil l cont inue to be, a princ ipal partof the rat ion, but for farm work the value of oatsperhaps has been ov erestimatedl Many tests have


been conducted in which various feeding stuffs havebeen compared, and the oats theory has been overthrown . I t is not so much the kind of concentrate,but rather that the grain port ion shal l contain thedigest ibl e nutrients in the best balance and thatthey be of an easily digest ible nature .

Indian corn shares with oats popularity as a horsefood . Corn is a very concentrated food, is heat ing,but deficient in muscle- forming elements . If fedin combinat ion with t imothy or corn stover, too little protein wil l be provided . Concentrates of an itrogenous nature, therefore, should be admitted tothe rat ion . Oats then may be used, or bran, or theoil meals, indeed pract ical ly any commercial concentrated feed . Bran and oil meal are laxat ive, andare part icularly good when succulence otherwise isnot to be had . These may be giv en in smal l quant it ies dai ly, or fed in larger quant it ies tw o or three

t imes a week . Both are extremely valuable art ic lesfor horses and may be fed either dry or in mashes .

When fed as mash once a week, night i s the bestt ime,preferably be fore a day of rest .

Barley is a princ ipal grain food for horses in manyparts of the world . In some of the great breedingstables barley and oats are ground together in proport ions varying with the season and fed to stal l ionsand mares . Cottonseed is s imilar in its chemicalcomposit ion to l inseed meal,but is more h ighly concentrated and contains more protein . I t should befed with caut ion, one or tw o pounds a day, andnev er to exceed three or four pounds . This concen

trate is coming more and more into favor,but some


the same mixture as at noon . A fter the horse hasfinished th is grain rat ion let him have some t imothyand clover hay in addit ion ; no more than what hewill eat up clean should be given .

What has been said in reference to roughage andgrain materials wil l apply as well to the feeding ofthe stal l ion as to work horses . The stal l ion should

$ 1 11 1. 1o 5011 FARM 05 5

not be overfed but kept in good flesh and in trimcondit ion . Exerc ise is necessary . During the service period he should have a large box stal l whereinhe will have freedom to move around, and should beexerc ised out in the Open air a hal f hour each day .

Light w ork in harness or in the field is not objectionable. This wil l keep the stal l ion quiet, makeh im doc ile and contribute to vigor and health .

FEEDING FARM 1101155 5 169

Fattening Horses for Market .— The number of

horses sold annual ly is large in the aggregate . Theanimals are col lected from al l over the countryone from this farm, one from that, from th is placeand that . A t last al l are brought together, whencethey are sent to the larger markets in great numbers . Every farmer who has sold a horse knows

Houses 8 551 WHEN FAT

When horses are to be sold they should be fat and s leek . The cost of laborand feed w i l l be many t imes returned.

that each brings a better price i f fat than i f poor .A fatten ing rat ion, therefore, wil l be profitable fora considerable period be fore the t ime set for thesale . Horses wil l gain from three to fiv e poundsdai ly for tw o or three months if properly fed .

A common fattening rat ion cons ists of barley,sugar beets, corn meal and bran . The sugar beetsare mixed with barley, 2 5 pounds of beets to abushel of barley . This mixture is boiled unt i l soft .

170 115 501110 FARM AN IMALS

To every three pounds of this mixture tw o poundsof corn meal and three pounds of bran are added andfed warm, mixed with an equal bulk of clean- cuthay . In addition to th is, a p int of l inseed oil mealis fed . A s much salt and water as the fattening an imal rel ishes are given . If roots are not avai lab l e,then a few pounds of s ilage will do . In place ofbarley, oats may be subst ituted, but corn shouldcompose a large part of the rat ion . G ive freely ofthe grain mixture . While not st int ing in roughagematerials, these should be held down to the min imum. A horse will fatten most rapidly on the grain .

Feeding Mules .—There is a prevail ing not ion that

mules eat l ess than horses . R i ley, after a long ex

perience with thousands of army mules, maintainsthat “ a mule requires just as much as a horse ofs imilar dimensions .” In fact, at hard work, R i leysays “

that the mule wil l eat more than the horsewill or can . In general, an an imal that eats l ittleis a poor animal, regardless of its class or k ind . Themule wil l manage to get along on poor feed givenat i rregular intervals,but this neglect is manifest inits condit ion and efiiciency. What has been saidabout feeding work horses appl ies to mules .Good Rations Commonly Used.

—The followingrat ions are in common use at various t imes and invarious sect ions of the country :

1 . Timothy hay, 12 pounds corn meal, 1 1 poundsmalt sprouts, 5 pounds .

2 . Red c lover hay, 8 pounds ; oat straw, 6 pounds ;corn meal, 1 2 pounds ; wheat middl ings, 6

pounds

CHAPTER XVII

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE

Food Requirements of Dairy Cattle.—The Wolfi

Lehmann standards for feeding the various classesof dairy animals are shown in the table below . Theyindicate the amount of food required forpounds l ive weight, and are for growing cattle andfor cows yielding varying qual it ies of milk .

WOLFF-LEHMANN STAN DARDS FOR FEEDING DAIRYCATTLE

D lg es tlble nutr ien ts

K ind of cattle

G row ing cattleA ge inmon ths Weigh t

2 to 3 1503 to 6 300

6 to 12 5001 2 to 18 700

18 to 24 900

M ilk ing cow s

w hen y ie ldingda i ly:pounds m i lkpounds m i lkpounds m i lk

The Milk-Yielding Function .—In milk product ion

some breeds have become markedly spec ial ized .

The funct ion of giv ing milk is natural with them,

but it has been artificially developed . During the

172

5 5 501010 DAIRY CATTLE 173

lapse of the centuries, cows have been saved for thedairy because of thei r tendency to give much milkor milk of a rich qual ity . The milk-yielding capacity of the breeds was not ach ieved in one generat ion, or in tw o, nor can it be discarded readily onceit has become habitual to the breed, the strain, orthe individual .To the pract iced eye there are several indicat ionsof milky tendency in dairy cows . These are known

T1111 MlLK -YiELDlNG Fuucr lou Bxsmpu nm

Th is Jersey cow comes from a long l ine of mi lk producers . it is as natural for her to give milk a it is for her to eat.

to be the wedge—l ike shape of the body when ob

served from front, s ide or rear ; the width betweenthe eyes ; the fine, narrow forequarters and broadspacious h ind quarters ; springing ribs, long andwide apart the refined femin ine countenances ; thehai r, s ilk- l ike and smoothly laid on the skin,which,itsel f, is fine, mellow, and soft to the touch . Inaddit ion to these characterist ics the stomach should


be prominent, the udder large and neither flabby norfleshy,with medium large teats, evenly set ; and extending forward along the abdomen should be not iced strong, tortuous milk veins, which, carriedinternally, are admitted by means of large milkwells . These external traits are just opposite to

those that mark the best types of the beef breeds .What Influences Milk Formation —The milkyielding funct ion is hereditary to a certain extent .

Certain breeds and certain strains of these breedspossess the abil ity to yield much milk and to transm it this characterist ic to their offspring. Otherbreeds yield very l ittl e milk, and no manner of careor feeding will largely increase the amount orchange the character of its qual ity . Therefore, itcan be said with certainty that the influences backof heavy milk format ion are the breed and the indiv iduality of the cows of the breed .

Some breeds rank h igh as milk producers inrespect to quant ity, others in respect to qual ity ;but in both classes much variat ion is noted . Amongdairy cows there remain large numbers that are useless as milk producers, and their product ion returnsin money are less than the cost of keeping them .

In t ime the milk scales and Babcock test will pointthese out and they wil l be discarded from the dai ryherds .How Often to Milk .

—The custom of milkingtwice a day has become fixed, and no marked ad

vantage is secured when the number of milkings isincreased . Experience and experiments show thatthree milk ings a day increase the amount of m ilk

176 5 5 501110 FARM AN IMALS

What Influences the Quality of Milk —So far asthe quest ion can be dec ided, the influences that bearmost on the qual ity of milk are breed, heredityand inherent funct ional capac ity . It used to bethough t that the kind of food, the care, and the surroundings influenced the qual ity of milk . When putto actual test th is was proved to be incorrect . Thequant ity of milk, on the other hand, may be, andcommonly is, influenced by the amount and natureof the food, the treatment bestowed, and the attent ion given to al l details of dairy management .

The condit ion of the mammary gland wil l havemuch to do with a heavy milk yield . If its capac ityis l imited, natural ly the results w il l be apparent. Its

efficiency is dependent upon the food digested andass imilated . If the food provides the various nutrients abundantly and in favorable balance to meetthe needs of the body and of milk product ion, thequant ity of milk wil l reach the maximum possibil it ies of the mammary gland and the qual ity wil l bein accordance with the funct ional nature of thisorgan . From th is it fol lows that the qual ity of milkof a given cow is without spec ial variat ion,but that

the quant ity wil l be dependent on food and treat

ment .

In th is connect ion it may be said that certainfoods influence the milk yield . Unappet iz ing andi l l- smel l ing foods depress milk secret ion, although

they normal ly provide the nutrien ts abundantly .

The same foods set be fore the cows in more appc

tiz ing and tempt ing ways often cause an increasedflow

,although no more provender is consumed .

115 501110 DAIRY CATTLE 177

The appet ite has a direct connect ion with the udder.

Cows that are annoyed by fl ies and other insects,or that are chased about by dogs or other tormentors, wil l yield milk less in quant ity, and, perhaps,poorer in qual ity,than if they are placed under morecomfortable and agreeable condit ions . Dairymenare more and more real iz ing the importance of thesefacts in pract ice,and are now giving much attent ionto the s imple details of cow comfort . A l ittle careat th is point assists each cow of a herd in givingmore milk .

Pastures Are Ideal Basic Rations.— In early

spring, cows are usual ly put out on the pastures asearly as there is food enough to support them . New

grass has general ly a very laxat iv e effect on the

cows, and if it alone is rel ied ou, it often has a verybad effect . This can be avoided by feeding onlypart ial ly on grass, complet ing the rat ion throughthe use of both hay and concentrates . In a shortt ime cows become accustomed to grass, on whichthey may then be left to subsist ent i rely .

Pasture grass is one of our best foods . It i s succulent, fresh and appet iz ing, and possesses a h ighnutrit ive value . The splendid results obtained byhaving cows at pasture is not solely because the

food i s unusual ly wel l ut i l ized over winter rat ions,but because it i s rich in nutriment . It ranks with

the cereals, and everyone knows how effect ive suchfeeds are in milk product ion .

No doubt more protein is consumed than cows requ ire when feeding on pasture,but this cannot beavoided unless the daily graz ing period is limited


given, but in case more is fed, gluten, cottonseedmeal or bran should be used in a mixture with corn .

S i lage is a valuabl e summer feed and frequently isfed in summer . It is fed in the stable after milkingand before the cows are turned out to pasture . One

feed a day wil l be sufficient .

When Pastures Are Short and Parched.—During

the hot days of late summer the pastures often become parched, dry and scanty . A t th is t ime great

MArsons or 1 115 Du st Hu n

care is needed in managing the dairy herd. Unlesssupplementary food to the pastures is fed the cowsare sure to drop off in their milk flow, and oncedown it is a diffi cult task to get them back to the

point at which they were, and then only after feed

ing l iberal ly with grain .

The short-pasture problem may be overcome byproviding soil ing crops l ike green corn, mil let,al fal fa, and corn si lag e . If a patch of corn be


p lanted on warm land as early in the spring as theweather wil l permit and planted th ickly, by July agreat abundance of green forage will be avai lablefor green feed . This may be fed in the field in racks,or on the grass, or in the stable mangers . A verylarge amount of succu lent food can be provided inth is way at no great expense .

The barnyard mil l ets make excel lent green forage . They are usual ly ready by late July or earlyAugust . If alfal fa is grown, a good soil ing crop isat hand when needed . Corn silage is coming moreand more to be depended upon for such crit ical periods during the summer season and early fal l . Wheremany cows are kept the s ilo is almost indispensable .

Let the Feeding Standards Serv e as Guides.- In

the product ion of milk in winter the outlay neces

sary for food is much greater than in summer . Not

only is much home-grown roughage consumed bycows,but large quant it ies of grain also . In sect ionswhere much corn and alfal fa are grown the feedingof dairy cows is simple but in the more importanteastern dairy sect ions, where corn, i f grown at all,is grown largely for s ilage, and l ittle if any al falfaor clover is raised, the problem of feeding cows inw inter economical ly call s for great skil l, close studyandcorrect use of the feed .

The most accurate means of determin ing the ra

t ion that any class of cow s needs is by calculat ionbased upon the feed ing standards . There is more tothe balanced rat ion than is usual ly credited . If aninsufficiency of prote in is contained in a given ra

t ion, the cow , if she is possessed of a milk-yielding


tendency,W 111 be forced to rob her own body to oh

tain it . Hence, she wil l lose in flesh and her vitality wil l be lowered . On the other hand, i f providedwith al l the protein she requ ires and at the samet ime i f she is fed more carbohydrates and oils thanare needed, she wil l lay on fat, and sooner or laterwil l yield less milk . If fat is deposited in the mammary glands, milk secret ion is certain to be d is

AN lusxrsusw s Covsaen 8 111111 1 11110

The covered barnyard is valuable for preserv ing manure. and it sflords

she lter and protect ion during the w inter season . The idea is Inst becouing popular on dairy farms .

turbed and a maximum product ion of milk, for thatlactat ion period, at l east, impossible to be obtained .

Producing Milk Econom ically.— In a general way

the product ion of milk economical ly wil l be dependent upon h igh- producing cows and cheap homegrown feeds . On most dairy farms the food raisedis of a roughage nature, but j ust as much of th isroughage material as the cows wil l eat up clean at

al l t imes should be put before them . I f the l egume


less of d igest ibl e protein is recommended,andmanyAmerican invest igators hold to the same view. Thesuggested change in th is respect i s of no great consequence, even though the maximum amount of

prote in is generously suppl ied . If l egumes and pastures enter into the rat ions,an oversupply of d igest ible protein i s eas ily poss ible, but it should be re

membered that when so nourished the cows giveforth the ir best product ion . If protein has a stimul at ing effect on the mammary glands, as many hold,a generous supply is to be preferred to even a sl ightdeficiency.

FEEDING DA IRY COWS IN .WINTER

Nature of‘

the Food.—The kind of food for feed

ing cows in milk wil l, of course, be much governedby the product ion in any given local ity . The aimwil l be to feed approximately a balanced rat ion . On

th is point divergence of opin ion is not great . Wherefert i l ity is in equil ibrium the aim of the dairymanshould be to grow, as far as may be pract icable, thefood needed on h is own farm . He can, of course,grow his own carbohydrates and fat, and more andmore the legumes wil l be introduced into the

cropping system on dairy farms . In th is way it wil lbe possible to obtain much of the prote in at home .The concentrates that wil l be used wil l be purchased largely because of their strength in protein,and wil l be bought as balanc ing materials and not

as bas ic fundamentals of the rat ion .

Foods That A ll May G row .— A few foods may be

looked upon as standard in feeding dairy cows .

FEEDING DAIRY 185

N early every dairyman can grow these, regardlessof h is location, and because they are standard foodshe ought to try to grow them . These include, asroughage, plants of the clover family, al fal fa, corns i lage, soy beans, cowpeas, corn, peas and oats . Ou

every dairy farm there should be a permanent pasture, and th is should be intel l igently handled, that it

Tunnen 001 5011 Ex5 11015 5

Dairy cows w il l be most healthy when g iven the run of s pasture duringsummer and fresh air and exercise during p leasant weather in winter.

may improve steadily . If the pasture land is l imited, then some soil ing crops should be introduced .

These include rye, peas and oats, al fal fa, clover,cowpeas, soy beans, green corn, millet and otherc rops of local adaptat ion .

A l iberal supply of these feeds is indispensable

for milk or butter. On too many farms there isfrequently a shortage of hay, s ilage, or dry prov

186 175 501110 FARM AN IMALS

ender. When these are grown insufficiently,e ither the cows are den ied ful l rat ions or else purchased feed must be resorted to. O rdinarily the

h igh prices of these absorb the greater part of the

profits of the dairy business . On farms where thenormal supply of roughage is not equal to the re

quirement of the stock, it would be wiser, safer andbetter to dispose of the l east product ive cows, be

S ILAGE 0115 or 0011 BEST DA IRY F5 505When feed is h igh. s ilage is practical ly indispensable in de ifying . For

w inter feeding it is 5 fair subst itute for summer pas ture, for corn ens iledis more sppetizinz then if fed dry and in the rough .

stowing on the remain ing ones more care and feeding them more generously on the roughage material

at hand.

Next to the legumes no food is grown that prov ides so large a proport ion of desirable nutrients ascorn preserved in the s ilo . The nutrients in silage

are very appet iz ing for winter feeding . Moreover.


Cereal grains are often fed dai ry cows, corn moreso than other cereals . On farms where al fal fa andclover form the bulk rat ion, corn may be fed if itsmarket value is on a level with better—class mealsand other grains . If corn s ilage be fed in connect ionwith t imothy or mixed grasses and corn stover, cornwil l not be a desirable food . There will be wantedin th is instance and in others l ike it, concentratesl ike oil meal,wheat bran ,gluten, dist il l ers

’ grains orother concentrates of which protein is the p redom inat ing factor.G rain and Quality of Butter .—The character of

the food frequent ly influences the qual ity of the butter. The white, hard, tasteless character of winterbutter results from the food given . Fresh pasture,bright l egume hays, corn si lage and soil ing cr0psgive color to the milk and to butter . G luten or cornproduces a soft butter . W

'

heat bran makes a harderbutter than e ither . Ifmuch of gluten is introducedinto a rat ion, the butter wil l be soft,but its hardnessmay be improved by the use of cottonseed meal, afeed that makes a very hard butter . By mixing the

tw o, a better grade of butter wil l be obtained than ife ither is used alone . A pound or tw o of cottonseedmeal when the cows are on pasture helps to counteract the object ionable softness of butter during thepasture season .

FEEDING YOUNG DAIRY STOCK

During the First W inter .—Calves dropped in thespring and early summer wil l be growing n icely bythe time they are put up in their winter quarters . A


difference of Opin ion st il l obtains as to whether it isbetter to raise young calves intended for the dairyon skim milk or on whole milk during the first fewmonths of their l ives . The skim-milk rat ion is, ofcourse, the less expensive and many of the bestdairymen bel ieve it develops the best calves . They

Plcxsn Our 5011 1 115 DA IRYThese young calves have been led sk im m ilk in wh ich has been placed 5

smel l quantity of oil meal . G round oats is to be added to the ration .

claim that the calves so fed are stronger and possesslarger capacity for digest ing rough feed subse

quently . Whichever claim is nearest to being correct, it is a fact that most dairy calves are now raisedon skim milk or milk subst itu ges .

In e ither method, the calves should be early ac

customed to eat ing grain,grass,and later in the fal l,


some kind of legume hay . They wil l then go intowinter sturdy individuals able to render a good se

count of the feed g iven them . The spring-borncalves need no longer be given milk, though theymay have it if it is plent iful . The fal l calves, however, should not have the ir supply cut off i f th is can

be avoided . Let both classes have al l the hay they

wil l eat up clean . It is poor economy to l imit their

roughage supply . You want b ig stomachs, large

frames, and vigorous individuals . There is noth ing

so good as a plent iful supply of good legume hayto get these results .

Satisfactory Grain Mixture .—Many young calves

are wintered without grain, but such a method is

not to be recommended . Some grain is necessary

if steady growth is sought . A mixture of coarse

corn meal three parts,wheat bran one part, and l inseed oil meal one part wil l give very sat isfactoryreturn s . The grain is to be given in tw o feeds,morn ing and even ing . Hay may be put in the man

gers both morn ing and n ight, and at noon also if

conven ient .

This plan of feeding may be fol lowed throughout

the winter, the amount of grain being gradual lyincreased as the calves grow . In the spring the

same precaut ion in accustoming the an imals to pas

ture should be observed as for the milk cows . Whensafely settl ed on grass the grain rat ion should be

gradual ly decreased unt i l a smal l amount is fed, or

none at al l . The govern ing factors wil l be the kindand character of the pasture .


The Practice of Dishorning. is to be encouraged,as cows seem to give more milk and are more safelyhandled .

The Tuberculin Test, consistently emp loyed,wi l leradicate tubercu losis from a herd . I t has no effecton the yield of milk and butter fat .

WArsa Avmu et s Au . 1 115 T114 5

Dslry cows require an abundance of weter, end they want it fresh and

elem . in the w inter they should not be required to drink ice water.

The Herd Bull should not be permitted to run inthe pastures with the cows, as is the custom onmany farms . Much exerc ise is advisable and maybe provided for by run lots,moderate work in spec ialinstances, and in the use of chain and ring attachedto cable . The bull may be stab led in stal l or boxstal l in the same building with the cows, or kept ina smal l outside building where she lter is avai lab le.

FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 193

In a small run connected with the bui lding freedomand exerc ise may be had . Food, s imilar in characterand amount to that given the cows, usual ly is fed .

Nutrit ious roughage and succulent food should besuppl ied generously, and may form the bulk of the

rat ion . During the period of greatest service, richfood of a protein character should be fed l iberal ly .

The Order of Supplying the Food wil l vary as c ircumstances arise . Certain foods, l ike cabbage, s ilage and turn ips,will be less l ikely to taint the milkif fed after milking . G rain may be given just be foreor some t ime previous to milking. In the case ofhay less trouble wil l follow from dust and odors i ffed after milking . The following order is fol lowedon many up- to-date dairy farms :Mi lk ing, first ; thenthe grain feeding ; then silage or roots ; stab le cleaning whil e the cows are watering ; fol lowing th iswork come hay feeding and grooming. I f the

weather is pleasant, the cows are turned out for exercise and morning air . Towards evening the cowsare watered, fed grain, milked, fed the s ilage orroots, and then are given their final supply of hay.

SOME SAMPLE RATIONS

For Dairy Calv es .

Provide a grain mixture consist ing of ground oatsand corn meal, each three parts, and oi l mealand bran, each one part .

In summer : Keep on pasture and give about 2

pounds of the mixture to s ix-month calves, 3pounds to yearl ings and 4 pounds to those 18months old if pasture is short .


In winter :Cont inue the grain mixture,giving theyearl ings 4 pounds and those 18 months old6 pounds . Let them have al l the al fal fa,clover or cowpea hay they will eat up clean .

Cow s in Summer

G ive run of pasture .If pasture is very short, as calving t ime ap

proaches feed from 1 to 3 pounds of brandaily .

Cow s in Winter

Clover, al fal fa or mixed hay, 15 pounds ; corns ilage, 20 pounds .

2 . A ll hay and stover cow s wil l eat . A s parturi

t ion approaches use up to 3 or 4 pounds ofwheat bran, beginn ing at 1 pound dai ly at

first .

Cow s Yielding From 16 to 2 5 Pounds of MilkDaily :

1 . Corn s ilage, 40 pounds ; clov er hay, 15 pounds ;ground corn, 3 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 1

pound .

2 . Cowpea hay, 15 pounds ; corn stover, 10

pounds ; corn s i lage, 30 pounds ; cottonseedmeal, 2 pounds .

A l fal fa hay, 18 pounds ; corn s ilage, 35 pounds .Corn stover, 15 pounds ; corn meal , 1 pound ;l inseed meal, 2 pounds ;wheat bran ,5 pounds ;cottonseed meal, 2 pounds .

5 5 501110 DAIRY 04 1 1 5 5 197

Corn silage, 40 pounds corn stover,7 pounds ;wheat bran, 5 pounds ; dried brewers

’ grain,

5 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds .

6. A l fal fa hay, 20 pounds ; corn meal, 8 pounds ;cottonseed meal, 2 pounds .

A lfal fa hay or clover hay, 15 pounds corn sil

age, 20 pounds ; bran, 3 pounds ; l inseed oilmeal, 2 pounds ; ground oats, pounds ;hominy feed, pounds ; gluten feed, 5pounds .

8 . Clover,al fal fa or cowpea hay, 10 pounds ;greencut com , 40 pounds ; hominy feed, 5 pounds ;cottonseed meal, 1 pound ; dist i l lers

’ grain, 8pounds .Corn silage, 35 pounds ; clover hay, 9 pounds ;corn, 5 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 2 pounds ;bran, 2 pounds .M ixed hay, 15 pounds ; dried beet pulp, 4pounds ; gluten feed, 2 pounds ; cottonseedmeal, 2 pounds ; corn meal, 2 pounds .

CHAPTER XVI II

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE

Food Requirements for Beef.—The Wolff-Lehmann standards for feeding the various classes of cat

tle are shown in the table below . They indicate

the amount of food requ ired per pounds l iveweight and are for both growing and fatten ing beefan imals .

WOLFF-LEHMAN N STANDARDS FOR FEEDING BEEF CATTLE

D ig es t ible nutr ien ts

Carbo Nutri t iv eK indof catt le mat ter Prote in hydrates Fat rat io

G row ing cat t leA g e inmon th s We igh t2 to 3 603 to 6 3 306 to 1 2 55012 to 18 7 5018 to 24 950

Fatten ing catt leF irs t eriodS econ p er iodTh i rd period

Wild Cattle Are Seldom Fat . —Animals in a wildstate are not eas ily fattened . I t has taken many centuries of careful select ion and breeding to bring thecatt l e of the plains or the lowlands or the mountainsup to a point at which they will l ay on gains rapidlyand at a reasonable cost . It has been the work of

200 FEEDIN G FARM AN IMALS

and then fattened . The new idea is to grow beef.Young animals are now brought to maturity andfin ish at as early an age as poss ible . If steers canbe brought by l iberal treatment to marketablew e ight at 12 or 18 months old the amount of foodconsumed wil l be smal ler than if tw o, three or moreyears are spent in attain ing the same weight . Thusthe food that would have been consumed for animalheat and energy during the longer period can besaved .

Oi course only a good class of cattle can be choseni f th is style of beef making is to be fol lowed . Therewil l be no place in it for scrub an imals . Only h ighlybred individual s possessing good qual ity, goodhealth,and right type can be used to win in this raceof quick fin ish . But it is obvious that when steerscan be b rought to market condit ion at an early agethe profit can be greatly increased .

This method of bee f raising means more than theselection of an imals having a disposit ion to fatten .

I t requ ires more on the part of the feeder, and alsobetter feeds, prepared in appet iz ing forms and socompounded as to meet the food requirements atevery stage of growth .

GOOD AND BAD BEEF STOCK

Character of a Good Steer .—The steer that wil lfatten readily is low- set, deep, broad andcompact, rather than long- l egged,gaunt,narrow andloosely put together. The broad,compact form indicates good const itut ion . Low- set an imals are usu

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 2 01

ally good feeders . The top and the under l inesshould be nearly paral lel . Prominent h ips, tai l,headand shou lders should be avoided, as smoothness ofout l ine is essent ial .Good qual ity is indicated in a smooth, refined

head, fine bones, and th in skin, with a covering ofs ilk- l ike hair. The skin should be loose and mel low .

A 8 5 5 5 51 5 5 11 or c u QUAU TY

This m in e! is Bisck Rock. the grand chsmpion steer of the 1905 internstionsl l ive stock show . He was s good feeder and rendered s sp lendidsecount of sll the feed he consumed.

Strong const itut ion is indicated by a wide, deepchest, long and well-sprung ribs, compactness ofform and fineness of bone .

Tw o Classes of Beef Animals.— It i s obvious that

l ean feed ing an imals that have depended on scantpastures require a difl'erent rat ion when put in thefeed lot than those in moderate condit ion . In the

thin stock the fibers of the flesh need development


i n order that fat may be stored 10 between andamong them . Such an imal s require a feeding periodof three or four weeks, in wh ich a greater quan t ityof prote in wil l be given than later on .

A fter th is prel iminary feeding the proport ion ofcarbohydrates and fats may be increased . A l imitas to the amount of fat, however, is to be observed .

When more than a couple of pounds of digest ibl e

ROUGH F5 505 115

Poor stock snd poor feed, w ithout exception, mesn poor fu ming.

fat are taken into the system, the appet ite and thedigest ion are disturbed . A rat ion contain ing from apound to a pound and a hal f is to be preferred to onecontain ing tw o pounds of fat or more .Nature of the Ration .

—During the period ofgrowth and approach of fatten ing the amount ofroughage food may be considerable . This wil l decrease as the fatten ing period advances, and moreof the concentrates wil l be introduced to meet the

changing needs of the fattening rat ion . For inten

s ive feeding the coarse fodders, l ike stover andstraw ,must give way to the legume hays and grain .


of larger frame than the whole milk fed cal f. VVhichever method is followed, in either case the calvesshould be grained in accordance with their needswhi le on the milk diet . They should be fed grainjust as soon as they will take it .The Skim Milk Calf should have oi l meal added

8 5 1 501 50 5011 BABY 8 5 5 5These cslves ere resdy to lstten for bsby beef. We li-bred indiv idusls of

good form end quslity ere necesssry for success in th is k ind of feeding.

to its mi lk diet wh ile the change from whole to skimmilk is under way . A t fi rst a very smal l amount,as l ittl e as a tablespoon ful, may be given . Thisquant ity wil l be increased when whole milk is nolonger given, and sti l l further increased as the cal fgrows older and larger .

5 5 501110 05 5 5 CATTLE 205

These calves should be on pasture,be fed oil mealand skim milk twice each day, have clean wateravailable for drink, and have placed be fore them amixture of other grains l ike cracked corn, wheatbran and ground oats . I f encouraged they wil l atfirst n ibble th is ; in t ime they will eat it greedily .

0000 VEALVesl calves sel l st good prices, but they w ithdraw vest numbers from the

supply of svsilsble cattle stock .

But so fed they wil l show steady growth and carrygood flesh .

Calv es on Whole Milk wil l show fine flesh at

wean ing t ime . I f allowed to run with their dams ongood pasture,but l itt le addit ional food than the milkwill be necessary . It is an excel lent pract ice, however, to encourage whole milk calves to eat grain

206 5 5 501110 FARM 4 11 111715 5

as soon as they wil l take to it . G round oats, branand corn comprise a mixture that always fetchesgood results . Whole milk calves when separatedfrom the ir mothers should have the run of

,a good

pasture, and the grain m ixture should be fed in increased quant it ies right up to wean ing t ime . Ord inarily no mishaps wil l occur,and after be ing weanedthe calves wil l hold the ir flesh and keep on gain ingsteadily .

Making Veal .—While much veal is made fromfeeding skim milk and milk subst itute grains, undoubtedly the h ighest qual ity of veal is obtainedby exclus ive whole milk feeding. The calf is e itherleft with its dam or is early taught to drink milkfrom the pail . I f the latter method is fol lowed, itmay be given al l the milk it wil l consume . If for

any reason addit ional food is given, let it be of aneas ily digest ible nature, and reasonably h igh in pro

tein . In other words, the nearer it resembles milk

the better.

Veal calves shou ld be comfortably housed and re

stricted in thei r freedom of running about . Much

exerc ise cal ls for much food,hence makes more difficu lt the work of fi tting for the market . A n increase

of 1% to 2% pounds in l ive weight should be ex

pected daily . Ord inari ly a gain of one pound wil lbe made from each gal lon of milk consumed . Strong,sturdy calves will take from a gal lon to a gal lonand a hal f of milk soon after b i rth . This amount

should be increased steadily unt il a couple of gal lonsor more are daily consumed .

208 5 5 501110 FARM AN IMALS

amounts of grain . The prote in supply wi l l be keptup because of the rapid growth which cal ls for th isnutrient .Towards the c lose of winter the prote in requirements decrease markedly in proport ion to the l iveweight . Hence, the albuminoid rat io of the rat ionof growing beeves may be steadily widened to the

l imit ing value,which is in the neighborhood of onepart prote in to eight to ten of the carbohydrateequ ivalent . Let the food be amp le, so as to securegrowth,but not of such a character as to encouragetoo rapid fatten ing.

The best results wil l be secured during the calves’

first winter if al fal fa,clover,cowpea or soy bean hayis made the bas is of the rat ion . Let the calves haveabout al l they wil l eat . If corn silage is available,from 10 to 15 pounds may be fed daily . I f there isa tendency to scour under this feeding, l imit thel egume hay and s ilage and introduce a few poundsof t imothy, prairi e hay or corn stover. Calves fedin this manner should consume from 10 to 13 poundsof roughage daily .

A S for grain, nothing is better than corn, and part icularly so i f a legume hay is fed . From tw o to

four pounds may be fed each day . In case grasshays, corn stover and corn s ilage must be used forroughage, some prote in concentrate wil l be neces

sary in addit ion to corn . For th is purpose l inseedoil meal, cottonseed meal or soy bean meal maybe used . A pound or tw o of e ither,mixed with thecorn, wil l meet the requirements . Oats are good,but the price usual ly is against them .

5 5 501110 05 5 5 04 1 1 5 5 209

Finishing Beev es Under 18 Months.—When

calves are to be fin ished as baby beeves, their rat ionwil l take on more and more grain concentrates aswinter passes . Corn should be fed in l iberalamounts, from one-hal f to three-quarters of thegrain port ion consist ing of it . In case legumes are

PRIME 81 5 505

Ou many farms it is more profitable to carry the steers to greater sge thento market 53 baby beef. Th is is 5 bunch of prime steers .

largely fed, the grain port ion may cons ist largelyof corn,with enough oil meal or bran to give a safesupply of protein . In the absence of al fal fa, cloveror other legume hay, one of the oil meals should beused to the extent of 20 per cent of the grain .

The rat ion should be steadily increased to meetthe steady growth and weight taken on during the


several weeks of feeding. By spring these calves,now yearl ings, should weigh from 800 to

pounds and be in such good flesh that they may bemarketed in a very short t ime after be ing put ona fin ishing rat ion . If fin ished at once, the roughagewil l be decreased and concentrates proport ional ly

Hem) 05 Ancus m M1001. 5 W55 1

Beer rslsing hss long been popular in the middle west, where com , el iel ie.clever and other beef-grow ing crops flourish so sbnndsntly.

increased,but consist ing of the same or similar feeding stuffs as previously fed .

Baby Beev es Fin ished on Grass .— In case pasture

is abundant the grain can be fed less heavily during winter and the fin ishing of the calves ended afew weeks later on grass . Less grain wil l be re

qu ired under this plan during the winter . On grass,


pet itor wil l l imit the extent to which baby beef wil lbe produced .

\Vhen calves are fed that they may be ready formarket at or around tw o years of age, their firstwinter’s food should be of such a nature as to securefavorable growth and to keep them stead ily on thegain . The manner of feeding wil l depend on thenature of the roughage foods, as has been discussedheretofore . In the spring these calves wil l go ongrass, and i f the pasture is good, grain wil l ordinari ly not be fed . I f hot, dry weather cuts short thepasture, l ight grain feeding wil l be advisable . Theskil l ful farmer wil l watch these matters as theyarise and meet them in accordance with h is bestj udgment,which wil l be influenced very largely bythe amoun t, kind, and market value of the grain onhand, and the cost inc idental to obtain ing a supplyof commercial feeds .During the second winter the steers wil l be fedon hay, stover, and si lage if av ai lable, and grain .

The steers should be al lowed to eat al l the rough

age food they want . If al fal fa, clov er or otherlegume hay is fed, more corn in the grain mixture

may be used . In the absence of a legume hay thenprote in concentrates wil l be necessary . From tw o

to fiv e pounds may be fed daily at fi rst . The natureof the hay, the character of the cattl e, and the market price of feed,must al l be considered in decid ingthe kind and amount of each .

Fin ishing Tw o-Year-O lds on Grass .— In feeding

out steers that have passed through tw o winters andare in good flesh pastures are a great help . During

5 5 501110 05 5 5 CATTLE 2 13

the second winter grain wil l be fed rather l iberal ly .

By May or June such an imals ought to be of 5 marketable fin ish i f turned on good pasture and fedheavily on grain . Corn is sufiicien t on alfalfa ; but,pastured on mixed grasses, at least 10 per cent of

the grain should cons ist of oi l meal, cottonseed mealor gluten meal . Steers fed in this way should gaintw o pounds on the grain mixture .

CA11 1. 5 011

With corn snd elielie in abundance there is always profit in csttle rais ing .

Summer Feeding on G rass.—On many farms

early spring pasturing is delayed unt i l grass has attained a fine growth, and the sod has become dryenough after the spring rains to prevent injury from

tramping. During th is period the steers are con

t inned in the feed lot and fed silage, hay and grainin amounts l iberal enough to give a fai r rate of increase at a reasonab le cost . The steers are then puton pasture, the grain increased and a market fin ishobtained as early in the summer as possible .

2 14 5 5 501N0 FARM AN IMALS

Care wil l need to be exercised in changing fromdry feed to grass ; otherwise sh rinkage wil l be certain to follow . The steers should be turned on thepasture for a short t ime at fi rst,gradually lengthening the grazing period day by day . In th is mannerthey wil l become accustomed to grass and the r i sk

FAMlLIAR 805 115 011 1 115 810011 FARMGettle take the ir grsin from the feed box and the pigs gather up what

lslls to the ground. Usual ly no additional food is giv en the p igs other

then whet they gather from the waste and the dropp ings .

of scours wil l be min imized . An attack of scourswil l do much harm ; often it w i l l cause a loss of amonth or more in the steer’s growth .

Fall Feeding on G rass .— On many farms the older

beeves are pastured through the summer,with l itt leor considerable grain, as the case may be, and finished on new corn . The corn is hauled direct from


The in it ial cost is, of course, inconsiderable, andthe outlay for feed is pract ical ly noth ing. Duringfavorable seasons pastures may be good . Thenrapid increase wil l fol low as a certainty . Steersraised in this manner mature slowly,but they wil lnot have cost much . Even if they are three yearsold or more, the total cost wil l be at such a low

F5 501110 8 5 5 5 05 1 1 1 5 111 1 115 05 5 11

it used to be thought that steers were most profitsbly fattened when stsll

fed. it has been found that they do even better i! cared for in the open .

Many feeders prefer open sheds for feeding during inclement weather.

figure that some profit is bound to result . The fin

ishing period, prel iminary to gett ing ready forslaughtering,may be short or long. I t will dependsomewhat on the condit ion of the animals and thestate of the market . G iven the run of a good pas

ture, and suppl ied corn and other concentrates fora short period, a reasonable fin ish and often h ighlysat isfactory money results are to be expected .

5 5 501110 05 5 5 CATTLE 2 17

Often steers of th is nature are carefully and painstakingly fattened, and when sold bring the h ighestprices that the market pays .Fatten the Heifers Early.

— Heifer calves are verygood for baby beef. They natural ly take on fat andflesh, and if brought up to a marketable condit ionby the t ime they are a year or a year and a hal fold they wil l fetch as good prices as steers of thesame age . By turn ing heifers off as baby beevesannoyance from the period of heat is lessened .

Otherwise, unless spayed, he ifers wil l fret and disturb the rest of the herd periodical ly, and not attainbest development themselves . It fol lows that itmany such heifers are in a herd there wil l be continuous excitement and disturbance, which is badfor the ent ire bunch . I t means that the heifers mustbe separated as they come in heat i f the trouble isto be squarely faced ;but it i s a fact that few catt lemen do this . R idding the herd of these Open heifersat an early age as baby beeves seems to be a sensible and wise settlement of an annoying problem .

PROMINENT FEEDING STUFFS

Many Kinds of Roughage Foods .— Local condi

t ions will have much to do in the choice of roughage foods . The various hay crops, corn stover, fodder corn , and s ilage are al l v aluable at certainperiods of the steer’s growth . They wil l be used inscant or l iberal quant it ies, in accordance with thesupply and the general style of farming. Pasturese ither of a t emporary or a permanent nature w i l l go

2 18 5 5 501110 FARM ANIMALS

hand in hand with the forage crops grown on thefarm . The aim of the future should be to includethe legumes more and more,although the grass haysand the products of the corn plant wil l always occupy an important place in the food Supply for growing and fatten ing catt l e .

CHAMPlON 81 5 5 115

Th is csrlosd ol steers was swarded champ ion honors st 5 recent l ivestock show .

It is not so much what kind of roughage is to beused as it is that there be an abundance . W ith evenin ferior roughage it is possible to develop catt leeconomically i f good pastures are avai lable and protein concentrates in reasonable amount are fed . I t

should be remembered that i f there is much cornstover there is also much ear corn . This corn canbe fed or exchanged for other concentrates thatcarry large quant it ies of protein, to ass ist in balanc


glutens,and various by-products of starch and cerealfactories . It i s unnecessary here to record the longl ist of grain products that enter into the product ionof bee f. Some are local feeds ; some are proh ib it ivebecause of their value for other purposes ; and some,while good and available, are ordinarily outclassedas fatten ing foods because of the better qual it iesand larger supply of such grains and concentrates,as previously ment ioned .

Tu cx Com mvm cs 5011 8 5 501110 Cirru s

The grain is{repsred and mixed in the barn and lster de l ivered by means

or the track 5 11 cars to the feeding pens . in th is way much labor is saved.

Whether grains shal l be ground, crushed or fedwhole, or whether they shal l be fed on pasture orin the feed lot, in outside racks or in closed stal ls ,will depend upon circumstances, the management

of the farm and the nature of the man . What i smost important of al l is to grow as much corn ascan be profitably grown ; to grow as much roughageas the method of farming will admit, and to haveas much of th is of a legume nature as possible ; to

FEEDING BEEF CATTLE 2 2 I

use home-grown corn to feed in connect ionwith th isroughage ; and, finally, to supplement roughage andcorn with other concentrates purchased outright orsecured in exchange for corn and fed in such waysas wil l give balanced rat ions to meet the everchanging needs of the steers under feed .

SOME SAMPLE RATIONS

Maintenance Ration for Breeding Cows.

The fol lowing rat ions are for cows during the winter and without calves

1 . Corn s ilage, 20 pounds ; clover hay, 3 pounds ;oat straw, 10 pounds .

2 . Shock corn, 8 pounds ; clover hay, 3 pounds ;oat straw, 10 pounds .

3 . Shredded stover, 10 pounds ; clover hay, 5pounds .

Winter Yearlings With andWithout G rain.

1 . Corn silage, 15 pounds ; clover hay, 15 pounds .

2 . Clover hay, 10 pounds ; corn stover, 10 pounds ;corn , 3 pounds .

3 . Timothy hay, 8 pounds ; clover hay,8 poundscorn, 3 pounds .

4 . A l fal fa hay, 10 pounds ; corn, 5 pounds .

5. Cowpea hay, 10 pounds ; corn,5 pounds .

6 . Clover hay, 14 pounds ; corn, 3 pounds .

7. A l fal fa, 7 pounds ; corn stover,6 pounds ; corn ,

3 pounds .

2 2 2 FEEDING FARM ANIMALS

Rations for Fattening Steers.

1 . Shel led com , 2 1 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 2

pounds ; c lover hay,4 pounds ; corn s ilage, 15pounds .

2 . Corn, 2 2 pounds ; al fal fa bay, 5 pounds ; cornstover, 5 pounds .

3. Corn, 14 pounds ; alfal fa hay, 10 pounds ; cornstover, 7 pounds .

4 . Ear corn, 20 pounds ; gluten or oil meal, 3pounds ; clover hay, 8 pounds .

5. Ear com , 13 pounds ; oil meal, 2 pounds ; shockcorn, 15 pounds ; clover hay, 7 pounds .

6. Kafir com , 15 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 3

pounds ; cottonseed hull s, 13 pounds .

7 . Corn, 15 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 3 pounds ;mixed hay, 10 pounds .

8. Cottonseed hull s, 2 5 pounds ; cottonseed meal,6% pounds .

9. A l fal fa hay,9 pounds ; com , 18 pounds .

10. Corn s ilage, 2 4 pounds ; mixed hay, 5 pounds ;shel led corn, 15 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 2

pounds .

1 1 . Corn s ilage, 30 pounds ; shel led corn, 16

pounds cottonseed meal , 3 pounds .

1 2 . Cassava, 35 pounds ; peavine hay, 10 pounds ;cottonseed meal,4 pounds .

5 5 501110 5 115 5 5 2 2 5

Wool andMutton.—The food consumed by sheep

is used for both flesh and wool . Hence, these an imals have a doub le requirement to meet . Wool contains much n itrogen, and a sl ightly more l iberalsupply of protein is demanded than for e ither swineor beeves . Sheep, too, are very act ive creatures ;their body surface is proport ionately greater thanthat of beeves . Because of this they requ ire morefood, proport ionately .

The larger breeds of sheep require about onepound of digest ible protein to eight pounds of starchequivalent, the smal ler breeds sl ight ly more . Thewool growth becomes less act ive as the food supplyis reduced,but i f more food is given than the an imal has use for, the rate of wool growth wil l not beincreased.

Relativ e Economy of Sheep, Steers and Pigs.

Compared with swine, the sheep does not renderquite as good an account of its food as does the pigin fact, it requires nearly twice as much digest ibleorganic matter to produce 100 pounds of gain .

While th is is true,it is not to be forgotten that muchof the sheep ’s provender is in the form of hay orother roughage and of a nature that the p ig couldnot use . Pigs demand easily digested food,and thatlargely in the form of grain . From the point of

profit, therefore, the sheep is not at a d isadvantageat al l .Compared with steers, sheep have sl ightly the

better of it . N early 50 years ago Lawes and G ilbert determined that, covering a whole fatten ingperiod, a steer, to produce 100 pounds of increase,

2 26 5 5 501110 FARM 1111111 115 5

requires pounds of swedes, 600 pounds ofc lover hay and 2 50 pounds of oil meal . To producethe same increase these invest igators found thatsheep require pounds of swedes, 300 poundsof clover hay and 2 50 pounds of oi l meal . The advantage as between steers and sheep was sl ight lywith the latter.Wide Variety of Feed for Sheep.

—The variety of

8 115 5 5 8111105 111 1 11 5 Nonm wssr

foods su itabl e for feeding sheep is extens ive . Hay,straw,corn stover, roots of various kinds,corn, oats,peas, rye, buckwheat, cottonseed meal, l inseed oilmeal, and bran furn ish a variety from which aproper choice can readily be made . The relat ivefeeding values of these various substances used asfood wil l determine the relat ive money values, andas these di ffer and fluctuate from t ime to t ime, it is

2 28 FEEDING FARM AN IMALS

ing classes, and those rich m starch and oil selectedfor fatten ing. The protein supply shoul d be suffi

c ient, else the body will not be properly supported,wool growth will be checked,and the readiest digestionof the carbohydrates and fats w i l l not be secured .

This last point must always be kept in mind in feeding any class of l ive stock.

Much may be gained by varying or mixing thefood so as to st imulate the appet ite . A healthy sheepwil l increase in weight in proport ion to the foodconsumed only as long as digest ion and ass imilat ionare of a h igh order. If a sheep can be made to increase its diet by the addit ion of roots or appet iz ingconcentrates, a man ifest advantage is gained .

Roots Always Fine for Sheep .— Roots, a staple

food, are of the greatest value in winter feedingof sheep . When fed in proper quant it ies, the ir laxat ive effect heal th ful ly opposes the tendency of drystraw or hay to produce cost iveness . If fed in excess, the quant ity of water they contain and theirlarge bulk, espec ial ly when used in winter, reducethe temperature of the an imal considerably andgradually act un favorably on the health . Wateryfoods are not good for sheep . Sheep need succu

l ence,but roots and green crops should be considered as supplements only, and not as the basic port ions of the rat ion .

The roots most commonly fed are sugar beets,mangels, rutabagas and turn ips . Each kind is fav

orable in effect upon the qual ity of the wool . Thequant ity of roots to be given wil l depend on the

kind of sheep . A s a safe gu ide, it may be stated

FEEDING SHEEP 2 29

that one bushel of roots wil l be sufficient as a dailyal lowance for 10 sheep weigh ing 150 pounds each,i f along with the roots IV; pounds of hay and V2pound of meal or bran are given daily to each an imal .

Sheep Require Water.— During the summer sheep

frequent ly are put on pastures where water is notavailab l e . While they may be able to subsist under

TEMPORARY PASTURES BEST FOR SHEEP

If grazed over the same land year after year the pastures become infectedw lth paras ites . On permanent pastures sheep should be changed frequently.

Temporary pastures of t imothy and clover prov ide rlch forage end the

constant turning of the land by the plow keeps the paras ites in check .

these condit ions they often suffer, and even perish,from lack of water . So long as heavy dews gatheron the grass considerable water is taken into the

system and its demand is in th is way met,but in the

hot summer, when dews are infrequent or total lylacking and pastures are dry, there is a dec ided needfor water . This must be provided if sat isfactory


growth is to be secured . It i s an old fal lacy thatsheep do not need water .When Turning to Pasture .

—Change from dryforage to fresh pasture gradual ly. An afternoon isbest when no moisture is on the grass . A fter feeding on this pasture for a short t ime return the flockto the yard . Repeat in th is manner for a few days,and l ittle i f any digest ive disturbances wil l arise .

A fter four or fiv e days the sheep wil l become accustomed to green feed .

Proportion of G rain to Roughage .— Pract ical

feeders have found no defin ite rule to use in th is

matter . I f grain is abundant and hay scarce, moregrain is fed than when the opposite condit ion oh

tains . For economical gains the roughage materialwill be fed in as large quant it ies as the an imal s maybe induced to eat. Some grain, howev er, is neces

sary . The amount wil l vary from I% to 2 poundsof roughage to one pound of grain . Under averagefeeding condit ions about 300 pounds of grain and

500 pounds of roughage wil l be required to give100 pounds of increase . If on blue grass or rap epasture, about 175 pounds of corn should secure 100pounds of gain .

How Often to Feed Sheep.—Usually sheep,when

be ing fattened,are fed twice each day . S l ight ly better returns have been observed when three feeds areprovided . The gain is not l arge,but it i s frequentlysufficient to meet more than the cost in labor andtrouble .Feeding Corn in the Field.

—When sheep are at

pasture ear corn may be scattered about, tw o or


first rank, and are always to be preferred for lambfeeding, fattening ewes or wethers, or during the

lambing season . In their absence the mixed haysmay be used,but heavier grain feeding wil l be necessary,particularly at lambing t ime .Temporary Fences by Means of Hurdles.

— In

grazing forage crops l ike peas and rape, temporaryfences in the form of hurdles may be used. Thesehurdles are moved forward every few days, prov iding in th is way a strip of fresh pasture . Otherwise,if given the run of a field, much forage wil l be destroyed and soiled by tramping. Move the hurdlesbefore the eaten-over port ion has been cleaned up.

Putting Sheep on Full Grain Rations .— If grain

has been fed whil e sheep are at pasture, it i s aneasy matter to change from pasture to yard and puton fatten ing rat ions . Beginn ing with a fourth of apound of grain daily, the amount may gradual ly beincreased by a fourth of a pound the second week,and so on . A t the end of the fourth week the an imals should be clean ing up a pound or more of grain

each day . By the end of tw o months a daily al low

ance of IV; or 2 pounds may be fed . I t is seldomadvisabl e to feed more than tw o pounds of grain ahead daily . The good shepherd watches h is sheepand observes the fi rst indicat ion of bad appet ite .When not iced, he corrects the trouble at once .

Green Crops for Roughage .— Sheep are most at

home in pasture fields . They feed not only on the

tender grass blades,but they strip weeds and otherfoul plants of their l eaves and branches . They are

FEEDING SHEEP 2 33

on the same land in the same field year after yearwithout change the pastures become foul, diseaselurks in the soil and dangerous parasites accumul ate . For these reasons sheep should be changedfrequently from field to field, from year to year, andexcept in the case of wel l- estab l ished permanentpastures, crop rotat ion should be fol lowed so the

fields may be clean of d isease or paras ites and maybe ever fresh with new-growing grass crops .

Over a good part of the country t imothy andc lover,with red top and alsike or wh ite clover occasionally mixed, comprise much of the pasture land .

The prairie grasses of the west and Bermuda grassof the south take care of the local needs in theseparts of the country . Blue grass is the stand-by ofthe old grazing sect ions ; in addit ion to it othercrops may find place and may be profitably grown .

Rye seeded in August makes a fairly good pasturefor lambs and old sheep in the fal l . It will furn ishexcel lent grazing in the spring before the clovers,al fal fa and blue grass are avai lable .Some of the Best Grains .

—Corn stands first because it is so universal ly grown . I t i s well l iked bysheep and makes profitable gains. It may be fedin the husk,on the stalk, in the feed rack, in the field,crushed, ground or shel led . Some feeders disl iketo use corn when finely ground,because sheep eat ittoo greedily . Ear corn i s sat isfactory for winte r

yearl ings and ewes .

Oats are fed to some extent,but they should beground or crushed . They make excel lent feed fore ither lambs,or ewes in milk . Compared with many

2 34 FEEDIN G FARM AN IMALS

other feeding stuffs oats are rather expens ive, andfor th is reason they often give way to l inseed oilmeal, cottonseed meal, soy beans, and wheat bran .

Wheat bran, being bulky, i s splendid to use in a

mixture with the oil meals .Wheat screen ings,where availabl e, give good re

turns . Not many years back screen ings were aprinc ipal part of fatten ing rat ions . This food product has been very largely taken over by stock foodand commerc ial food factories, thus leaving only asmal l amount for sheep feeding. Screen ings are

Our AT PASTURB

The sheep have been kept thrifty by w ise feedlng and careful attention .

Both ev en and lamb. are together.

ground and mixed with various weed seeds and

other by- products of the cereal food factories . Theprice at which these foods are sold is h igh and usually out of proport ion to the price that sheep bringin the market .

With the breaking up of large flocks, sheep willbe raised more and more in smal l flocks on smallfarms of 50 to 100 acres . Ou such farms they will

have the run of the temporary pastures,w ill be fed

236 5 5 5mm FARM ANIMALS

Roots and succulent feeds are not essent ial insuccessfu l lamb feed ing. Experiments ind icate thatunder some condit ions these feeds may be detrimen

tal to the most economical gains . It is a mootedquest ion and wil l have to be worked out by everyfeeder. A wel l-balanced rat ion consist ing of hayand grain,plenty of water, regular feeding and comfortable quarters are the factors that produce nearlyal l the fat lambs . A l falfa is beyond quest ion thebest forage, but in its absence clover, cowpeas orother leguminous forage is a good subst itute andpract ical ly ind ispensable . I f such forage is not at

hand, then sugar cane, kafir corn, mil let or mixedhay, cut at the proper period and carefully cured,wil l give good gains, although more grain wil l benecessary .

The grain rat ion wil l consist largely of corn .

Cracked corn is usual ly preferred to whole corn .

Small amounts of oil meal, ground oats, or both,may be introduced into the rat ion with good effect ;i f a leguminous hay is not used,one of them shouldcertainly be added . Lambs should weigh about 60pounds when placed in the feed lot . A fter a feeding period of 60 to 90 days they should weigh from

90 to 95 pounds. Often heavier weights than theseare obtained, but when a lamb weighs more than

100 pounds he is l ikely to be d iscriminated againstby buyers and may possibly have to be sold for asheep instead of a lamb, at a lower price .Fattening G row n Sheep.

—The feeding of wethersor grown ewes for market does not differ much from

the method employed in fattening lambs. On some

FEEDING SHEEP 2 37

farms lambs are held over a season to ut i l izeplent iful pasture and to secure one or tw o woolc l ips . Such sheep also weigh more at market t ime,although they bring a smaller price per pound .

These older sheep,kept on good pasture throughoutthe summer and placed in the feed lot in winter,usual ly make excel lent use of grain and hay . Theymay be marketed during late winter or early spring.

P005 WAY 10 F5 50 8 3 5 5 ?

Ou many farms corn is fed to sheep on the ear and stalk . Th is la a

disappearing custom. When so fed a clean nature is the best p lace to

scatter the feed. Even then a large amount 0 fodder ls wasted, for sheepw i l l not eat what has once been run over.

Concentrated feeds are essent ial . They should beused in connect ion with bright, clean leguminoushays and so mixed with the hay as to give a wellbalanced rat ion . Corn, bran, ground oats, oil mealand cottonseed meal,are al l excel lent . During earlywinter, corn s ilage and al fal fa or clover hay may befed exclusively . In other cases fodder corn and


mixed hay may be used for roughage, with wheatbran and corn for grain,about V2 pound of a mixtureof corn and bran being given daily to each an imal .A s they plump up, the grain may be increased gradually, unt i l it reaches as much as tw o or even threepounds a day .

Where al fal fa or c lover is used, a !round of corndaily wil l be sat isfactory . If al fal fa or clover isfreely used and corn is relat ively low in price andhay h igh, then cut down the al lotment of hay andfeed one or tw o pounds of corn daily. Where somegrass hay or corn stover, shredded or unshredded,is the only source of roughage, bran and one of theoil meals should be used in addit ion to the corn . If

fed throughout the winter in this manner, a heavywool cl ip may be secured the fol lowing spring beforethe an imals are marketed . Thus sat isfactory profitswil l ord inarily be secured .

SOME SAMPLE RATIONS

For LambsWeighing 50 to 60 Pounds .

The fol lowing rations, in common use, secure satisfactory gains . The amount of feed here suggested is for flocks of 50 and the daily al lowance for al l °

1 . Mixed hay, 50 pounds ; roots, 50 pounds com ,

45 pounds oats, 6 pounds .2 . Mixed hay, 50 pounds ; roots, 50 pounds ; bran ,

2 5 pounds ; l inseed meal, 20 pounds ; cottonseed meal, 15 pounds .

3 . Cottonseed hul ls, 60 pounds ; cottonseed meal,40 pounds .


Hay, 1% pounds, and corn 1 to 3 pounds eachdai ly .

4 . Free use of al fal fa or clover and 1 pound ofcorn daily when grain is cost ly and hay relat iv ely cheap . If the reverse, l imit the hayand feed from 1 to 2 pounds of corn daily .

For Ew es w ith Lambs at Side .

1 . Corn s i lage, 4 pounds mangels or other roots,1 pound ; and IV; pounds of mixed grain, consist ing of a mixture of 100 pounds of bran,30 pounds of ground oats, 45 pounds ofcracked oil cake, and 2 5 pounds of corn .

2 . A l fal fa or clover hay, 2 pounds ; corn, 1 poundhay or oi l meal, pound.

CHAPTER XX

FEEDING SWINE

Food Requirements for Sw ine.—The Wolfi -Leh

mann standards for feeding the various classes ofswine are shown in the table below . They indicatethe amount of fo

'

od required per pounds l iveweight and are for growing pigs, brood sows andfattening hogs .

WOLFF-LEHMANN STANDARDS FOR FEEDING SW INE

G row ln sw ineB ree ing D igest ible nutr ients

A g e in Dry Carbo Nutrit iv emon ths W e igh t, matter Prote in hydrates Fat ratio

2 to 3 503 to 5 1005 to 6 1206 to 8 2008 to 12 250

G row ing sw inePat terning2 t0 3 50ate 5 100bto 6 1506 to 8 2008 to 12 800

B rood sow s

Fatten ing sw ineF irst p er iodSecond p er iod .

Th ird per iod .

Hogs Consume Much andG iv e Generous Returns.

The hog is at home with poor and rich ; he works241


clear that in proport ion to its weight the sheep eatsmore food than the steer and yields a greater increase in consequence but the pig, by eat ing moreheart i ly, consumes more food and yields more meator increase than either.Fastest Gains Are Made During Early Grow th

It used to be that hogs were kept as stockers ongrass unt i l they had reached a year or tw o in age,and then be fed unt i l they weighed from 300 to 500

pounds . When slaughtered or sold they, of course,

T11 5 7 A7 5 MUCH AND DEVELOPED RAPIDLY

The hog consumes less dry food to produce a glven Increase then eitherthe sheep or the steer. He is therefore our best meet maker.

showed great returns,but the cost of bringing up tosuch weights was not considered . When put to thetest it was soon real ized that while such hogs in thefeed lot would take on a large increase, the cost ofthe increase was far above the returns in money .

In other words, l arge hogs wil l steadily take on increase,but they do so only with great consumpt ionof food.

FEEDING SWINE 2 45

A pig of proper age and weighing under 100

pounds wil l require less than 300 pounds of feedto yield 100 pounds of increase,while a mature hogweighing 300 pounds will demand over 500 poundsof feed to yield 100 pounds of increase . There is,therefore, a dec ided economy in feeding hogs onlyup to a certain point . This point ranges from 175to 2 50 pounds, depending on ci rcumstances— the

market price of hogs, and the sale value of feed .

In these days few hogs are fattened by feeders unt i lthey attain a weight of 400 or 500 pounds . If theywere,every pound of gain would cost twice as muchas it would fetch in the market .

Rations Are Narrow at First .—The first food of

the pig is milk and milk is a narrow rat ion . Soonafter birth addit ional food is demanded that will adm it the gradual introduct ion of the carbohydrateingredients . Middl ings, shel led corn, or corn mealmay each be profitably used . I f Skim milk is available, it wil l supply abundant protein,but corn meal,middl ings or shorts should be added also . Thiscombinat ion is easily furn ished as a slop, whichmay be cont inued even unt i l the beginn ing of thefatten ing period .

The young pigs, during their suckl ing days, wil ldo best if fed add it ional slop in a separate pen andaway from the mother and the larger pigs . Runsin which are grown green grasses, the clovers andother forage crops are indispensable if pork is to bemade at profitable returns . Provided for in th ismanner, the pigs wil l widen their rat ion in accord

ance with their needs .

2 46 5 5 501150 FARM ANIMALS

The rat ion, which at first was very narrow, wil lnow widen unt i l spread to one part of protein to fiv eor s ix parts of carbohydrates and fat . When the

finish of the fatten ing period has been reached therat ion wil l be near one of prote in to e ight or n ine ofthe heat and iat-produc ing ingredients .The great fatten ing food is corn : its nutrit iverat io is one to nine plus . Thus the food changes in

V5 51! Sm m ar AND V5 5 7 Coeu r

A hog hem of th is order la the exceptlon end not the rule . It is u nlterythroughout, admit: of easy feeding, end is eas i ly cleaned.

character from milk to corn or other similar foods,and the rat ion is gradual ly widened to meet the increasing requirements for fat product ion .

Mineral Matter and Charcoal.— If the rat ion consists largely of corn,young hogs on pasture are notden ied the necessary m ineral e lements to the extent

that young p igs in the dry feed lot are . Pigs grow


w ay, the water is to be lessened as the animals ihcrease in size .When a weight of 100 pounds or so has beenattained, the pigs now being fi v e or six months old,the slop should be so made as to have a consistencysomewhat l ike mush . If the pigs demand more w ater than th is food gives, let it be availab l e as drink .

Pasture for Pigs .—The great Opportun ity for

making a profit out of pigs, espec ial ly when pricesare low and grain products h igh, i s to depend on theuse of clover, cowpeas, soy beans, alfal fa and rape

pastures . As the subject of pig feeding is studied,more conclusive becomes the evidence that pasturecrops go hand in hand with pork product ion . It

should be the sw ine raiser’s aim as much to grow

these forage crops as it is to grow the hog itsel f .Part icularly is this true of the legume crops . A l falfanatural ly comes first because of its h ighly d igest iblenutrients, its vigorous growth and consequentheavy yields, its long cycle of l i fe and its land- improving benefits . In t ime alfal fa wil l be commonlygrown in al l sect ions .Hogs may be turned into an alfal fa or a clover

field early in the spring and kept there through theseason unt i l frost, provided the acreage is large inproport ion to the number of an imals . The trampingwil l not hurt the crop, and the graz ing of the swinewill not impair the feeding qual ity of the al fal fawhen made into hay.

When a large held is pastured a port ion can becut, to be fol lowed a week or so later by anotherport ion,and so unt i l the field has been cut over. In

FEEDING SW INE 249

th is way there wil l be a new growth of al falfa at al lt imes, giving the pigs just the sort of pasture theydesire . A l fal fa is rich in protein ; hence the addit ionof corn to the rat ion while the an imals are runningon the pasture is advisable, espec ial ly if early maturity is sought . Young pigs on al falfa, suppl ied witha l ight feeding of corn daily, with in seven or eight

months will weigh 2 50 pounds .

Graz ing Runs for Hogs.—Where large fields are

not availab le, smal l runs may be resorted to. These

Pu n or a mc Runs Poa Hoes

The hogs are sh ifted each month to a fresh pasture in which one of thebest crops of the season is avai lable 55 food.

solve the prob lem very sat isfactorily on many farms .The smal l run lots may be of any size from a hal facre to fi v e acres . The number of hogs to be keptwill govern both s ize and number of runs . An average size is about an acre . One or two of these lotsmay be permanent pasture of e ither clover or bluegrass, a temporary pasture of t imothy and clover,

2 50 5 5 5 131510 FARM ANIMALS

or a permanent pasture of al fal fa. The other lotsmay be used in rotat ion . Several of them may beseeded to rye in the fal l and as they are pastured offin turn during the winter and spring, they may beseeded with other forage plants . The one fi rst

grazed down may be plowed and seeded early to

peas and oats, the next one to corn or sorghum or amixture of the two, a third to Cowpeas, and the

others to soy beans, rape, peanuts and sweet potatoes .

A s each crop is pastured ofi‘, other summer cropsmay follow, thus giving a constant rotat ion of forage, and al l as preparatory to the final finishing

period . Hogs that have been brought near to the

finishing period with cowpeas, soy beans, peanutsand sweet potatoes, should be finishedofi

‘with corn ,

since the flavor of the meat wil l be improved andthe fat will be less soft than it otherwise might be .

Forage for Cheap Gain .— A ny growing crop is

helpful in raising cheap pork . In sect ions where a

temporary pasture l ike t imothy and clover is the

rule, spring pigs may be given the range of the

fields . Thus they wil l gather a cons iderable port ionof their food . They should not be den ied, however,addit ional food in the way of slops or of dry grain .

Corn,or corn and oi l meal,or corn and tankage,maybe used in comb inat ion to insure steady growth .

Spring pigs thus raised by July wil l be of fai rgrowth . From th is t ime they should be pushedsomewhat in order that they may be fat by late fal lor early winter .The feeding of green corn on pasture is a common pract ice and has much in its favor. Pract ical ly


The most intensive fatten ing is secured wheneas ily digest ib le material is given . Corn is the un iversal food and enters most largely into the graincomb inat ion . A ll other grain feeds are to be usedas supplements and as balanc ing foods to corn .

During the beginning period of fatten ing, whenclover, alfalfa or other pasture is available, corn is

6 511 1110 Tums mmous m A Ponn et s Pen

The portable pen makes it poss ible to finish heavy hop on clean feedinggrounds . It is {or outs ide feeding and should take the p lace of the sta

tlonary, fi lthy feeding lot.

the on ly grain necessary . Fatten ing hogs can bekept on such pastures almost up to the fin ish .

Hogs Very Heavy w ith Fat should not be re

qu ired to roam about for food . Hence, during thefinal stage of fatten ing, the smal ler the pasture orfeed lot the l ess the loss because of th is needlessexpenditure of energy . A great many of the mostsuccessful feeders take the fatten ing hogs from pas

FEEDING SWINE 2 53

ture to the feed lot . In most cases corn is the exe lusive feed . Water should be at hand at al l t imesor available at frequent intervals . Rat ions containing one part of tankage or meat meal or soy beanmeal to e ight or ten parts of corn,un less corn is lowin value,wil l produce a more rapid growth than cornalone .Making Good Bacon .

— Feeding stufi'

s greatly influence the qual ity of bacon . O i ly grains have thestrongest effect . To get good bacon, these oilygrains should be reduced to a hal f or a th ird of thewhole rat ion . S ince corn is the princ ipal food forboth lard and bacon hogs, it may compose as muchas 75 or 80 per cent of the rat ion . Middl ings andtankage may be used for the balance .

In Canada,where bacon is in much favor, barleyis a common food for hogs . It is fed both groundand soaked . Other foods used in combinat ion withit are skim milk,peas,oats and middl ings . Ifoats areused they should be crushed . The most profi t frombacon is secured when clover, al fal fa, cowpeas, orrape are provided as forage .

HOGG ING OFF CORN

Hogs as Harv esters .—The pract ice of gett ing fal l

hogs ready for market by turn ing them into the

cornfield while the corn is st i l l green is not new,

but is a method not general ly fol lowed . There isa feel ing that hogging off is wastefu l and pooreconomy of labor and efi ort . The facts clearly indicate that the custom economizes labor and expense

2 54 5 5 5mm; FARM ANIMALS

and the hogs do better than by some other methods .That is the point :you get the most pork at the leastexpenditure of money .

Not only do hogs produce more with less grainin hogging off, but they actual ly mature in lesst ime than when pen fed . I t is not unusual to saveat least a quarter of the fatten ing period where th ismethod is followed . It is just as easy to prepare

Hocomo Ou 7 115 Com

Hogs are here harvesting the corn crop. They not only eat all of theears . but consume the renter art of the stalks . When the fat hogs are

removed brood sows en p igs s ould be turned into the field to clean up.

land for a subsequent crop after a corn crop has beenharvested by hogs as when the corn has been re

moved in the ordinary way . The hogs waste nomore grain by hogging off than is lost .by ordinaryhusking. Hogs pick just about as clean as huskers .

The labor item is not inconsiderable, either. A

fi v e to ten-acre field of good corn wil l carry 50 to 75hogs from the shote to the finishedperiod . Oi course

2 56 5 5 5mm; FARM ANIMALS

SOME SAMPLE RATION S

For Young Pigs .

When weaned and eight to ten weeks old

1 . Skim milk,crushed corn and middl ings in equalparts by weight .

2 . Thin slop of about the consistency of buttermilk, consist ing of such ground grain feedsas are available . Use corn meal ,ground oats,middl ings, oil meal , etc . A s the pigs growolder,gradually th icken the slop . \Vhen theyare s ix or eight months old the slop should bel ike a th ick mush .

3 . Pigs in Dry Lot .— If milk is available, give 1

part of corn to 3 parts skim milk ; if not, then6 parts corn, 3 parts middl ings and I parttankage .

For Pigs Three to Six Months of Age .

Daily feed on basis of 100 pounds of l ive weight

A t three months : 3 pounds of corn meal ; 1 poundof soy bean meal or 2 pounds of middl ings 5pounds of skim milk 7 pounds of water .

A t four months : 4 pounds of corn meal ;pound of soy bean meal or 1 pound of middlings ; 5 pounds of skim milk ; 6 pounds ofwater .

A t fiv e months : 5 pounds of corn meal ;pound of soy bean meal or pound ofmiddl ings ; 5 pounds of skim milk ; 3 poundsofwater.

FEEDIN G SW INE

A t s ix months :4 pounds of corn meal ; poundof soy bean meal or pound of middl ings ;5 pounds of skim milk ; 2 pounds of water.

Pigs on Pasture .—When p igs are al lowed the run

of a clover,cowpea or al fal fa pasture and weigh from100 to 150 pounds, rapid gains wil l follow if a mixture consist ing of 10 parts corn, 5 parts middl ingsand I part tankage be fed . I f corn is low in priceuse 15 parts of corn to 1 part tankage or 2 parts oi lmeal .Fattening Hogs in Dry Lot .

— A t the beginn ing of

the fatten ing period give 6 parts corn and 3 partsmiddl ings or 1 part tankage . When hogs havereached a weight of 180 to 200 pounds, give 8 partscorn, and 1 part tankage or other food of a prote innature .

CHAPTER XXI

FEEDING FARM POULTRY

Farm pou ltry is now a home necess ity in everycommunity . A few years ago the domest ic hen wascompel led to sh i ft about and to get her food as bestshe cou ld . Times have brought a change in thisrespect . The demand for eggs and poultry meat has

been so great and so insistent as to make pou ltryrais ing one of the most profitable adjuncts to farming. Ou many farms, farm pou ltry now is exclu

siv ely the source of income, and al l labor and crop

product ion are directed to that end .

A ll fowls are greedy feeders . While they usefood substances similar in form to what other c lassesof farm stock requ ire, the ir food should be introduced in somewhat different ways . Rapid growthcal ls for much concentrated food ; and where eggproduct ion is the aim, concentrated grain is de

mandedat al l t imes . There is a need of much mineral matter for both growth and eggs . In a comparat ive way pou ltry cal l s for more of th is than otherk inds of l ive stock . There is less fat and more protein in poultry than in other meat-produc ing an imals . In composit ion, eggs are s imi lar to leanmeat ; hence, in feeding for eggs, a comparat ivelylarge amount of n itrogenous material should beavailable as food .

Eggs Chemically Analyzed.—The egg that the

fowl produces is, next to milk,man’

s best food, the


l ike sh runken w heat grains and wheat screen ings,that are set aside for the poultry,but as a generalrule corn is the principal food, espec ial ly in the

winter. Often wheat bran is given as a w et mash .

Perhaps the grain that comes nearest meet ing therequ irement of a s ingle food is wheat . Ou accountof its commercial value, however, it is used sparingly, in combinat ion with other food materials, or

not at al l .By means of variety a bet

ter balanced rat ion can behad than otherwise . Bothpoul try flesh and eggs areto be ranked with the leanmeat products . While excell ent results often come fromthe use of corn or fromrat ions largely contain ingcorn and other carbonaceous

Gw " F5 50feeds, general ly speaking,

Rape . cabbage. msngels, other pl’

OdllCtS l1ke wheat,etc . , are necesss for fow lsconfined, 5nd da

r

ling w inter. bran, meat, oats, sk 1m m 1lk‘

2322 and green food are now" uu' accepted as poultry feeds, ofthe first class and are always desi rable, especially foregg production in the winte r season .

Feed for Little Chicks.-Perhaps there is no best

way of feeding l ittl e ch icks just out of the shel l andfor some t ime thereafter . Many plans are fol lowedand al l bring success, other condit ions being sat isfactory . Cooked and uncooked feed, baked and rawfeed, w et and dry mashes are all used . So, too, are

5 55 01110 FARM POULTRY 261

many kinds and c lasses of food products selected .

It largely depends on the conven iences available,the equ ipment and on the taste and pecul iarit ies ofthe attendant .It is more risky to feed moist or w et products

than dry or crumbly dry ones to young chicks, becauseof possible digestive disturbances . For this reason dry

00115 15 111 101! Horses 9011 F15 1» 011 YARD Uss

Beneath the h inged roof are com srtments for various grainshg

rlt, shell,charcoal, etc. Enough feed is put these blue to last for seve dsye.

cracked grain is generally preferred,even though w etmashes are introduced into the feeding plan at a laterperiod . One method is to feed corn bread finelycrumbed, fiv e times a day, for the first few days. The

bread is made of four parts o f coarse corn meal to twoparts of wheat bran,mixed with water,or milk, andbaked brown . A fter the use of th is for a week,a mixture of finely cracked andsmal l grains is kept


in shal low troughs w here the ch icks can help themse lves . In addit ion to th is rat ion sweet milk is fedevery day w hen avai lable . G reen food shou ld befurn ished fresh . Lettuce leaves are excel lent foryoung ch icks . If al lowed a grass run the lettuce isnot needed,but skim milk is desirable .

A nother plan is th is :When the young ch icks are48 to 60 hours old they are fed hard-boi led eggs .They shou ld be fed frequently in very smal lamounts . The eggs may be some of those tested outfrom the incubator or eggs otherwise unfit for usein the kitchen . Follow ing th is rat ion, p lace beforethe ch icks in shallow pans a dry mash consist ingof tw o pounds of corn meal, two pounds of shorts,tw o pounds of bran, tw o pounds of beef scrap and ahal f pound of charcoal . Th is rat ion may be fed until the ch icks are of considerable s ize . The rat ionis now changed to tw o pounds each of mil let, s iftedcracked corn, cracked sorghum seed and crackedwheat . Oi course, fresh water and clean grit shouldbe before the ch icks at al l t imes . When they are

l arge enough to eat whole grain, the cracked ma

terials should be withdrawn . Ch icks that are veryearly hatched,and those that have grown rapidly t il lmidsummer should not have much beef scrap . I fthe young ch icks are hatched very early, or if theymature unusual ly early, they may molt the first season . Both should be prevented, the latter bycaut ious feeding.

Commercial feeds for young ch icks consist of

v arious mixtures contain ing smal l grain, c rackedcorn, wheat, oats, mil let, hemp, etc . They are not


the brooder floor. If eggs are not available, beefscrap may be subst ituted and a rat ion consist ing ofthe fol lowing given : Rolled oats, bran, corn meal, linseed meal, two parts each, and bee f scrap, one part.A fter three days the following mixture is substitutedCracked wheat, 15 parts ; pin head oatmeal, 10 parts ;cracked com , 15 parts ; cracked peas, three parts ;broken rice, two parts ; chicken grit, fiv e parts fine

charcoal , tw o parts . No w et mash is given thesech icks unt il three weeks old . A fter that age theyare given wheat grain, tw o parts ; corn meal, fourparts ; middl ings, tw o parts l inseed meal, one partbee f scrap tw o parts . This mixture is sl ightly moistened w ith water and fed in troughs .When ch icks are fiv e or s ix weeks old c rackedgrain may be omitted and wheat and fine crackedcorn scattered in the l itter.Feeding Larger Chicks.

—A fter ch icks are fiv e or

s ix weeks old, the period of greatest danger is past,so far as the feed is concerned . They may now be fedless frequently and a greater variety of food maybe given . A good mash is provided in ground corn,oats and bran,with a l ittl e salt . This should be fedonce a day. Twice a week meat sc raps or blood mealshould be introduced into th is mash . A smal lamount of bone meal or bone dust wil l not be out ofplace if fed daily .

A nimal prote in and bone material are both irequently den ied on the farm ;but th is is due more toa lack of these materials as feed and knowledgeof the ir need than either to carelessness or del iberate refusal . As the requ irements of pou ltry feed

5 5 501110 FARM POULTRY 265

ing are better understood this apparent neglect wil lbe rectified. Young ch icks, l ike other young an imals, requ ire much protein for muscles and feathersand much mineral matter for bone . Lime,while notnecessary in such large quant it ies as for laying hens,should nevertheless be inc luded in the rat ion .

Cm r5 F5 501N0 11011 FANCY MARK"A rather sloppy mesh of milk and m ixed meal, principally oats . is iven

the (ow ls two to four times dai ly for ten days or two weeks be fore t i l ing .

As the (ow ls have no exerc ise during th is time they increase in we ight andthe ir flesh improves in quality.

G round oyster shel l is al l that i s needed . Charcoalshould be kept before the young fowls . It i s aninexpensive correct ive, even if purchased,but usual ly it i s available on the farm .

Fattening the Cockerels .— On most farms the

cockerels are given the range of the fieldand are not


disposed of unt il late in the fal l . Circumstances wil lgovern as to what is best to do with them . Ordinarily it is less profitable to al low them to run at largethan to confine them . Ou many farms the cockerels

are separated from the

rest of the flock whenthey have reached an ageof nv e or s ix weeks and

Pm m m F5 50 n ous“fed so as to reach an early

Found useful where youngmarket

and old fow is must run to ether.Th. open ing

:baggi

ng” I l la

!g

:Range Ct kenS W i l l eat

t n w 0 VII

ago

pazn

ihm iit.m a great deal of food,more

than is generally supposed ; and they use up a good deal of the ir muscleand flesh as they wander about . Where but fewch ickens are raised and these only for home use, th isis a matter of small consequence ; but i f the cockerels are to be sold it isbest to get them ready formarket as early as possible and not to permit

them to“ run their flesh

off” in seeking the ir food .

A good fatten ing rat ionconsists of corn for

grain and corn meal, bran F5 50 Horu ss F15 1. 50 1111015 AL1 5?

and ground oats for mash .

.aZiiwifim '

iiifl“

0£1.11t

In preparing the mash, m

make it moist with skimmilk i f available . In case skim milk is not to be had,use meat scraps two or three times a week. G ive at afeed about al l the fowls will eat up clean,three times


meat scrap is av ailabl e and this takes their placeto a great exten t . Many other grains are fed to

poultry with good success . I t is not so much the

kind of grain as the av a ilabil ity . Local grains andfeeding stuffs share with the standard ones in al lsect ions both in effic iency andpopularity .

G reen Feeds .— I .ack of green food invariably ai

lects egg product ion un fav orably.

-

'

hen flocks

TH 5 D005 1. 5 -YA1101N0 SYSTEMWh ile the flock runs in one yard. rye . turn ips . rape, or other green stufl

is grown in the other, both to sweeten the ground and to supply foragefor the fow ls .

are at range they secure abundance, but flocksin yards and in winter quarters must be suppl ied.

G reen food may be fed at al l t imes withou t st in t .

Among the best feeds are clover, al fal fa, grass,vetches, rape, rye, mangels, kale, cabbages, sugarbeets, and turn ips .During the winter cabbage is espec ial ly useful .

Root crops are good also . The leaves and brokenheads from the hay mow may be steamed i f des ired . Kale and al fal fa contain large amounts of

FEEDING FARM POULTRY 269

protein and ash, the latter and clover giving qual ityto the eggs . Sprouted oats fed during the wintert ime have brought favorable results, but are morecostly than other green feeds ment ioned . They arefed tw o or three t imes weekly, or more often . A

warm room, sunsh ine and close attent ion are necessary if they are to be grown in amounts cal l ed forto supply succu lence and green feed .

lut emos or WBLL-ARRANGED Pouu '

sr P511

Note trap nests benesth roosts on le ft, cock or broody hen coop incorner. feed hoppers on the wel l, open front st right end cloth screen forw indow pul led up to ce il ing.

During the growing season, i f hens are kept inc losed, either runs should be provided where theycan obtain the green food, or the green food shouldbe daily given, j ust as it would be given l ive stockwhen the soil ing system is pract iced . While al fal faand clover meals are excel lent for hens, they are notcomplete subst itutes for green products . Both are

rich in protein, and are therefore valuable foods ;

2 70 5 5 501510 FARM ANIMALS

they cost a good deal more than the green products,and are not real subst itutes . For winter feeding,espec ial ly for h igh-priced eggs, they can be introduced into the rat ion, provided their cost is not toogreat . Where grains and meals are extensively usedin winter, even though the eggs bring h igh prices,the cost of product ion may not meet the labor items,and hence may overbalance al l

'

the profit .

Meat or Animal Feed Important—Animal foodof some sort is bel ieved to be necessary to maintainfowls in vigorous health and product ivity,whetherthe aim be flesh or eggs . Probably no one th ing hasdone more to increase profits than feeding an imalfood . Scarcity of eggs during the winter is largelydue to deficiency in this l ine . Chickens when at l iberty during the summer secure abundant an imalfood in the form of bugs and worms . Something totake the place of this food is necessary, espec ial lywhen the snow is on the ground. Fresh meat scrapfrom the butcher shop is an excel lent egg maker.On many farms bone cutters are run by handpower, depending on the number of ch ickens kept,and fresh meat and bone are given the poultry at

regular intervals . Bone is eaten just as greedily as

the scraps of meat . The cal l for mineral matter ismet to some extent in the bone supply. Doubt lessthe most conven ient form in wh ich to feed an imalfood is beef scrap or meat scrap, a boiled and driedby

-product of the large pack ing houses . A s it

reaches the poultryman it contains meat and bone invarying proport ions, wh ich should analyze 50 to 60per cent prote in . It also varies in qual ity, but

5 5 501110 FARM POULTRY 2 73

farm, the problem of feeding is simple . In pasturefields and meadows they wil l secure insects, seedsand grass, supplying in this way what they needfor maintenance and eggs . Some grain, however,should be fed daily . This may be a variety, or oneor more common grains l ike corn, wheat, sorghumor mil let . A mash feed two or three t imes a week,with salt added, is greatly rel ished . If skim milkor buttermilk is available, let it be kept before the

011 511 F5 50 7 11011011 5011 FOWLs AT RANGEThe ordinsry V-shs ed trough is popular especislly for feeding wet meshes .

Object on to it is that the (ow ls soi l it essily.

fowls,but see that the vessel s are clean and sweet .A few drops of carbol ic acid or any of the coal tardips in the milk and water wil l ass ist in keepingth ings pure and wholesome .

During the Molt .— One of the most crit ical

periods in the l ife of the hen is during the molt ingperiod . A t this t ime nutrit ious and wholesomefoods are advisable— those rich in protein— in order

that a supply of substances may be at hand for thenew feathers . Wheat,oats,peas and sunflow er are

274 115 501510 FARM 11511q

all excel lent . Some oil meal in the mash,with bran,should be fed daily . Many poultrymen who feedcrackl ings at th is period hold that these and oil mealare tw o indispensable food products for success withhens during the molt ing season .

Wh ile good layers usual ly lay more or less during the early stages of the mol t, they usually stopwhen the new feathers are forming rapidly . A t

tempts have been made to hasten molt ing, and success has been obtained,but the advantages have notbeen part icularly man ifest . If the hens are starvedfor a period and then heav ily fed, the shedding ofthe old feathers and start ing of the new will be apparent ; but l ittl e effect seems to fol low in way ofincreased egg product ion . The best way seems tobe in heavy feed ing ; in providing an abundan ce offood of the nature that bu ilds flesh, feathers andeggs .Feeding for Eggs inWinter.

—The reason that thehens -do not lay in winter, i s not because they areunderfed, but because they are too fat . Hens arel ike other animals . Feed them abundantly, put

them under condit ions where exerc ise is not takenand they wil l become fat and lazy . Moreover, theovules of the hen become inact ive and egg product ion is an imposs ib il ity . It is this way : During thesummer and the fal l months the hens range in al ld irect ions over the farm in search of food,appet iz inggrasses, tender insects and ju icy berries of held andfence corners . This exerc ise on the fields puts themin excel lent health and vigor. Then the farm cropsare harvested and gathered. On most farms corn is

2 76 5 5 501510 5 115 51 1151 151115 5

during winter. Provide a scratch ing pen . Keepth is in a deep l itter of cut or fine straw, both dryand clean, and scatter the grains in it . The henswil l have to work to eat ; and by thus exerc is ing,they will not grow fat ; and i f not fat but act ive andvigorous, they will natural ly lay eggs .Tried Ration for Laying Hens .

—The Cornell stat ion has tested many combinat ions in search of thebest grain mixtures for the winter product ion ofeggs . A s a resul t of these feeding tests the fol lowing rat ion has been suggested : For grain,mix 100

pounds of wheat, 100 pounds of c racked corn and 50pounds of oats and feed in deep l itter sparingly inthe morn ing and freely at n ight. Mash fed in theafternoon in hoppers consists of the fol lowing : 60pounds of wheat middl ings,60 pounds of corn meal,

50 pounds of beef scrap, 30 pounds of wheat bran,10 pounds of alfal fa meal, 10 pounds of l inseed oilmeal and a hal f pound of salt .

CHAPTER XXI I

THE SILO AND SILAGE

The silo does for l ive stock what fru it cans andfruit j ars do for man . We know that a tomato wil lqu ickly decay if not put in the fru it j ar where it canbe sealed so as to prevent the entrance of bacteria .

Nssr 5011 8 5111 105

The silo is a large pit that holds cut-up corn or otherforage,keeps it succulent and prevents the maturityof the plant cel l s .The object of the s ilo is to keep the forage as near

the green state as possible . To th is fact is due thenoted value of si lage . A s w e, during winter,would

2 78 5 5 501110 5 115 51 AN IMALS

rather eat an apple that has been stored away in thecel lar than a dried one, so l ive stock rel ish, in the

same degree, the corn plant if kept as nearly in thegreen state as possible . No matter how nutrit iousa feed ing stuff may be, i f the animal does not l ike it,it usual ly is a failure as a milk or a meat producer .Oi course,no one cla ims that silage contains greaterfeeding value than the cured product. A silo hasnoth ing about it to make more protein or carbohydrates or fat . But it retains the ju ice, the flavor,andalso the effect of freshness and greenness in the

s i lage properly stored in it .Economy in Silage.

—There is a great economy insilage, in the fact that a larger part of the productis eaten than if the green stufl

’ were dried for fodder.If the dry corn plant is fed, the ear and the leavesare the only parts consumed . Fully hal f the feeding value is lost . If,however, this be put in the silo,every part ic le is eaten . The feeding value i s reallydoubled . The silo, then, ass ists the feeder in taking care of a larger number of an imals from a givenarea than otherwise would be poss ible if only the

dry product were fed .

Another point in economy l ies in the storage of

the feeding stufl’. A silo is cheaply constructed and

holds an immense quant ity of forage that is alwaysat hand where feeding is to be done . Thus the laborfor winter feeding is material ly lessened . Whereverhigh-class beef an imals are raised or profitable dairying carried on, there the s i lo 1s found and its highestand best uses employed .

Capacity of Silos .— The fol low ing tab l e, by K ing,

2 80 5 5501510 ANIMALS

the greatest loss occurs from Spoil ing in corners .Third, square,wooden silos should have the cornersboarded across, and the inside sheathing should runperpendicular at the bottom . Fourth, the ins idewalls of stone,brick or cement si los should have a finaldressing of portland cement. Fifth, the silo should belocated where it will be most convenient to feed from.

Hsnvssrmc 7 11 5 Com

Following the corn hsrvester come the wezens to hsul the green corn to

the cutters .

Calculating Size of Silo.—The size of the s ilo to

build may be determined in any part icular case from

the fol low ing data :A cubic foot of well-packed sil

age w i l l weigh on the average between 35 and 40pounds . This is about the amount that should befed daily to a dairy cow . If it is necessary to feedcows for s ix months, 180 days, one cow wil l consume 180 cub ic feet, or about 3% tons of s ilage . A

herd of 10 cows would consume 35 tons . However,there is always some loss by spoil ing and waste, soit is better to figure on about 40 tons .

1 115 AND 281

One acre of corn should yield 10 to 15 tons of s i lage . The number of tons of s ilage that a squareor a rectangular s ilo wil l hold may be determinedrough ly by mult iplying the length,width and depthof the si lo in feet, and dividing by 50, the approxi

mate number of cub ic feet in a ton of s ilage . A

round s ilo 15 feet in diameter and 20 feet deep wil lhold about 60 tons . The same si lo 2 5 feet deep wil lhold 80 tons . A round si lo 20 feet in diameter and2 5 feet deep wil l hold a l ittle more than 140 tons .Filling the Silo.

—Nowadays the corn binder isdes irable for cutt ing si lage corn . It saves the ex

pense of several men and makes load ing andun loading more economical and less fat igu ing and irksomethan the old method . One man with a low wagonanda rack can in a few minutes secure h is load,allthat a tw o or a three-horse team can draw . It i smost conven ient to take two or three rows at a t ime .It i s necessary, therefore, that the b inder be at workfor some t ime in order that the haul ing and the

cutt ing crews may not be delayed for want of corn .

The work in the si lo,however, is the most impor

tant of al l operat ions connected with silage making.

Real ly good s ilage depends largely upon the faithfulness, constant tramping and the

“ everlast ingly atit” of the man in the s ilo . Let h im sh i rk, or do hiswork poorly,and he wil l get l ess corn in the s i lo andpoorer qual ity in the product . Many of the criti

c isms d irected against the s ilo belong,not to it,butto the man with in . He was either lazy and i rresponsible, did not know what was expected of him

or how to do what w as required of him.

2 82 5 5 501110 ANIMALS

This part of silage making is of such great importance that it i s necessary to give it close attent ion .

Thoroughly and cont inual ly to pack the s i lage as

fast as it fall s into the si lo and to pitch and trampit al l about the outer edges is the secret of makinggood s ilage . Look after the packing wel l at the

outside, and the center wil l take care of itsel f . It

i s this thorough packing that rids the si lo of air spacesaround wh ich decay later is found to have taken place .It i s more difficult to pack the square than the

round s ilo . Hence the least carelessness here represents some loss in winter. In doing effect ive packing, keep the outer edges a l ittl e h igher than thecenter,but keep tramping and packing all the t ime .This will force the ai r out as the filling process goes ou.

Feeding Silage.—The quant ity of silage fed de

pends somewhat on the kind of forage used . S i lagemade of clover, cowpeas or al fal fa contains moreprotein than that made of corn . If either of theformer be used, from 15 to 20 pounds wil l be suthc ient for a daily feed . Ou the other hand, i f cornis used, from 2 5 to 50 pounds can be fed, 30 to 40

pounds be ing a good average . S i lage can be fedonce or tw ice each day . I f a smal l quant ity is usedin the daily rat ion, the feeder should give silage butonce ; a larger quant ity wil l require two feedings .The feeding should be regular ; that i s, every day,so as to keep the top of the silo fed oil

“to prevent

spoil ing. One or 2 inches from the whole of the

top wil l prevent any decay .

Feeding Silage After Milking.— S i lage shoul d not

be fed during milking,but always afterward. When

284 5 5 501510 AN IMALS

Cutting Corn for Silage .—The composit ion of

corn undergoes rapid changes from the tasseling periodunt i l maturity . The dry matter shows an increasefrom the t ime the corn is in tassel unt i l the kernelsare dented . Tasseled corn has only one-fifth asmuch dry matter as mature corn . It is owing to

such changes that corn must be cut at the prope rstage if it is to make the best s ilage . I f cut toogreen, the silage wil l sour more eas ily,andwill notpossess the ful lest food value . Immature corn is

often the cause of the complaints that silage makesundesirable milk . I f cut too ripe, the desired succul ence is lost . The proper stage for cutt ing is whenthe lower leaves have commenced to fi re andbrown ,yet when the greater part of the leaves are st i llgreen . The kernels should be out of the milk stageand dented and hardened .

Cost of Making Silage .—The following figures as

to cost of making silage have been set forth by theNebraska stat ion :

COST OF G R OW INGR en t of landPlow ing and harrow ingS eed corn

P lan t in?Harrow ng and cul t i v at ing

Total per acre

A v erag e y ie ld. tons an acre

Cos t per ton to g row

COST OF F I LL IN G S I LOE le v e n m en at 82 a dayS e v en team s at a dayOne trac t ion eng ne 0 dayEng ineerBoard for m en

TotalS i lage cut per day. 75 tons ; cos t to put in 5 110

per ton

1 115 AND SILAGE 285

1511 5 115 8 1 AND DEPR ECIATIONi n terest on money inv es ted in s i loIn teres t on money inv es ted in mach ineryDeprec iat ion and repa irs on s i lo and mach inery p er yearTaxes and in suranceIn terest and depreciat ion p er ton

SUMMAR Y PER TON

Cost of grow ingCos t of putt ing in 8 110In teres t and dep rec iat ion

Total cost of corn s i lage per ton

BUILDING THE SILO

Many Kinds of Material are available for construct ion,but more silos are built of wooden stavesthan of anyth ing else . Wooden stave s ilos have theadvantage of lower fi rst cost, of being easily andquickly erected by the ordinary help availab l e andof being taken down and moved if necessary .

The round s ilo is pract ical ly the only style now

erected, and is general ly put up outside the barn,although in round barns it may wel l be built in thecenter. A fter much experiment ing farmers and silomanufacturers have almost unan imously sett led onthe use of staves 2 x 6 inches in s ize, tongued,grooved and planed on one or both s ides . I f properly taken care of the wooden stave silo, built ofgood material,wil l last a great many years . Shoulda weak stave develop, it is not a diflicult or an ex

pensive matter to replace it .

G et a Solid Foundation .—The success of any s ilo

depends on a firm , sol id foundat ion . For this purpose, concrete or concrete and stone are commonlyused . The foundat ion needs to be so wel l built thatit wil l neither crack nor settle. The silo also needs

286 5 5 501510 ANIMALS

a roof wh ich wil l help to strengthen it and to protect the contents from storm and frost .

Whether or not a man should get out h is own material for a silo and build it for h imsel f, or buy it ofa s ilo manu facturer depends upon how good a mechan ic he is . A man who is not handy with toolswill find it cheaper and better to buy a ready-made

F11 1. 11~10 1 11 5

Corn should be wel l matured before placed in the s i lo. With this shouldgo thorough tramping. The silsge w il l then be sweet, substsntisl andnutritious .

s ilo, for he wil l then have one that is built in a scientific manner of good material . The work of erect inga wooden stave silo is not diflicult i f a good car

penter with a l ittl e ingenu ity be employed .

Other Types of Silos .— Concrete has been used to

some extent for s ilo bui lding, e ither in the form ofblocks or to make sol id monol ith ic wal ls . Concrete

288 5 5 501110 ANIMALS

Hollow Clay Blocks .—The latest developmen t

consists of the use of hol low clay bui ld ing b locks .

These are easily erected by an expert mason, andare successfu l i f properly reinforced by wire between the various courses of t i le . Being built of hollow t i le, there is less freezing of the s ilage on theins ide than where the wal ls are made of brick or

sol id concrete. The freez ing, however, is general lyof l itt le importance .

Not every farmer needs a s ilo,but every farmerwho keeps a herd of s ix or more cows,dairy or beef,or 50 sheep,wi l l find the s ilo a profitable addition toh is farm equipment . More feed can be obtainedfrom an acre of corn saved in the si lo than in anyother way . It is possib le to make more and cheape rmilk, beef andmutton by feeding s ilage than without it .

CHAPTER XXIII

THE SOILING SYSTEM

Farm animal s rel ish succu lent feeds . They givethe best account of themselves when abundant lysuppl ied with pastures or roots or green cr0ps .

This is true, not only of catt l e,but of hogs, sheep,swine and poultry . Animal l i fe has been so longadjusted to succulence and vegetable juices that tow ithhold these for any length of t ime is to inviteloss along al l l ines of product ion ; an imals do not

thrive well when these are withheld .

When spring comes with its rejuvenat ing influences man ifested in al l direct ions, farm stock eagerlyleave dry foods, however rich in nutrit ion they maybe,and revel in the green grasses along the roadsideor in the pasture field. You are famil iar with theresult—better qual ity, more thrifty growth, moremeat,more milk .

Taking the year all around,good pastures are not

available for any great length of t ime ; hence,wherewel l-bred farm an imals are apprec iated, an important probl em in farm management arises as to the

best method of extending the pasture season as longas poss ible . Succulent foods may be provided bypasture, soil ing crops, si lage and root crops . Theymay be just a bit in ferior to May and June graz ing,but as subst itutes they sat isfactorily fi ll the b i l l .Good si lage,after all,is but sl ightly in ferior to green

290 5 5 501510 5 111151 ANIMALS

corn . Soiling crops are next best to grasses ; androots,for fal l and winter,are not to be desp ised .

Good Pastures Alw ays Popular.—The test imony

of dairymen is unden iably and emphat ically in favo rof si lage, soil ing crops and similar feeds to takethe place of pasture, because they keep the milkyield constant . Some even claim that these feedsare in every way equal to rich pastures . Wherelands are h igh in value and l imited in quant ity, soi l

Hsuunc 8011 1110 Cnors 10 1 115 8 111111

Where the solllnx system is fol lowed cows sre led in the ir stal ls . Lesslsnd is needed end no forage is destroyed by trsmping. The lsbor on the

other hend is lncressed.

ing crops often displace the pasture system . Somewho fol low the pract ice claim that it is even moresat isfactory and far less costly . Roots, even for thedairy, but espec ial ly for al l breed ing stock, are indispensable . Horses without carrots, sheep withoutturn ips,Hamlet without the ghost !

292 5 5 501510 5 11151115 5

uable for cattl e also . Rape is a sort of cabbage,which, instead of storing its nutriment in the headas the cabbage does, distributes its nutrimen t

throughout the leaves . It fanc ies most the moist,cool places and a rather fert il e so il . When so favored it real ly gives a very large amount of food . I t

i s suffi ciently rich in nutriment to main tain'

all bodyneeds, but is not quite able of itsel f to make largegains of growth or fat . When supplemented with

grain, it becomes a very satisfactory green fodder crop .

Wuss r A Goon 8011 1110 C110?

The plot st the left msde tons to the sore . The plot st the right hsd beengiven sn sppllcstion cl nitrste cl sods snd produced 7 56 tons to the sore .

Rape may be sown any t ime between March andJuly, e ither broadcast or in dril l s 3 feet apart, usingthree or four pounds of sl ightly covered seed an

acre . \Vhen grazed down , remove the stock andal low t ime enough for a second crop .

Soiling Crops in Fav or .— W'

ithin recent years theuse of soil ing crops has increased . The unsatisfactory resul ts from pastures during the late summer

THE SOILING SYSTEM 293

months, espec ially for dairy cows,have given popularity to the soil ing system . Employed in connec

t ion with the s i lo, it is poss ible to get the effect ofgreen c10ps throughout the year.

Briefly, the plan means that instead of dependingupon pastures, fodder is cut green and fed to cattl e

1 115 8 55 1 8011 1110 01105

From esrly spring until frost th is queen of the crops is svsilsble tor sllk inds of feed.

in the feed lot or in the stab l e, thus doing awaywith fences and extensive areas, such as are neces

sary with pastures . There is a saving, because nopart of the forage is tramped on or destroyed byan imals runn ing at large over the helds . The smal larea given to soil ing cr0ps al low s more intensive

t i l lage, better fert i l iz ing and more thorough cult iva

t ion than does the pasture system . The soil ing sys

tem is favored because it i s extremely valuable,

294 5 5 501110 AN IMALS

even w here pastures are much in use. Rye, peas,oats, and green corn always come in handy ; and

they often bridge over dry periods when pasturesare either short or are dry and withered .

Soiling Crops Hav e a Place.— Start ing with soil

ing crops in order of their use, we have rye as thefi rst aid . In the South it is ready in March and inthe North in April . It should be seeded in Augustor September in the North, and in September orOctober in the South . W'hen thus planted it i sready early in the spring, long before ordinary pasturesare available,or before clover or wheat can be used .

A lfalfa Ranks First .— A l fal fa is the premier soi l

ing crop . A fter al fal fa come peas, sorghum, cornand other green crops . The oats and peas should

go in early . Cover the peas 3 or 4 inches deep, onebushel to the acre the oats a less depth and abouttw o bushel s to the acre . Inasmuch as oats fancythe cool seasons rather than the warm weather, theearl ier they are seeded in the spring, the bette r.Field peas al so withstand a surpris ingly largeamount of cold weather . Cowpeas and sorghum arewarm weather crops, and should go in after corn .

Green Corn for Summer.—Corn is an al l- farm

purpose crop . It is advisable to have a couple ormore acres of corn as a reserve cr0p for late summer feeding. Every an imal on the farm rel ishes afew stalks of green corn at n ight or morn ing whenthe pastures are dry and hot . The soil for soil ingcorn should be l ight and warm to insure early planting . A fter be ing wel l t i l led and fert i l ized,put in thecorn . Plant in rows 3% to 4 feet apart, dropping


I f th is green fodder is not needed in early summer,just let it alone ; it w ic ontinue its growing andwil l make a st il l heavier crop . W ith it at hand youneed have no fear of a shrinkage in milk, because

a few armfuls of th is green corn as a feed,used as asupplement to the pasture or the si lage or otherfood,wil l complete the rat ion and supply your stockwith just what i s needed . The patch of corn, itss ize depending upon the number of an imals youhave, wil l carry you unt i l the si lage crop is ready,or if you do not have the s ilo, carry you into the fal lseason, when your winter plans for feed ing wil lhandle the case .Root Crops Nat to Be Left Out . -Roots receive

too l ittle attent ion by farmers,but they are worthyof some attent ion, for they stand h igh as succulentand supplementary feeds . Roots cannot be valuedsolely by the nutriment they contain . They aid indigest ion and assimilat ion of dry foods and con

tribute to the healthfulness of al l an imals so tortunate as to get them . If fru its are of value, i f not anecessity, to men, then roots and grasses have a

place in feeding farm animals .Carrots may be fed to horses and sheep, sugarbeets and turn ips to dry cattl e, l ambs and dairy cattle ; al l three are rel ished by hogs . To withholdsucculence, Nature

’s great provision of thrift andhealth, i s to l essen profits . Ask the men w ho use

these crops ; the horse breeder where carrots are

known ; the shepherd who knows h is sheep and succeeds with them ; the cattl e breeder who has learnedof the value of roots for health and appet ite . The


test imony as given is general ly in favor of rootsor of succul ent subst itutes.

ADVANTAGES OF SOILING

Smaller Area Needed.—Where pasturing is fol

lowed, from tw o to fiv e acres are requ ired for furn ishing necessary feeding stufl’s for each animal 3

CROP or Cowru s AND KAPlR Conn

Th is combination makes s splendid soil ing crop . The yield in this instancewas 13 tons to the acre .

year . It is generally conceded by all who have followed soil ing that three-quarters to an acre and ahal f wil l furnish the yearly food supply for a matureanimal .Few er Fences Needed.

—The only fences neededwith soil ing are for the feed lots . This is a saving ofland where fences would be put,a saving of capitalotherwise invested in fences, and a saving in laborin keeping fences clean and repaired .


Food Destroyed by Tu rnping.—The tramp

ing of cattle over pasture lands not only destroysconsiderable food, but it compacts the soil, especially during w et weather, and greatly damages thephysical condit ion of the soil . As much as a th irdor a half of the pastures are injured by tramping.

Less Acreage Required.— Ii one l ives near a c ity

where lands are h ighly valuable, the investment inacres is a matter of considerable importance . Thepract ice of soi l ing enables the dai ryman to do onhal f the number of acres what would be requi red ifpasturing were followed .

Soil Improv ement More Readily Obtained.

S ince one needs but hal f the area by following soiling methods that pasture systems require, a largerquant ity of manure may be secured by th is system .

This means farming in an intensive way and insuresgreater product ivity of land and larger crops witheach success ive year.

OBJECTIONS TO THE PRACTICE OF

SOILING

The one object ion to soil ing is in the extra laborin growing and feeding the crops . By pasturing,labor is needed on ly in taking cattl e to and fromthe pasture fields. The necessary extra labor connectedwith the soil ing system is,however, a matterof smal l importance when cons idered in the l ight ofthe many advantages .

Sailing Best Adapted to Dairying.—While soi l

ing is possible for all classes of l ive stock,it is peoni

300 FEEDING ru n AN IMALS

with subst itutes in certain cases w here the season

has unfavorably influenced the usual order or makespossible the use of some local c ropa. Winter rye, or wheat, to be cut in May.

b. G reen al fal fa, to be used at any time.

c . Green clover, cut and fed in June.

d. Peas and oats, sown early in spring, w ith a

succession at two or three intervals.

e. Corn or sorghum, planted as early as possib le,to be used during July and August .

f. Mil let, planted in June or early July and fed inAugust .

g. The land from wh ich the peas and oats andearly corn are removed may be seeded to

mil let for August feeding.

Some Special Rotations .—Fol lowing are given

several rotat ions that have been in use in v arioussect ions


F i v-l v-l i-Ov-l

FEEDIN G FARM ANIMALS304

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CHAPTER XXIV

RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE

Quality of Manure .—Ou many farms manure is

measured by its quant ity rather than by its qual ity .

In open barnyards it is left to accumulate, often for

ElTHBR Too Moon on Too l .ia

When msnure is put in smal l piles It is generslly unevenly distributed. itnot immediately spread the soluble parts s ink into the ground under the

pi les, thus over-enrlchln these spots . The greater part of the soi l uresgets only the manure de ris .

a year or more ; and exposed to rain and weather itdecomposes, and wastes away, or is lost in richstreams of colored l iquid to brooks and creeks .

When so handled the cream of its value escapes from


meal is w h i le of corn it is but $6.56, or onefourth as much . To the man who is obliged to buye ither corn or cottonseed meal th is should be con

e lusive that it is in h is interest,both from the standpoint of feed and ofmanure,to purchase the cottonseed meal .Value of Farm Manures .

—The character of thefood determines the value of manure . The animalcan add noth ing. In the undigested port ions thefert i l iz ing material s are voided, while of that ab

sorbed into the system, such amounts are appropriated as are needed . In case of animals neither gai ning nor losing in weight— for instance, farm horsesthat just hold the ir own—as much fe rt i l izer material s are returned in sol id and l iqu id excrement asare taken in the food from day to day . In this case,i f the manure is wholly returned to the land, theent i re food supply serv es as fert i l iz ing material .Young and growing an imals and those furn i sh ingwool or milk, retain considerabl e amounts of then itrogen and the ash const ituents . Fattening an imals that are nearly mature retain but small

amounts of n itrogen and ash . These facts are i ndicated in the tab l e by Warrington given on thc

next page .The amount of ash const ituents of the food storec

’

.

up in the body is very smal l . As seen in the tabl e,fatten ing oxen retain but per cent, fatten ingsheep per cent, and fatten ing pigs 4 per cen t .

Mi lk cows retain more ; th is i s to be found in themilk . The young cal f puts into bone and musclesover one-half of the ash of its food . A s for nitro

RELATION OF FOOD TO MANURE 309

gen, the work horse, either at rest or at work, givesback al l, fattening oxen and sheep retain a smal lamount, fatten ing hogs a larger amount,milk cowskeep onefourth, and the young cal f two-thirds .

N itrogen is voided largely as urine .

Double Value in Feeds .— A ll feeding stufl

’s have

tw o values— feed and fert i l ity. The commercial

NITROGEN AND ASH IN ANIMAL PRODUCE, AND VOIDED,FOR IOO POUNDS OF FOOD CON SUMED

N i trogen A sh cons t i tuen ts

e-l

Kind of an imal vo g8 v E3 0 0 o

s 3 2 L.'U g:

a s: osa 3 2O o E m o 5

Horse at rest N oneHorse at w orkFat ten lng oxen

Fatten ing sheep .

Fat ten ing p igsM i l k cow s

Calf on m i lk

value in most instances is based on the feed ing valueas compared with other feed ing stuffs . But even

so, the fert i l iz ing value of manure result ing must beignored no longer. To il lustrate the meaning of thedouble value of a feed, it is here assumed that cottonseedmeal has a commercial value of Thisis the fi rst or fert i l iz ing value ; and since by feedingit valuable food products are made,a second value ispossessed by it.

3 10 reamN G FARM ANIMALS

It has been observed that milk cows retainper cent of the nitrogen of the food . Deduct ing,therefore,one-fourth of th is to meet the cost of thefert i l iz ing materials extracted, there is leftIn other words, as a feed the cost was only

a ton . When so used a doub le profit is secured asfol lows

Value 3 3 a fert i lizerValue af ter be ing fed

Total

Selling Fertility.—The man who buys cottonseed

meal and other similar feeding stuffs as feed ga insby the enterprise,but the men who produce and se llthem, lose . By disposing of these valuable foodproducts farmers sell the plant food of the ir lands .

When sent to Europe or to other sect ions there istransferred fert i l ity from the lands producing thesecrops to the dairy and beef farms where they are

consumed . When animal products are sold the

drain on the land is not large,but if grain crops aresold much plant food is withdrawn from the soil .This will be seen in the table on the next page .This table shows that grain products make con

siderable demands on the plant food supply of thesoil,

'

and that when such are sold much more fertility is disposed of than when an imal products aresold .

The farm er who sel l s a ton of clover hay withdraw s from his soil worth of fe rt i l ity . Thisi s half as much as he receives . If,on the other hand,

he sel ls a ton of pork, he sends from his farm but

worth of fert i l ity, but rece ives 20 t imes as

3 12 resume. FARM ANIMALS

ence of the weather. In loose, open pi les ful ly onehal f of the fert il iz ing value may disappear in a hal fyear period . If manure is not hauled direct to the

field and scattered, it may be fairly wel l preservedin large piles, wh ich should be kept moist ; or incovered barnyards, where it should be thoroughlycompacted, with enough l itter provided to absorbthe l iquid and keep the animals clean . Freshmanures that undergo fermentat ion rapidly,such ashorse and sheep manures,should be mixed with lit

BEEF MILK BUTTER WHEATRenown. or Felm un

in the sketch ere shown the m ounts of nitrogenilphosphoric ecld end

eecpotash removed from the soil when pounds of beef,milk,butterend wheet ere sold.

ter immediately,else the n itrogen wil l be lost . Gypsum sprinkled on fresh manure has long been a

popular preservat ive .Poor Manure.

—That it pays to give the preservat ion of manure c lose attent ion is shown by the testsconducted by the Oh io stat ion . Here poorly preserved and well-preserved manure was used in fieldtests . In both cases the rate of appl icat ion w as

eight tons to the acre on clover sod plowed underfor corn,and then fol lowed in a three-year rotat ion

RELATION or FOOD TO MANURE 313

with wheat and clover without further manuring orfert i l iz ing. The table fol lowing shows the averageincrease of each crop for both kinds of manure :

YARD AND FRESH MANURE COMPARED

Bushels of Bushels 0! Pounds of

K ind of manure corn w h eat hay

Yard manure

F resh manure

In d iscussing these tests, Director Thorne saysthat not on ly w as the manure greatly reduced inquant ity,but the qual ity l ikewise was impaired byexposure,the rain leach ing out the most soluble andtherefore the most valuable port ion . A t currentprices the average increase from a ton of open yardmanure, including the straw and stover,w as worthabout $2 ,while that from the fresh manure reachedan average value of nearly $3,and th is value was increased to when the manure w as re inforcedwith acid phosphate .That manure material ly decreases in bulk and

plant food value is shown in an experiment recordedby Professor Roberts . Start ing with poundsof manure the amount decreased to pounds ;because ofpoor preservat ion 60 per cent of the n itrogen escaped into the air ; and 75 per cent of thepotassium and 40 per cent of the phosphorus leachedaway in rain water. When th is pi le of manure isconsidered from the standpoint of money value, it isfound that at the beginn ing it was worth but


after be ing exposed for fiv e months the plant foodvalue was only —scarcely one-third its originalvalue .Why Full Value of Fertility of Feeds Is Nat

Secured to Lands .—Many farmers fail to get results

in the field from the use of manure, considered from

How FARM MANOR! ls WASTHsndled in th is manner. the n itrogen end soluble fert il izing msterislsleech out and wsste swsy. Th is explsine why much fem manure is ofl ittle vslue when p ieced on the lend.

the standpoint of actual fert i l izing value, not be

cause the plant food i s not in the manure m ade

from the feed given the an imals,but because of neglectafter the manure has been made . Farmers often

fail also to get a ful l response from the use of feeds,just as they fai l to get maximum returns from the

manure made from the feeds .

3 16 resum e FARM AN IMALS

The Full Value of a Feeding Stuff for feed and

fert i l izer is secured only when the feed has been

properly prepared in the fi rst place, then fed in the

proper combinat ion with other feeds to farm an imals of good breeding and selected for the purposeto which they are best adapted, and finally so

handled as manure that the fert i l i zing material s arenot lost through fermen tat ion, decomposit ion and

leach ing. Such pract ice is good farming and is

fundamental for success in feed lot or open field.

APPENDIX

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buo

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a

couo

b-

Z

I N D E X

PAOB

Abomu um 23Alfalfa for brood 149Ahl lll inllm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0

An imals, cheapest gain in young 36compos ition of -37(“ ding young ‘25l itt le trouble w ith suck l ing . 13 1Wb‘t cont‘ln 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Appet ite 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A‘h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

”h, congtltuont. or 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

Enby beef, objectionsBaby beeves finished on

Bacon, mak ing good .

B‘lm ced l'

I fi Ofl 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

800! an imals . two clu e“

800! c.“ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

8 00! calves fed an tBee! cattle, feed ingBeef, food requirementsBeef stock, good and badBeeveo, 0 e of fatten ingfal l fee ing of, on

finished 0: two years ofBlood C‘N IflCfiOII 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

8 0008 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Breed ing an imals, feed ingBrood mamBra“ ‘ov 0

Butter. grade and qual ity of.CalciumCalf, feed ing bee fC‘l'fw d, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Calves, feed ing forCalves on whole milkCalves the second w inter .

Calv lng t imeCapac ity of ai lo0Cap i l lariesl bOhydfC'” 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

CarbonCarrots for horsesCattle, feed ing fu ll grownC0" div iS iOO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Ce l ls . plantChemical e lementsChemical e lements in plants and

an imalsChemica l e lements un itedChemical energyCh icks . feed forCt fifl O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

PAGE

Clmuh tlon of 28Cockerela, fattening theCo-elflclent of digestibi l ity 49Colootrum 126Colt creep 143Combust ible matter 36Corn, compocmon o! 48Corn, hogging 0“Corn stover, compa nion of 50Cost of nutrients 117Cost of n tion 107Covered barnyard 182Cow, beef, on range 148Cowpea 44Cow, what age 10 bu t 175Cow when car lug ca ll 146Cu te feed ing or poultry 265Cree for com 143cm e “h r 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ' ‘9Da iry calf. feed ing the 132Da iry calves, rat ions for 193Da iry catt le, feed ing of 172Da iry cows. computing the n

tiono for 103feed ing of 184

D(good te uir

fz‘e

lga of

172

0 ry stoc 3 youngDew 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ?3Dlgeofible nutrientsDigefl ibmty 45,5 1¢0°0m01¢fl t Of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49

decrease of 3 1how determined 46

Digection 2 1Digu tlon, what influences 34Disborning 192Dry cows, summer and w inter 194Duodenum 25

chem ical ly analyzedcod ing for. In winter 274

Elements and the ir symbols 20Energy 42Energy valueo 93Energy values in feeds 95Ether extract 19Ewe. feed for 154Exercise for brood 80W. 152Extn ct iuice 24Fun horses, feed ing 58

6Farm mm um , value of 8

Farm poultry, feed ing 258F‘tPattenlng cockerels 265

334 mom:

PAC!

Pattenleg grov e 011009Fann ing hopPettening hen “Feed et lamb ing timeFeeding beef catt leFeeding box for hayFeed ing da iry cattleFeed ing dai°y cow w ith calf.Feed ing dairy cov e 1a wintet .

F00d|llg fl fl ll bor‘“ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Feed ing farm poultryFeed ing rain on

Feed ing 0m!”Feed ing 10min for marketFeed ing l ittle chicksFeedingFeeding of bm ding m ime“ . 145Feed ing period extend“ ! 59Feediug pip 141Feeding. regularity In 162Feed ing cheeFeed ing 01011 0rd 0. gu ide . .62 , 18 1Feed ing eteaderde . 58,61Feed ing standerde on the bas is ofstarch valuee 88

Feed ing etufle 45cempoeition of 41

for cettle 2 11what they eental 12

Feed ing 0mm, fu l l v alue 3 16Feed ing etufls pou m 93v ery in price 113

Feeding sw ine 241

Feed ing the bee! 135Feed ing the da iry calf W . 132

Feed ing the fad 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 143Feed ing the stal l ion 167

Feed ing young an imals 125

Feed ing young da iry stock . 188

reeds, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 132

Feeds. double v alue inFeeds, easy to swap 113energy va lue of 95

ludgment in purchas ing 114

roughage for horsee 163Peed. m 1 165

Fert ility in 3 14

1000 oi, in feed 3 11

00111118 0! 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 10

Fert il izers. buying 10

Fert i l izing e lements, the ir v alue . 9

Feel, feeding of 143

Food and manureFood. cheu cter o! 157

Food. nature of 157

Food nutrients 44

Food uiremente for beef . 198

for d: ry cows 172

for horses 156

for cheep 223for sw ine 24 1

Food requirement. of the young 125

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 .

PAC!

P0011 m alfel mm on 1 1010 of0t0reh v0lue0

Food ahonld be home grown 117Food, 0te0mlng 0nd cook ing . 34Food eupply for cow0 194Food, 11000 of 63Pooch . 0poetlzing 2910x0t1ve 147

Pooch dark: the molt 273Pooch , mix 66Pooch , what to choo00 74Powu, m in feedFow10,

frlt neceeu ry for 27 1

Gu ln, ced ing on pu ture 179G n ln 10000 for cov e 187

for 001m 190165

19R0echer’a lnm tln tion 77

H00cker’0 standerdg

110 curing 33He‘t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9‘Hen ry m i l on , feed ing for 70Helleu fatten on ly 2 17Hm in 00mm» 27 1Herd bull. a re of 192Hon ing 011 comHog hom e 150Hop , best 3 01m nu de on ly 2441060010, 39forage or ch00p 30111

3010 with 030 3900103 n tlon0 for 249

«w e0t0r0 243mine“ ! nu tter for 246

Hon “ . uttening for m0rk0t 169feedlng 10m 156food requln menn for 156

two n tlom for, comp 111

Hydrogen 3

locombm tihle nu tter 37

Intest ine! dim tion 25Inte0t1000 26

Iron 3Kel lner feed ing 0tend0rd0 328L0mblng time 155

L0mh0 138

L0mb0, feed ing of, for mu ket1.0x0t1v0 food0

he” 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 7616

mouth0 4

underside of 14

LegumesLi fe. cycle ofHmph 27

0intenence requlremenn for enor” 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Melutenmce stenderdMm ure, relat ion to foodwh0t make. poor

336 INDEX

PAC!

80V . 01 plum; 11010 15 1011010100 101 1110011 152food for brood 149

Soy 110000. double good 11001 . 8

8101110 1000030111001 01 00010 19 1

81011100. 1000103 1110 167

Stu d.rd‘ 61,”8for 101111 00101010 6 1,328

72

81010 1300 1110 0100110111 011111001. 82

how 14

8101011 00110 15

8101011, 101011v0 v01110 0! 83

8101011 va1110 82

0011101 01111 001011101011 85

cou1p111in 1011000 00 110010 01. 89

11001 10 10111 84

1111101101011 82

10 10101100 10 10011103 0100001110 88

10 10101100 10 food 1000110100010 89

81001, 0110100101 01 good ”

810010, computing 0 101100 101 100

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

80 0

0 0 0 0 0

8101110011 228101110011, cow

'0 2 3

810010011 000101100 2 4810111010 4

S 198

2 4 1Teeth 2 1, 22Tub010111111 1001 192U11110 101 111000111103 11001 94

V111! 00110 26 . 2 7W0101 18 3 7W0101 101 cows 19 1W0101 . giv ing 10 1101000 160W0101 10 grow ing pl0010 17

Watering, 103 1110111y 10 162“1000011 ch icksW11001, 3 1010 01 34W110 001110 00111001 101 198

Wolfl -Lehmm n 01001101110 6 1Work, 1000110010010 101 158

Work, 1000110010010 11 1 1101000 100

Animals Discussing the Fundamental Prin Ciples and R Eviewing ...

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