An investigation into archival handmade papers for the South African art market

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Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date).

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AN INVESTIGATION ,INTO ARCHIVAL HANDMADE

PAPERS FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN ART MARKET

by

Bronwyn Gillian Marshall

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the

"MASTER'S DEGREE·IN TECHNOLOGY,

FINE ART

in the

FACULTY OF ART, DESIGN & ARCHITECTURE

, at the

Technikon Witwatersrand

South Africa

ABsmAcrPapermaking as an activity area at the Technikon Witwatersrand (TWR) was

initially introduced to equip fine art students with the basic knowledge and

skills required to produce their own handmade papers, primarily for printmak

ing techniques. This need was identified through the fact that quality art

papers were only available on campus at an expense that aspiring students

could not afford. As the Papermaking Research and Development Unit

(PRDU) at TWR expanded, students were able to specialise in paper-based

research that targets certain issues that impact on and in our immediate envi

ronment.One issue that took priority was to investigate the properties, use

and production of archival handmade papers to service local artists and stu

dents.

South Africa does not have an extensive indigenous history or tradition in

hand papermaking. It is a relatively new medium with little literature available

on the subject. Research has become necessary to understand the properties

of this medium in order to explore its various possibilities. This investigation

would be viable to the local marketand manufacturers of paper, as well as to

those who utilise paper in their creative activities.

The bulk of archival papers available on the South African market are current

ly manufactured overseas and are imported to our country. With importing

costs and current exchange rates, this increases their price in the South

African market. The research specificallyaims at producing a local handmade

equivalent to the imported product that will meet, or lower, the cost and

increase the availability of the product to the local market. Handmade papers

have many advantages to the artists that exceed mould-made papers, all of

which are investigated in this research.

The specific market had to be identified in order to streamline the research

possibilities and improve product potential. This market was identified as

papers for selected traditional printmaking techniques, such as silkscreening;

intaglio and relief processes.

The research thesis, once published, will provide a resource on the subject,

with specific application to a local situation. It will enable papermakers to fur

ther understand the composition of their product, as well as expand on its use

and application.

CONTENTS

CHAPfER 1

INfROOOCI1ON 1-8

1. RESFARCH IfYP()TIIESIS .............................3

2. R ESFARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 5

CHAPfER 2

THE PROPERTIES OF PAPFR 9-47

1. T HE COMPOSITION OF HANDMADE PAPFR

1.1 FIBRE 9

1.1.1 FIBRE QUAUTIES REQUIRED FOR PAPERMAKlNG ............•......10

1.1.2 FIBRE CLASSIACATION: •..•........•............••....•.10

1.1.2.1 PlANT ABRES (UNPROCESSED) ....•............•....10

1.1.2.2 RECYCLED TEXTILE ABRES ...•.....................12

1.1.2.3 PRE-PROCESSED ABRES .....••.........•........•.13

1.1.3 PROCESSING ABRE INTO PAPER .......•..•.•.......•..••...13

1.2 WATER 14

1.2.1 WATER, PlANTS AND PROCESSING ..............•..•.........14

1.2.2 WATER SUPPLY .....•.....•........................•.16

1.2.3 THE INFLUENCE OF WATER ON TIlE DRY SHEET (WATER VAPOUR) 16

1.3 ADDITIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

2. THE CLASSIFICATION OF PAPFR ACCORDING TO MANUFAcnJRlNG PROCF.SS

2.1 T YPE.S <>F PAPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192.1.1 HANDMADE PAPERS .........•.....•.•..•...•.....••...19

2.1.2 MACHINEMADE PAPERS ...••....•..•....................23

2.1.3 MOULDMADE PAPERS .....•.....•..•.............•......26

2.2 A COMPARISON <>F HANDMADE , MOUIDMADE AND MACHINEMADE

PAPERS 28

3. THE CHARAC1FR5I1CS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF PAPFR

3.1 THE SPECIFlCATIONS <>F PAPER 32

(1-13) PAPER SPECIACATIONS

CHAPfFR 3

THE END USFS AND APPLICATIONS OF ARCHWAL HANDMADE

PAPERS 48-71

1. T HE END USES OF FINE PAPER

1.1 PAPERS FOR lRADITIONAL PRINTMAKING lECHNlQUES .48

1.1.1 THE PHYSICAL FACfORS INFLUENCING TIlE PRINTABIUIY OF PAPER •.....49

1.1.2 THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF PAPER (REGARDING VISUAL PRINT ON PAPER) ...•51

1.1.3 DTIlER CONSIDERATIONS ••.••••..••...•.........•.......52

1.1.4 GENERAL STUDIO PAPERS 53

1.1.5 SELECfED SPECIAUSED PROCESSES .................•.....•..54

2. A PPLlCATIONS FOR TI-IE PURPOSE OF TIm SIUDY

2.1 T HE USE AND APPUCATION OF SHF.ET PULPS/HALF STUFFS 62

2.1.1 HALF-STUFFS IN TIlE COMMERCIAL PAPERINDUSTRY ....•.•........62

2.1.2 SHEET PUlPS FOR TIlE HAND PAPERMAKING INDUSTRY • . . . . . . . . . . . •.63

2.1.3 THE IMPUCATIONS OF TIlE LOCAL PRODUCTION OF HANDMADE SHEET PUlPS

FOR TIlE HAND PAPERMAKING MARKET (RESEARCH POSSIBIUllES) ..•....65

3. THE LOCAL MARKEr

3.1 I DENTlHCATION OF mE MARKEr NEED 67

3.1.1 LOCALLY AVAILABLE ARCHIVAL PRINTMAKING PAPERS .........•....67

.3.1.2 ENvIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION .•.•..........•.....•....•..68

CHAPfFR 4

PROnucnON AND TFSIlNG 72-121

1. FIBRE-lYPES AND ANALYSIS

1.1 C OITON F1BRFS 72

1.1.1 THE HISTORY AND TRADmON OF COTTON IN PAPERMAKING . . . . . . . • . ..72

1.1.2 THEORETICAL AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: COTTON .......•..•....74

• SEED HAIR FIBRE

• BAST FIBRE

1.1.3 COTTON GROWING REGIONS AND/OR LOCAL AVAILABIUIY OF WASTE .....79

1.1.4 AGRICULTURAL IMPUCATIONS (BENEFITS) OF LOW-END PAPER PRODUCTION .80

1.1.5 FINAL ANALYSIS OF COTTON: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ......•....80

1.2 S JSt\L FJBRES 81

1.2.1 THE HISTORY AND TRADmON OF SISAL IN PAPERMAKING 81

1.2.2 THEORETICAL AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: SISAL .........•.......82

1.2.3 SISAL GROWING REGIONS AND/OR LOCAL AVAllABlUTY OF WASTE ...•...84

1.2.4 AGRICULTURAL IMPUCATIONS (BENEFITS) OF LOW-END PAPER PRODUCTION .84

1.2.5 FINAL ANALYSIS OF SISAL: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ......•......85

2. P RODUCI1ON TECHNIQUES

2.1 P APfR PRODUCI1ON AND TECHNIQUES EMPLOYID 87

2.1.1 PREPARATIONS ...•.....•....•..•.........•....•......87

2.1.2 COOKING PROCEDURES ..............•.....•...•........89

2.1.3 BEATING METI-IODS ....••..••...•..........•...........90

2.1.4 SIZING TECHNIQUES AND OTHER ADDITIVES ..•..................95

2.1.5 SHEET-FORMING PROCESSES .............•..........•.....96

2.1.6 BRANDING THE PRODUCT .............•.•..•..•.......•..98

2.1.7 PRESSING AND PARTING .....•.•...•.....................99

2.1.8 DRYING PROCEDURES ..........•.......................101

2.2 S MEET PULP SAMPLING 102

2.3 Q UAUIY CONIROL AND SORTING 103

2.3.1 LOOKING AT A SHEET (STANDARD TESTING TECHNIQUES DONE BY

MANUFACTURER) .....................................103

2.3.2 TESTS DETERMINING THE GRADE OF PAPER ....••...............104

2.4 H ANDLING AND SfORAGE PROCEDURfS 106

2.4.1 HANDUNG PAPER •........•.....•.....••..............106

• USING PAPER (GENERAL USES)

• PREPARING PAPER FOR PRINTMAKING TECHNIQUES (SPECIAC USES)

2.4.2 STORING PAPER •.•..............•...•........•.......108

3. DATA CAPTURE

3.1 T HE PRODUCI1ON DATA SHFET (PDS) 110

3.1.1 DETAILS OF THE PDS •.••........•.....•............•..110

3.2 0 rum DATA CAP1URE 118

3.2.1 SAMPUNG METI-IODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS •..........•..•.......118

CHAPTER 5

PAPER QUALOY (OUTPUTS, PRESENTATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS) .... .122

1. COMPARATIVE AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSlS (nsr RESULTS)

1.1 S UBJECI1VE AND QUAllTATIVE TEST RESULTS (PRACI1CAL) 123

1.1.1 WEIGHT AND THICKNESS •...•..•.....................•...123

1.1.2 COMPOSmON AND STRENGTH _...•......•..........•........125

1.1.3 FURNISH AND PROCESSING ....•........•..•...•...........125

1.1.4 CHARACTER / SHEET FORMATION ......................•.....126

1.1.5 RATE OF ABSORBENCY ........•....•..................•..127

1.20 BJECI1VE AND QUANlUATIVE 1FSf RESULTS (SCIENTIFIC) 130

1.2.1 GRAMMAGE ....................••...•..•.............130

1.2.2 TEARING RESISTANCE ...................•...............130

1.2.3 BURSTING STRENGTH .•••..••...........................131

1.2.4 TENSILE STRENGTH (+ STRETCH) .......................•....131

1.2.5 ACIDITY AND pH 132

1.3 P RINTABIUIY 1FSf RESULTS (APPLICATION) 133

1.3.1 INTAGUO PROCESSES ............................•.......134

1.3.1.1 Quality of print technique 135

1.3.1.2 Absorbency 135

1.3.1.3 Weight 136

1.3.1.4 Strength 136

1.3.1.5 Whiteness / Colour ' 137

1.3.1.6 Surface texture (roughness) 138

1.3.1.7 Unwanted particles 139

1.3.1.8 Overall ratings: Intaglio printing 139

1.3.2 EMBOSSING .•..•.••...•••.••••.••.••................. 140



1.3.2.3 Weight 141


1.3.2.5 Whiteness / Colour 141


1.3.2.7 Overall ratings: Embossing 143

1.3.3 REUEF PROCESSES •...............•.......•.............144



1.3.3.3 Weight 144




1.3.3.7 Overall ratings: Relief processes 146

1.3.4 SCREENPRINTING ...•.•.•......•....••.••.........••...•147



1.3.4.3 Weight 147




1.3.4.7 Overall ratings: Screenprinting 149

1.4 S UMMARY OF HNDINGS 150

CONCLUSION (DISCUSSIONS, ENVISAGED PROBLEMS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS) ......•............•............ .153

1. COMMERCIAUSATIONOF THE RESEARCH 153

2. HANDMADE PAPERPRODUcr 154

3. ARCHIVAL STANDARDS ......•....•....•.•..••............156

4. TRADITIONAL PRINTMAKING TECHNIQUES .......•................157

5. COSTS ........•.........•..........................157

BIBLIOGRAmY 161

ANNExuRFSANNExuRE A - BATCH CODING SYSTEM AND PAPER PROPERTIES

ANNExuRE B - PRODUCTION DATA SHEETS (PDS's)

ANNExuRE C - INK ABSORPTION TESTS AND RESULTS

ANNExuRE D - MOULDMADE SPECIRCATIONS DATA SHEETS

ANNExuRE E - SAPPI TEST RESULTS

ANNExuRE F - PROPOSED BUSINESS PLAN FOR IMPLEMENTATION IN

PHUMANI PROJECTS

ANNExuRE G - COSTING BREAKDOWN

LISf OF D.LUSfRATIONS AND SAMPLFS

Chapter 1Fig 1.1 - Map showing the development of papermaking 8

Chapter 2

Fig 2.1 - Bast fibre: Hemp 11

Fig 2.2 - Leaf fibre: New Zealand Flax 11

Fig 2.3 - Grass fibre: Flax, linseed 11

Fig 2.4 - Seed Fibre: Cotton 12

Fig 2.5 - Rag Fibre: Cotton 12

Fig 2.6 - Diagram: Hydrogen bonding 15

Sample #1- Handmade paper sheet: Western techniques 21

Sample #2 - Handmade paper sheet: Eastern techniques 21

Fig 2.7 - Cross section: Western sheet 21

Fig 2.8 - Cross section: Eastern sheet 21

Fig 2.9 - Eastern methods of papermaking: Himalayas 22

Fig 2.10 - Eastern methods of papermaking: Japan 22

Fig 2.11 - Western methods of papermaking: Italy 22

Fig 2.12 - Eastern style papers: Japan 23

Fig 2.13 - Western style papers 23

Fig 2.14 - Fourdrinier Papermaking Machine 25

Fig 2.15 - Cylinder-mouldat St. Cuthbert's Mill 26

Fig 2.16 - Finishing room at St. Cuthbert's Mill 27

Fig 2.17 - Mouldmade papers 27

Sample #3 - Handmade rag paper 28

Sample #4 - Mouldmade rag paper 28

Sample #5 - Machinemade paper 28

Fig 2.18 - Laid mould surface 33

Fig 2.19 - Wove mould surface 33

Fig 2.20 - Air-drying in 'lofts' 36

Fig 2.21 - Drying on boards 36

Fig 2.22 - Restraint drying system 36

Sample #6 - Watermark 'branding' 41

Fig 2.23 - Watermark 'branding' 41

Fig 2.24 - Diagram: The metric system for paper sizes 44

Chapter 3

Sample #7 - Intaglio print - Etching 55

Sample #8 - Intaglio print - Photo etching on Polymer 56

Sample #9 - Blind embossing - Wire cut-out 57

Sample #10 - Blind embossing - Positive 20 58

Sample #11 - Lino print 59

Sample #12 - Silkscreen print " 61

Sample #13 - Softwood half-stuff 63

Sample #14 - Cotton sheet pulp 64

Sample #15 - Abaca sheet pulp 64

Fig 3.1 - Cotton sheet pulp 66

Chapter 4Fig 4.1 - Cotton: Gossypium Hirsupum 72

Fig 4.2 - Cotton waste in stamper, Holland .' 74

Fig 4.3 - Cotton fibres 75

Fig 4.4 - Cotton research crop: ARC-TCRI 75

Fig 4.5 - Cotton bolls showing the development of the seed fibre 76

Fig 4.6 - Sorting ginned cotton 77

Fig 4.7 - Modem cotton gin 77

Fig 4.8 - Cotton bast fibre 78

Fig 4.9 - Cotton bast fibre showing inner core of plant 78

Fig 4.10 - Cotton growing regions of South Africa 79

Fig 4.11 - Sisal: Agave sisilana Perinne 82

Fig 4.12 - Sisal: Cabuya, Ecuador 82

Fig 4.13 - Sisal showing decorticated fibre 83

Fig 4.14 - Cotton rag fibre 88

Fig 4.15 - Sisal raw fibre after decortication 88

Fig 4.16 - Cooking sisal and cotton fibres 89

Fig 4.17 - Diagram: Water molecule and a hydrogen bond in water 90

Fig 4.18 - Diagram: Surface of a cellulose molecule on a fibre 91

Fig 4.19 - Diagram: Water molecule between two cellulose surfaces 91

Fig 4.20 - Hollander beater, showing the key components 92

Fig 4.21 - Deckle box tests showing the progression of sheet formation and

fibre development .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

Fig 4.22 - Deckle box methodology 93

Fig 4.23 - Microscan of a kraft paper, showing the fibres' progress during

beating 94

Fig 4.24 - The 'freeness' test, showing fibre dispersion 94

Fig 4.25 - Sizing methods 96

Fig 4.26 - Casting [pulling] a sheet of paper 97

Fig 4.27 - Couching a sheet of paper 98

Fig 4.28 - The couching method 98

Fig 4.29 - A TWR watermark design 99

Fig 4.30 - Mould with watermark devise 99

Fig 4.31 - Post of paper being pressed in a hydraulicpress 100

Fig 4.32 - Parting and laying the sheets onto the drying equipment 100

Sample #16 - Restraint-dried sample 101

Sample #17 - Loft-dried sample 101

Fig 4.33 - Drying tests 102

Fig 4.34 - Photos of varying imperfections in handmade paper production .105

Chapter 5

Fig 5.1 - Graph: Weight and thickness test results 124

Fig 5.2 - Graph: Composition and strength test results 125

Fig 5.3 - Graph: Furnish and processing test results 126

Fig 5.4 - Graph: Character / sheet formation test results 127

Fig 5.5 - Paper samples in the ink absorption test 128

Fig 5.6 - Cross hatch test, showing different paper absorbencies 128

Fig 5.7 - Graph: Ink absorption test and standardisation results . . . . . . . . .129

Fig 5.8 - SAPPI and Abbey pen test results 132

Fig 5.9 - Etching print sample 134

Fig 5.10 - Etching print sample 134

Fig 5.11 - Positive 20 print sample 134

Fig 5.12 - Polymer plate photo etching 134

Fig 5.13 - Copper plate photo etching 134

Fig 5.14 - Print samples of papers with varying absorbencies 135

Fig 5.15 - Print samples of papers with varying absorbencies 136

Fig 5.16 - Image showing the destroyed paper surface 137

Fig 5.17 - Colour range of papers 137

Fig 5.18 - Image showing varying surface textures 138

Fig 5.19 - Image showing print defect because of surface texture 138

Fig 5.20 - Image of good quality blind embossings 140

Fig 5.21 - Image showing the effect of paper colour on embossings 142

Fig 5.22 - Images showing the effect of surface texture on embossings '" .142

Fig 5.23 - Image showing the effect of over sizing paper in relief printing ..144

Fig 5.24 - Image showing poor print qualities because of surface texture 145

Sample # 18 - Two paper samples, one calendered, one not 148

Fig 5.25 - Image showing print quality effected by calendering paper 149

LlST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ARC-TCRI - Agricultural Research Council- Tobacco and Cotton Research

Institute

CSIR - Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

DACST - Former Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology.

Currently split into DAC (Department of Arts and Culture) and DST

(Department of Science and Technology)

NRF - National Research Foundation

PACA - Papel Artesanal de Cabuya (Handmade Cabuya Paper)

PDS - Production Data Sheet

pH - Potential for hydrogen

PROD - Technikon Witwatersrand Papermaking Research and Development

Unit

SAPPI - South African Pulp and Paper Industry

SMME - Small, Medium and Micro Enterprise

SUBIR - Sustainable Uses for Biological Resources

TAPPI - Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry

TWR - Technikon Witwatersrand

DEClARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis,.which I herewith submit for the researchqualification

Mfech FmeArt

to the Technikon Witwatersrand is my own work,apart from the recognised assistance,

and has not previously been submitted by me to another institution to obtaina research diploma or degree.

ACKNOWLFDGMENTS

I would hereby like to thank the following organisations for sponsorship:

The Technikon Witwatersrand Research Committee for the consecutive Fellowships to

complete my MTech studies;

The Vlaams-ZuidAfrica Cultuurstitching,

The Ernst Oppenheimer Memorial Trust and

The Technikon Witwatersrand Committee on International Affairs

for funding the research/student exchange trip to Belgium in 2000;

The Technikon Witwatersrand Committee on International Affairs,

The Technikon Witwatersrand Faculty Research Committee (FADA) and

Phumani Paper for funding the research trip to Japan in 2001;

The National Arts Council of South Africa and

The Technikon Witwatersrand Faculty Research Committee (FADA)

for funding the international group exhibition "Transformation: Works in Paper"

that I curated for my Mtech studies in 2002.

I would also like to thank the following organisations and people for their

continuous support and transfer of knowledge that helped me grow

throughout my studies:

Phumani Paper, Technikon Witwatersrand, Karel de Grote-Hogeschool,

Veerle Rooms, all involved in the Japan & Belgium research visits, The Minnebach Family,

all the artists on my exhibition, Alet Voster, Threads & Crafts Magazine,

all the staff and participants of Phumani Paper,

Kim Berman, Robbin Silverberg, Gail Deery, Bob Matthysen, Asoa Shimura,

Pam Allara, Mandy Coppes, my family and

Connie Mogale for the Best Post Graduate Research Student Award I received in 2002.

"Fine handmade paper is intrinsically connected to time -

it takes a great investment of time to make it and

once made, fine paper can suroive the ravages of climate and

insects for ages.

In surviving it becomes the carrier of knowledge and times

past. "

Dorothy Field. Hand Papermaking , Washington, D.C., Summer

1987.

This thesis is dedicated to

Kim Berman,

without whom my inspiration, drive, eagerness,

experience and successes

would not be as great.

Thank you Kim - you are a true inspiration.

CHAPfFB. 1

INIRooocnoN

Printmaking opens many avenues in all aspects of art and design for any

aspiring student. It is a medium that is well established, yet has much room

for individual innovation and development (Bagilhole, et al. 1983:6). For the

professional printmaker, the print offers a magical quality with an expanding

realisation of what the processes them-selves can be designed to do (Bagilhole

et al. , 1983:6; Heller, 1972:1).

Printmaking is about technique - it's an impression created through contact

with a surface that has been treated using a specific method of preparation. It

can also be produced in multiples - identical, original works of art called

editions, yet are not copies or reproduction (Heller, 1972:4-8). For those

creators concerned with the perfection of the multiple, the choice of tools and

materials with which to create becomes essential. For printmakers, the

important material requirements are the paper, ink and equipment (or tool)

used to produce the final print, which all have a considerable effect on the

character of the impression (Heller, 1972:320).

As a research papermaker and trained printmaker, an interest in one of the

three above-mentioned important printmaking materials arose. Printmaking

requires paper with various qualities, properties and longevity in order to

produce a quality edition. As Silvie Turner states (1998:9), these papers are

known as fine papers - papers of the 'finest quality' that 'should perform

perfectly in the application that it has been designed for'.

All locally available papers of this nature are currently manufactured overseas

and imported to our country. For this reason, these papers are difficult to

source in variety and are not affordable in bulk nor for random experimenta

tion. This evident gap in the local market was targeted in this investigation for

further research and development in order to service the South African art

market, with a specific focus on the hand printmaking industry.

1

The linking of these two fields of papermaking and printmaking provides a

unique synergy that enables the creator to fully explore one of their primary

materials, whilst learning and understanding the medium with which he or she

works. Locally available literature that explores these issues and which

specialises in a medium for a specific purpose, is limited. Silvie Turner's

guides to 'Fine Papers' (1991; 1998) are aimed specifically at the American

and European market where these papers are manufactured. Most of the

papers listed and analysed in these books are not available for purchase in

South Africa. Although the information on paper properties, qualities and

applications do apply to local artists, it is difficult to apply the knowledge to

the limited amount of papers available on our market. Literature available

from Barret (1983; 1994), Bell (1981), Dawson (1995), Heller (1978),

Hiebert (2000) and Smith (1989) cover aspects of the 'how to' of papermak

ing, rather than specialising in a single type of paper. Hunter (1943) offers a

concise and historical view of the traditions and development of papermaking

through the centuries across the globe, and covers all types of papers, from

papyrus to machinemades. While this literature provides the reader with an in

depth understanding of the development of papermaking through the

centuries, it does not allow much room for the application of knowledge

gained. Gilmour (1967) covers most aspects of paper, specialising in industrial

papermaking and "merchanting". Electronic sources include a 'how to' guide

or online shopping, with few specialising in the exchange of valuable paper

knowledge.

The extensive literature available on printmaking often includes sections on

papers for printmaking. Some will cover the history and tradition of paper

making (Eichenberg, 1976; Clemson & Simmons, 1988; Lambert, 2001),

while others will include a description of the paper requirements for specific

printmaking processes (Bagilhole, et aI., 1983; Heller, 1972; Knigin &

Zimilies, 1970). Clearly, a unique understanding of these mediums and their

application to a local situation is required.

In The Book of Fine Paper (1998), Turner lists and analyses the different

papers available for various techniques of painting, drawing, printmaking,

2

bookbinding and other graphic media. As discussed in her book (Turner,

1998:114-116), these papers are referred to as fine papers, which are

manufactured by hand or machine. Both processes are said to have various

qualities and properties that define the consumer's choice of purchase. In

South Africa, printmakers have a single and limited choice for fine paper that

is manufactured by machine. According to Turner (1998:114), the machine

made paper was designed to create papers that were more consistent and

reliable than the handmade sheet. The book also argues that this threat of the

competitive machinemade product has resulted in the re-emergence of the

handmade paper product with its own place in contemporary use (Turner,

1998:41).

"If you compare a handmade sheet, for example, with a machinemade grade

the latter will certainly be cheaper, smoother, generally more even and more

consistent, with the result that it has long been considered superior:

However, people are awakening to the beauty, the vitality, the depth, the

design, the character and expressiveness, the level of skill involved, the

difference of a handmade sheet...What is not widely understood about this

type of paper is that a machine cannot emulate its qualities."

(Turner, 1998:41)

1. R ESFARCH HYPOlHESLS

A locally manufactured handmade paper that meets archival standards, as well

as the criteria for professional printmakers has therefore become the hypothe

sis for this investigation. The aims and objectives of this research have been

derived from the qualities identified for handmade fine papers for use by

artists.

- Locally manufactured

The need for a locally manufactured product of this nature is important to

developing South Africa's economy. Applications of the research can assist

in rural development and job creation by providing a new cultural industry

a bringing together of science and humanities.

3

- Handmade Paper

When looking at a map of the history of hand papermaking, Southern

Africa was not involved in its development, nor was it introduced to this

ancient art (Refer to Fig 1.1). In recent years, innovative African artists

began to develop hand papermaking as part of their artistic expression.

Artists like Durant Sihlale and John Roome have become leaders in the

development of hand papermaking in South Africa. Creative engineers, like

Walter Ruprecht have also been recognised for developing unique non

electrical beaters for rural papermakers in Zimbabwe and for initiating

papermaking projects. All are working to develop hand papermaking in

South Africa, demonstrating that our country can be a viable resource for

the future of paper.

Technikon Witwatersrand (TWR) began developing the Papermaking Unit

through the initiative of Kim Berman, after she visited tertiary institutions in

the United States. Berman believed paper to be a vital organ of the art

making process and began teaching basic papermaking to first year Fine Art

students. Through consecutive grants from the National Research

Foundation (formerly the Centre for Science Development), the

Papermaking Unit has developed into a Research & Development Unit

(PRDU), a viable resource for the Technikon. For example, Government has

demonstrated their support by funding the Poverty Relief Papermaking

Project Phumani Paper, at the TWR. The project has currently set up 20

rural development papermaking projects across the country, employing over

400 previously unemployed men and women in South Africa. Part of the

Unit's purpose is to contribute to the sustainability of these projects through

research, product design, extensive training, business management skills and

self empowerment. Through managing this project, the Technikon has

developed the capacity of students and community artists into specialists in

the field of hand-papermaking. This research investigation on fine papers

for the art market can be implemented into the sustainable SMME's of

Phumani Paper, thereby developing this industry in South Africa and

contributing to job creation.

4

- Archival product with printmaking properties

Throughout the world, handmade paper is characterised by its functionality

and its aesthetic properties. There are many different types of paper

available. The research will deal primarily with functional paper, with

attention given to the particular aesthetics related to printmaking techniques.

This investigation will unpack the properties, applications and production

methodologies of archival handmade papers.

2. R ESFARCH DESIGN AND METHOOOLOGY

The research investigation will address the following issues, problems and

findings:

THE PROPERTIES OF HANDMADE PAPER (CHAPTER 2)

The properties that make up a sheet of handmade paper require certain

analysis in order to understand the medium holistically. These properties

include the composition, classification, characteristics and specifications of

paper, which will require in-depth analysis, description, comparison and

discussion.

THE END-USES AND APPUCATIONS OF ARCI-:IVAL HANDMADE PAPERS (CHAPTER 3)

An analysis of the function, application or end-use of a sheet of fine paper is

important as it defines the method of research and manufacture to follow. A

particular goal has to be determined before the practical research becomes

possible. In this chapter, the use of archival handmade papers for specific

printmaking purposes is analysed, as well as various possible applications of

the research investigation and an identification of the local market need.

REsEARCH METHODOLOGIES AND PRODUCTION (CHAPTER 4)

The research investigation up to this point will provide the theoretical basis

for the execution of the practical research. The investigation that follows will

draw upon practice-based research methodology. This Chapter will look into

the specific research methodologies:

5

• What the paper will be made from (fibre types and analysis),

• How the paper will be made (production techniques), and

• Documentation of the practical research investigation (data capture),

REsEARCH RESULTS AND ANDINGS (CHAPTER 5)

The results and findings of the paper quality test will be analysed and

discussed in this chapter in order for the investigationto reach a conclusion.

This chapter focuses on applying the research by discussing the results of

testing completed. It includes outputs, presentations and discussions of how

the paper performed to each printing process tested.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATrONS

A concluding section presents a holistic view on all the results and findings, as

well as recommendations for the application of the research investigation. All

samples and research documentation are included as Annexures at the back

of the document, or are included in the body of the text, where applicable.

"We stand today at a most interesting and probably historic point - a

place of confrontation, exchange and convergence between estab

lished traditions, skills and media on the one hand and an expanding

world of new technology, new practices and new sensibilities on the

other." (Turner, 1998:10)

The research investigation will be a study of an aspect of the tradition of an

ancient art. In this time of innovation and evolution, paper researchers are

continuously making progress by exchanging knowledge and working as

artists in a scientific field involving agronomy and chemistry to validate the

research. By developing new technology and emerging techniques, the forth

coming research outputs assist in sustaining the future of hand papermaking

in South Africa. Researchers are exploring how new technology and this

ancient art will engage with each other in the present, in a sense, trying to

develop new insights, new directions, new awareness and new methods in our

developing country.

6

Until recently, paper in South Africa has had a purely functional role. Little

has been known about this ancient craft. Attempts have been made to adapt

Western techniques, but this has only succeeded in flooding the market with

products of poor quality. The TWR has embarked on a path to contribute to

new knowledge and develop a South African understanding of paper and its

future in the art industry.

7

CHAPfER 2

THE PROPERIIES OF PAPER

1. THE COMPOSmON OF HANDMADE PAPER

Paper can be described as a substance that is' composed of thousands of

interlaced fibres that have been macerated, so that each individual filament is

a separate unit, formed through a water-based process, into a web-like format

(Turner, 1998:3). This description is broad and can be used to loosely

describe the process which forms a true sheet of paper, as there are many

different techniques! for making a sheet of paper. A fibre must undergo some

kind of maceration in water or moisture and a sifting in water of some sort, to

be regarded as a true paper (Hiebert, 2000:3). The products that do not fall

into this category, such as papyrusZ, rice papers, vellums, parchments and

bark paperss, are not included in the course of this study.

It is important to look at the composition of paper to understand the impact

it will have on the end-use of the product. Although paper appears to be a

simple, even and flat surface, it is actually a complex structure that requires a

series of processes to arrive at its specific quality. While the processes of

making paper are not the focus of this investigation, aspects of the

composition of handmade paper need to be considered in order to understand

the context of this study.

1.1 FIBRE

The fibre is the primary raw material that makes up a sheet of paper. The

fibres are made up of cells of varying length and width, which come from a

variety of plants that are high in cellulose", All plants contain cellulose,

therefore all plants can be used to make paper. The quality of the fibre, and

the cellulose content in the plant, will determine the quality and strength of

the finished sheet. Each fibre has its own characteristics and these, in tum,

have an influence on the type of paper it makes. (Turner, 1998:19)

9

1.1.1 FIBRE QUAUTIES REQUIRED FOR PAPERMAKING

1. FIBRE LENGTH: The approximate range of a good fibre for paper will be

between a minimum of 6mm to a maximum of 120mm. The longer the

fibre, the stronger the paper. Hemp, for example, has a length of ±25mm,

and produces a good quality paper. (Bell, 1981:14; NAIHC, 1997)

2. FIBRE THICKNESS: The thicker (wider) the fibre, the coarser or rougher the

paper; the thinner (more slender) the fibre, the smoother, more flexible the

finished sheet will be, which are desirable for printing papers (Bell,

1981:14).

3. The plant requires a HIGH CELLULOSE CONTENT. The papers strength stems

from the absorption of water and the promotion of hydrogen and cellulose

bonding. All non-cellulose materials are extracted before processing (eg.

lignin, pith & woody shives) because they reject water and resist bonding.

Cotton linterss contain the highest percentage of cellulose: up to 95%.

(Tumer, 1998:19; Hiebert, 2000:41)

1.1.2 FIBRE CLASSIRCATION (TYPES OF FIBRE)

Fibres have their own shape, size and structure; both before and after

processing. The most suitable fibres provide elasticity, flexibility and tensile

strength to plants (Dodge, 1897:23). Understanding the fibre type will assist

in the analysis of the behavioural characteristics and life expectancy of the

paper.

1.1.2.1 PLANT RBRES (UNPROCESSED)

Fibres are classified according to their origin in the plant:

Bast Fibre - This is the inner bark of the tree branches and the stems of the

herbaceous annuals and perennialsv. The bast fibre is located

between the outer bark and the core of the branch. The inner

bark of plants is usually quite fleshy and yields a good amount

of strong fibre. The main function of this fibre is to support the

plant, which also contributes to its quality through the strength

of the fibre. There are three types of bast fibre: woody bast;

herbaceous bast and another found in the petiole, or leaf stem.

10

Fig 2.1 Bast fibre - Hemp.Photograph from website: North AmericanIndustrialHemp Council, 1997. Available:http'l!najhc oro/hemp information/

,....;ooC'ol

~'"::;:

a:i§.s::

process into paper as the preparations are ~8'

minimal. Much of the plant material, ~

however, breaks down significantly, yielding ::gQ)

the least quantity of fibrous pulp compared to 3-leaf and bast fibres. rd

u:

Fig 2.2 Leaf fibre - NewZealand Flax. Photograph fromMaclay,G. 1984:194.

Leaf Fibres - Leaf fibres for hand papermaking are the flexible leaves of

plants. The longer leaves generally produce the most

suitable fibre for papermaking. Leaf fibres are not as strong

as bast fibre papers, but will produce a sufficiently strong

paper with acceptable flexibility. Some leaf fibres, mostly

from the leaves of trees, are very short and produce a

'speckled' or decorative paper, with little strength and

flexibility.

Grass Fibres - This fibre makes up the entire plant of the

grass-type, with the flowers or seeds

removed. Grass fibres are the easiest to

.Du..~Seed-hair Fibres - Seed-hair fibres are attached to the covering

around the seeds of certain plants. Cotton ~<.:J

seeds, for example, are ginned10 for textile C'I)"l

use, and ginned again several times, to It11

collect excess fibre that is not strong enough for textiles.

Because of their high percentage of cellulose and due to

their unuseable fibre length for textiles, these fibres are

primarily produced into sheet pulps for papermaking (pre

processed fibre, often referred to as cotton linters).

(Turner, 1998:19-21; Dodge, 1897:25; Hiebert, 2000:39

47)

Rg 2.4 Seed Fibre - Cotton.Photograph from Robinson, E. 1983:519.

Fig 2.5 Rag Fibre - cotton. Photographfrom Heller, J. 1978:37.

1.1.2.2 RECYCLED TEXTILE RBRES

Traditionally, paper was made from discarded textile fibres such as used rags,

ropes and sacks. Processing these fibres for hand papermaking requires

extensive labour-intensive processes, as the rags have to be cut into smaller

pieces in order to break down. In a society of overloading waste materials,

rags from natural fibres, such as cotton or linen, are sold cheaply to promote

their recycling potential.

Other recyclable products include industrial

paper and board. Commercial paper is made

from wood pulp which contains non-cellulose

materials. The impurities from these materials

break down over time and cause the recycled

paper to disintegrate. Additions of chemicals

to the industrial paper also contribute to the

acidity levels in the finished handmade paper

(Gilmour, 1967:24). Recycled archival papers

and boards can be used to create an acid-free

12

handmade paper, but still result in a weaker paper because the fibres are short

and fragile due to ongoing processing (Turner, 1998:19-21).

1.1.2.3 PRE-PROCESSED ABRES

These are produced from plant fibre suitable for hand papermaking. They are

pre-cooked and partially beaten in the form of ready-to-use pulps. They are

marketed in some countries in a dry, compressed sheet form (referred to as

sheet pulp). Sheet pulps, such as Abaca and cotton linters are not locally

available in South Africa. This gap in the market will be discussed further in

the text (Chapter 3, Section 2). (Turner, 1998:19; Hiebert, 2000:39-47)

1.1.3 PROCESSING ABRE INTO PAPER

The basic methods of processing fibre into paper has remained constant for

centuries: Eastern methods of hand papermaking were adapted into Western

methods which were, in tum, adapted for industrial purposes (Turner,

1998:14-16; Hiebert, 2000:1-6; Hunter, 1943). All fibre requires a similar

pulping process in order to be formed into a sheet of paper.

The plant fibre, once selected for its specific purpose, requires preparation

before undergoing a beating process. The fibre is extracted from the plant

and requires cooking and occasional fermentation before the beating

processes. Bast plant fibres require steaming, stripping, rettingn and cleaning.

Recycled or pre-processed fibres have already undergone this process in order

to get it to its present state, but do require soaking prior to beating.

Cooking is done in an alkali12 solution which softens tough, raw fibre and

removes non-cellulose materials such as lignins, pectins, waxes and gums.

These materials resist the absorption of water and bonding processes, which

will affect the archivalis qualities of the paper. These substances are dissolved

during cooking and rinsed out before beating. (Bell, 1981:22; Hiebert,

2000:52)

13

The beating of fibres results in their conversion to a loose viscous matter that

is then scooped into a screen to form a sheet of paper. All beating is done in

the presence of water to promote the intake of water and assist in hydrogen

bonding. Beating can be done by hand with a pounding-mallet, or with

specialised papermaking equipment.

Whizz mixersis are designed to break up pre-processed sheet pulps or

recycled papers. The Whizz mixer acts like a large food processor which

breaks up the fibre into a pulp. Because recycled waste paper pulps utilise

pre-processed materials, the resulting paper is relatively weaker and inferior

for specialised purposes. Hollander beatersis were designed to process

tougher fibres like rag and raw plant fibres. The principal function of the

Hollander beater was to

"pass the fibres, suspended in water, through a controlled gap between sets

of fixed and rotating bars. During the beating, cutting (shortening of fibre

length), fibrillation (shredding and bruising of fibre walls), and hydration

(when fibres begin to' accept water more readily) can all take place and are

adjusted to suit the requirements of the papermaker."

(Turner, 1998:23)

This investigation focused on specialised Western methods of papermaking

that achieve a specific kind of handmade rag paper for the art industry. These

processes will be discussed in Chapter 4, Section 2.

1.2WATFRWater is an essential component for hand papermaking, and although is not

present in the final sheet of paper, it is responsible for most of the results in

the finished sheet and therefore requires some analysis.

1.2.1 WATER, PlANTS AND PROCESSING

All living plants are composed mainly of water which comprises the largest

percentage of the weight of the plant. Cells which are present in all living

things, consist of water molecules. These molecules are transported through

14

the vascular bundles containing xylem16 and phloem17 and contribute to the

life of the plant by aiding in the transportation of food, minerals and water to

other essential parts of the plant. The cambium is responsible for supporting

the rest of the plant. It is a microscopic layer which is contained in the bast

fibre, which is the primary part of the plant used in hand papermaking. This

layer also contains the cellulose fibres which are important for papermaking

and are responsible for many essential characteristics (Hutchins, 1983:290

304).

The cellulose in the cell walls is responsible for the absorption of water during

beating. Cellulose is water-loving and if beaten properly can absorb large

amounts of water into the fibres' cells. The more water that is present in the

cell, the stronger the hydrogen bond and therefore, the stronger the paper

(Turner, 1998:23). A hydrogen bond is an exceptionally strong force that

keeps the water molecules in fixed positions (Bull, 1983:51-55). In

papermaking, this bond is created when pressing the sheet of paper in the

hydraulic press - the greater the pressure, the stronger the bond. The bond

results in a developed network of molecules which can be compared to that of

the effect of temperature on hydrogen bonding in water (See Fig 2.6).

Fig 2.6 Diagram showing how ice isless dense than water because theeffect of hydrogen bonding becomesstronger as water is cooled. Left imageshows an undeveloped network. Middleimage shows a more developednetwork as the water is cooled andright image shows a fully developednetwork when the water is frozen.Photograph from Bull,C. 1983:55.

The strength of the paper, as discussed, is due to the absorption of water and

the promotion of hydrogen and cellulose bonding. The non-cellulose materials;

e.g. lignin, pith and woody shives, must be extracted before processing

because they reject water and resist bonding. This occurs from the cooking

process with the aid of chemicals (a lye solution or soda ash), in order to

prepare them for the beating and bonding processes (Hiebert, 2000: 52-53).

15

1.2.2 WATER SUPPLY

The papermaking process is dependent on a good, pure water supply. The

source should be free from impurities and unwanted mineral traces (Turner,

1998:24). The demand for a clean water supply has become very strong in

recent years. As the population grows, so have the demands for more water

and for purer water for public health issues. (Bull, 1983:51-55)

In the Eastern tradition, paper was made in the rivers and lakes of mountains

and valleys. This source of water is considered to be in its most purest form,

free from impurities and human interference (Turner, 1998:24). Papermaking

was, and still is in some countries, considered to be a winter activity for two

main reasons: firstly, it was an alternative to crop farming in its dormant

months and, because farmers had no source of income in the winter months,

paper was often made as a substitute. Secondly, cold water controls bacterial

growth and assists in forming a crisp sheet by tightening the fibres (Shukuno,

2001). This Eastern philosophy of winter-papermaking posed problems of

demand from western countries. Western papermaking introduced the use of

a vat and other indoor equipment to compensate the problems of winter

papermaking (Hunter, 1943:224).

Contemporary problems associated with inner-city papermaking is often an

impure water supply. Mass urbanisation has put tremendous pressure on our

water supplies, necessitating increased levels of chemical treatment and

recycling (Smith, 1983:65-68). Purification and filtration techniques aid in the

elimination of the effect of chemical by-products and organic impurities in the

hand papermaking process. These products are often the result of pH

imbalances and archival qualities in handmade paper and require further

investigation.

1.2.3 THE INFLUENCE OF WATER ON THE DRY SHEEr (WATER VAPOUR)

A dry sheet of paper is still an organic substance which has the ability to

breathe and take in moisture. If a sheet of paper has an inadequate quantity

of sizing18, absorption of water vapour can result in its deterioration (Turner,

16

1998:29). The major factor influencing this deterioration involves the storage

of the paper. Correct storage procedures and the side effects of incorrect

storage facilities will be discussed further in Chapter 4, Section 2.

1.3 ADDITIVES

Many of the characteristics of a finished sheet of paper result from the use of

additives during the pulping and forming processes. Certain substances have

different effects in papermaking and can improve or enhance the quality of

the finished sheet. Craft papers, for bookbinding and box making do not

necessarily require additives, but they can be added to improve strength.

Specialised papers, such as etching papers, require additives to improve the

performance of the end product (Turner, 1998:24).

Additives can be natural or chemical in nature. Often additives from traditional

techniques have natural and chemical substitutes. For example, Formation

Aid, a mucous substance Which acts primarily as an agent to alter the

viscosity of the pulp and water durinq sheet formation, can be made from the

root of the hibiscust? plant or is sold in powder or liquid form from paper

chemical suppliers. Additives can range from buffers, fillers and agents which

affect the physicality of the final paper quality, to additives which streamline

the production process. Specific additives will be discussed further in the

Chapter, Section 3.1:6.

Fibre, water and chemical or natural additives can conclusively be considered

the three main composites of any sheet of paper. For different kinds of paper,

however, the composites may vary. For instance, the fibres previously

discussed in Section 1.1 were specificallyaimed at fibres for hand

papermaking. Various wood fibres are the main constituent of machinemade

papers and therefore may contain other properties which are not discussed in

this investigation.

17

The discussion following investigated other methods which are used to classify

and categorise paper which may bring about new ideas about paper

composition and methods of classification. This indicates that the previous

section (Chapter 2, Section 1) should be applied to each individual situation.

18

2. THE ClASSIFICATION OF PAPER ACCORDING TO

MANUFAcruRlNG PROCESSFS

2.1 T YPFS OF PAPERS

Fine papers are described and labelled according to the way in which they are

produced. Each method of production gives rise to certain characteristics in

the sheet of paper (Turner, 1998:41-135). It is important to conduct a broad

investigation of types of papers available on the market in order to place the

identified paper under investigation into a specific category. This section of

the investigation will look at the criteria which gives a certain type of paper,

its identifying name, use and, ultimately, price. Specific fine papers that are

available on the South African market will be further discussed in Chapter 3,

Section 3. This section (including Chapter 2, Section 3) provides a broad

overview in order to place the research into a particular context.

The types of papers that are available on the art market fall into one of two

categories: handmade or machinemade papers. As SilvieTurner in 'The Book

of Fine Paper' (1998: 18) discusses, there is a third type of paper available,

which fits specifically into one category but has characteristics of the other.

These papers are known as mouldmade papers and will be discussed

separately. The three categories under consideration differ significantly with

regard to both product and cost. These papers will be looked at according to

their characteristics, end-uses and price range.

2.1.1 HANDMADE PAPERS

'Handmade' paper is the description given to the type of paper that is made

individually, sheet by sheet, in the traditional manner that has remained

virtually unchanged for centuries (Turner, 1998:41). The sheets are made with

skill and care, with little or no addition of chemicals to the pulp. The method

of making, as referred to in the previous section (Section 1.1), involves the

following processes. (Note: These processes are discussed with a practical

application in Chapter 4, Section 2):

1. The fibre must be cleaned of all substances that impair their value as a

19

papermaking material i.e. all non-cellulose materials. This involves cutting

and sorting the fibre, as well as sometimes stripping, soaking, retting and

cooking the fibre in order to prepare it for beating. However, many

contemporary papermakers can purchase their pre-prepared stock in the

form of compressed, half-beaten sheets (sheet pulps) which helps

streamline production.

2. The beating process occurs ina Hollander beater, Whizz mixer or by hand

(in the presence of water), and its purpose is to break and separate the

fibres into smaller fibrils to form a pulp. The beating process is critical to

the effect on the finished sheet and its purpose. Additives such as size,

buffers or colourings can be added during beating to enhance paper

quality.

3. The pulp is then placed into a vat20 with a percentage of about 90% water

to 10% stock. It is then scooped up ('pulled' or 'casted'), with a screen

covered with a mesh (known as a mould and deckle) and the excess water

is drained out. The sheet is formed by agitating and interweaving the fibres

with circular and linear motions. This action aligns the fibres in four

different directions, and lends the handmade paper the characteristic of a

woven or dispersed grain direction. This also adds to the strength of the

paper and is important to the formation, thickness and evenness of the dry

sheet.

4. The wet sheet is transferred onto a felt by a process called 'couching'.

Many sheets are formed and transferred onto the stack or 'post',

interleaved with felt or sheets of interfacing. The post is then pressed in a

hydraulic or screw press under immense pressurezi to remove excess

water.

5. The sheets are removed from the wet felts and placed in a restraint-drying

system or hung in a loft (or well-ventilated area) to dry. Once the sheets are

dry, they are pressed again for several days in order to cure and prepare

them for their end-use.

20

6. Sometimes additional sizing agents and finishes can be added as an extra

stage for specialised requirements in the dry sheet. Many defective or "8"

grade sheets occur during this process, but are re-pulped during

manufacture or dried and allocated for other functions, such as product

making or proofing. These applications will be discussed further in the

Chapter, Section 3.

All handmade papermaking techniques follow similar processes of formation,

yet there is a variation in Eastern and Western traditions which effect the final

look and quality of the paper (see samples below). Traditional fibres used in

Eastern papermaking have a rich, textual quality which is visible in the final

sheet. The Western papermaking tradition is based on cotton or linen rags for

production of paper for a different function; it therefore has a completely

different quality to that of papers from the East. All handmade papers have

individual characteristics and range in colour, weight, surface and texture.

Sample #1: Handmade paper sheetusing Western techniques

Fig 2.7 Cross-section of Westernstyle paper. Photograph from AllJapan Washi

Association, 1991:15.

21

Sample #2: Handmade paper sheetusing Eastern techniques

Fig 2.8 Cross-section of washi(Eastern-style paper). Photograph from All

Japan Washi Association, 1991:15.

Fig 2.9 ABOVE: Eastern methods ofpapennaking, Himalayas. Photographfrom Turner, S. 1998:80.

Fig 2.10 A BOVE: Eastern methods of pape rmaking,Japan . Photograph from AllJapan Washi Association. 1991 :11.

Fig 2.11 ABo VE: Western methods of papermaking , Italy. Photographfrom Turner. 5 .1998:45.

22

Fig 2.12 RIGHT: Easternstyle papers, Japan.Photograph from Schleiper catalogue2000 . Antwerpen , Belgium.

Fig 2.13 LEFr: Western stylepapers. Left pho tograph fromTurner. S. 1998:73 . Right photographfrom Khadi Papers catalogue. 2000.Chichester. United Kingdom.

2.1 .2 M ACHINEMADE PAPERS

The papermaking machine was invented in 1798 in France by Nicolas Louise

Robert (Hutchins, 1983:53). In 1803-4, the first machine for the manufacture

of paper on a continuous cycle was set up at Fragmore, Hertfordshire;

financed by a firm of wholesale stationers, the Fourdriniers (Turner,

1998 :135). Today, machinemade papers are manufactured daily by the ton

for industrial and commercial use, and provide for the cheaper end of the

paper market. The production is primarily targeted to the 'consume and

dispose ' market and , for this reason , the ingredients and techniques used

23

reflect the end purpose. Large amounts of chemicals are included in these

papers, thereby limiting their life span, and often causing short-term

degradation, breakdown and, ultimately, waste. Archivality is not an important

factor in this industry as quantity is the main focus of production. This type of

production and its visual quality often mistakenly sets the standard and grades

of all paper production. The majority of these machinemade papers are not

as pure as those produced by hand or by cylinder mould and are therefore not

able to stand the test of time. Since 1970 a number of industrial paper

manufacturers have developed special ranges for the creative and

environmentally aware market. The quality, however, is not as refined as that

of handmade and mouldmade papers, but they have the advantages of being

cheap, uniform and widely available (Turner, 1998:135).

The paper machines that are responsible for this type of commercial paper

are quick and have a high degree of technical sophistication. Industrial paper

mills rarely stop production, and mill workers work in shifts to monitor the

machines. The machine is comprised of a flat bed (made of wire mesh) on

which the paper is formed. The mesh shakes in one direction as the pulp is

distributed onto it. This means that the fibres are formed in one direction and

result in the grain direction of the finished roll of paper. After this sifting

process, the paper goes through many suction, pressing and heat processes

in order to achieve the fine quality of machinemade papers. The roll is then

usually cut into sheets of various sizes and shipped off to wholesalers (Turner,

1998:136).

Machinemade papers are most commonly made from hardwood and

softwood fibres. These wood fibre pulps contain a large percentage of lignin

and other impurities which produces a paper that degrades very quickly,

resulting in the yellowing of the sheet when exposed to bright light for

extended periods. In addition, the paper has a low tensile strength. Certain

mills, as previously mentioned, make acid free grades due to pressure from

paper conservationists. According to Turner (1998:136), the Permanent

Paper Standard of the USA: ANSI 239 states that:

24

PuLP CARRIED ON PHOSPHOR

BRONZE WlRECLOTHD ANDY

ROLL

COUCH

ROLLS

t2ND PREss

ROLLS

3RD PREss ROLLS

(REvERSING PREss)DRYING CYUNDERS

tSMOOTHING

ROLLS

DRYINGCYUNDERs

1$I" 2ND 3RD 4THC A L E ND ER S

COOUNG REELROlLS

PAN C VIEW OF A FOURDRINIER PAPER MAKING MACHINED1ustratlng the processes of converting the liquid pulp to the finished reel

(Reproduced by courtesy of Guard Bridge Paper Co. Ltd)

TAKEN FROM: G our, S. C. 1%7. Paper: It's MakIng, Merchantlng and Usage. 2nd Edition.London, Urn ed Kingdom: National Association of Paper Merchants.

2.1.3 MOULDMADE PAPERS

Dry sheets of mouldmade papers closely resemble the characteristics of

handmade papers. This is largely due to the fact that they both use the same

raw material (i .e. cotton or linen rag fibre). Pulp preparation is similar to that

of handmade paper, but the shee t forming, pressing and drying processes are

replaced by that of a machine called the cylinder mould, invented by John

Dickinson in 1809 (Gilmour, 1967:69). This machine contains a large

cylinder covered with a wire mesh , the diameter of which determines the size

of the paper. The cylinder revolves in half-immersed pulp, and a vacuum

pump inside the cylinder propels the fibres to adhere to the mesh, which

results in the formation of a layer of paper.

The paper then passes through two cylindrical rolls that mechanically

squeezes the water and presses the shee t. Both of these cylinders are covered

with a felt which gives the paper its texture on both sides of the paper.

Various textures are achieved through different processes: rough paper texture

from a felt with a heavy weave; a fine (or 'NOT' ) surface from a tightly woven

felt; and a smooth (or H.P.) surface from a smooth metal polishing roll, called

calender rolls22. The paper is dried by passing it through steam-heated

cylinders after which the paper is reeled into a continuous roll of paper. The

sheets are usually hand-torn from the roll into sheets, which results in soft

edges on the paper. This represents the false deckle edge; a characteristic of

mouldmade paper (Turner, 1998:113).

Fig 2 .15 RIGHT: Thevat area of thecylinder-mouldma chine at St.Cuthberts Mill ,Somerset , UK.Photograph from Turner. S.

1998:115.

26

Fig 2.16 RIGHT: The finishing roomat St. Cuthberts Mill , Somerset,United Kingdom. Photograph from Turner. S.1998:117 .

Moulin du Cue

Fabriano No 5, trimmed

Schoellershammer lOW

Velin Arches

SihlArt Aquarelle, trimmed

Velin de Lana

% LanaGravure, trimmed

Hanhemuhle Aquarelle

Hanhemtihle Medi aeval Laid

Somerset White Satin

Z erkall 7625

Fig 2.17 Mouldmade papers. Photograph from Turner. S. 1991:54.

27

2.2 A COMPARISON OF HANDMADE, MOULDMADE AND

MACHINEMADE PAPERS

The differences in the making of these types of papers defines their

characteristics as well as their end-uses. The end-uses of different papers will

be discussed in Chapter 3, Section 1 and aspects pertaining to their

comparison will be considered in this section.

Mouldmade and handmade printing papers are the most closely related and

are often confused because both papers are made from the same raw

material. Rag papers offer the highest quality of pulp for fine papers . The

essential difference is that a handmade sheet is made by hand and is therefore

less consistent than any sheet made by a machine. The cylinder-mould was

invented to mechanically imitate the production of handmade paper in order

to make it easier, to increase production, and to lower the rejection rate of

sheets. Mouldmade papers have a reputation for being more consistent,

technically perfect and ultimately reliable. It also aids in increasing the quality

in the size of the sheet, as it is difficult to form large sheets by hand. Almost

any size of paper can be made by a machine, depending on the diameter and

length ofthe cylinder. (Turner, 1998: 113-116)

Sample #3 Handmade ragpaper: Cotton. Produced in thecourse of study by B. Marshall. 2002.

Sample #4 Mouldmade ragpaper: Fabriano Rosapina.Purchased from Herbert Evans.

28

Sample #5 Machinemadepaper: Bockingford. Purchased

from Herbert Evans.

Handmade papers differ in significant ways from mouldmade papers. One of

the major differences between these two methods is the ability to create the

multi-directional shake that results in little or no grain direction in the

handmade sheet, thereby giving more stability and tensile strength to the

paper. Mouldmade papers are composed of fibres that are aligned in one

direction due to the shaking action of the mould. A second characteristic that

cannot be duplicated by any machine is the four deckle edges on a single

sheet. The mouldmade paper consists of two true deckle edges (from the

parallel edges of the cylinder) and two simulated deckle edges. The natural

deckle edges, although seemingly unimportant, are believed by many artists to

enhance the visual character of an artwork (Turner, 1998:113-116).

Another reason, not considered in much of the literature but relevant in a

South African context, is the fact that the handmade process requires a lot

less machinery which lowers the initial cost of a handmade paper mill. Hand

manufactured beaters, which provide the necessary technology for the pulping

of rag fibre, currently cost between R30 000 and R70 000 in South Africa,

and are hand-crafted by a single engineer. In South Africa, funding is a critical

issue to the small business entrepreneur. The initial cost of the design and

manufacture of a cylinder mould would be costly, and would support a small

portion of the art market. The low-use of technology results in a reduced use

of energy and an affordable operational cost. A handmill in the context of

appropriate technology for rural development is relevant to South Africa for

sustainability. Walter Ruprecht, an engineer and hand papermaker in

Zimbabwe, has developed beaters which are run with no electrical power,

using the principle of the bicycle to generate energy (Becker, 1998:21-30).

This labour-intensive process also aids in job creation, which would be

applicable in poverty relief programmes in South Africa.

Another problematic factor in mouldmade papers is that the manufacturer is

not always willing to reveal the chemical constituents of their papers which

affect the longevity of the paper (Turner, 1998: 114). The term 'rag' should

also refer to the use of a pre-processed rag fibre that has undergone

29

treatment to ensure a neutral pH quality. This term has now become a loose

description of all papers made from some sort of cotton fibre (usually linters).

Rags from textiles contain the strongest cotton fibres which create the

strongest paper. However, linters are the shortest fibres on the cotton plant

but contain the highest percentage of cellulose. This investigation considers

varieties of raw cotton fibres suitable for paper production and focuses on the

recycling value of the use of rag waste. The procedures necessary to ensure

neutral pH quality are also discussed.

The comparison between mouldmade and machinemade papers also

highlights further differences: machinemade papers are manufactured, in most

cases, for vast commercial and industrial use and their ingredients and

properties vary according to the manner in which they are going to be

applied (Turner, 1998:113-116). The only comparison we can begin to make

is with the small percentage of mills that are producing paper specifically for

the archival market (not in South Africa). This minority reveals that the paper

manufactured still contains many impurities resulting from the wood fibre

pulp. Woodpulp is proven to yellow with time. This process will therefore not

be a consideration of this investigation. Comparisons exist in the similarity of

the sheet-forming process. The cylinder mould is a slower running machine

than the Fourdrinier which results in slower formation of the sheet and,

therefore, less grain direction and more stability in the product. Watermarksss

are also generally found on mouldmade sheets due to the process offering

more possibilities and advantages than the Fourdrinier. The drying process on

a cylinder mould is also slower and less technical, with the ability for hand

testing durinq the process. False deckle edges are also obtained using different

methods: the edges of mouldmade papers are achieved using wire or tape

across the cylinder, whereas machinemade papers can be sprayed with water

during the sheet-forming process, so that a thinner layer of pulp is created

where it will be tom at a later stage (Turner, 1998:113-116).

It is evident that handmade papers produce comparable properties and uses;

however the differences in manufacture as well as use of material, differ

considerably.

30

In conclusion, the comparison of similarities between quality, size and the

weight of each sheet of paper from each type of manufacturing process, as

well as the time it takes to manufacture each sheet, will determine the price of

the product. This should result in handmade papers being the most expensive

and machinemade papers being the cheapest. This, however, is not the case

in South Africa, because all archival printing papers are imported. This

investigation seeks to demonstrate that the manufacture of handmade archival

papers in South Africa would result in these either being sold at a cheaper

price, or meeting the price of current imports. It will also demonstrate the

many advantages of the use of standard mouldmade and machinemade rag

papers for the archival art market.

31

3. T HE CHARACTERISTICS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF PAPER

The character of fine paper is the combination of qualities or features that

distinguishes one paper from another. These qualities or features will give the

paper a specific look, texture, feel and function (Turner, 1991:11). Without

having a detailed technical knowledge of paper, it is difficult to know what

type of paper to purchase. Often the buyer's decision is based on the physical

appearance, texture, feel and aesthetic qualities of the paper, as opposed to

the strength, durability, quality of chemical additives and, most importantly,

longevity of the paper. This Section attempts to present these qualities and

others that are of value to the buyer and end-user. According to Turner

(1998: 26-36), these qualities and characteristics are usually classified in the

following categories

(NOTE: Specific papers under investigation in Chapter 4 will retain a similar format for data

capture):

3.1 T HE SPECIFICATIONS OF PAPBl.

1. NAME OF PAPER

The name of the paper is a BRAND NAME given by the mill where it is

manufactured. Alternative names are sometimes given by agents and

retailers to avoid difficult or foreign words. Indigenous names have been

given to the papers under investigation in this dissertation and will be

referred to by these names in the concluding text.

2. DESCRIPTNE NAME

This describes the category of end use in which the paper is classed, for

instance: Watereolour Paper , for instance, means it is best suited for

watercolour techniques. End-uses of paper are described in more detail in

the following chapter. The main body of the investigation focuses on paper

used specifically for printmaking techniques.

3. TYPE OF PAPER

3.1 CATEGORY: Handmade, mouldmade or machinemade.

32

3.2 WOVE OR LAID: Another sub-category of this description, which applies to

all types of manufacture, is wove or laid - a very distinct

characteristic of paper. This refers to the type of mesh

used on the mould, whether it be a cylinder or hand-held

mould. A wove mesh is a type of mesh that is woven, like

that of fabric. A laid mesh consists of several parallel lines

that lie horizontally, constructed in wire or bamboo that

are held together by a thinner chain or wire running at a

right angle (perpendicular) to the parallel lines. These two

types of meshes leave a noticeable impression or

watermark in the finished sheet of paper when held up to

the light. Sheets formed on wove mould are generally

more smooth in finish, as they allow a more even

distribution of pulp on the screen and have less of a

mesh-impression. The moulds as illustrated below, were

invented after laid moulds, the latter being known as

'antique' and usually indicate a rough finish (Turner,

1998:27).

Fig 2.18 Laid mould surface. Photographfrom Turner, S. 1998:33.

Fig 2.19 Wove mould surface, withwatermark. Photograph from Hunter, 0.1943:126.

4. FURNISH

4.1 FIBRE-TYPE: This describes the basic ingredients of the paper, the main

ingredient being the type of fibre being used. For instance,

paper made from rag will be described as: Rag Paper

Cotton; or paper made from plant fibre: Fibre Paper - Sisal .

33

4.2 BEATING PROCESS: The type of beating process described in this section

will give some kind of indication of the technique used.

For instance Handbeaten usually implies that the

papermaker has utilised Eastern methodologies to

produce the sheet of paper. If this method is used, it

usually means the fibre contains long, strong fibres that

could be overbeaten in the Hollander beater. Machine

beaten: Hollander describes the type of beater used in

production and usually implies Western methodologies

of sheet formation are used to create the specific type

of paper. If the Hollander is used, there is a range of

descriptions for beating methods . For instance, if the

roller is lowered early in the beating process, it will

create a softer, blotter-like paper. If the roller is lowered

later, the result will be a crisper, more stable sheet of

paper.

5. DRYING PROCEDURE

The drying procedure has a significant effect in the final quality of the paper.

If not dried under correct conditions, the paper distorts in a process referred

to as 'cockling'. Cockling occurs when all the moisture from between the

fibres is removed in the finished sheet and hydrogen bonding takes place. The

various methods of drying procedures lend themselves to different traditions

and sometimes result in different qualities and textures.

- Air drying (or loft drying)

In Western tradition, sheets were dried in specially designed lofts. The paper

was dried at a very slow rate with natural air that passed through the

darkened loft. The walls are constructed from fixed or moveable slanted slats

which, when opened, allow air to pass through which is free of dust from

the lower floors. The papers are hung on waxed horsehair ropes in stacks or

'spurs' (±5 pressed wet sheets) and left to dry for approximately two weeks.

34

The end result is a paper with a very distinct natural and uniquely rough

surface (Matthysen, 2000). The paper shrinks slightly, depending on the

type of fibre used to produce the sheet, due to the fact that it is not

restrained by frames. The sheets are then pressed to flatten out the natural

cockling process. This process matures or cures the paper and results in a

stable sheet that is able to withstand different atmospheric conditions during

storage (Turner, 1998:28). Contemporary adaptations of this method utilise

sizing techniques with gelatin (further discussed in this Section, point 6:

Special Properties). Refer to Fig 2.20.

- Restraint drying

This method speeds up the drying time and resolves the cockling problems

related to drying and hydrogen bonding. As the paper dries, bonds occur

and the paper retains the memory of the surface it is dried on (Turner,

1998:29). This reflects the behaviour of the paper when it is dampened

again (e.g. loft-dried papers will cockle; paper dried on a hot, curved drum

will curl, whereas paper dried in a restraint-dryer will tend to remain flat).

Different drying methods can be used:

- Drying on the mould. This is when the sheet of paper is left on the mould

to dry. The natural bond of the pulp to the mould holds the sheet in place

while the drying process occurs. This results in a two-sided sheet: one side

will keep the texture of the mesh, the other side will resemble the

bumpiness of the pulp as it is laid on the mould. This process does not

involve any pressing procedures and will result in a relatively weak paper.

This method also requires the papermaker to use a different screen for

each sheet of paper produced, which is not cost effective.

- Drying on boards. This is an Eastern tradition where the wet sheet, after

pressing, is brushed onto a board and placed outside in the sunshine to dry

(refer to Fig 2.21). The sheet adheres to the board and therefore adopts its

smooth texture. Contemporary adaptations of this method utilised by some

papermakers in Japan involves a pyramid-shaped metal plated drum which

is heated with steam. The paper dries within ten minutes of it being

brushed on to the dryer (Shukuno, 2001).

35

- Restraint drying system. This is a Western method that involves restraining

the sheets between blotters or felts, separated by fluted cardboard in an

enclosed box (open in the front, mounted with fans on one side) . The

boards are kept under adequate pressure to restrain the sheets as the air

travels through the fluted board and dries the paper overnight (refer to Fig

2.22). The paper is removed from the dryer when completely dry and flat.

(Deery, 2000)

- Heat drying. Papers can also be hot-pressed with an iron or heat press

when damp and dried at a fast rate . They should then be pressed under

weight to ensure their flatness, as even-drying is not consistent due to the

element of the heat-source not being evenly spread.

Fig 2 .2 0 lEFT: Air drying in 'lofts' . Photograph

from video still "Western Papermaking II - Professional Equipment

and Techniques", University of Iowa. Barret . T. 1994 .

Fig 2.21 LEFr: Drying onboards. Photogra ph fro m Turner . S .1994:89

Fig 2 .22 ABOVE: Drying usingthe restraint drying system.Photograph from video still "Wester n

Papermaking II - Professional Equipment and

Techniques ". University of Iowa. Barret. T.1994 .

6. S PECIAL PROPERTIES

6.1 SIZING AND ABSORBENCY

This refers to the method emp loyed to attain the level of

36

absorbency/resistance to moisture or water. An unsized sheet of paper is

called a water/eat and is not considered useable, except as a blotter. The

addition of surface or internal sizing prevents the absorption of moisture and,

in turn, makes it useable (Turner, 1991:14). If a sheet is unsized, ink will run,

glue will be absorbed and the sheet will have a softer, non-crisp 'fluffy' feel to

it. The paper will also continually change its characteristics according to its

environment. If the paper is stored in a moist atmosphere, the paper will

always feel damp and hold the moisture for longer (Turner, 1998:29).

Cellulose fibres are water-loving (hygroscopic) by nature and therefore have to

be sealed in some way to avoid the further absorption of moisture. Sizing

agents can provide this insulation and are cured for a suitable amount of time

before usage. Sizing can be applied in two distinct ways:

- Internally: This means the sizing agent is added to the wet pulp during the

last beating cycle or in formation process.

- Externally or surface sized: This means the sizing was applied to a dry or

semi-dry sheet at the end of the process.

Sizing agents can include the use of rosin or gelatin (mostly used as surface

sizing agents) or chemical solutions such as Aqua Pel or Ketene Dimer

Solution (only used as internal sizing agents), and they have a neutral pH to

meet archival standards.

6.2 STABIUTY

This refers to the way in which the finished sheet of paper reacts to climate

and atmospheric conditions and is dependent on the way in which the sheet

was produced. When paper is exposed to high-moisture conditions, the fibres

absorb water and swell, and when they dry again they contract and may result

in a dimensional distortion (Turner, 1998:29). If stored in stacks, only the

edges of the sheet will be affected and could cause the sheet to distort

unconventionally. This characteristic is directly affected by the quality of sizing

applied to the sheet during the making. Beating times and methods are also

factors that affect the stability of the sheet. Fibres beaten for long periods of

time are said to be stronger but less stable, as a more dense bonding has

37

taken place. Fibres beaten for short periods or by hand are said to be weaker

but more stable, because fewer bonds have occurred between the fibres and

each fibre has more freedom to move (Turner, 1998:29).

6.3 GRAIN DIRECTION

The grain direction, as mentioned previously, refers to the direction of the

fibre-alignment in the sheet. Handmade papers have little or no direction due

to the multi-directional shake during sheet forming processes; mouldmade and

machinemade papers have only one grain direction due to the movement and

alignment of the fibres on the continuous bed or cylinder mould. When the

sheets of papers from the mould and machinemade machines are cut, the

'long grain' or 'short grain' characteristic is identified>.

According to Turner (1998:30), grain direction can have many different

consequences when using paper, for instance:

* Paper tears and folds along the grain more evenly and easily than across it,

but creates a stronger fold when folded across the grain.

* The absorption of water/moisture and contraction after drying expands

across the grain and has a large effect in bookbinding and box making

procedures.

6.4 pH AND ACIDITY

Potential of Hydrogen (pH) is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a

solution (of hydrogen ions), numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions,

increasing with alkalinity and decreasing with acidity. The scale runs from 0 to

14, 1 being most acidic, 14 being most alkaline. Paper that measures below 5

is considered acidic (Turner 1998:30).

Acid-free implies that the paper is of a permanent nature and has a long life.

The pH value is not exactly 7 but is within the range for the paper to last for

long periods of time. Papers that are acidic turn yellow due to oxidationz- and

become brittle in short periods of time. They are not good for creating

artworks or documents which have value for future generations.

38

It has been demonstrated that acid content in papermaking can be eliminated

by extracting all the unwanted, non-cellulose materials from the fibre during

the cooking process, i.e. paper should be made from 100% cellulose material.

All additive products, such as sizing agents and fillers, should be of an archival

nature to prevent the eventual deterioration of the paper. Alkaline substances,

like calcium carbonate, can be added to the paper to ensure the longevity of

these acidic substances, as it will neutralise acids or act as a buffer to

counteract acids that may result in the use of these products (Turner,

1998:30).

6.5 ADDITIVES

Additives that can be used in paperrnaking to enhance the quality of the

finished sheet have briefly been discussed in Section 1. A detailed list of

additives that can be used in the papermaking process follows (adapted from

notes complied by Carriage House Paper (Koretsky; Koretsky, 1993-8):

Sizing agents - Such as gelatin and rosin (natural substances) or

Aqua Pel and Ketene Dimer Emulsion (specialised

chemical substances) are used to resist the

absorption of water and moisture and to sustain

stability and rigidity in the finished sheet of paper.

Buffers - Such as Calcium Carbonate in papers of an

archival nature. It acts as a buffering agent that

counteracts the effects of acidic pollutants in the

atmosphere, which paper can absorb over a period

of years or that are already contained in the paper if

the pH is below 7, but above 4 (Koretsky; Koretsky,

1993-8).

Fillers - Such as Kaolin clay and Titanium dioxide used as

fillers to create a more even sheet surface by filling

in the gaps between fibres. They have no bonding

capabilities and may weaken the paper.

39

Specialised Agents

Adhesives/bonding

materials

Opacifiers - Titanium Di-oxide can also be used to create a

whiter opacity to the paper (i.e. give the paper a

'whiteness' in colour). A retention agent is used to

fix it.

- Retention agents are used to bind colour and other

additives to the pulp. Formation Aid is a mucilage

substance added to pulp to slow drainage, disperse

and suspend very long plant fibres during sheet

formation. It is usually used in Eastern techniques of

papermaking (Hiebert, 2000: 73). Synthetic and

natural types are available. Coagulant is a synthetic

powder which flocculates pulp (forms large clumps)

that already contains retention aid or sizing. It can

be used to create some special effects in paper, like

mottling effects.

- Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose (Methyl

cellulose) is a water-soluble gum used chiefly as a

mild adhesive that does not degrade the paper. It

can also be used to glue paper in its wet stage

(when the sheets have just been formed). Bonding

only occurs when both materials are dry. The

process can be reversed by soaking the paper in

water.

7. WATERMARKS

A watermark is a design or text that is impressed into the sheet of paper

during its manufacture and is only visible when the sheet is held up to the

light. The mark or design usually represents the mill where it is manufactured

and guarantees its authenticity as an original product [branding]. Over the

centuries, watermarks have been used as logos, trademarks, signatures and

autographs. Some contemporary artists use watermarking in their papers as

part of the concept and design of their artwork (Turner, 1998:31).

40

Watermarks are made by raising a part of the mould by sewing copper wire

to the surface of the mesh of the paper mould. The wire results in the pulp

dispersing more thinly in those areas, leaving the impression of the wire in

the sheet of paper. The watermark is not at all visible on the surface of the

finished sheet, as the paper is pressed and finished in the usual manner, but

reveals itself when held up to the light. Watermarks are usually located on the

edges of the paper, so as not to interfere with the final use of the paper.

(Refer to Sample #6)

Fig 2.23 Watermark process'branding'. Photograph from Hunter,1943:167

Sample # 6 - Watermark 'branding'. Sampleproduced in the course of study by B. Marshall, 2002.

8. DECKLE EDGES

The deckle edge as previously described, is the edge created by the deckle

frame which covers the mould during the sheet-forming process. The deckle's

purpose is to hold enough pulp in the screen in order to make a thick enough

sheet and avoid the pulp from slipping off the screen. The deeper the deckle,

the thicker the sheet of paper will be. As mentioned previously, a handmade

sheet has four true deckle edges, where mouldmade papers only have two.

Sometimes a double deckle edge is found when the mould has been dipped

twice into the vat of pulp to form a thicker sheet. Occasionally a deckle edge

is considered undesirable and is trimmed off the finished product. However,

artists consider the deckle edge to be a trademark of the authenticity of

handmade paper. Occasionally, artists attempt to mimic this characteristic by

41

wetting a sheet of paper (using a ruler and a thin paint brush) and tearing it

apart (Turner, 1998:32).

9. SURFACE FiNISH (TEXTURE OR 'CALENDER')

Many factors can contribute to a specific type of texture in the finished sheet.

The following are some of the main contributing factors:

Beating procedures - Create the softer or crispy 'feel' to the paper.

Fibre type - Thicker (wider) fibres create coarser/rougher

finishes in the paper. Slender fibres produce

smoother surfaces.

Drying procedures - Air dried sheets usually cockle, creating an

uneven surface texture. Restraint dried sheets

have a flatter, smoother texture.

Impressions - The texture of the sheet-separators when

pressing the wet sheets will have an effect on

the final sheet. If the sheets are separated by

felts, they will be slightly rough. When sheets

are separated by perspex, the surfaces will be

very smooth.

Sizing agents and fillers - Sizing agents can sometimes result in crisper

sheets. Fillers create a more even surface,

specially for printing purposes.

According to Turner (1998:33-34) and Hiebert (2000:114), the surface can

be described using one of the followinq terms:

• Rough - Which describes the natural roughness of the sheets pressed with

traditional felts (not deliberately smoothed using another process,

like hot pressing).

• NOT - This is the term given to sheets that involve some sort of

intermediate pressing using finer felts or boards - sometimes

described as cold pressed or pack pressed. It gives a surface finish

in between Rough and H.P.

• H.P - Stands for Hot-pressed and is used to describe a very smooth type

42

of paper that is achieved either by using a method of heat pressing

(on heat glazing rollers/Elna Presses). Calendered paper,

sometimes referred to as HP, is achieved by burnishing a formed

sheet using a smooth surface, like highly polished metal rollers.

The handmade character

Handmade papers seem to have the same texture on both sides of the sheet.

However, when closely looked at, there are two distinctive sides: the wire side

(the side on which the pulp sits on the mesh); and the felt side. Additives can

sink to the wire side, if heavier than the pulp, and create a smoother surface

on this side.

Mould and machinemade characters

The wire side of these papers are generally more porous, contains less size

and has shorter fibres. The felt side has less grain, more sizing and is the

better printing surface.

10. WEIGHT / THICKNESS / SIZE (DIMENSIONS)

The weight, thickness and size of the paper are linked. Using the metric

system, the basis weight of a single sheet of paper is measured in grams per

square meter (abbreviated as 'gsm' or 'g/m2' ) . Three sizes exist within this

system, the basic being AO, which has a total surface area of one meter

squared (1m2) , on which all the others are derived: the A series (printing

papers), B series (poster size) and C series (envelopes and folders). Each series

contains smaller denominations which are obtained by halving the longer side

(Refer to Fig 2.23) (Turner, 1998:212-214).

The thickness is usually referred to when measuring boards or card, eg:

1 Ply (single layer) is equal to 250gsm; 2 ply to 500gsm; etc.

43

AO A1

AO = 841 x 1189mmA1 =594x841mmA2 = 420 x 594mmA3 = 297 x 420mm A2 A3A4 = 210 x 297mmA5 = 148 x 210mmA6 = 105 x 148mm A4 A5

A6jFig 2.24 The metric system for paper sizes. FromTurner, S. 1998:213.

11. WHITENESS OR COLOUR

Although many types of papers appear to be white, there are many different

variations of 'whiteness'. This can be influenced by fibre colour, fibre cleaning

and bleaching, drying, and sizing. The focus of this investigation considers the

fibres' natural colours to produce unique papers. The use of bleaching

therefore is not investigated, but the removal of additives to the rag waste

which effects the paper's pH is taken into consideration. Water has an effect

on the tone of the paper which is monitored. Impurities such as silt and

chemicals which cause a yellowing of the paper is compensated by using

additives such as titanium dioxide .

NOTE: The colouring of paper does not form part of the scope of this investigation.

12. QUANTITY / AMOUNT

This refers to the quantity of papers packaged for purchase. The stacks are

referred to as:

• Quire: 25 sheets

• Mill pack: 100-125 sheets

• Ream: 500 sheets.

13. SUGGESTED APPLICATIONS

This is the manufacturer's proposed application of the paper in terms of its

specific use and design, e.g. etching paper, and provides an indication of the

capabilities of the paper according to its composition.

44

In conclusion of this chapter, the following can be stated regarding the

properties of paper:

Paper is composed of the three main elements: fibre, water and chemical or

natural additives. Fibres for papermaking can be derived from plant fibres,

recycled textile fibres or pre-processed sheet pulps. Water, although not

physically present in the final paper product, is responsible for most

formation and properties of strength in the paper. Additives can be used to

enhance the final look, texture and quality of a sheet of paper.

Paper can be classified according to the method of manufacture which can be

described as handmade, mouldmade or machinemade. Handmade papers

have a reputation of strength, individuality and purity in substance.

Mouldmade papers contain properties of consistency, reliability and

availability. Machinemade papers are manufactured for the 'consume and

dispose' market, degrading and yellowing in short periods of time. Various

comparisons can be made between the different types of paper: handmades

and mouldmades being the most closely related regarding properties, and

handmades and machinemades being the most unrelated.

The character of paper is what distinguishes one paper from another. These

various characteristics will determine the final look, feel and function of the

paper for the end-user.

With the properties of a sheet of paper now analysed, the following chapter

will consider the end uses and applications of archival handmade papers in a

printmaking context.

45

Notes1. Techniques of making paper: Eastern and Western traditions: Turner, S. 1998:41-47;81

92. The Book of Fine Paper. Slovenia, Thames & Hudson.

2. Papyrus: Traditionally made by cutting strips of the plants' stalk into lengths and

overlapping them side by side; then perpendicular, which are pounded and

laminated together to form a sheet of paper.

3. Rice paper: Made from the pith (core of the stem) of the rice paper plant.

4. Vellum: A fine parchment made from the un-split skins of calf, lamb or kid.

5. Parchment: Made from the skin of a sheep or goat.

6. Bark papers: Made similarly to papyrus but from different plant materials such as ficus,

mulberry and wild fig (also known as Tapa/Amate).

7. Cellulose: An amorphous carbohydrate polymer (C6HlO as). The main constituent of all

plant tissues and fibres, used in the manufacture of fibrous products, ego paper,

textiles and explosives.

8. Cotton linters: These are the shorter fibres left behind on the seed after ginning, which are

not used to make thread (short fibres). These fibres are brushed off the

seed, cooked, washed, beaten and formed into blotter-like sheets known as

pre-processed sheet pulps or half stuff.

9. Herbaceous: Any plant that does not form a persistent woody stem, lasting one season

(annuals) or everlasting [season to season] (perrenials).

10. Ginning: A mechanical process for removing the seeds from the cotton boll.

11 Retting: A process where fibres are left to stand in water or mist in order to break the

fibre down by means of organic enzymes.

12. Alkali: A hydroxide or carbonate having a pH greater than 7.

13. Archival: The papers' ability to last a long time (preservation).

14. Whizz mixer: Machine designed to break down recycled or pre-processed materials to a

pulp for papermaking (similar to that of a large food processor).

15. Hollander beater: Machine designed in Holland in the 17th Century for processing rag

into pulp for paper.

16. Xylem: The supporting and water conducting tissue of vascular plants, consisting

primarily of tracheids and vessels; woody tissue.

17. Phloem: A food-conducting tissue of vascular plants, consisting of sieve tubes and other

cellular material.

18. Sizing: Any of several gelatinous or glutinous substances usually made from glue, wax or

clay and used as a glaze of filler for porous materials, like paper.

19. Hibiscus plant: Any of various chiefly tropical plants, shrubs or trees; having various

coloured flowers; of the family of deciduous and evergreen perrenials.

20. Vat: Container used for casting methodologies in papermaking.

21. Immense pressure: Approx 10-30 tons of pressure.

22. For NOT and HP descriptions see Chapter 2, Section 3; point 9.

23. Watermark: A translucent design impressed on paper during manufacture and visible

when the finished paper is held up to the light.

46

24. 'Long grain' refers to sheets cut vertically from the mould, 'short grain' refers to sheets

cut horizontally from the mould.

25. Oxidation: The combination of a substance with oxygen (a reaction in which the atoms in

an element lose electrons and its valence is correspondingly increased.

47

CHAPfER 3

THE END USFS AND APPLICATIONS OF

ARCHIVAL HANDMADE PAPERS

1. THE END USES OF FINE PAPER

Paper is classified according to the methods by which it was manufactured, as

discussed in Chapter 2, Section 3. Another method of classifying paper (or

sub-classification) is by its USAGE by the market. Often a paper is judged by

how well it carries out its function, and is ultimately the fundamental element

of the consumer's choice of purchase. The key role of the paper is to reflect

the technical perfection of the medium and enhance the aesthetic! quality of

the work (Turner, 1998:161).

There are many papers available on the market for specific purposes, from

watercolour, drawing and calligraphy papers to bookbinding, photography,

decorative papers and papers for electronic output (computer & photocopy

papers). This investigation will attempt to consider these categories, but will

focus specifically on paper for various selected hand-printrnaking

techniques .

1.1 P APFRS FOR TRADITIONAL PRINTMAKING TECHNIQUES

The understanding of a sheet of paper and its performance is critical in

printmaking processes. The identical impressions required in the editioninqe of

prints demands that the papers are stable, even and consistent. For this

reason, mouldmade papers are usually used by publishing studios and artists.

Today, many handmade papers made by practiced professionals can stand up

to this ideal and offer qualities that make the paper the preferred choice

(Turner, 1998: 168).

According to Gilmour (1967:200), the quality of resulting print editions should

take into consideration the following important factors:

48

1. The ink must have the correct properties of body, and viscosity in order to

give the layer a look that is uniform and of sufficient thickness on the

surface under the action of the roller;

2. The ink should remain in a fixed position on the surface in relation to the

raised portions of the plate;

3. The ink must be successfully transferred onto the surface of the paper

when the correct pressure is applied (a thin layer will remain on the plate);

4. The pressure must be sufficient to ensure the print is a solid (unbroken)

impression without spreading or 'squash'.

The aim of any printing technique is to "produce a uniform and solid

(unbroken) impression free from slur or obvious ink spread. This is the

physical aspect of printing which may be considered separately from aesthetic

requirements" (Gilmour, 1967:210-211). Gilmour provides an analysis of the

printability of paper, which depends on factors which will be expanded on.

These factors relate to the discussion of handmade paper in Chapter 2, and

will now be discussed in relation to the printmaking requirements of paper.

1.1.1 THE PHYSICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PRINTABIUTY OF PAPER

FIBRE - The printability or print quality of paper may be subject to the fibre

type (Gilmour, 1967:211). The fibre type (bast, leaf, grass or seed

hair) determines, to some extent, the length of the fibre (Chapter 2,

Section 1.1). This length, according to Gilmour (1967:211), will also

to some extent determine the paper's printability.

"The fibres of rag pulp paper [seed fibre], if lightly sized, are soft and

tend to accept ink well. Esparto fibres [leaf fibres] are also elastic and

tend to give a little under printing pressure; this helps to produce a

sound impression. Mechanical wood pulps [wood fibre] are harder and

less elastic and have a tendency to print a broken impression."

He goes on to say that this is a generalisation and relatively short fibres

can be favourable to good printing if prepared correctly, but the nature

of these fibres do reduce the strength and the longevity of the paper

(as previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 1.1).

49

SIZING - The primary reason for sizing a sheet of paper is to reduce the

absorption of ink and water, to minimise their negative effects (e.g.

ink: bleeding) and improve paper quality (Heller, 1978:80). Gilmour

(1967:211-212) states that his experimental evidence in practical

printing, regarding the effect of sizing, is inconclusive. He believes

that "the effect of size is to repress the absorption of water inks, but

not necessarily the oils and varnishes of ordinary printing inks".

Laurence Barker (cited in Heller, 1978:84) agrees with this position,

because waterleafs or unsized papers provide maximum absorbency

for printmakers. Artists who paint and draw prefer less absorbent

paper.

The effect of sizing on hand printing techniques varies in accordance

with the desired rate of absorption by the printer, and the paper

should therefore be sized accordingly. This issue will be further

analysed in Chapter 4, Section 2.1, as different methods of sizing

produce different qualities of printing and can also alter the quality of

paper. For example, gelatin surface sizing can improve the paper's

surface strength, etc. (Turner, 1998:24).

CALENDERING - The effects of calendering include a smoother surface and a

(SURFACE FINISH) more uniform sheet which can improve print qualities,

especially when fine detail is required (Gilmour, 1967:212).

Handmade papers are not usually put through this process,

unless prepared by the printer. There are various factors and

methods which influence the surface finish of a handmade

sheet (discussed in Chapter 2, Section 3-9). The effects of

surface finishes of handmade sheets in printing will be further

analysed in Chapter 4, Section 2.1.

ADDITNES - The use of additives in the paper are primarily to enhance the

quality of the finished sheet. These can be very important for

printmaking papers, as the identical impressions required in

50

printmaking are primarily justified by the evenness and stability of

the sheet. Uneven papers can result in uneven or inconsistent

printing impressions, especially visible in planographic processes

(eg. lithography). This factor may not have a major significance in

processes undergoing heavy printing pressures (eg. etching) unless

the sheet produces significant lintinqs problems.

POROSITY - The porosity of the paper is an important characteristic which

affects the ink transfer and absorbency during printing (Gilmour,

1967:212). The above-mentioned factors, including external

factors durinq the papermaking procedures (e.g. beating times)

have an effect on the paper's porosity and will be practically tested

in Chapter 4, Section 2.

1.1.2 THE OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF PAPER (WITH REGARD TO THE VISUAL PRINT ON PAPER):

GLOSS - According to Gilmour (1967:212), the readability of printed matter

depends on the character of the paper surface. He explains the

process which results in rough surfaces diffusing light, with smooth

surfaces reflecting light, producing a gloss effect. It is further

explained that artwork viewed at an angle perpendicular to its

surface on a rougher paper, will be less strenuous to view as the

eye will be observing diffused light, rather than creating a less

desirable reflection.

OPACITY - This refers to the transmission of light through the paper.

Translucent papers will appear to absorb more ink as a show

through image is visible on the back of the paper. This can be

lessened by changing the character of the print type (eg. thinner

type/lines will not appear as darkened as bolder type/lines). Less

opaque papers will automatically appear darker in tone, which can

be lessened by displaying the printed work on a bright white

material (Gilmour, 1967:213).

COLOUR - Books usually require a near white paper to secure a good contrast

between print and paper, which assists in readability. Where

aesthetics playa role, a slightly toned paper is preferred. When

51

colour visual images are used, a whiter paper can enhance the

coloured ink by highlighting the colour contrasts (Gilmour,

1967:213-214).

1.1.3 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:

When aesthetics influence the choice of paper, other factors come into play.

Some papers are easier to handle, have a pleasing surface colour, are free

from gloss and stand up more effectively to the 'tests of time'. Sometimes

artists choose a paper made from a specific fibre to enhance the concept of

the work.

An important aspect of the paper failing to meet the artist's requirements in

the studio can also stem from the paper being improperly stored or utilised.

Many different atmospheric conditions affect the fibres in the finished sheet,

thereby changing the composition of the paper. Some papers stored under

improper conditions may curl, wrinkle or fail to print with good registration

qualities. These factors and proper storage and handling procedures will be

discussed further in Chapter 4, Section 2.

Other factors inhibiting good print quality can also be specific factors in the

studio that do not pertain to the paper quality at all, but are often mistakenly

attributed to the latter. For instance, if the ink is not properly mixed, problems

like offsetting, smudging and a failure to dry properly may occur. Problems

may also relate to insufficient/uneven pressure on the press- which could

cause stretching, bad registration and streaks on papers of fine quality.

Soaking the paper for the incorrect time periods or in contaminated water

may also add to problems during printing. The user should be aware of these

problems and not mistake them for poor paper quality (Turner, 1991: 10,89;

1998:168).

1.1.4 GENERAL STUDIO PAPERS

NOTE: The following papers are commercially produced and do not require a handmade

equivalent. They are cost-effective and are currently widely available. An overview of all

the types of papers required in a general printmaking studio is provided.

52

Proofing papers

Before printing an edition, the printmaker first needs to test the plate to see

the quality of the image. These test-prints are called state proofs and are

labelled SIP or AlP. At this point, minor adjustments can be made to image,

ink and pressure application. For this reason, they cannot be called editions,

as minor differences occur in the print; they are usually destroyed after the

edition has been completed, or kept by the artist. It is also advisable to test

different kinds of papers at this point to see which type of paper gives the

best quality of print. This may be costly to the printer; however, it may be

beneficial in the long-run as slight changes in colour or surface texture can

change the look and quality of the print (Turner, 1991:90; 1998:169). Two

types of proofing methodology can be used:

1& Rough proofing - Newsprint is the most commonly used. It is one of the

lowest quality papers; however, it serves as a good

stabiliser for proofing and is inexpensive. It can also be

used for interleaving fresh prints, temporarily (see

interleaving sheets below) to avoid smudges, but prints

should not be stored like this indefinitely.

c:w Final proofing - This type of proofing should take place in order to

perfect the print quality and should be done on the paper

chosen for the edition.

Interleaving sheets

During editioning, prints are interleaved to avoid the offset or smudging of ink

while stacked. Papers that can be used for this are thin white tissue papers

which need not be of high quality but should be pH neutral. Newsprint can be

used temporarily (as mentioned above). Other products are available but are

costly and not necessary.

Blotting papers

Blotting papers can be used instead of interleaving sheets for processes that

require a longer drying period (papers that are soaked before printing, e.g.

intaglio processes). White blotting papers of ±280gsm weight are generally

used; they should be pH neutral and have a certain wet-strengths.53

Wrapping papers

These are usually brown, heavy weight wrapping papers that are sealed

(waterproofed or waxed). Certain types are available in acid and lignin-free

variables to ensure safe long-term storage.

1.1.5 SELECTED SPECIAUSED PROCESSES

Intaglio processes

DEFINITION - Intaglio is a printing method by which the paper is forced into the

ink-filled recesses of an etched metal plate. The process, known

as etching, involves covering a metal plate with an acid-resistant

coating then removing some of the coating using a needle. Acid«

is then poured onto the plate in order to eat away at the exposed

areas, creating raised and recessed areas (Eichenberg, 19976:

274-5). Other processes that fall into this category are

mezzotints, dry points and engravings. The ink is pushed into the

lower areas and the surface is then polished.

CHARACTERISTICS - The print has a very distinctive plate mark embossed into

the surface. Specific characteristics regarding the print,

using drypoint techniques produced by the burr, give the

print very rich black lines (Gilmour, 1967:239). Deeply

etched areas will have an embossing effect that is visible in

the final print.

PAPER REQUIREMENTS - Given the nature of the surface of the plate, the paper

should have the ability to be dampened and stretched.

It should also be heavy enough to react to the different

levels of the plate, especially heavily etched plates. It

should also be able to pick up the fine detail of the

etched plate (i.e. it must be soft) (Turner, 1998: 170).

Cotton rag papers are best suited for intaglio

processes. Dampening and drying procedures must be

carefully monitored in order to achieve optimum results

54

(for methods of dampening & drying, see Chapter 4 ,

Section 2).

IMPORTED PAPERS FOR COMPARISON TESTING (±300gsm):

Fabriano Rosapina , Tieplolo, Artistico and Arches Aquarelle.

Sample #7: Intaglio print: Drypoint and etching on zinc. Produced in the couse of study by S .Marshall. 2003.

55

Sample #8: Intaglio print: Copper plate photo etching. Produced in the couse of study by B. Marshall.

2003 .

56

Embossing

DERNITION - Embossed prints can be called 'inkless intaglios' and have a deep

relief surface. They are simply heavily etched prints with no ink

and create a relief 'ghost' image (Turner, 1998: 172). Extra soft

blankets or felts need to be added to the press to assist in the

embossing process.

PAPER REQUIREMENTS - They are usually done on a very heavyweight paper

which takes the pressure of stretching and retains the

embossed image when dry. Thin sheets usually tear

when forced into the depths of the plate. Drying

procedures can be tricky with these types of images, as

heavy boards can flatten the embossing. This can be

easily prevented by adding extra padding with blotters

or blankets when drying the embossed sheets.


Saunders Waterford, Bockingford, Fabriano Tiepolo and Arches Aquarelle

Sample #9: Blind embossing: metal cut-out. Producedin the couse of study by B. Marshall, 2003.

57

Sample #10: Blind embossing: Positive 20 etching on zinc. Produced in the couse of study byB. Marshall, 2003.

Relief processes

DERNITION - A relief printing block (usually from wood or linoleum) consists of

non-printing areas that are carved away, leaving the surface,

which will be inked & printed by hand or press (Clemson;

Simmons, 1988: 7). This means that it is a print which is taken

from the top surface of a plate: the engraved lines will print as

white areas whereas, in intaglio processes, they print black.

Some techniques in this category involve woodblock printing,

engraving, linos, collographs and letterpress.

CHARACfERISTICS - This printing method produces images with heavy linework

(that represent 'carved' lines)-, Embossed lines may be

visible when printed with a press.

58

PAPER REQUIREMENTS - The paper recommended for these techniques is one

with a smooth surface (especially if printed by hand

such as woodblock/lino). Hard and soft surfaced sheets

are suitable, but softer surfaces may produce better

results. Thin papers are usually associated with

engravings because they produce sharp images. It is

best to experiment with these processes as they can all

achieve very different results (Turner, 1998: 174-5).

The technique to be used for testing in this

investigation will be lino.

INti" OUT?

Sample #11: Uno print. Produced in the couse of study by B. Marshall. 2003.

59


Arches Aquarelle; Bockingford; Fabriano Tiepolo, Artistico and Rosapina.

Screenprinting

DERNITION - This technique was designed especially for commercial printing

purposes and was held in low regard, which gave rise to

serigraphy? in order to distinguish art prints from the mass

produced prints for commerce and industry (Eichenberg,

1976:482).

In this technique, ink is forced through a fine mesh containing a

stencil with a squeegee10, directly onto a paper or fabric under

the screen. The 'stencil' is created with an emulsion that blocks

out parts of the image and does not allow ink to pass through

(Turner, 1998: 176).

CHARACTERISTICS - An image of stencil-like quality with a mesh-like print

quality and no plate mark.

PAPER REQUIREMENTS - Due to the fact that this is such a versatile medium

which can be used on many types of surfaces, the

choice of paper is not critical (Gilmour, 1967:248).

The printer needs to experiment a few times in order

to achieve good print quality. In this investigation, all

the types of papers made for research purposes will be

tested using this technique to establish the different

qualities each paper will have.


Saunders Waterford; Arches Aquarelle; Fabriano Rosapina, Tiepolo and

Artistico

60

~

"PHOTOPt-

oto

hotophobia

oPhotophobia

Photophobia

Sample #12: Section of a silkscreen print. Produced in the couse of study by B. Marshall, 2003.

61

2. A PPUCATIONS FOR TIlE PURPOSE OF TIllS srunv

2.1 T HE USE AND APPLICATION OF SHFET PULPS/HALF-snJFFS

In the paper industry (both industrial and handmade) a product known as half

stuffs» or sheet pUlpS12 are available for the production of paper. They are in

the form of dry, compressed (heavyweight) sheets which can be used directly

in papermaking, by hydrating them with water in a very basic mixer-type

device (Koretsky; Brock, 2002: 10). These sheet pulps contain fibres which

have undergone some form of pre-processing like cutting/stripping, cooking,

rinsing and beating, They are not considered useable 13 sheets of paper, but

are pre-processed pulps for the production of specialised papers and

products.

These pulps will be looked at in terms of their application to the handmade

paper industry. They are included in the section "The End-uses of Paper" , as

the investigation categorises the sheet pulps as a finished, saleable product,

with its own characteristics, end-uses and applications in the handmade paper

industry.

2.1.1 HALF-STUFFS IN THE COMMERCIAL PAPER INDUSTRY.

In certain mills which produce papers for the mass-market, half-stuffs are

often a constituent of the finished product (SAPPI, 1999). Half-stuffs in this

industry are mechanically processed and are composed of pre-processed

softwood fibres which are short in length, contain waste materials (such as

lignin, pith, etc.) and are bleached considerably, which lends them their

whiteness in colour. These sheets are used mainly as 'fillers' in the

papermaking process and are beneficial for many reasons. The sheets require

less processing, as they have already undergone some form of pre-processing.

This would decrease the production time required, thereby increasing the

production rate, availability and income. Another reason these pulps are

widely used is because the mill is required to utilise a smaller percentage of

their locally available raw fibres. This results in smaller quantities being

62

produced,with a concommitant reduction in expenditure on the growing,

transporting and processing of these fibres.

These softwood sheets are useable by the handmade paper industry, although

they are not archival in nature (due to their composition). They do contribute

to producing a better grade of recycled paper, which is pure in colour and has

a longer life-span. This is due to the fact that these sheets do not contain all

the chemicals of a finished sheet (for example, recycled handmade papers

usually utilise office-waste papers, Iwhich have a certain life span, and

this leads to the faster degradation

of the handmade sheet). These

pulps could be introduced by the

commercial paper industry to local

hand papermakers wanting to

produce recycled papers of higher L-.. ---'

quality. Sample #13: Softwood half-stuff. Sample supplied bySAPPI.

2.1.2 SHEET PULPS FOR THE HAND PAPERMAKING INDUSTRY.

These sheet pulps are produced by international markets (mechanically) for

utilisation by hand papermakers. The difference in product to the industrial

version is that these pulps are archival in nature, and are produced from

quality fibres such as Abaca (manila hemp), hemp, cotton linters or rags, with

little or no chemical additions to the pulp. Due to the large international

creative industries, these pulps are sold mainly for their creative papermaking

uses (Koretsky, Brock, 2002: 10).

The sheet pulps offer artists:

- Quality pre-processed fibre resources, which can be further processed with

no heavy papermaking equipment required - although Hollander processing

can alter the nature of the pulp and allow the artist a more extensive

creative freedom to form a variety of qualities of paper;

- Pulps with significant wet-strengths which have extensive sculptural

applications and opportunities;63

- Strong fibres, like Abaca, can be beaten in a Hollander beater for several

hours while keeping their tensile strength, and can result in many

applications in translucent papers, pulp painting and pulp spraying

techniques;

- Availability in bleached or natural coloured sheets, at the discretion of the

artist;

- Cotton linters (which contain short fibres) offer many watermarking

possibilities.

In the production of archival handmade papers, the producer can choose to

produce the sheet pulps as a second product to paper. It uses the same basic

processes and contains the same qualities as the archival handmade sheet, but

requires less finishing processes.

Sample #14: Cotton sheet pulp. Sample fromCarriage House Paper, USA.

Sample #15: Abaca sheet pulp (ManilaHemp). Sample from Carriage House Paper, USA.

The misconception of the 'cotton linter':

Sheet pulps made from cotton linters are often referred to as 'cotton linters'

and not sheet pulps. Cotton linters are the short seed hairs of the cotton

plant, Gossypium Hirsupum. As described previously, cotton is ginned

several times to achieve various qualities of cotton. The shortest fibre, which

remains on the cotton seed after ginning, the lint, can be used in explosives,

but is most commonly produced into sheet pulps. This is due to the nature of

their high cellulose content. While longer fibres are most often used for

textiles, short fibres, or linters, have fewer uses. Pulp is most often made from

linters.

64

2.1.3 THE IMPUCATIONS OF THE LOCAL PRODUCTION OF HANDMADE SHEET PULPS

FOR THE HAND PAPERMAKlNG MARKET (RESEARCH POSSIBIUTIES)

Through this investigation, it has become evident that these sheet pulps

should be further explored, as they may have a possible local market

potential. With Government's support in the establishment and development

of many hand papermaking projects across the country to create and self

sustainable small business enterprises, it has become evident that sheet pulp

production could have significant opportunities in the local market for the

following reasons:

- It could lower the initial set-up cost of a hand papermaking studio. This is

due to the fact that Hollander beaters are not essential for the production of

this product into paper. Hollander beaters are very costly to purchase and

require ongoing maintenance care, which could hamper production and self

sustainability. Sheet pulp production could eliminate the need for a

Hollander beater in the production of quality handmade papers.

- Many projects/small businesses of this nature have limited access to

electricity, and also find that electricity use is costly. The use of sheet pulps

would shorten beating times, thereby saving energy and energy costs. In

addition, Hollander beaters require three-phase electricity, which is not

always easy to access or cost-effective.

- The use of sheet pulp could also increase production output, as pulping

processes could be decreased. Projects/small businesses could purchase

sheet pulps and utilise them as their main constituent or 'raw material' for

their papers. This would enable them to act solely as an end-of-cycle paper

manufacturer, while reducing preparation times and costs, and increasing

product output and, ultimately, turnover.

- It could also provide and supply a larger market for quality archival

handmade papers, thereby lowering the costs of the imported equivalents.

Projects/small businesses could focus on producing these quality archival

65

papers as small industry, thus increasing and improving the quality of

handmade papers available in South Africa and lowering the availability of

poor quality recycled papers. The National Archives of South Africa import

archival products and have expressed an interest in supporting this product

to fulfil their archival requirements.

- Finally, the production of sheet pulps have many possibilities for art and

design students in tertiary institutions, and for professional artists , as the

path of creativity can be broadly expanded. Quality paper pulps or sheet

pulps could be utilised and specialised for the individual artist's requirements .

This would promote the use of handmade paper and pulps in the art

industry which would, in turn , create a greater demand for the product.

This investigation provides an opportunity for further researc h into the

production of this product. The purpose is to look at expanding the product's

possibilities and its applicability to various local industries. Specific outputs and

findings of the application and use of sheet pulps in the handmade paper

industry will not be pursued in this investigation; however it is relevant in that

it could provide a method of improving the availability of the arch ival

handmade product.

Fig 3 .1. Cotton sheet pulp being processedin a Whizz mixer. Photograph from Heller. J 1978 :98 .

66

3. T HE LOCAL MARKEr

The research investigation has so far analysed the properties, uses and

applications of handmade fine paper. The target market for the production

and sale of this kind of product will now be considered. This section of the

investigation is of great importance, as it reveals the market potential and

commercial viability of the archival handmade paper product.

The marketing of a product cannot be conducted in isolation as there is a

direct link between marketing and the functions of an enterprise (Le Roux et

al., 1995:240). This investigation does not conduct extensive market research

or industry analysis, or create a marketing strategy for the product, but

instead focuses on the making and testing of the product to optimise its use

and performance in the marketplace.

3.1 I DEN1lFICATION OF THE MARKEr NEED

The European market saw the rise in demand of fine papers in the era of the

"print renaissance" of the 1960s, where there was a transition between 'old

artisanship of unwritten formula and today's much more scientific quality

control' (Antreasian, 1979, cited in Turner, 1998:144). In the United States

around the same time, paper merchants were also dedicated to promoting

this underdeveloped market area (Turner, 1998:144). The development of

this market came from the identification of the special qualities required for

longevity in paper by the mills and makers, which in turn sparked off an

'unusual creativity and revision of what was available' (Turner, 1998:144).

3.1.1 LOCALLY AVAILABLE ARCHNAL PRINTMAKING PAPERS

On a local scale, all the fine papers in South Africa are currently imported.

There are no local makers of mouldmades or machinemades that contain the

properties required for various hand printmaking, painting and drawing

techniques. A need for a locally produced equivalent of this product was

revealed, especially with current importing costs as well as our increasing

67

exchange rates and taxes. The production of a local handmade equivalent to

the imported product would meet or lower the cost and increase the

availability of the product in the South African market.

3.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Issues that are critical to environmental sustainability include recycling and

waste management. The world faces a crises of environmental problems

which have been accelerated by technological development and increased

consumption patterns (Thompson, 1992:3).

The production of handmade paper from recycling waste addresses this need

directly. This research focuses on utilising cotton rag waste as its primary

resource of raw material. Although the local market need for this product is

not large enough to eradicate this cotton waste, it offers an alternative use for

the product, as well as adding value to the existing market. The use of this

material is further discussed in Chapter 4, Section 1.

The production of the craft industries in South Africa have been given a boost

by Government which develops and promotes local craft initiatives (DACST;

NCCSA, 2001). This research has revealed the viability of a 'handmade

cotton paper mill' which could assist in the development of the craft industry

in South Africa and address issues of poverty relief and job creation.

Opportunities also exist for the production of a unique South African product.

The nature of a paper can be directly influenced by its immediate

surroundings. The look, feel and function of the paper could be that of a

uniquely South African product in a situation where the fibre is locally grown

and manufactured, the applied Western papermaking techniques are adapted

for a local situation, and environmental elements provide resources for a

culturally different product (e.g: cotton/mielie paper mixes).

Export possibilities playa significant part in the development of the

handmade paper industry in South Africa. Applied research carried out on

sheet pulps from local, indigenous fibres could provide opportunities for

68

producing such sheet pulps for sale to countries abroadis. The paper could

then be marketed internationally,

69

The research investigation up to this point has provided the theoretical basis

for the execution of the practical research. It has analysed the properties

which make up a sheet of paper, and the uses and applications of handmade

archival papers, and has referred to the possibilities for producing this

product on a local scale and marketing it internationally.

The investigation that follows has drawn on practice-based research methods.

The following Chapter [4] will look into the specific research methodologies:

how the paper can be made (production techniques), documented (data

capture) and tested (practically and scientifically). In Chapter 5, the results and

findings will be analysed and discussed in order to reach a conclusion.

The papers have been produced and tested in various selected applications:

1. Papers for intaglio processes (heavyweight, soft with an ability to be dampened,

stretched, and pick-up detail).

2. Papers for embossing techniques (heavyweight, soft and structurally stable).

3. Papers for relief processes (for Iino - lightweight & smooth surfaced).

4. Screenprinting papers (samples of all the above for testing).

Sample papers have been produced and tested using the research

methodology included in the following chapter. The fibres were chosen

according to certain criteria, which will be discussed in Chapter 4, Section 1.

NOTE: All samples and research documentation are included as Annexures at the back of the

document, or are included in the body of the text where applicable.

70

Notes1. Aesthetic: Of or pertaining to the criticism of taste (the sense of the beautiful).

2. Edition: The entire number of copies of a publication or image printed from a single type

setting or other form of reproduction.

3. Linting: Clumps of fibre in the handmade paper that have become softened by moisture.

These clumps pick up extra ink during lithographic printing processes and ruin the

print quality.

4. Press: Any of various machines or devices that apply pressure for transferring lettering or

images by contact with various forms of inked surface onto paper or a similar

material fed into it in various ways.

5. Wet-strength: The strength and ability of a wet sheet of paper to be handled and not

become subject to its deterioration or damaged in any way (thereby affecting

the quality of the dry sheet) .

6. Acid: In context, refers to acid used in the specific printmaking process (eg: for etching

zinc = Nitric Acid (HN03)).

7. Laminate: In context, refers to joining two types of papers by glueing with an adhesive (ie:

methyl cellulose) to enhance the visual quality of a printed image.

8. Planographic: A process of printing from a smooth surface, as lithography or offset.

9. Serigraphy: A printing process from that of a silkscreen. Term used to describe screen

printed works of art.

10. Squeegee: A T-shaped implement having a crosspiece edged with rubber or leather, used

to move ink on a silkscreened surface.

11. Half-stuffs: The term also referred to in the commercial paper industry as pre-processed

sheet pulps.

12. Sheet pulps: The term also referred to in the handmade paper industry as pre-processed

sheet pulps.

13. Useable: In context, refers to the qualities that make the sheet useable to the end-user, in

processes such as printing, drawing, painting, etc.

14. Robbin Silverberg, Gail Deery (visiting professional paper artists from the USA) and Lee

Scott McDonald (US paper equipment supplier), have previously expressed an interest in

this product by the American market.

71

CHAPfER 4

PRODUCDON AND TFSfING

The practical research activities of the research investigation will be

considered in this chapter. Various analyses, production and data collecting

methodologies were employed in order to achieve a specific output. This

chapter will consider these methodologies in order to analyse the results and

output of the research investigation in Chapter 5.

1. F IBRE lYPES AND ANALYSIS

The following section will investigate the properties of certain fibres and their

characteristics. The discussion will involve a structural analysis of these fibres

(botany), the implication of their use in the agricultural market and the

application of the research in the handmade paper industry.

1.1 C OlTON FIBRES

1.1.1 THE HISTORY AND TRADITION OF COTTON IN PAPERMAKING.

Papermaking was a well established art long before the invention of printing.

Therefore, it was intuitive that the nature of the paper dictated the methods

of printing to be employed. With the invention of moveable type- by Johann

Gutenberg in Europe in the mid-15th century, Western techniques in

papermaking saw the development and use of linen and cotton rags which

were dipped in a solution of gelatin2• This method of

making paper produced a 'hard, opaque and

impervious- surface' that was perfectly suited for

the type of printing methods being employed. U:

the thin, transparent papers of an

oriental nature, the papers of Europe could

be written or printed on both sides of the sheets

(Hunter, 1943:61-62).

Fig 4.1 Cotton GossypiumHirsupum . Photograph from Dodge.

C. R. 1897: 175

72

In the early part of the 18th century the consumption of paper increased

significantly, making it difficult for papermills to source enough rag to keep up

with the demand. This rise in demand came from the more general circulation

of written information such as newspapers and books. A campaign entitled

"save your rags" was undertaken throughout the century which encouraged

the public to use wool for clothing wherever possible, a material unsuited to

papermaking. (Hunter, 1943:311)

The beginning of the 19th century established that there was an increase for

more plentiful materials for papermaking. This quest was not to find materials

that produce superior qualities of paper, but rather find substances that were

more abundant, cheaper and easier to process. Speed and low cost became

the most important issues of papermaking. Cotton and linen had been the

primary materials for making paper for over five centuries. The first

suggestion of wood as a papermaking fibre was in 1719 by Rene Antoine

Ferchault de Reaumur, who analysed the habits of a wasp. His theory was

that American wasps form a type of paper by masticating wood fibres and

turning it in to a paper-like nest (Hunter, 1943:313-316). However, his

observations were not put into action until attempts in the early 19th century,

when Nicholas Louis Robert developed the mechanisation of paper

production on a continuous cycle. After much research and development, the

paper production from wood fibres was finally in practice by the mid-19th

century (Turner, 1998: 15-16).

The use of cotton and linen rag for paper production after this period focused

on applications where durabilitys and quality were essential (Hunter,

1943:394;428). However, hand-processing was slow and produced a 20%

reject rate, according to Hunter (1943:451). This then lead to the

development of a second mechanised process towards the end of the 19th

century - the cylinder mould, a process which mimicked the quality of a

handmade sheet discussed in detail in Chapter 2, Section 2.1 (Turner,

1998:16).

73

Fig 4.2 Cotton waste in thestamper in Papiermolen "DeSchool-meester", Zaanse Stad ,Holland. Photograph by B. Marshall. researchvisit, 2000.

1.1.2 THEORETICAL AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: Cotton (Gossypi um Hirsupum)

Due to the wide distribution of the cotton plant and its long history of

cultivation, cotton has several species and therefore many product varieties .

Some countries, including South Africa, consider some species of cotton

indigenous because it has been cultivated for such a long time . A species

which is still cultivated today was discovered growing in South Africa as early

as 1516. The cotton grown in South Africa is considered to be of good

quality (Klindt, 2000). The specific type under investigation is the Gossyp ium

Hirsupum , sourced from the Agricultural Research Council - Institute for

Industrial Crops (ARC-TCRI) , Rustenburg , South Africa.

Cotton crops are considered by farmers to be a 'gamble ' as they are very

prone to insects, diseases and externa l factors, like spring rains before and

during harvesting which rots the bolls but , if successful, are very rewarding.

According to research conducted by ARC-TCRI South Africa since 1978/9

(Dippenaar; van Zyl & Vink, S.a: 15-16), the total production of cotton is far

be low the total fibre consumption of our country. They are currently

researching the adaptability of new cultivarss to different South African

conditions, with respect to yield and fibre characteristics.

The cotton plant is a warm weather plant and grows to approximately 0.5 to

2 metres tall when cultivated for textile use . The plant has a cream-coloured

74

to yellow flower, with surrounding leaves that remain when the flowers fall off.

These leaves hold the seed pods , called cotton bolls . Inside these bolls are the

cotton seeds and fibres (Robinson , 1983:519).

Fig 4 .3 Cotton fibres. Fig 4 .4 Cotton research crop -Image from Dodge. C. R. 1898:27 . ARC-TCRI, Rustenburg. Photograph by

B. Marshall. research internship. 2001.

Cotton is considered to be the world's most important and abundant natural

textile fibre (Robinson, 1983 :519). The fibre from the plant is derived from

the seeds and the stem and can therefore be divided into two categories: seed

hair & bast fibre. This is unique in that cotton is one of the few types of

plants that has more than one useable type of fibre (i.e. the kapok has good

seed hair fibre but the bast is not strong; where hemp has good bast fibre and

no seed fibre). These two useable cotton fibre sources both yield a different

kind of fibre and, ultimately, a different kind of product and therefore need to

be analysed separately:

• S EED HAIR RBRE

This fibre is derived from the seed of the cotton plant. These fibres are

actually hairs that grow on the cotton seeds, protecting them while they

ripen (Robinson, 1983 :5 19). Cotton fibres from the seed hair have the

reputation of being one of the best fibres for papermaking (Gilmour,

1967:19). This is due to its high cellulose content which is conducive to

hydrolysis (Heller, 1978:38).

75

Fig 4 .5 Cotton bolls showing the development of the seed fibre.Photograph by B. Marshall, research internship, 2001.

The lint or fibres from the seed are found in the fruit or boll of the plant after

maturity. The value of the lint depends on the length of the seed hairs and is

known as the 'staple'. The shorter staples are less valuable than the long

staples, and are not generally used to make fabrics. As ment ioned previously,

these are processed into sheets called sheet pulps which are used in

explosives or for small-scale papermaking (Hiebert, 2000:41).

Longitudina lly, the cotton fibres appear quite separate ; they are flat and

twisted. This twisted-quality of the cotton fibril is quite characterist ic and is

important in that it helps hold the fibres together when the fibrils are spun

into a yarn or thread. A cotton fibre is as strong as a steel wire of the same

thickness. By a process called cell division, the fibre - which varies in length

from 25-35mm for a long staple - is two thousand times longer than it is

wide (Bigwood, 1918:16-18).

THE EXTRACTION OF THE USEABLE RBRE

The seeds of the cotton plant cling firmly to the tightly curled fibres of the

boll. Picking these seeds out of the fibres by hand is a laborious and time

consuming activity. A cotton gin (short for 'engine') was designed to

mechanically remove these seeds from the fibre. The gin is made of 3 parts: a

revolving cylinder with stiff wire hooks , a metal plate with slots in it, and a

brush. When the cylinder turns, the wire hooks (which look like rows of teeth)

go through the slots, grab the fibre and pull it down through the slots. The

seeds, too large to pass through, get caught on the metal plates and snap off.

As the cylinder turns past the brush, the fibre is brushed off the hooks and

76

falls into a heap in the gin. The lint is then packed in bales and sold for

different purposes (thread, fabric, etc). These fibres can be later combed to

further separate the short from the long fibres which are the most suitable for

fabrics (Robinson, 1983:520-521).

Fig 4 .6 ABOVE: Ginnedcotton being sorted. Photographfrom Colton SA website, available athltp:l lwww.coltonsa .org.za.

Fig 4. 7 RIGHT: Moderncotton gin. Photograph fromRobinson, E. 1983:521.

The shorter fibres still remain on the seed after ginning and are called the

'fuzzy' seeds. These seeds are like a second protective layer and require more

moisture and care during planting. These fuzzy hairs have many uses (not for

fabric, but in ammunition, camera film and dynamite) and are removed by a

brushing process. If not replanted for the next growing season, the remaining,

now fibreless seed is crushed for its natural cottonseed oil which is used in

food products. The crushed seed is also used as ground meal for livestock; the

husks of the seeds can be used in the manufacture of plastics. One hundred

percent of the cotton boll has an industrial use, making it the most valuable

and rewarding crop to grow (Botha, 200 1).

• BAST RBRE

Little is written about the bast or stem fibre of the cotton plant, as it is not

as useful in industry as the seed hair . The strength of the fibre is actua lly of

better quality than that of the seed hair (Botha, 2001). The strength of the

fibre stems from its nature as a bast fibre, with its main function being

support (Dodge, 1897 :25). Currently, the fibres are being ploughed back

into the soil as fertilisation for the next season 's crop. Sma ll scale farmers

could consider a second harvesting of the [bast] fibre for low-end paper pulp

processing, after boll-harvesting has taken place.

77

Fig 4.8 Cotton bast fibre. Photograph by B. Marshall. 200 1.

T HE EXTRACTION OF THE USEABLE RBRE.

The main stem of the plant is simpler to process into paper and will produce

the most useable fibre. Extraction of the fibre is quite a lengthy process. This

is probably the reason for its under-utilisation by industry, as well as the

important time factor between harvesting, preparing and planting the next

season 's crop. After chopping down the entire plant , the leaves, remaining

bolls and smaller sub-stems need to be removed. This process can be done in

the field , making the possibility of re-using the waste (sub-stems, etc) more

accessible . The waste can be left in the field for ploughing and preparing the

ground for the next season 's crop, whilst the main-stems can be bundled and

stored for sale to small-scale paper mills. The pre-processing manufacturing

unit could then be set up to extract the useable fibre by

retting, steaming and stripping the inner bark of the

plant, which will be described in more detail in the

following section.

Fig 4.9 Cotton bast fibreshowing the inner core, bastand outer bark. Photograph by B.Marshall. 2001.

78

1.1.3 COlTON GROWING REGIONS AND/ OR LOCAL AVAILABIUTY OF WASTE

Because of the predominance of cotton in the textile industry, the focus of

this investigation is not to utilise the fibre, which is primarily used for textiles,

but to focus on the waste material of the plant in order to address issues of

waste management and add value for job creation. The main cotton source

for this investigation will be suppliers of rag waste; however , a thorough

investigation of the plant structure and processing needs to be undertaken in

order to understand the characteristics of the fibre for its application in the

papermaking industry.

Fig 4.10 Cottongrowing regionsin South Africa .Image from Colton SAwebsite. availableatbttp'!!www,cottonsa or!Uil.

1.1.4 A GRICULTURAL IMPUCATIONS (BENEFITS) OF LOW-END PAPER PRODUCTION

There are various agro-processing opportunities and benefits to the small

scale farmer. The use of cotton waste may not impact on the farmer directly.

but does have implications of adding value to the farming of cotton. It not

only extends the life of the cotton product, but transforms it into a different

product with an alternative market.

The use of the bast fibre would introduce a unique application to South

African industrial crops, as it currently has no use in industry. The use of this

fibre could have implications for poverty alleviation and job creation in South

Africa - an additional workforce or harvesting team could be con tracted to

process fibre suitable for pulping , thereby creating a new market and

79

additional possibilities for small industries. Cotton farmers in South Africa as

yet have not had the opportunity to target the paper industry, nor the art

market. The research investigation proposes that the use of this cultural staple

crop can have benefits to the small scale papermaker in making it more viable

and accessible through the production and manufacture of sheet pulps, as well

as for the local art market in creating a new product.

1.1.5 COlTON: SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

Through the above analysis, the following facts of cotton are applicable:

1. Cotton is considered a good fibre for hand papermaking.

* The staple length of a cotton fibre is ±25-35mm;

* The strength of the cotton fibre is determined by its flat and twisted

structure, and has been proven to be as strong as a piece of steel wire of

the same thickness;

* The cotton fibre is made of up to 95% cellulose and is preconditioned to

hydrolysis (an important chemical reaction required for producing a

quality paper).

2. Cotton is considered to be the world's most important and abundant

natural textile fibre. This can be proven by the fact that 100% of the

cotton boll has an industrial use.

3. Both the bast and the seed-hairs produce useable fibre for papermaking.

4. The bast fibre in the main stem, although laborious to extract, has good

strength and length as a papermaking fibre, while the unuseable fibre can

still be used to prepare the soil for the next season's crop.

5. Harvesting and extracting the useable bast fibre for papermaking can help

address issues of poverty and unemployment in South Africa. For instance,

it could introduce a new activity in the existing Phumani Paper Poverty

Relief Programme.

6. The crop value for cotton can be increased by utilising the bast fibre of the

plant to increase production potential. This would be a unique application

of cotton fibre in South Africa could add potential value to the small scale

cotton farmer.

7. Research shows that different cultivars of cotton can be utilised to reach

80

optimum crop potential and ensure validity of crop production. (Klindt,

2000)

8. The total production of cotton is far below the fibre consumption of South

Africa.

9. Utilising cotton rag waste produced by society makes the cotton product

more ceo-friendly and valuable.

10. Utilisation of the cotton waste opens new doors to the cotton industry in

paper and art markets through new product development.

11. The production of cotton linters (by both paper and cotton industries)

could benefit papermakers and tertiary institutions.

1.2 S~ FIBRFS

1.2.1 THE HISTORY AND TRADmON OF SISAL IN PAPERMAKING.

In history, sisal has primarily been grown for the manufacturing of ropes,

cordage and sacking (Wall, 1983:331). It is also known worldwide for its use

in tea bags and filter papers (Bell, 1981:91). Sisal does not have an extensive

history of use in papermaking. In most of the literature available on the

subject of the development of fibres for papermaking, sisal is not mentioned.

Its investigation by current papermakers such as Deery, Takahashi and Bell,

its use as a papermaking material has proven to be exceptional for non-wood

pulp and paper production. It has a number of distinguishing properties that

make it of value in the manufacture of speciality papers that are usually made

with rag, cotton linters, flax and hemp (Rappe, S.a: 1).

Existing research in the field of non-wood pulp by the Technical Association

of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) in America, shows that sisal paper pulp

has been selected as an appropriate cotton substitute because it has

properties of high alpha-celluloses content, good absorbency, high bulk and

burst, competitive folding endurance, and good drainage, formation and wet

strength (Rappe, S. a:5).

81

Fig 4.12 Sisal - Cabuya, Ecuador.Photograph by K. Berman, 1999.

1.2.2 THEORETICAL AND STRUcrURAL ANALYSIS: Sisal (Agave sisilana Perrinne)

Sisal is a monocotyledonous plant which belongs to tl

Agavaceae family. It is indigenous in origin to tropica

sub-tropical America (Dannhauser, S. a:2). It is a larg:

succulent that forms an open rosette of broad, thick,

sword-like grey-green or yellow-green leaves, dependi

on the specific species. Each leaf has sharp brown he

along the margins and ends in a long, sharp point (M

1984:76). The leaves can grow up to 2 metres long,

usually 1.2 metres in length. The leaves have a thick ~~\'1 ~h...'..;:

epidermis covered with a waxy cuticle. The sisal

plant flowers once during its life from a 'pole' in the (

the plant which can reach five to six meters in heigh

(Dannhauser, S. a:3). Fig 4.11 Sisal Agave sisilanaPerrinne. Image from Dodge, C. R.1897:49

The physical properties of the sisal plant contributes to its description as a

hard fibre. Hard fibres are coarse and long, with sisal specifically known for its

strength. Sisal has closely packed fibres that are compact and bonded

together (Lock, 1962:260). The fibre is yellowish-white in colour, sometimes

showing a greenish tinge (Dodge, 1897:48). The fibres in a sisal leaf are of

various lengths. The shorter fibres, which

are located in the butt-end? of the leaf, are

usually lost during decortications. The

longer, coarse fibres are the same length as

the leaf itself, and are therefore of various

lengths. The fineness and texture of the

fibre varies in the different parts of the leaf,

from smooth to coarse (Lock, 1962:265

267). This fibre character lends itself to the

roughness of the paper surface it produces

(Hiebert, 2000:42).

82

One of the most important properties of hard fibres is their extensive tensile

strength, which can vary according to the different parts of the leaf. The fibre

is naturally pliable when fresh, but tends to become stiff when dried (Lock,

1962:274-77). However, the fibrillation and maceration processes of fibre for

papermaking changes the nature of this fibre into one that remains pliable

and fairly soft, if correct beating procedures have been employed. The fibre is

also fairly elastic (Lock, 1962:278), which could provide interesting

opportunities for printmaking papers.

THE EXTRACTION OF THE USEABLE RBRE.

The useable fibre from the sisal plant is derived from the leaves of the

plant.The sisal plant is a succulent? and the inner fibres of its leaves are thick

and juicy, and lend themselves to the storage of water in the tissues during

rainy seasons. This water is then drawn on in periods of drought. The leaf has

a waxy outer coating, whose function is to reduce water loss caused from

evaporation (Maclay, 1984:402-3).

Decortication is the method used

to remove this outer waxy layer, or

skin, from the leaf and separate

the fibres from the tissues (Lock,

1962:265). The decortication

process requires specialised

agricultural equipment. For this

reason, it is usually done on or

nearby the sisal plantations and is

not a focus of this investigation.

Fig 4.13 Sisal - Cabuya, Ecuador showingdecorticated fibre. Photograph by K. Berman, 1999.

The fibre, once decorticated and combed, is in a useable state for

papermaking. This research investigation examined the use of this fibre,

purchased from the farmers, in order to reduce the cost of specialised

processing equipment. It is also an initiative to support local small-scale

farmers by offering sisal as an alternative niche market to cordage, carpets

and sacking in South Africa.

83

1.2.3 SISAL GROWING REGIONS AND/OR LOCAL AVAILABIUTY OF WASTE

Sisal was introduced to South Africa in 1912, although its origin in this

country is obscure. It is said to be planted first in Ndumo near the

Mozambique border, and that one of the initial reasons for planting sisal in the

former South African "homelands" was to create job opportunities. Up until

the early 1960s the major portion of this fibre was still imported. Political

issues brought about the rise of sisal plantations in the mid 1960s, when

approximately 25 000 hectares were established. It has declined since then,

resulting in the bulk again being imported. However, with various initiatives

on the rise, sisal is currently growing in various regions in Limpopo Province,

KwaZulu Natal, Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape (Dannhauser, S. a:4).

1.2.4 AGRICULTURAL IMPUCATIONS (BENEATS) OF LOW-END PAPER PRODUCTION

Hand papermaking for economic development has become widely practised

worldwide (Deery & Takahashi, 1999:20). In 1994, Tom Horton, the

founding Director of Sustainable Technologies, was developing many projects

in South America which integrated business with environmental sustainability

and technology. Included in these technologies was an environmentally

suitable method for converting agricultural waste into paper fibre (Deery &

Takahashi, 1999:21).

Through his research, Horton identified cabuya (also known as sisal) as an

indigenous fibre for papermaking in Getsemani, Ecuador. This fibre had been

cultivated for centuries, primarily for the production of coffee and cocoa sacks

and rope. Contemporarily, it is being used for carpet manufacturing and

various commercial hand crafts. In the 1960s, as plastic coffee bean sacks

became more readily available, the price of cabuya began to drop. The

packaging product became more industrialised by other countries, thereby

lowering its cost, leaving the Ecuadorian farmers with an abundance of fibre

and virtually no market. CARE International approached the problem with

Sustainable Uses for Biological Resources (SUBIR) to link conservation with

the economic well being of local inhabitants. Together SUBIR and Horton

developed the idea of hand papermaking to replace the current cabuya

industry for farmers. (Deery & Takahashi, 1999:21).

84

Sisal is now considered to be a viable crop in the South African economy

(CSIR Manufacturing and Materials Technology, 2002). I believe the

production of archival handmade papers from this fibre source has much

potential. Using the Ecuadorian SUBIR cabuya project PACA (Papel

Artesanal de Cabuya - Handmade Cabuya Paper) as a case study, the

feasibility of sisal as an ecologically sustainable natural fibre for the production

of archival hand papermaking, becomes concrete. The similarities between

the PACA project and the South African situation are very closely linked.

With the revival of several abandoned local sisal plantations in the Eastern

Cape and Limpopo Province, the crops could have new market potential. In

South Africa, unemployment and poverty is rife and there is an increasing

need for job creation through sustainable development. By using PACA as a

model for developing a local initiative to process sisal fibre into archival

handmade paper, an industry could be developed which would support the

local environment and meet the needs of the people. PACA seeks to develop

an international network to develop shared resources that will provide

information to avoid common technical, cultural, environmental and financial

difficulties for this environmentally non-intrusive, income-generating micro

industry. This support could be drawn upon to develop the industry in South

Africa into one with a focused niche market with sustainable potential (Deery

& Takahashi, 1999:26).

1.2.5 SISAL: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

1. Sisal has proven to be exceptional for non-wood pulp and paper

production and has a number of distinguishing properties that make it of

value in the manufacture of speciality papers usually made with rag, cotton

linters, flax and hemp.

2. Sisal paper pulp offers properties of high alpha cellulose content, good

absorbency, high bulk and burst, competitive folding endurance, and good

drainage, formation and wet strength.

3. The physical properties of the sisal plant contributes to its description as a

hard fibre. Hard fibres are coarse and long, with sisal specifically known for

its strength.

85

4. Sisal has closely packed fibres that are compact and bonded together.

5. The fibre is yellowish-white in colour, a desirable off-white paper colour for

printmaking.

6. The fibre is fairly elastic, which could provide interesting printing

opportunities.

7. It can provide an initiative to support local small-scale farmers by providing

an alternative niche market for cordage, carpets and sacking in South

Africa.

8. The PACA project in Ecuador can serve as a South African model for

developing the micro-industry for archival hand papermaking.

Cotton rag and sisal fibres are the specific fibres considered for this

investigation. Many other plant fibres have suitable properties for the

production of archival handmade papers, but have not been included in this

investigation. The research can be applied to alternative fibre-types, as a

handmade papers' archivality is derived from its method of production, rather

than from the choice of fibre. The following section will consider these

production methodologies for the manufacture of archival handmade papers.

86

2. P ROnuGnON TECHNIQUES

This section will look specifically at the methods employed to produce archival

handmade papers. Where applicable, various tests and results will be

discussed. End results and applications will be discussed with conclusive

findings in Chapter 5.

2.1 P APFR PRODUCflON AND TECHNIQUFS EMPLOYFD

The following research was conducted on two RBRE TYPES:

1. Cotton Rag 100%

2. Cotton Rag 50% Sisal 50% mix

Both fibre types underwent the same testing and production procedures, in a

production with 3 SEPARATE BATCHES10 OF EACH RBRE TYPE. Included in these six

batches are various internal tests, producing several unique papers to undergo

various paper quality and printability testing, to be further discussed in Chapter 5.

(Refer to Annexure A for BATCH CODING AND PAPER PROPERTIES)

Due to the nature of the fibre types chosen for this specific investigation, as

well as the requirements of archival printing papers, Western methodologies

of papermaking were employed.

2.1.1 PREPARATIONS

The two fibre types were sourced in the following formu:

1. The cotton rag was purchased from a retailer12 of cleaning materials in

the form of rag waste. The fibre is purchased in 25kg bags, containing

100% pure cotton rags (usually old clothing with zippers and buttons

removed, or hospital sheeting) which are sterilised and cleansed (see Fig.

4.14). The rag fibre must be cut into smaller pieces, about the size of a

postage-stamp (Hiebert, 2000:42).

2. The sisal fibr e was purchased through a carpet and cordage

manufacturerr>, who purchases the fibre direct from the farmers in the

Limpopo Province in pure dry-fibre form (see Fig. 4.15), i.e. after

decortication and combing processes have taken place. It is an "A Grade"

fibre; lower grades are available.

87

The fibre must be cut into smaller pieces , approximately 1 1/2 em lengths

prior to beating the fibre (Bell,1981 :25). This process is done prior to

cooking as it is easier to cut when dry.

Fig 4 .14 Lrrr. Cotton rag in the form purchased for the research investigation. RIGHT: Closeup photo of the cut fibre, ready for cooking or beating. Photographs by B. Marshall. 2002 .

Fig 4 .15 trrr. Sisal Fibre in the form purchased for the research investigation. RIGHT : Thecut fibre, ready for cooking. Photogra phs by B. Marshall. 2002.

Both fibre types were soaked for periods to hydrate the cellulose fibres in

order to determine its effects on the beating process and on the finished

sheet. Refer to Annexure B for P RODUCllO DATA SHEETS. No retting

procedures were applied for this investigation.

88

2.1.2 COOKING PROCEDURES

Cooking fibres for papermaking, as previously discussed in Chapter 2,

Section 1, is done with an alkali solution in orde r to soften tough , raw fibre to

facilitate subsequent beating and to separate the fibre. It also removes all non

cellulose materials in the fibres which are unwanted in papermaking, as they

interfere with the bonding process and affect the arc hivality of the paper. The

process improves the paper's permanence (Hiebert, 2000:52; Barret, 1994).

As with the soaking process, cooking helps to swell the cell walls of the fibre,

to enable them to take in more water during beating - thus improving the

hydrogen bond and increasing the paper 's strength (Bell , 1981:22).

Cooking of the specific fibre types in this investigation was done in a 20%

alkali solution . The alkali was in the form of soda ash (Na2C03) . Cooking

times varied, depending on the specific fibre type: Cotton was cooked for a

standard period of 2 hours in order to analyse the effect of the cooking

process on the pH of the paperi-, as well as the effect of the beating

processes. This procedure is also required in cotton rag to remove any sizing

or finishing materials 15 that prevent the fibres from opening up during beating

(Hiebert, 2000:56). Sisal cooking times varied in order to determine the

most effective times for the specific pa per under investigation . Refer to

Annexure B (PRODUCTION DATASHEETS) for further details and results .

Fig 4 .16 lEFT: Sisal Fibre in the cookingprocess. Photograph by B. Marshall. 2002.

89

2.1.3 BEATING METHODS

The fibre must be weighed dry before going into the beater in order to

determine the fibres' yield and productivity levels. The production of the

papers in this investigation utilised 1kg of raw fibre per batch (into a 50 litre

beater). Productivity levels will be discussed further in the following section

(3.1).

Beating procedures are essential to Western papermaking as they provide the

control needed to produce specific kinds of paper (Barret, 1994). As

previously described in Chapter 2, Section 1: 'beating is done in the presence

of water to promote the intake of water and assist in hydrogen bonding'. The

beating process causes a roughening of the outside of the fibre surface, and

the fibre swells as it takes up water (Bell, 1981:24). The fibre is then turned

into a viSCOUS 16 matter that can be formed into a sheet of paper (Hiebert,

2000:62).

Beating is important for the promotion of the hydrogen bonding process,

which requires the following two substances:

"'"

"

\,

- Water is made up of two hydrogen atoms

and an oxygen atom, which are polar (they

are either positively or neutrally charged

like a magnet) which means they are able

to bond to one another (Barret, cited in

Smith 1989:99-100). This bond is known

as the hydrogen bond (see Fig. 4.17).

- Each fibre is made up of cellulose

molecules with tiny fibrils, which become

rougher during beating (Hiebert, 2000:63). Fig 4.17 A water molecule (LEFf) and

Cellulose molecules are very long and the a Hydrogen bond in water (RIGHT).Image from Smith, 1989,99.

fibrils acquire the same 'polar' characteristic

of water (Barret, cited in Smith 1989:99-100) (see Fig. 4.18).

90

Fig 4.18 The surface of acellulose molecule on afibre. Image from Smith, 1989:100.

These two substances, when put together, attract each other by forming

bonds between them. These bonds increase, and become stronger, as water is

removed and they are pulled together (Barret, cited in Smith 1989:99-100).

The nature of the rough surface of the fibre from beating provides many sites

for hydrogen bonds to occur (Hiebert, 2000:63) (see Fig. 4.19).

The beating process is done with a Hollander beater. The specific beater used

was designed and manufactured by Antonio Moreno of Johannesburg.

Fig 4.19 Watermolecules between twocellulose surfaces. Imagefrom Smith. 1989:100.

The process of beating by a Hollander beater changes the nature of the fibre

as it is gradually shortened, fibrillated!", softened, opened-up and plasticisedis

in the presence of water. Beaters can vary in design but all have similar key

components as illustrated in Fig 4.20 below:

The tub contains a midfeather, backfall and a bedplate. The bed plate consists

of bars mounted vertically on the bottom of the tub. A roller containing

flybars rotates above this bedplate, with an adjustment mechanism that varies

the distance between the moving flybars and the stationary bedplate. When in

operation, the tub is filled with water and fibre, which is drawn through this

space between the roll and the bedplate, thrown over the backfall and rotated

around the tub in a continuous process (Barret, 1994).91

1 - Shaft2 - Bedplate3 - Tub (Oval)4 - Backfall5 - Midfeather6 - Flybars

Fig 4.20 The Hollander beater, showing the key components. Photograph fromGentenaar & Torley, 2000:81.

Beating times and procedures all have an immediate effect on the final paper

quality. The extremities of these effects are described by Hiebert (2000:62) as

shorter periods of beating producing a soft , opaque sheet that shrinks

minimally, with longer beating periods producing crisp, translucent papers

with high shrinkage rates . The specific papers under investigation in this

research underwent many beating variations and tests. Deckle box testing was

the main method employed to undertake these tests , which involves a

specially-clesigned mould and 'box' in which small sample sheets (of 400ml's

of pulp) are produced continuously on sampling the pulp on a half hourly

basis (see Fig. 4 .21).

The purpose of these tests is to display the progression of sheet formation

and fibre development (break-down) through sampled sheets taken at various

beating times (see Fig 4.23). They also provide the papermaker the

opportunity to design papers and recipes by carefully recording this data for

referral at a later stage. The specific results and beater tests are recorded in

Annexure B (PRODUcnO DATA SHEETS).

92

Fig 4. 21 ABOVE: Deckle box tests, showing the progression of sheetformation and fibre development (cellulose fibre and water relationship )taken from various beating stages. Photographs taken on a light box and produced in thecourse of study by B. Mars hall, 2002.

Fig 2 .22 RIGHT: The method of taking decklebox tests ABOVE: The design of the decklebox. Photograph from research . B. Marshall. 2002.

93

Fig 4.23 lEFT: Microscan of a kraft paper xll O. RIGHT: The same pulp after 50 minutes ofbeating, showing the prog ression of beating (swelling of fibres and development of bond) .Photogra ph from Heller. 1978:58-59.

Another method of testing the pulp to determine its progression during

beating is the 'freeness test'. This is a less scientific method which requires

some experience and practical knowledge. It involves placing a small amount

of beaten pulp into a jar of clean water, shaking it vigorously and holding it

against the light. The purpose it to see if there is any weave or thread

remaining in the cotton fibre, and to see how the fibres distribute themselves

in water. If there is a 'clumpy' effect, the pulp in its present state will form an

uneven sheet of paper which means the fibre is underbeaten. If the fibres

disperse eas ily in the jar and create a 'cloudy' but even effect, the pulp is

properly beaten and sheet formation will be of good quality (Fig 4.24). This

method of testing , however, will only indicate whether the pulp has been

beaten sufficiently in order to make a sheet of paper. Only deckle box testing

will indicate the type of paper the pulp will produce at tha t partic ular stage of

beating. The freeness test is usually utilised in conjunction with a da ta sheet or

recipe of a specific type of paper, in order to de termine shee t formation and

fibre dispersion .

Fig 4 .24 lEFT: The'freeness test' on a pulpthat is not ready forsheet-forming.RIGHT: The same pulpshowing more evendispersion . Photograph by B.Marshall. 2002.

94

In papermaking, cotton is a versatile fibre and responds well to beating

(Gilmour, 1967:19). According to Gilmour (1967:19):

"The fact that the twisted tendency of the fibres prevents them from lying

very closely together gives bulk and opacity to papers beaten so as to

preserve this feature. If, however, cotton fibres are "brushed" with the beater

roll, they split longitudinally into many fibres, which when assembled together

on the paper machine produce great strength. If the fibres are cut without

fibrillation, a very absorbent pulp results. Finally, the chemical purity of cotton

cellulose pulp enables paper made from it to retain its strength for long

periods of time. "

2.1.4 SIZING TECHNIQUES AND OTHER ADDITNES

As previously discussed in Chapter 2, Section 1 and 3, the sizing

requirements of the paper depends on its end use. Sizing is used to coat the

fibres in order to make them more water repellent and bleed-resistant

(Hiebert, 2000: 70). Sizing also aids in strength and abrasion resistance which

is important for papers undergoing heavy processes that need to withstand

extensive handling (Barret, 1994).

Sizing is an important factor in printmaking as its end-use is concerned with

ink absorption and paper strength. Various methods of sizing were utilised in

this research investigation on various samples from each batch:

1. Internal sizing techniques using Aqua pel19 were conducted on certain

batches. This was added to the beater during the last stages of beating.

Some samples were externally sized as well.

2. External sizing techniques using a gelatin solution were conducted on

various samples of the batches. This was executed using the following

method: it was dipped in a bath of gelatin solution and re-dried. This

process was considered a second sizing on some samples (that were

previously internally sized) which required extra properties of strength in

order to see if repeating the sizing process affected the paper quality and

absorbency.

The results of these tests will be discussed in Chapter 5. For specific results

and findings, refer to the Data Sheets in Annexure C: Ink Absorption tests &

results.

95

Fig 4.25 A BOVE LEFT: Internal sizing during the beating process. RIGHT: External sizing

dipping the sheets in the solution . Photographs by B. Marshall, 2002.

Other additives utilised in the production of these pa pers were:

1. Calcium Carbonate (CaC0 3) - This chemical is used as a 'filler' in order to

create a smoother surface and to increase the opacity of the paper; these

are important properties of printmaking papers. It also aids in reducing the

amount of shrinkage in the pulp (Smith, 1995:27) and protects it from

acidic contaminant in the air by slightly increasing the paper's alkalinity

(Hiebert, 2000 :72). Calcium Carbonate was added during the last stages of

beating to various batches by mixing it with a cup of water first to dilute

the substance and ensure its optimal usage.

2. Titanium Dioxide (TiO 2) - This chemical is used to improve the whiteness,

opaci ty and smoothness of pure white pulps (Hiebert , 2000:73). It is often

referred to as a pigment but does affect other properties (like texture).

Titanium dioxide was diluted with water and added during the last beating

cycle to pure cotton rag batches.

2 .1.5 S HEET-FORMI G PROCESSES

After the pulp has been beaten, it is diluted with a larger ratio of water in

order for it to perform in the sheet-forming process (approximately 3 parts

water to 1 part pulp). The thick viscous matter from the beater will now

appear much more water-like and transparent. The sheet-forming process

involves the use of a vat, mould and deckle. The vat is filled with the correct

ratio of pulp to water according to the grammage required by the

papermaker. The pulp is agitated using a stick in order for the fibres to be

96

evenly dispersed and suspended. The mould and deckle are held together as

in Fig 4.26, and scooped along the surface of the pulp in order to accumulate

enough pulp on the screen to form an even sheet of paper of the required

thickness. The water begins to drain from the mould, leaving a layer of pulp

on the surface of the mesh . Before completing this action, a multi-directional

'shake' is used to assist in evening out the fibres and knotting them in order

to form a strong sheet of paper.

The paper , once fully drained , is transferred onto a felt by means of a method

known as 'couching' (Fig 4 .27). This is done by 'rolling' the mould onto the

felt, applying enough pressure to transfer the paper successfully (Fig 4.28).

This process is repeated consecutive ly, creating a post , which is a stack of

newly-formed sheets with interleaving fabric or felts. A post can cons ist of

between 30 and 100 sheets of paper, depending on the skill and expertise of

the papermaker.

Fig 4 .26 lEFr: Casting a Western style sheet of paper. Photograph by B. Marshall. 2002.

RIGHT: Casting a Western style sheet of paper. Photograph from Hunter , 1943:86

97

Fig 4 .27 LEFf: Couching a sheet of

paper. Fig 4 .28 BELOW, LEFf AND

RIGHT: The method of couching

(horizontal view)Photograph produced in the course of study by B.

Marshall, 2002.

2.1.6 B RANDING THE PRODUcr

The branding of the archival paper product was done by a method called

watermarking . Watermarking has been done over the centuries mainly for

trading purposes. It usually contains a logo or name to identify a particular

grade, place/mill or date and is traditiona lly a design only found in Western

papers (Turner , 1998 :3 1). Other functions include a guarantee of the

product's authenticity, and a display of craftsmanship; watermarking can also

be a method of branding, advertising or trademarking the product.

A watermark can be described as a 'translucent design or emblem incorpor

ated into a sheet of paper during its manufacturing process, which is only

visible when the sheet is held up to the light' (Hiebert , 2000:151 ; He ller,

1997:75). It is usually confined to the edges or corners of the paper in order

not to interfe re with the end-use of the product (Turner, 1998:32).

98

Traditionally it is achieved by a raised design created from wire which is sewn

onto the mould of the maker. The raised area creates a thinner layer of pulp

which is more translucent in that area and which, in turn, results in a visible

image within the sheet, rather than an embossed one (Hiebert, 20 00:151;

Heller , 1997:75). Many contemporary adaptions of this technique do exist.

Fig 4 .29 - A lWR wate rmark design taken

on a light box for visibility. Sample produced

through the course of study by B. Marshall. 2002.

Fig 4 .30 . The mould containing the

watermark device for testing. Photograph produced

through the course of study by B. Marshall. 2002.

P RESSING AND PARTING

After the sheets have been formed by means of the above-mentioned

methods, they have to undergo a pressing procedure in order to remove all

the excess water from the newly formed sheets, as well as compact the fibres

to improve their bond (Hiebert , 2000 :102). This research utilised the method

of pressing the post with a 30 ton hydraulic press20 designed specifica lly for

papermaking. The sheets were pressed gradually, allowing the water to be

removed slowly from the centre of the sheets first. The sheets were left in the

press for approximately half an hour to allow the water to dra in properly.

Once the papers have been pressed , they remain damp and require some

drying procedure before they are considered finished. These sheets are still

fragile and must be handled carefully (Hiebert, 2000: 104). They need to be

removed from the wet interleaving sheets they are curren tly on, and placed in,

or onto, the specific drying equipment to be used. The sheets are removed

gently from the corner, peeling each one from the felt and carrying it at two

corners, supporting the sheet with all fingers , and placing it carefully onto the

99

drying equipment. If not handled correctly, many rejects could be formed at

this stage, lowering productivity levels and manufacturing outputs.

Fig 4 .31. LEFr: A hydraulic press. RIGHT: A post of paper being pressed in a 30 ton

hydraulic press. Photograph produced through the course of study by B. Marshall. 2002.

2.1.8 D RY! G PROCEDURES

Drying procedures , as previously discussed in Chapter 2 , Section 3-5 , have a

significant effect on the fina l quality of the finished sheet. Various techniques

of drying exist [refer to previous discussion] and all result in different

characteristics which have various advantages in printmaking.

Fig 4 .32 .

Parting and

laying the

sheets onto the

drying equip

ment. Top LEFT:

Shows how the

interleaving

sheets should be

removed:

Borro-r LEFT:

Shows how the

papers are

removed from

the post: and

RIGHT: Shows how the papers are carried to the dryer.Photograph produced through the course of study by B. Marshall. 2002

100

The drying procedures used in this investigation were twofold:

1. Most of the paper samples were dried by means of a restraint drying

system, which used double-fluted corrugated cardboard and acid free felts

(refer to Fig 4.33 for method of stacking). This method was chosen for the

bulk of the production because it produces dimensional stability, increases

production outputs and reduces manufacturing procedures.

2. Certain samples were stack pressedo in spurs22 of five, loft dried, then re

moistened, and restraint-dried in order to become flat. This process was

tested to see its effect on the final quality of the sheets in order to compare

them to the restraint-dried sheets and analyse their effect during

printmaking.

Sample #16 - Paper sample from restraint

drying tests, showing the effect on the papers

surface texture. Samples produced through the course of

study by B. Marshall, 2002.

Sample #17 - Paper sample from loft drying

tests, showing the effect on the papers

surface texture. Samples produced through the course of

study by B. Marshall, 2002.

101

Fig 4 .33. Photos of varying drying tests :

LEFf: Restraint dried .

RIGHT: Loft or air dried.Ph otograph produced through the course of study by B. Marshall.

2002 .

2.2 S HER PULP SAMPLING

In order to loo k into the local market possibilities of sheet pulps as an

additional output of the research investigation (previously discussed in Chapter

3 , Section 2), it was necessary to produce a few samples of the product in

order to conduct further research and source initial market feedback. This

process was done by using the following methodologies:

- As sheet pulps are described as 'pre-processed paper pulps in the form of

dry, heavyweight sheets ' , samples were taken from each batch of the

research paper production. This was done in order to produce various

samples of these sheet pulps in order to analyse the market potential and

need for the various specialised products, if any. Due to the nature of their

processing techniques, each sheet pulp sample from each batch offers

unique qualities , which could result in them being sold as individual

products.

- These samples were taken during the last beating cycle, prior to the addition

of any chemical additives. This methodology was employed in order to have

a standardised end produc t that could be further specialised by the consumer.

- They were formed using traditiona l pa permaking tech niques, but, using a

deckle box (as opposed to a mould and deckle) and a reduced pulp-to-water

ratio. This was done in order to achieve a thicker sheet which could be re

pulped to produce many thinner sheets.

102

- The samples were compressed by half-pressing them in a hydraulic press, so

they remained quite porous and soft, and were restraint dried in the drying

system, so they remained flat.

2.3 Q UALOY CONTROL AND SORTING

The finished papers are required to undergo some sort of grading procedures

in order to class the paper into specific categories for the retailer and/or end

user. According to Heller (1997:103), 'in all handmade papers there is

considerable variations in the thickness and finish'. This is due to the

individuality and uniqueness of handmade sheets - made one by one by a

skilled craftsperson. However, no matter how skilled the papermaker, there

will always be variations and flaws which are required to be sorted and graded

accordingly. It is, after all, the link between handmade products and human

nature which, in turn, leads to the development of technology, and ultimately

the machinemade product. Paper quality should therefore be looked at in a

different light to that of the machinemade product:

2.3.1 LOOKING AT A SHEET (STANDARD TESTING TECHNIQUES DONE BY MANUFACTURER)

By careful examination of the PRODUCTION DATA SHEETS (Annexure B)

following the procedures described in detail in Chapter 2, Section 3, each

batch of paper contains certain methodological specifications-" of production

which determines the type and end use of paper. However. within each of

these specifications-", the quality has further been determined by conducting

the following physical tests to determine grade:

2.3.2 TESTS DETERMlt\II\'G THE GRADE OF PAPER:

Grammage is first determined by weighing the paper, which is then graded

according to the following criteria:

1. One can determine the strength of the paper by loosely handling a sheet of

paper to judge its 'feel', and listening to the sound or .rattle . it makes

(Turner 1998:37). 'Soft' sounding and textured sheets are considered

weaker, as they have undergone short periods of beating. 'Crisp sounding

103

and hard textured sheets are considered stronger, as they have undergone

longer periods of beating, allowing more water absorption and hydrogen

bonding. Sizing procedures can also affect this paper quality: hard-sized

papers will appear 'crisper' to undersized papers, having a stronger

resilience to external factors. Grades are determined by this characteristic

A and B grades are 'crispy' in nature, C grades will be 'soft' in nature. The

difference between A and B will be determined by further characteristics.

The brittleness of a paper should be noted under this section as it is also

determined by its sound. This is a result of overbeating the fibres, but can

also be highlighted through other testing methodologies. This will also fall

into the C grade category.

2. The 'top' side of the sheet is easily determined by the readability of the

watermark. If the paper does not contain a watermark, usually the wire

side is considered the top of the paper. Both sides should be completely

free from the impurities illustrated in Fig 4.33, in order to optimise its end

use, thereby characterising A grades. If various (but minimal) impurities

exist, the paper is graded B to C, depending on the nature of the

impurities.

3. When illuminated by light, the sheet of paper should be uniform, even,

contain no water droplets and be free from linting. These factors should be

categorised by severity in the various grades (A-C). The opacity of these

specific papers in this investigation should be low, as they are generally

heavy-weight papers. Papers containing a higher opacity should be graded

accordingly, or assigned for an alternative end use.

4. By tearing a sheet (one from each batch), the strength can be determined.

This strength is preconditioned by a combination of all manufacturing

processes undertaken. Grades can be determined accordingly.

104

According to Turner (1998:38) 'these qualities are an inherent part of the

hand made character' . Inconsistent sheets can be sold as lower grades, but still

have a market to those consumers not concerned with perfection, but rather

with character and individuality. However, not all the sheets produced in a

batch can be considered 'sellable '. According to Hunter (cited in Turner,

1998:38) 'T here is considerable loss in making paper by hand .. .It is not

unusual to discard as impe rfect about twenty five percent of the paper

produced".

•

-

Fig 4 .34. Photos of varying imperfections in handmade paper production taken on a light box:

Top \..EFT: Inconsistent sheet formation (unevenness). Top RIGHT: 'Cellulite ' in paper caused by

too much agitation during casting or negligence whilst couching . BELOW LEFf: Water dropl ets

in the wet pulp. known traditionally as "the vatrnans tears" . M IDDLE RIGHT: Folded edges

caused during couching . resulting in uneven deckle edges. B OTTOM RIGHT: Clumps in paper

pulp caused by inconsistent beating . called 'ne ps' . Photographs by B. Marshall. 2002-3

105

2.4 HANDLING AND STORAGE PROCEDURES

Once the paper's manufacturing processes are complete, it is important that it

is handled and stored correctly, to ensure optimal use by the consumer. Paper

remains an organic material, even after its making and usage, therefore it is

important to investigate these procedures in order to preserve the product

and ensure its longevity as it applies to the investigation into archival

handmade papers.

2.4.1 HANDUNG PAPER

Because paper is an organic material, it is fragile and, if not handled correctly,

may be severely damaged. Paper can be bruised, creased, wrinkled, stained or

soiled very easily and should therefore be handled as little as possible (Turner,

1991:75). Because our fingertips are greasy and are not always hygienically

clean, one should not handle paper with bare hands (unless they have been

cleaned). It is a good idea to tear small pieces of another paper, fold them,

and use them as 'tongs' when handling fine papers. Cotton gloves can also be

used. The paper should be held using both hands to prevent kinks and creases

in the paper. These 'kinks' are actually damaged fibres and are often

irreparable (Turner, 1991: 76).

• USING PAPER (GENERAL USES)

Although the natural deckle edge of the paper should be kept in order to

identify the quality and type of paper, it is not always possible when specific

sizes are required (Turner, 1998: 150). A neatly tom edge can be achieved by

tearing the sheet (face-down on a clean surface), with a steel ruler. The

paper should be pulled in the direction of the centre of the sheet to avoid

uneven tearing (Turner, 1991:76). This method will imitate the natural deckle

edge of the paper. Another method is to fold the sheet to the desired size,

bumishz- the fold with a bone folder25 and, with a blunt tool, gently pull along

the fold (Turner, 1998: 150).

Scoring a sheet of paper is done to achieve a clean fold or tear. Turner

(1998: 150) describes scoring as "an incised line made in the same way as a

106

cut, by running a tool along a straight edge". When folding a sheet, one

must align the bottom two opposite corners of a sheet and run your thumb up

the sheet, then use a bone folder to give the fold its permanence (Turner,

1998:150).

Cleaning a dry sheet of paper can cause more damage if not done correctly.

Unattached particles (like dust or dirt) can be brushed off using a soft brush.

Deposits of ink or dirt particles which are attached should only be removed

with a fine point of a blade or a needle, without damaging the papers'

surface. Erasers can also be used but they do serious damage to very porous

sheets. Only soft, smooth clean erasers should be used (Turner, 1998: 150).

Because papers are porous and organic, every type of paper will react

differently to moisture. This makes glueing paper a difficult task. According

to Turner (1998: 152), the adhesive chosen to complete the job should:

- be archival and acid free;

- have the required bondinglholding properties;

- be soluble (water-soluble is better, as they can be easily reversed).

Traditional wheat or rice-starch paste is strong, versatile and safe (Turner

1991:77).

Stretching paper is done "to help keep the surface even and to prevent any

buckling that might occur when applying heavily water-based media, thus

ending up with a work that remains flat when dry" (Turner. 1998: 153). The

process is done to stretch the fibres by wetting the paper and restraint drying

it. so the fibres are stretched to their limit (Turner. 1998: 153).

• PREPARING PAPER FOR PRINT:v1AKE\"G TECHNIQUES (SPECIFIC USES)

Improper paper preparation can cause the paper to curl, wrinkle or fail to

print properly. The same can be said for poor ink and press preparations and

may therefore have nothing to do with poor paper quality (Turner,

1998: 168). For the purpose of this investigation, as well as ensuring the

paper's optimal usage in order to provide sound results and findings in the

107

following chapters, care was taken regarding the following:

* Effects of humidity , lessened by:

Running the paper through the press prior to printing;

Following monitored drying procedures;

Papers were dampened/moistened once only;

Atmospheric conditions (in the print studio, as well as in storage) were

of a suitable nature.

* Dampening the paper as it is important during printmaking. This is done

to soften the fibres so they can be pressed and be able to pick up the ink

from the plate (Turner, 1991:90). Dampening was done by dipping every

second sheet in wate and stacking them with interleaving dry papers,

wrapped in plastic overnight (12-24 hours prior to printing).

* Drying prints was done using a restraint drying method in order for the

prints to remain dimensionally stable, once dry. Prints are placed between

blotter-like boards until dry.

* Stretching the paper initially is done with some printmaking processes

that require consistency in registration (eg. multiple plate printing) to reduce

further stretching during printing. Most of the stretch occurs during the first

time of printing and is therefore done by running the paper through the

press before printing to allow for consistency in following printing

processes.

2.4.2 STORING PAPER

All paper should be stored flat. Rolling a sheet is suitable for transportation

only and should be stored flat again as soon as possible (Turner, 1998: 146).

The sheets should be stored between quality rag paper or archival board.

Contact with other low quality paper or boards can stain the paper and affect

the life and quality of the paper - a process known as acid-migration (Turner,

1991:76; 19988: 156). Ideally, the environment in which to store paper is a

well-ventilated one. According to Turner (1998: 147):

"Paper likes a temperature of 15°-18°C and a relative humidity (water vapour

in the air expressed as a percentage) of above 30% but below 70%.

Conditions that are too dry and too hot will encourage it to become brittle. In

conditions that are too damp. mould, which feeds on sizing and fibres can

108

make a feast out of the grease of a thumb print, will have a marvellous time.

In warm and damp conditions, all chemical action tends to accelerate,

including the ravages of acidity."

Because of the hygroscopic nature of the fibres in the paper (as described in

Chapter 2, Section 1), the paper tends to absorb and give off moisture

according to its environment. This tends to happen more frequently to the

exposed edges of a stack of paper. If the paper is going to be stored for long

periods of time, it should be wrapped (not more than 25 to 50 sheets per

stack) in acid-free wrapping paper with a board on the top and bottom for

moving purposes. This will also help avoid deterioration and discolouring

caused by long exposure to light (Turner, 1998: 147).

Direct sunlight and ultraviolet light can be harmful to the paper, causing a

process called "photo oxidations?", All lighting should be filtered as much as

possible, bearing in mind that an environment with no light can be just as

harmful, as damp conditions in dark spaces stimulate a fast rate of mould

growth - a process called "bio-deterioration". Other forms of this process can

arise from impurities found in the paper during the time of making - for

instance, insects in the pulp, dust particles, hairs, etc. - all of which can start

these chain reactions of deterioration (Turner, 1998: 155-156)

109

3. DATA CAPTIJRE

It is essential when researching various paper methodologies to record all data

required to reproduce a specific kind of paper. The data utilised in this

research investigation was recorded by means of a specially designed data

sheet. This data sheet records all the necessary information required to apply

the research, as well as identify possible problem areas and possible solutions.

Refer to Annexure B for the PRODUCTION DATA SHEETS. Below is the layout of

the Production Data Sheet, with brief descriptions of the information to be

recorded and why it is important to refer back to this information.

NOTE: The data sheet below was constructed from information discussed in the previous

chapters, with specific attention to Chapter 2, Section 3 and Chapter 4, Section 2.

3.1 THE PRODUCfION DATA SHEET (PDS)3.1.1 DETAILS OF THE PDS

DETAILS OF RESEARCH:

- DATE

This information is required in order to identify the date/year the research

was undertaken, so the reader can place the investigation into context.

- NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER

This information is required in order to identify the person and institution

where the research was conducted in oder to provide credibility to the

research, address issues of intellectual property, as well as provide the reader

the opportunity to contact the institution for further information.

- BATCH NUMBER (BATCH #)

This information is required in order to identify which part of the research

this data sheet is referring to in order to analyse the aims and outcomes, as

well as for easy referral for further discussion in the research investigation.

PAPER INFORMATION:

- NAME OF PAPER

The paper should be given a name. to identify and brand it for marketing

and advertising purposes. The specific paper will then always retain its

particular name.

110

- DESCRIPTNE NAME / SUGGESTED APPLICATION

This information is required in order to identify the intended use of the

paper by its manufacturer; e.g. etching paper.

- TYPE OF PAPER

CATEGORY: This information is required in order to identify the category of

paper; ie: handmade, mouldmade or machinemade.

WOVE/LAID: This information is required in order to identify the type of

mould used during the sheet-forming process.

FIBRE INFORMATION:

- NAME OF RBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON)

This information identifies the raw fibre used for the investigation, including

its scientific and common identification.

- FIBRE TYPE

This information identifies the fibre type, such as bast, leaf, grass or seed

hair fibre, and provides an immediate indication of the strength of the paper.

- FIBRE DESCRIPTION

This information describes the fibre in detail: what it looks like, where it can

be found in the plant, and its known special properties. In this section the

state the plant is in can also be described, for example: the fibre is in dry

form, pre-processed, freshly cut, etc.

- DATE HARVESTED (IF APPLICABLE)

This information identifies the time of year the plant was harvested and is

important because fibres can produce different papers when processed in

different seasons - they are subject to environmental surroundings, such as

temperature, humidity, etc., as well as environmental degradation (how long

the plant has been removed from its growing state). This information will

not be applicable to certain fibres, like cotton rag for example. which is pre

processed and indeterminate.

- PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES

This is for the researcher to provide additional comments. notes and

possible areas for improvement.

111

PREPARATIONS:

- REDING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE)

This section describes the process of retting undertaken - e.g. how it was

done, for how long, etc.

- STRIPPING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE)

This section describes the process of stripping undertaken.

- SOAKlNG PERIOD & DETAILS

This section describes the process of soaking undertaken.

- WEIGHT OF DRY RBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPUCABLE)

This section provides the factual information of how much fibre was initially

used in the research (measured in kilograms [kq'sl) in order to determine the

fibre yield.

- WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY RBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING)

This section provides the factual information of how much useable fibre was

produced after the stripping and retting processes (measured in kilograms

[kgs]). It is also important in determining the fibre yield.


This is for the researcher to provide additional comments, problems

encountered, notes and possible areas for improvement.

COOKING PROCEDURES:

- DURATION OF COOKlNG (TIME ON & OFF)

This provides the researcher the opportunity to record the cooking times of

the fibre in order to analyse and determine the best cooking time-periods

after several batches have been completed.

- ADDITIVES AND AMOUNTS

This information is important for later referral and analysis of the effects of

chemicals during cooking fibres on paper production.

- \VATER pH AFTER COOKING

This information is important for a later analysis of the effect of cooking on

the pH of the paper.

- PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/f\OTES


encountered, notes and possible areas for improvement.112

BEATING METHODS:

- TYPE OF BEATING METHOD

This describes the type of beating method employed, i.e. hand or machine.

- TYPE OF BEATER

This describes the beater used to manufacture the paper. The description

should include the beater's capacity, features as well as possible problems in

design (in case of the beater inhibiting paper quality and production).

- DESCRIPTION OF BEATING PROCESS

This information is important when the production of specialised papers are

required. It refers to the method of which the maker has lowered the roll of

the beater, at what time periods and for what duration. Included here can

also be notes regarding beating, such as the addition of water (including

amounts), etc.

- DURATION OF BEATING (TIME ON & OFF)

This provides the researcher the opportunity to record the beating times of

the fibre for record-keeping and referral.

- ADDITIVES & AMOUNT

This information is important for later referral and analysis of the effects of

chemicals during beating fibres for paper production.

- PULP pH AFTER BEATING

This information is important for a later analysis of the pH of the paper

during processing.

- DECKLE BOX TESTS

These tests are important in analysing the effect of beating times and

methodology on paper quality. This section will record the amount of pulp

used to complete these test samples, the duration of intervals of samples

taken, as well as the drying method of samples employed. The samples are

filed with the data sheets.

- PROBLEMS ENCOUN'TERED/NOTES

This is for the researcher to provide additional comments. problems


113

SIZING TECHNIQUE:

- TYPE OF SIZE

This gives a description of the type of sizing used, ego gelatin or Aqua Pel,

etc.

- METHOD OF APPUCATION

This section will provide information of how the size was applied to the

paper, i.e. internally - in the pulp, and/or externally - painted or dipped.

- AMOUNT/RECIPE

This section provides information of how the recipe was formulated, giving

exact amounts of size to water, then to pulp ratio.

- METHOD OF RE-DRYING (IF APPUCABLE)

Only applicable to externally sized sheets. This describes the method in

which the sheets were dried after applying the size. This is important to be

mentioned as it may affect the final texture and quality of the paper.




SHEET-FORMING PROCESSES:

- ADDITIVES & AMOUNT

A description of additives or chemicals added during the sheet-forming

process, including amounts and recipes (if applicable).

- FORMATION STYLE

This is the type of sheet-forming style employed i.e. Japanese or Western.

- SHEET SIZE, GRAIN DIREefION Ai\D DECKLE EDGES

This is factual information about the size of the sheets manufactured (in

metric paper sizes, e.g. A4, A3, etc.), the grain direction of the fibres (only

applicable if certain 'pulling' styles are adopted), and the number of true

deckle edges (deckle edges can be faked by using masking tape on moulds in

order to achieve specialised dimensions or shapes).

- SHEET THICKNESS

This information is indicated in grammage (gsm) and. at first, is an intention

(before 'pulling' the sheets) dictated by the intended use of the paper. Once

114

the sheets have been completed, they are sorted by specific grammages (see

the section QUALITY CONTROL AND YIELD to follow).

- AMOUNT OF SHEETS FORMED

This information indicates the fibre yield and productivity levels (to be

elaborated upon in the section QUAUTY CONTROL AND YIELD to follow.

- WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR

This will give the manufacturer an indication of the final colour of the paper.

This is, however, intensified when wet.

- DRAINAGE RATE

This will indicate which types of pulps have slow drainage (a property of

long-beaten pulps) which will affect the production capacity and procedures

in a large-scale mill. This property can also have an effect on fibre

dispersion and, ultimately, sheet formation. Problems should be noted

below.




BRANDING METHODOLOGIES:

- TYPE OF BRANDING AND DETAILS

This includes a description of the type of branding utilised (e.g. watermark),

how it was achieved, and the final quality of the mark in the dry paper.


This is for the researcher to provide additional comments. problems


PRESSING AND PARTING:

- PRESS TYPE

A description of the press (hydraulic/screw/hand). its features and problems

in design.

- MAXIMUM WEIGHT

The factual information of the maximum pressure the press can achieve,

expressed in tonnage (ton).

115

- DURATION OF PRESSING

An indication of the period (length of time) the paper was pressed for. This

will indicate if the fibres were allowed sufficient time to drain water, in order

to maximise the hydrogen bond.

- PAPER'S WET-STRENGTH

This will indicate whether the paper will be of strong quality when complete.

From extensive papermaking experience, the researcher has the ability to

determine the wet strength.




DRYING PROCEDURES:

- TYPE OF DRYING & DETAILS

This section describes the type of drying method employed, i.e. air or

restraint, and includes details such as air dried in the drying box; restraint

dried on boards, etc. In this section the drying apparatus is described in

detail.

- DURATION OF DRYING PERIOD

The amount of time for which the paper was dried, until 100% dry. This will

indicate drying periods for large-scale manufacture and production.

- SURFACE RNISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET

This is a description of the surface texture of the paper, described as rough,

NOT or HP. Further detail can be included here at the researcher's

discretion, as it applies to their topic of investigation.

- DRY SHEET COLOUR

This will give a description of the final colour of the paper in comparison to

the wet pulp colour.

- PROBLEMS ENCOUI'iTERED/NOTES



QUAUTY CONTROL AND YIELD:

The following are measured numerically by sorting and grading the sheets

116

manually:

(For description of grades see previous Section 2.3 in the chapter)

- AMOUNT OF A GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS)

- AMOUNT OF B GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS)

- AMOUNT OF REJECT SHEETS

- AMOUNT OF SHEETS USED FOR SAMPUNG

- FIBRE YIELD (# OF SHEETS PER KILO)

- PRODUCTNITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH)




DETAILS OF SHEET PULP SAMPLES:

- METHOD OF SAMPUNG & DETAILS

This is a brief description of the method employed in sampling the sheet

pulp, which includes an analysis of the procedure and results.




CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS:

Once the paper is dried and completed, several practical tests are conducted

on the paper by the manufacturer before undergoing specific scientific and

practical testing by professional organisations. The results of these tests are

recorded on the PDS as follows:

SUBJECIlVE AND QUALITATIVE TEST RESULTS:

- UNIFORMITY / FIBRE DISPERSION

- THICKi"iESS / V.,TEIGHT / OPACITY

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY

- STABIUTY

- GRAIN DIRECTION

- ACIDITY & pH

- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS

117

- RATILE (SOUND QUALITY)

- STRENGTH AND COMPOSITION

- SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS,

ETC.)

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS/RECOMMENDATIONS:

This section provides the researcher an opportunity to make further final

observations and conclusions on the research conducted, or to summarise

their notes for easy access for later analysis. Supervisors', or end users'

comments or suggestions can also be placed in this section for further

improvements.

FURTHER TESTING AND ENDORSEMENT DETAILS:

This section can be completed once testing by professional organisations has

been completed. It provides the PDS with further credibility, and the

possibilities of patenting or copyright can be explored.

The final PDS is filed with all supporting documentation (see Section 3.2 to

follow), and can be entered onto a computerised database system. Its main

function is to act like a 'recipe' for paper production of a specific nature,

depending on its credibility and endorsements after professional testing has

been completed.

3.2 0 THFR DATA CAPI1JRE

3.2.1 SAMPUNG METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS

All the above-mentioned data sheets required various sampling and photo

documentation to highlight the effects of certain procedures on the final

paper quality. These samples are important as support material to the

research investigation. Throughout the practical investigation, certain paper

samples were kept aside for sample collection or further data analysis. These

samples were recorded in the PDS under the sub-heading QUAUTY CONTROL

AND YIELD in order to record their use in the investigation.

118

In order not to lower the production yield, most samples were taken from

reject sheets, where certain qualities were not an issue (e.g. samples with bad

sheet formation were used to record drying tests, etc). However, when sheet

formation and fibre uniformity were important towards the analysis, A grade

samples were used. The real paper samples have been included in the text

and Annexures, where possible. Accurate photos, or verbal descriptions have

been included, where necessary.

119

In conclusion, it can be stated that handmade papers can be specifically

designed for individual end-uses:

Initially, the fibre type chosen for the production of paper can have varying

results and functions. As discussed in Chapter 3, Section 1, the fibre type

determines the printability of paper. The fibre types chosen for this

investigation (cotton and sisal), have the relative properties required for

printmaking processes (i.e. length, strength and high cellulose content).

Secondly, the method of paper production can significantly alter the end use

of the paper:

- Beating methodologies must be designed in order to prepare the fibres for

certain requirements in printmaking.

- Sheet forming, pressing and drying procedures are also important for the

final quality in the end sheet.

- Sizing techniques are extremely important to the papers absorbency which

directly influences its printability.

- Additives in the pulp, too, can enhance the printability, look and texture of

the finished sheet.

To employ uniform quality control throughout the papermaking procedure is

detrimental to the grade, use and price to the consumer. Handmade sheets

are conclusively individual and unique and should therefore be graded

accordingly.

After production, the paper should be handled and stored correctly in order to

ensure the quality of the sheet before reaching the consumer. Papers are

organic and fragile by nature and should therefore be handled accordingly to

optimise their usage.

All the above-mentioned procedures need to be adequately recorded. and

constantly tested (qualitative, quantitative and application testing) in order to

maintain the standards required by a mill to produce a sound, quality product.

120

Notes1. Moveable-type: Refers to the invention of printing.

2. Gelatin: A slightly yellow, transparent, sticky protein formed by boiling a granular

substance made from the hoofs of horses. In papermaking it enhances the

strength and absorbency of paper when applied to a dry sheet.

3. Impervious: Incapable of being penetrated/affected.

4. Durability: Able to withstand wear and tear or decay; lasting.

5. Cultivar: A horticulturally or agriculturally derived variety of a plant, as distinguished from a

natural variety [culti{vated} + var(iety)).

6. Alpha-cellulose: The first type of cellulose in order of importance

7. Butt-end: The larger {or thicker} part of the leaf, nearer the base.

8. Decortication: To remove the outer and inner {cortex} layer from a leaf fibre

9. Succulent: A plant having thick, fleshy leaves or stems that conserve moisture {e.g. cactus}.

10. Batches: Refers to one load of pulp in the beater.

11. Form: Refers to the state or form of fibre. e.g. raw, pre-processed, etc.

12. Retailer of cotton rag: G. Fox & Co.

13. Retailer of sisal: Rebtex.

14. The effect of pH on the paper - Bleaching and sterilising procedures of waste collectors

have an unknown pH effect on the paper and cooking

with this solution is said to neutralise the pH of the

fibre.

15. Finishing materials - such as starches, fire retardants and waterproofing agents.

16. Viscous: A substance that contains a relatively high resistance to flow.

17. Fibrillate: In papermaking, refers to the state of fibres when they have been separated

and prepared to accept water more readily during the beating process.

18. Plasticised: In papermaking, refers to the state of fibres when they have been softened to

make them more pliable during the beating process.

19. Aqua Pel: A white liquid. chemical substance used to decrease paper absorbency.

20. Hydraulic press: In papermaking, it is a specifically designed piece of equipment that

presses, or squeezes the water out of a post of paper by exerting a large

force using the system of hydraulics.

21. Stack pressed: 5 to 10 sheets pressed in a hydraulic press without interleaving materials.

22. Spurs: The term used to describe the group of sheets dried naturally together.

23. Specifications: {of paper}: Refers to the way in which the paper was made and recorded.

24. Burnish: To smooth or make glossy by rubbing with a rounded tool.

25. Bone folder: Specifically designed tool for folding paper, traditionally made from the bone

of animals.

26. Photo oxidation: The reaction of elements with light that causes paper to yellow.

121

CHAPfER 5

PAPFR QUALIIY

(OUTPUTS, PRESENTATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS)

When purchasing a sheet of printing paper, the artist needs to be confident

that the paper will meet the required standard. The product, therefore, needs

to undergo sufficient testing in order to ensure this confidence. This research

will ultimately result in manufacturer credibility and return-of-business by the

consumer, thereby sustaining the future of the business.

Paper testing is important and should be done on a regular basis to ensure

the quality of the product and to maintain the standards of the mill. This

research investigation used the following disciplines or focus areas to test the

quality of the papers produced: subjective; objective and practical testing

(Sections 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 to follow).

The following chapter provides the results and performance analyses of the

papers produced through this investigation that will be the basis for final

analysis and conclusion. The following codes refer to the batch of papers pro

duced using the specific fibres:

Codes 01- Refers to 100% cotton fibre papers,

Codes 02- Refers to 50% cotton 50% sisal papers,

Codes 03- Refers to research applications (archival papers produced using

alternative fibres)

Codes 04- Refers to imported archival papers (for the purpose of comparative

testing)

NOTE: The above is necessary for analysing and understanding the data revealed in this chap

ter. Refer to Annexure A for a more detailed description of the papers' properties and

the coding system of each batch. Alternatively, consult Annexure B for each batch's

Production Data Sheets or Annexure D for Mouldmade Specifications Data Sheet.

122

1. COMPARATIVE AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

(TFSf RESULTS)

The papers that have been produced through this research investigation

each went through various testing procedures in order to determine the

strengths and weaknesses of each type of paper. Three main types of tests

were undertaken:

1.1 Subjective (qualitative) test, using little or no equipment.

1.2 Objective (quantitative) tests, using specialised paper testing equipment.

1.3 Printability tests, using specialised printmaking tools and equipment.

1.1 S UBJECIlVE AND QUALITATIVE TFSf RESULTS (PRAcnCAL)

Practical testing should be done on a regular basis by the manufacturer at the

mill, prior to supplying the market with the product. This method of testing

can involve simple tests with low, or no testing equipment required, both hav

ing their various limitations.

USING THE SENSES - With some prior paper knowledge, one can make many

assessments regarding paper quality by utilising the five senses. These tests

are only an indication of quality, and can vary from the experience of the

tester. They are therefore not conclusive and should be supported by further

testing, done with specialised paper testing equipment. These tests were

included in this investigation as part of the PDS (see Annexure B - Section

'Conclusive Findings' [report])

NOTE: The results in this investigation are recorded on a 'graph' system. From these graphs a

'rating' system can be devised, which some manufacturers utilise to enable the con

sumer to choose his or her paper requirements accordingly. Please refer to graphs and

ratings accompanying the following text for visual explanations of test results.

1.1.1 WEIGHT AND THICKNESS

By handling the various sheets from each batch produced, the following can

be deducted regarding weight and thickness:

• The nature of handmade sheets of paper, makes it virtually impossible to

produce all the sheets in a single batch of exact thicknessess. There are two

reasons for this:

123

1. Each sheet is produced individually, making it unlikely that two shee ts

will be identical;

2 . After every 'pull' there is a different ratio of pulp to water (the amount of

water increases as the amount of pulp decreases) , thereby thinning the

sheets. While this can, however, be monitored and controlled to an

extent, the sheets will always vary slightly in thickness.

The results below were determined by averaging the quality and consistency

of the sheet thickness of each batch , taking the above into account. Through

conducting the research , it became evident that some pulps were easier to

control and keep the weights consistent. This seemed to depend on the way

in which the pulp was processed (i.e. beating procedures) or 'pulled' and was

not determined by the fibre type. This is evident because of the varying results

of each fibre type .

The "ideal" weight for the sheets was considered to be in a range of 200gsm

to 300gsm, which is a good weight for most types of printmaking processes.

While some papers vary in thickness, this does not mean that cannot be used:

they are just not suited to certain hand printmaking processes. These thinner

papers are good for computer printing and small-scale commercial use. These

papers are more likely to be sold cheaper as 'seconds' , as their weight vari

ances may be seen as a quality defect.

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

0~ - ~ ~ 0 0 ~ 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C'\l C'J ~ C'\l ~ C'\l C'\l C'J 9 ~

'l:l: 6 + ~ 6 ~ + + N + ~ J:J J-J..c: 0

~0 0 0

~

0 0 0 0'7 ~ ~ M ~ ~ ~u 0 M

,N 0 0 0co ~ - ~ ~ ~ 0 0 0 0

9 N 9 0 0 M,

~CO N N ~

9 0 9 00 - 0 0 0 N (V) M

0 0 0 0

Fig 5 .1 Weight and thickness test results

124

Scores above 8 = Good weight consis

_ tency and 90% of sheets over 200 gsm

Scores below 8 but above 6

Medium weight consistency and 70' ::, '.A

sheets over 20(J~lsrn

Scores beIou.6 = Poor weight quality

and consi stency. 50% of sheets under

200g sm

1.1.2 COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH

By tearing sheets of paper in different ways, its composition and strength can

be determined. The paper's strength in this research investigation seemed sta

ble, apart from one batch of paper (01-02 -101&102). The raw fibre for this

batch was soaked for an extensive amount of time and produced a very soft,

weak paper. Although this paper was very weak and soft, it did perform very

well in various tests for printability which will be discussed in Section 1.3 to fol

low.

The strength of the other batch did very well in tests to compare them with the

imported paper: they were stronger and more durable. This test, however, is

one of the less accurate tests, as it draws on comparisons for its results. A more

accurate determination of strength will be discussed in Section 1.2 to follow.

~ ...... ...... ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 ...... ~

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C\I C\I C;J C\I C;J C\I C\I ...... C\I 9 ...... ~

lI: 6 + ...... 6 ...... + + N + ~ J:, JJ..c: 0 ...... 0 0 0

,...-0 ,...-0 9 ,...-0 9 9 0,...-0 ...... ,...-0 ,...-0 .j.u , 0 ch

,N 0 0 C"'J 0 V V...... ,...-0 ...... ,...-0 ,...-0 0 ,...-0 0 0 0

10 9 N 9 0 0 ch ~ .j.OJ ,...-0 9 ...... N N 0 0 0

0,...-0

0 0 0 N ch ch0 0 0 0

Fig 5.2 Composition and strength test results

1.1.3 FURNISHl AND PROCESSING

1Scores above 8

_tion and strength

- Scores below 6

and strength

= Excellent composi -

= Poor composition

This is determined by listening carefully to the paper's rattle and sound quali

ty. A paper's rattle will determine how well the fibres have been processed ,

thereby determining strength and quality. The following graph represents the

'rattle ' , grading it from the 'crispest' (i.e. well-beaten fibres) to the 'softest' (i.e .

under-beaten fibres). The paper with a 'crispy' rattle means it is more refined ,

which improves its strength. The 'softer' the rattle , the weaker the paper

which means it was under-processed.

125

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

0...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ...... a ...... a ...... ......a a a a a 0 a a 0 0 a aC\J C\J ":l C\J ":l C\J C\J ..... C\J 9 ...... ......6 + ...... 6 ...... + + N + ...... --0 JJ

=l:I: a ..... a a a ..... ...... a ...... a a a...... ...... ...... ...... ,;, ,j. ,j. ,j...c: , 0 M N a a a..... ..... ..... ..... ..... a ..... a a au 9 N 9 a a ,;, ,,j........

N N .....co ..... 9 ...... 0 a aOJ 0 ..... a a a N ,;, ,;,

0 0 a 0

Fig 5.3 Furnish and processing test results

1.1.4 CHARACTER I SHEET FORMATION

processing

The character or sheet formation is judged by holding the paper up to the

light. The papers in this research investigation were pinned to a specially

designed light box z, which increases the visual opacity of the paper, so that

one can carefully determine its sheet formation. Poor sheet formation can

result from over-beaten pulp , which can be slippery and difficult to handle.

This causes 'cellulite':' marks in the paper that affect the surface quality during

off-set printing techniques.

This method can also determine the paper 's opacity , texture, and freedom

from impurities. The printable surface in printmaking is important, therefore

these factors affect quality. Any clumps of fibres or impurities in the pulp can

inhibit the print quality of the paper. Some pulps, depending on processing

methodologies , are more prone to bad surface qualities . This can be because

the beating process was not monitored , causing some of the pulp to break

down more than the rest which results in clumps . Poor hygene and cleanli

ness in the studio can also result in many impurities entering the pulp (i.e.

traces of other pulps, or insects and grit in pulp). This affects the surface

quality of the paper.

126

The handmade papers in this research investigation tested average in sheet

format ion. The imported mouldmade samples (04-05&06-10 1) have no defects

relating to sheet formation and impurities, as they are manufactured by

machine.

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

0...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 0 ...... 0 ...... ......0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C\I C\I ~ C\I ~ C\I C\I ...... C\I 9 ......

:;;: 6 + ...... 6 ...... + + ~ + ...... JJ til0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

..c r;"...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... en ...... .,j- .,j- .,j-

u 0 en ,~

0 0 0...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... 0 0 0 0co 9 N 9 9 9 en ...... .,j-eo ...... 9 ...... C\I C\I 0 0 0

0 ...... 0 0 0 N en en0 0 0 0

Fig 5.4 Character / sheet formati on test results(Opacity, texture and freedom from impurities)

Scores above 9 = Excellent character

_tand sheet formation

t Scores below 9 but above 7 =

.. Good cha racter and sheet formation

Scores below 7 = Acceptable charac

ter and sheet formation

Scores below 6 = Poor character and

sheet formation

1.1.5 RATE OF ABSORBENCY

Absorbency is an important criteria for printing processes . The rate of

absorbency will indicate how the ink will lie on the sheet of paper. If the

paper is too absorbent, the ink will seep into the fibres of the paper causing it

to bleed, resulting in a prob lematic print. If the papers are oversized, the ink

will not penetrate the paper and may cause the ink to blotch.

Testing the amount of size contained in a shee t of paper can be determined

in a number of ways. The easiest way is to apply one's tongue to a corner of

the sheet and note how the saliva absorbs into the paper. This method, how

ever , is not suitable for recording and analysis. Another method is to apply

cross-hatched strokes with a felt-tip pen and note the way in which the ink

lies or absorbs into the paper (see Annexure C for cross-hatch tests). It may

help to use a magnifying glass to analyse the effect of the ink on the paper.

127

The most accurate test for absorbency is to dip strips of different papers into

coloured ink for a certain period of time, called the Ink Absorp tion Test.

When removed from the ink, each piece of paper will show the differen t level

of ink it has absorbed. This shows how much sizing has been added to the

pulp and gives an indication of how absorbent the paper is (refer to Annexure

C for Ink Absorption Tests and results).

The papers in this investigation have had varying results. It is evident when

analysing the test results on the graph on the following page, that fibre type

does not affect the absorbency of the paper. Samples that are most absorbent

are those that were unsized (indicated by codes ending in 100), followed by

some that were internally sized only (indicated by the codes ending in 101) .

The majority of the papers were not very absorbent and displayed an element

of sizing stability.

A standardisation test was conducted in order to verify the test results , which

resulted in few minor discrepancies. These are indicated in the graph ,

highlighted in green, with the variance

stated in writing.

Fig 5 .6 - Cross hatch test, showing (LEFf)

the un-absorbent paper and (RIGHT) the

absorbent paper. Note the difference in ink

absorption. Photograph produced in the course of study

by B. Marshall. 2003.

Fig 5 .5 - Top AND B ELOW: Paper samples in

Ink Absorpt ion Test. Photograph produced in the

course of study by B. Marshall. 2003.

128

Batch #

01-01-100

01-01-100-201

01-02-101

01-02-101-201

*01-03-101

*01-03-101-201

01-03-101

01-03-101-201

02-01-100

02-01-100-201

02-02-101

02-02-101-201

02-03- 101

02-03-101-201

03-01-101

03-01-101-201

03-02-100

03-02-100 -201

03-03- 100

03-03-100-201

03-04-101

03-04-101-201

04-01-000

04-02-000

04-03-000

04-04-000

04-05-000

04-06-000

129

1.20 BJECfIVE AND QUANfITATIVE TFSf RESULTS (SCIENTIFIC)

USING INSTRUMENTS - The objective and quantitative testing of this research

investigation was completed at the South African Pulp and Paper Industry's

(SAPPI) research facilities in Springs, Gauteng. These methods of testing fall

into a more scientific field, utilising highly specialised paper testing equipment

to achieve credible results and to support the subjective and qualitative test

results. Following is a brief explanation of the testing completed on the paper

samples (Annexure E contains the specific test results).

1.2.1 GRAMMAGE

The grammage is tested using a scale with a 1 gram minimum reading. The

scale is encased in a glass container which shields the paper being weighed

from environmental conditions. The papers are cut into 10cm x 10cm

squares for weighing purposes. The final reading is multiplied by 100 and

rounded off in order to get the grams per square meter [gsm] reading (e.g. a

reading of 2,278 = 228gsm).

Random samples were tested for grammage. One sample weighed over

300gsm, 3 samples between 200gsm and 300gsm and 4 samples below

200gsm. This factor indicated that the handmade papers need to become

more consistent in properties of weight in order to stand up to the imported

mouldmades. This will require very skilled craftsmen at the vats during produc

tion and a preliminary sorting process into weights according to the 'feel' of

the papers (e.g. heavy, medium and light weight).

1.2.2 TEARING RESISTANCE

This is measured by an instrument called an Elmendorf. According to Gilmour

(1967: 174) it measures the "force necessary to tear through a certain length

of paper once the tear has been started". The tearing resistance is measured

in mN (micro neutrons), with the higher readings indicating the stronger

papers. The random sample sheets tested were cut into 64mm x 75mm size

pieces.

The imported mouldmades measured between 1115mN and 141OmN. The

handmade equivalents scored much higher readings, between 1148mN and

130

3706mN, with one sample reading 444mN (Batchv 01-02-101-201) which

has been noted previously for its poor properties of strength (in Section 1.1.2

Composition and Strength).

1.2.3 BURSTING STRENGTH

This test can be done by hand by pushing one's finger through a paper in

order to determine its strength. With an instrument called a Mullen hydraulic

burst tester, a similar test can be conducted (Gilmour, 1967: 175). The tester

holds the piece of paper in an area which contains a cavity of one square

inch. When activated, a rubber diaphragm is inflated which comes into con

tact with one side of the paper. The pressure is recorded in kPa (kilo pascals)

until the paper bursts, at which point its reading is stated. The higher the

reading, the stronger the paper's bursting resistance and, therefore, the

stronger the paper.

The imported mouldmades measured between 271kPa and 376kPa. The

handmade equivalents measured between 222kPa and 452kPa, with one

sample reading 169kPa (Batch# 01-02-101-201).

1.2.4 TENSILE STRENGTH (+ STRETCH)

According to Gilmour (1967:175), this test involves a 'gradually increasing

load to be applied to a strip of paper until it breaks'. The procedure involves a

strip of paper (usually 15mm in width) clamped tautly between two clamps.

When activated, the clamps begin to move in separate directions, with the

stress on the strip of paper increasing until rupture occurs. The tensile

strength is measured in N/mm (Neutrons per mrn), with higher readings indi

cating higher tensile strengths. This instrument also has an attachment for

measuring the stretch of the paper at break, which is measured as a percent

age (%).

For tensile strength measurements, the imported mouldmades measured

between 3.790N/mm and 8.760N/mm. The handmade equivalents meas

ured between 2. 149N/mm and 12.11 N/mm. Stretch measurements for the

imported mouldmades measured between 1.840% and 6.307%. The hand

made equivalents measured slightly lower, at between 1.339% and 6.233%.131

1.2.5 ACIDITY AND pH

As previously discussed in Chapter 2; Section 3.1(6.4), the pH measurement

of a sheet of paper indicates its acidity or alkalinity. According to Gilmour

(1967: 182), papers tend to be slightly more acidic than alkali. He continues

by saying that it can be difficult to determine a paper's exact pH because, if

measured with an analytical pH meter (hot extraction), the pH value is actual

ly the measurement of the water extract of the paper. If measured using dye

solutions, the indication can be affected by fine particles and other coloured

extractives on the paper's surface.

The pH measurement of a paper may be tested in various ways. The test

utilised in this investigation uses a dye solution which changes colour accord

ing to the paper's pH value. This method is less reliable than hot extraction ,

but can give an estimated indication of pH value. The pH measurement of the

imported mouldmade papers was 5.0 and 5.2 , with the handmade equivalents

measuring 4.2; 4.8 and 5.4 respectively. This test can only be completed on

papers with a white or off-white colour surface, as the results are dictated by

shades of the dye once dry.

A second test was completed in order to standardise the above pH test ,

using an Abbey pH Pen (Chlorophenol red). This test gives an indication of

the acidity or alkalinity of a paper, depending on what colour the ink

changes to when dry. All the papers excluding two samples (Batch #s

01-01 -100 and 01-03-101-201 , which both measured below 5 in the previ

ous dye test), displayed properties of a lkalinity.

pH = 5.2

pH = 5.4

Fig 5.8 LEFf : SAPPIpH testRIGHT: Abbey PenpH test. Photograph pro

duced in the course of study

by B. Marshall. 2003.

pH = 4 .8 BetweepH neutral & acidic

1~~---_..._..............ip~H~= 4.2 Acidic

132

1.3 P RINTABn.rrv TEST RESULTS (APPLICATION)

THE USETEST: This is a simple test which immediately indicates whether or

not the product meets the requirements of the consumer. If the mill is manu

facturing handmade paper for writing purposes, the simple test of writing on

the paper with various types of writing media should be undertaken. However,

when specialised printing papers are manufactured, it requires expertise and

specialised equipment to undertake this test.

As previously discussed in Chapter 3; Section 1, traditional printmaking tech

niques require good quality, stable and consistent papers in order to achieve

their function. The handmade papers in this investigation underwent specific

production processes to ensure the most efficient design of paper specific to

each printmaking process.

The following section discusses the results of these printability tests in terms

of the method of production utilised for each batch of paper. A rating system

was devised from the various test results, in order to analyse each paper's

positive and negative attributes to the printed work. This section will follow

the structure of the rating system for the analysis of the paper and test results

for each print medium. The rating system includes the following :

RATING SYSIrM :

PAPER CODE: 00-00-000-000

o 0 0 0 Quality of print technique

o 0 00 Absorbency

0000 Weight

o 000 Strength

o 0 00 Whiteness / Colour

o 0 0 0 Surface texture (roughness)

o 0 0 0 Unwanted particles

o 0 0 0 Overall rating

133

SCORING S YSTEM:

• 000 = 25% Performance

• • 0 0 = 50% Performance

• •• 0 = 75% Performance

• ••• = 100% Performance

• • • • = Not applicable

1.3.1 lNTAGUO PROCESSES

The testing of paper for intaglio processes

was carried out using five different intaglio

techniques in order to analyse the various

effects the paper may have on the print.

This was important because each technique

has different qualities, and may therefore

give varying results. The techniques tested

included plates using drypoint , etching,

positive 20 , polymer and copper plate

photo etchings. Fig 5.9 - Etching print sample .Photograph produced in the course of study by B.

Marshall. 2003.

Rg 5.10 - Etching and drypoint printsample. Photogra ph produced in the course of study by

B. Marshall . 2003 .

Fig 5.11 - Positive 20 print sample. Photograph

produced in the course of study by B. Marsha ll. 2003 .

Fig 5.12 - Polymer plate photo etching printsample. Photograph produced in the cou rse of study by B.

Marsha ll. 2003.

Fig 5.13 - Copper plate photo etching

print sample. Photograph produced in the course of

study by B. Marshall. 2003.

134

1.3.1.1 Q UAUTY OF PRINT TECHNIQUE

The genera l print quality of all the papers tested were of a high standard.

Each paper gave an optimum performance , with a few of them failing in

some aspects. The print quality on certain papers appeared more rich and

intense: this was because of various internal factors (like colour , opacity or

variances in amounts of size) which will be discussed in the sections below.

1.3 .1.2 ABSORBENCY

This factor played an important role in the final print quality. When certain

papers were not internally sized, the ink was more abso rbed into the paper.

As illustrated in Figures 5.14 and 5.15, the paper samples on the left

received both internal and external sizing procedures, whereas the samples on

the right received external size only. Note how the line quality and tonal

ranges differ from each other. Although the line quality on the left sample

seems more clear , the final print sample on the right is richer in tonal ranges.

This difference is very minor, but can enhance the overall look of the print.

Both types of sizing procedures should be available to the consumer so there

is an option for varying paper absorbencies .

Fig 5.1 4 LEFT: Magnified print sample of Batch # 01-02-101 -201. RIGHT: Print sample ofbatch # 02-01-100-201. Both samples show the degree of detail due to the papers'absorbency (left paper is internally and externally sized , right paper is externally sized only).Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marshall 2003.

135

Fig 5.15 Top AND

BOlTOM LEFT:Magnified print sample of Batch # 0102-101-201. TopAND BOlTOM RIGHT:Magnified print sample of Batch #

01-01-100-201.Both samples showthe degree of detaildue to the papers'absorbency (leftpapers are internallyand externally sized,right papers areexternally sizedonly).Photograph produced in the

course of study b-; B.

Marshall 2003.

When comparing the print samples to those done on the imported samples,

the more absorbent samples (i.e. those with external sizing only) equal the

tonal quality of the mouldmade papers.

1.3.1.3 W EIGHT

The weights of the paper samples did not inhibit the print quality of the test

samples, as all sheets were of sufficient weight (i.e they were all over

150gsm). Owing to the immense pressure required for printing intaglio plates ,

the slight variances in paper weight were not a problem. It must be noted that

the print samples for this investigation were small in size (ranging from

±15cm x 15cm to 20cm x 30cm). When printing larger size plates , a heavier

weight paper is sometimes necessary.

1.3.1.4 STRENGTH

The strengths of the papers under investigation were of a good standard. All

136

the paper samples, except one batch (#01 -02-101-201), presented a good

quality of both strength and dimensional stability. The batch displaying poor

quality (#01-02-101-201) , which measured very low on all the strength tests

in Section 1.2, presented the following difficulties when printing:

- The paper could not be soaked , as it was too weak, so it had to be mist

sprayed in order to prepare it for printing.

- If the paper was too moist for printing, the paper would laminate onto the

plate 's surface and destroy the printed surface because it had to be forceful

ly removed.

..rooss

CottonPapers

5004»Cotton

5004»Sisal

Papers02-03-10 1-20 1

02 -02 -101-201

01-02-101-201

02-01-100-201

01 -01-100-201

01-03-1 01-201

50% hessian/cotton paper sam

ples were slightly darker , but did

not inhibit the intaglio print quality. Fig 5. 17 Top: Colour range of 100% cotton papers.Bottom: Colour range of 50% cotton/sisal papers.Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marshall 2003 .

Fig 5.16 Image showing thedestroyed paper surfaceafter printing with a paperof poor strength that wastoo damp. Photograph produced in

~~CG~~$~--1 the course of study by B. Marshall.. 2003 .

1.3.1.5 WHITENESS / COLOUR

The colour of the papers in this

investigation complimented the

intaglio prints. As seen in Fig.

5. 17 , the 100% cotton range of

papers offered a desirable white to liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiioff-white colour surface, where the

50% cotton/sisal papers offered a

rich cream surface colour. The

137

1.3.1.6 SURFACE TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

The surface texture of the papers in this investigation varied because of vary

ing drying tests. 95% of the paper used for testing was dried flat in a restraint

drying system. This is the most desirable method of prod uction for this kind of

paper product. The surface texture achieved using this methodology is one

that is medium-to-smooth. However, an additional air-drying test was under

taken on 5% of the paper samples in order to note the effect it would have

on the paper's strength and print quality.

As can be seen in Fig. 5.18, the

surface texture of the air-dried sam

ples (left) was significantly different

from that of the restraint-dried sam

ples (right). In this case, the effect

was problematic on a few of the

prints. As seen in Fig. 5 .19 below,

the uneven surface affected some ofthe properties of the print. In this Fig 5 .18 Image showing the di~ferenc~ in the papers

surface texture because of varymg drymg tests.image the ink did not transfer suffi- Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marshall 2003.

ciently onto the paper. The on ly difference in production from other samples

in this batch was the drying method: therefore it can be deduced that the

papers ' surface texture inhibited the resulting quality of the print.

Fig 5.19 lEFT: Image showing a print defect because of specific drying methodologies. RIGHT

is a magnified close-up of the defect. Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marshall 2003.

138

1.3.1.7 UNWANTED PARTICLES

None of the papers utilised in this research investigation contained large

amounts of unwanted particles. These sheets were removed when grading the

papers and were classed as rejects or seconds. This section, therefore, was

not included in the rest of the investigation.

1.3.1.8 OVERALL RATINGS: INTAGUO PRINTING

BATCH #1 = 01-01-100-201

•••• LINE QUALITY

•••• ABSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT

•••0 STRENGTH

•••0 WHITENESS / COLOUR

•••• TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

•••• UNWANTED PARTICLES

•••• PRINT RATING

BATCH #3 = 01-03-101+ *01-03-101



••00 WEIGHT

••• 0 STRENGTH

•••• WHITENESS / COLOUR


••00 UNWANTED PARTICLES

••• 0 PRiNT RATING

BATCH #2 = 01-02-101-201

• ••0 LINE QUALITY

• ••0 ABSORBENCY

• ••0 WEIGHT

.000 STRENGTH


• •• 0 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

•••0 UNWANTED PARTICLES

..00 PRINT RATING

BATCH #4 = 02-01-100-201

•••• LiNE QUALITY


•••• WEIGHT

•••0 STRENGTH





BATCH #5 = 02-02-101+ 02-02-101-201 BATCH #6 = 02-03-101 + *02-03-101

02-02-101-201 + *02-02-101-201

••• 0 liNE QUALITY

••• 0 ABSORBENCY

••00 WEIGHT

••00 STRENGTH


•••0 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

••00 UNWANTED PARTICLES

••00 PRINT RATING

•••0 LiNE QUALiTY

•••0 ABSORBENCY

••00 WEIGHT

•••0 STREJ"iGTH

•••• WHITEl\ESS / COLOUR


•••0 UNWANTED PARTICLES

•••0 PRINT RATING

139

Fig 5.20 Top AND BOTTOM:

Two good quality blindembossings. Photograph produced in

the course of study by B. Marshall 2003.

According to the ratings stated above, it can be seen that Batch #1 and #4

are the most suitable papers for intaglio processes. This is because the ir prop

erties are most suitable for intaglio printmaking. Batch #3 and #6 contain

most of the properties required for intaglio processes, but fail in weight con

sistency and strength , with Batch #6 having a poorer absorbency and line

quality. The remaining batches should not be considered for production for

intaglio printmaking techniques.

1.3.2 EMBOSSING

The testing of paper for blind embossing

techniques was conducted using two dif

ferent kinds of plates. One was a design

made from a flat cut-out of metal, laminated onto a

sheet of coated board and the others consisted of

different types of zinc plates using Positive 20

processes. Each plate consisted of an image or text

with a varying degree of detail and depth of etching ,L...- .....1

ranging from fine detail (thinly etched) to minimum

detail that was deeply etched (using the open bite

technique).

1.3.2.1 Q UALITY OF PRINT TECHNIQUE

The quality of print technique varied between high and low standards, accord

ing to the batch being tested. Various batches produced perfect embossings,

while others produced poor qua lity embossings. This was mainly influenced by

the furnish of the fibres; ie: the softer the paper (underbeaten fibres), the bet

ter the embossing quality; the harder/ more impervious the paper (overbeaten

fibres), the poorer the embossing quality. Various other factors also played a

role, which will be covered in the sections to follow.

1.3.2 .2 ABSORBENCY

The rate of absorbency is irrelevant to embossing techniques as there is no

ink involved in the fina l product. The paper needs only to be dampened

140

slightly for embossing, which proved to be non-problematic for all papers test

ed. However, the papers that were internally and externally sized contained a

more impervious surface and therefore prevented a deep embossing quality to

some degree.

1.3.2.3 WEIGHT

The heavier weight paper samples from each batch were selected for testing

embossing techniques, which require a very heavyweight paper in order for

them to exhibit the relief impression of the objects. The weight of all the

papers were above 250gsm each and were therefore sufficient and posed no

problems.

1.3.2.4 STRENGTH

None of the papers tested in this investigation displayed any strength deficien

cies for embossing. All the sheets remained dimensionally stable and flat for

this purpose.


The whiteness or colour of the papers in this investigation played a very

important role in determining the success of the embossing tests. The charac

teristic of the blind embossings are the quality of the unprinted lines and tex

tures. All the tones and colours of the 100% cotton papers and 50%

cotton/sisal papers did not inhibit the visual character of the embossing. The

colour of the 50% hessian/cotton paper was very difficult to decipher the

image, although the quality of the embossing was very good. The characteris

tics and visual quality of the fibre was too busy and interfered with the clarity

of the result.

The image to follow shows how the quality of the embossing seems different

because of the paper colour. The line quality of these embossings are in reali

ty the same, but optically different because of the paper colour.

141

Fig 5 .21 Image showing the effect of colour on a blind embossing LEFf: Embossingon 50% hessian and cotton paper. RIGHT: Embossing on 100% cotton paper.Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marshall 2003.

1.3.2.6 S URFACE TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

The surface texture of the paper plays an important role in assessing the qual

ity of the embossing. The smooth paper surface is preferable for line quality

and clarity. The rougher the pa per , the poorer the quality of the embossing.

This can be seen in the images below, where the distinctiveness of the

embossing deteriorates with the rougher surface.

Fig 5 .22 Two images showing the effect of texture on ablind embossing FROM LEFfTO RIGHT: Poor qualityembossing on rough paperto good quality embossing onsmooth paper.Photograph produced in the course ofstudy by B. Marshall 2003.

142

1.3.2.7 OVERALL RATINGS: EMBOSSING

BATCH #1 = 01-01-100-201

••00 LINE QUAUTY

•••• ABsORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT

•••• STRENGTH





BATCH #3 = 01-03-101+ *01-03-101

.000 LINE QUAUTY

•••• ABsORBENCY

•••0 WEIGHT



••00 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)


.000 PRINT RATING

BATCH #2 = 01-02-101-201



•••• WEIGHT






BATCH #4 = 02-01-100-201

.000 LINE QUALITY


•••• WEIGHT



..00 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)


80'00 PRINT RATING

BATCH #5 = 02-02-101+ 02-02-101-201 BATCH #6 = 02-03-101 + *02-03-101

02-02-101-201 + *02-02-101-201

••00 UNE QUALITY


•••0 WEIGHT






••• 0 LINE QUALITY..... ABSORBENCY

•••0 WEIGHT



• •• 0 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)



According to the ratings above, it can be seen that Batch #2 is the most suit

able for embossing techniques. This is because of its properties of fibre soft

ness (furnish), colour and texture. Batch #6 also produced acceptable results.

with none of the other batches containing the acceptable qualities required for

embossing techniques.

143

1.3.3 RELIEF PROCESSES

The testing of paper for relief processes was conducted using linoleum print

ing techniques. Lino printing is better than woodblock printing for Western

style papers of this nature and will provide better results. This is because

woodblock printing should be printed by hand using Eastern style sheets that

are thin. The lino prints utilised a screw press for transferring the image to

the thick Western style sheets.

1.3.3.1 QUALITY OF PRINT TECHNIQUE

The general print quality of the papers tested was good. The internal factors

that inhibited print quality of some of the print tests were surface texture and

absorbency. These are discussed in detail below.

1.3.3.2 ABSORBENCY

The paper's absorbency is important to the success or failure of the print

tests. Most of the absorbency levels were sufficient to create good prints. One

paper sample (Batch # 01-02-101-201) was oversized and caused a 'blotch

ing' effect with the ink. The effect can be seen in Fig 5.23, when the paper

came into contact with the plate during printing, the ink was repelled by the

unabsorbent paper.

I.

!laI EXPElTtSECAlkIY SPECIALISTS

Fig 5.23 Close up of print showing the blotching of ink caused by an unabsorbent paper (lEFr)and (RIGHT) a paper with good absorbency. Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Mershell 2003

1.3.3.3 WEIGHT

The weights of the paper did not inhibit the print quality of the test samples.

The tests were completed using a screw press. The result would be different if

they were printed using a spoon for burnishinq-. The papers were all relative

ly heavyweight (over 200gms), and would not print as well when done by

hand.

144

1.3.3.4 STRENGTH

The papers under investigation displayed acceptable properties of strength.

Strength, however, is not a critical feature when printing with a screw press,

as there is only a downward direct contact pressure between the paper and

the plate surface. This may be relevant when printing by hand, as the move

ments with the spoon may require a strong, impervious surface.


The colour of the paper surface was not relevant for this process. The same

effect of colour applies for relief processes as it did for intaglio processes (see

Section 1.3.1.5 Whiteness/Colour).


The paper's surface texture is important for good print quality. Some of the

papers were too rough, resulting in poor prints. As seen in Fig 5.24, the

rough surface of the paper on the left resulted in a poor print. This quality is

significantly different to the print on the right, which was printed on a paper

with a smooth surface texture which was fairly absorbent, resulting in an even

print quality.

Fig 5.24 Close up of prints showing (LEFf) the poor ink quality caused by a paper with arough surface texture, and (RIGHT) good ink quality caused by a paper with a smoothsurface texture. Photograph produced in the course of study by B. Marsha!! 2003

145

1.3.3.7 OVERALL RATINGS: REUEF PROCESSES

BATCH #1 = 01-01-100-201 BATCH #2 = 01-02-101-201

••• 0 LINE QUAUTY

•••0 ABsORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT






8000 LINE QUAUTY

.000 ABSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT






BATCH #3 = 01-03-101 BATCH #4 = 02-01-100-201



•••• WEIGHT



••• 0 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)


••• 0 PRINT RATING

••00 LINE QUALITY

..00 ABSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT



••• 0 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)



BATCH #5 = 02-02-101+ 02-02-101-201 BATCH #6 = 02-03-101

••• 0 LINE QUALITY


•••• WEIGHT






••00 LINE QUALITY

• •• 0 ABSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT



.000 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)



As seen in the ratings above, Batches #1, 3 and 5 were sufficient for relief

printing processes, but did not score as the most desirable paper for this

process. More research and testing is required in order to find the most suit

able processing methodologies of papers for relief processes. The results of

the other batches were not successful enough to be recommended for this

printing process.

146

1.3.4 SCREENPRINTING

The testing of paper for silkscreening was conducted using a photo-exposed

image on a 19TT mesh, using a waterbased silkscreen inks. The image used

for these tests was composed of varying degrees of detailed text and images

in order to reflect a range of different line qualities in the print.

1.3.4.1 QUALITY OF PRINT TECHNIQUE

The mesh proved too fine for the handmade textured papers. A textile screen

would be more suitable for these kinds of rough surfaces. It was, however,

important to achieve successful results, as the print tests on the imported

mouldmade samples were of acceptable quality. The problem was approached

by mimicking the process of calendering, which is discussed in detail below.

1.3.4.2 ABSORBENCY

The absorbency of the papers tested had a minimal effect on the quality of

the silkscreen print. It has been noted that less absorbent papers achieved bet

ter results than more absorbent sheets. The reason for this is undetermined,

but could be due to surface textures, rather than absorbency.

1.3.4.3 WEIGHT

The weight of the paper is not a factor in determining the print quality of this

test. The sheets were only required to be dimensionally stable and smooth in

surface texture.

1.3.4.4 STRENGTH

All the papers responded well to properties of strength and dimensional stabil

ity.


The colour of the paper surface was not relevant for this process. The same

effect of colour applies for relief processes as it did for intaglio processes. See

Section 1.3.1.5 Whiteness/Colour.

147


The surface texture of the papers is a critical factor for silkscreen processes.

The restraint dried sheets were re-moistened and placed onto metal platess

that were fed through an etching press (no air-dried samples were used for

this printing process). This was done in order to prepare the paper's surface

for silkscreening. It can be compared to the process of calendering which

involves feeding a sheet of paper through two hardened metal rollers to

increase its surface smoothness (Turner, 1998:216).

The samples below indicate the different finishes to the papers once they

have been calendered. By gently running one's fingers on to the paper's sur

face, the difference can be felt. The sample on the left is calendered, with the

uncalendered sample on the right.

Sample #18 Two samples of the same paper. LEFT: The sample that has been calendered andhas a smooth texture. RIGHT: The sample that has not been been calendered and has arougher surface texture. Sample produced in the course of study by B. Marsha!! 2003

148

Fig 5 .25 LEFr: A print sample of the paper that was calendered and has a smooth texture . RIGHT: A print sample of the paper that has not been been calendered and has arougher surface texture , resulting in poor print quality. Photograph produced in the course of study by B.Marshall 2003

1.3.4.7 O VERALL RATINGS: SCREENPRINTING

B ATCH #1 = 01-01-100-201

•••0 LI NE Q UAun'

••• 0 ABsORBENCY

•••• W EIGHT


••• 0 W HITENESS / COLOUR

•••0 T EXTIJRE (ROUGHNESS)

•••• U NWANTED PARTICLES


B ATCH #3 = 01-03-101+ ·01-03-101

••00 LINE Q UAun'

••00 ABsoRBENCY



•••• W HITENESS / COLOUR

•• 0 0 T EXTIJRE (ROUGHNESS)


••00 P RINT RATING

B ATCH #2 = 01-02-101-201

. 0 0 0 LINE Q UAun'

. 0 0 0 A BSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT

••00 STRENGTH

•••0 W HITENESS / COLOUR

•••• T EXTURE (ROUGHNESS)


..0 0 P RINT RATING

B ATCH #4 = 02-01 -100-201

••00 LINE Q UAun'

••00 A BSORBENCY


•••• S TRENGTH

•••• W HITENESS / COLOUR

••00 T EXTIJRE (ROUGHNESS)


•••0 P RINT RATING

149

BATCH #5 = 02-02-101+ 02-02-101-201


••• 0 ABsORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT




•••• UNWANTED PARTIClES

••• 0 PRINT RATING

BATCH #6 = 02-03-101 + '02-03-101

.000 LINE QUAUTY

••00 ABSORBENCY

•••• WEIGHT



.000 TEXTURE (ROUGHNESS)

•••• UNWANTED PARTIClES


According to the ratings above, Batch #1 is the most suitable paper for

screenprinting. This is because it has good properties of strength and colour,

balanced by an acceptable line quality and absorbency. Batch # 4 and 5 are

also acceptable for screenprinting, but score lower because of their surface

texture. The remaining samples do not qualify as good screenprinting papers.

1.4 S UMMARY OF FINDINGS

In conclusion, the following can be deducted from the tests conducted:

• Testing conducted by the manufacturer can give an indication of the various

properties of weight and thickness, composition and strength, furnish and

processing, character and sheet formation, and rate of absorbency. When

compared to the tests completed using advanced testing equipment, the

results were an accurate indication of these properties.

• The tests completed using specialised paper testing equipment proved that

in most instances (ie: tearing resistance, bursting strength, tensile strength

and pH), the handmade equivalents matched or proved more resilient and

stronger than the imported mouldmade samples. In certain cases (such as

grammage and stretch) the mouldmade papers tested more consistent. The

production of the handmade papers is therefore required to establish a more

effective manner of standardising the weight and thickness of the sheets. All

the papers measured quite low on the pH scale, but a more accurate

method of testing may need to be developed.

150

• The printability testing results presented the following overall paper ratings

for the different printing processes:

INTAGLIO PROCESSES :

The papers that are most suitable are Batches # 1 and 4

The papers that are less suitable are Batches # 3 and 6

The papers that are not advisable are Batches # 2 and 5

The papers that are not suitable are all the air-dried samples

EMBoSSING:

The papers that are most suitable are Batch # 2

The papers that are less suitable are Batch # 6

The papers that are not advisable are Batches # 1 and 5

The papers that are not suitable are Batches # 3 and 4, and all the air-dried

samples

REuEF PROCESSES :



The papers that are not advisable are Batches # 2; 4 and 6


SILKSCRfEN PRINTING:



The papers that are not advisable are Batches # 2; 3 and 6


From the above ratings, it can be deducted that:

• Batch # 1 was most successful (had more than 2 applications)

• Batches # 3, 4, 5 (internal and external sizing) and 6 were successful (had

more than 1 application)

• Batch #'s 2 and 5 (internally-sized only) were acceptable (had only 1 application)

• All the air-dried samples were unsuccessful (had no acceptable applications and

inhibited the print quality)

151

Notes1. Furnish: Relates to the manner in which the fibre was processed (i.e. handbeaten or beat

en by Hollander beater) and the effect it will have on the finished paper.

2. Lightbox: Specially designed box containing a white perspex cover encasing a high-voltage

light for seeing through a sheet of paper in order to observe the sheet formation

and defects in the sheet.

3. Cellulite: Defect in paper. See Fig. 4.33 on page 109.

4. Burnishing: To transfer ink from printing block to paper by rubbing with a rounded blunt

tool.

5. Waterbased silkscreen ink: textile screen printing ink, Aquatex. Purchased from Chemisol,

Selby, Johannesburg.

6. Metal plates: Stainless steel metal plates purchased from Telsteel, Doornfontein,

Johannesburg.

152

CONCLUSION(DISCUSSIONS, ENVISAGED PROBLEMS, RECOMMENDATIONS

AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS)

The hypothesis for this investigation is the research possibility of manufactur

ing quality handmade papers that meet both archival standards, and the crite

ria required by professional printmakers. The resulting handmade paper was

designed to meet or lower the cost of the imported mouldmade papers which

are currently available in selected shops for artists in South Africa. This inves

tigation has revealed a range of results, problems, issues and opportunities.

The concluding text provides an analysis of the hypothesis and offers recom

mendations, envisaged problems and workable solutions for each issue.

1. C OMMERCIALISATK>N OF TIlE RESFARCH

The implementation of manufacturing archival paper was targeted for devel

oping Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises (SMME's) by initiating its produc

tion into various rural development projects. I believe that, by implementing

this research, it has the potential to assist in creating jobs and in developing

the South African economy. The National Archives of South Africa have indi

cated that the product has significant market potential, both locally and inter

nationally (Dominee; Motsi, 2003). At present, archival products! are import

ed into the whole of Africa and are very costly, especially for the poorer

African countries.

Director of the National Archives, Graham Dominee, has expressed support

for the initiation of archival paper and products into selected projects of

Phumani Paper. as part of a poverty relief programme. Although their interest

is not for printmaking purposes, it is a further application of the research

investigation, and has direct market possibilities to help sustain Phumani proj

ects in the future.

153

ENVISAGED PROBLEMS

The production of archival handmade paper is labour intensive and spe

cialised, and requires a lot of monitoring on quality control and mill standards.

A production mill for archival cotton paper would require a full-time manager

who would oversee the three stages of production (i.e. pulp preparation,

paper production and product-making). A concern is that, if a single project

manufactured the product with all three stages involved, it would put too

much pressure on the mill, as the potential product demand is very large,

especially for the envisaged export market.

RECOMMENDATIONS / POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

A suggestion is that the process be divided into different stages: this would

enable it to support a specialised function, and would make production output

more reliable. The paper mill must be contaminant-free and operate effective

ly, in order for the product to meet a consistent standard of quality. Each

project team could master their own specific production procedures which

would, in turn, create an internal support structure for all three projects.

In order to streamline the initial production procedures and continue regular

testing methodologies until the product is sound and meets all archival stan

dards, it was suggested that the TWR Paper Research Unit (PROU) begin pro

ducing the sheet pulps. Later, these could be handed over to a second project

team, which would then manufacture paper from the sheet pulps, with a third

team manufacturing the archival products from the paper (refer to Annexure

F: Proposed Business Plan).

2. HANDMADE PAPFR PRODUCf

The archival handmade paper can be standardised and manufactured by fol

lowing the procedures laid out in the 'paper recipe' (i.e. POS). Aspects of the

POSs in this investigation can be utilised to manufacture specific papers. If the

market calls for a hard, resilient paper that is going to be handled often. the

producer can use specific data from this study to meet these specifications.

154

Different recipes can be developed by trial and error, creating test pulps in

order to see what results can be achieved. It is critical that each mill manufac

turing products of this nature develops its own PDSs until the desired product

has been reached, and that it continues updating them on a regular basis.

This investigation for archival papermaking can be applied to various other

fibre2 types (i.e. non-wood fibres). The application of this research utilised hes

sian fibre for producing archival papers. Similarly, mills can experiment with

various other fibres for producing archival papers by following the necessary

procedures for ensuring the paper's longevity.

ENVISAGED PROBLEMS

• Paper size: The creative market may demand papers larger in size (i.e. A2

or larger). The imported mouldmade papers are produced on a

large machine which, therefore, allows for almost any size

sheets to be produced. Handmade papers over Az in size are

difficult to produce in quality and quantity. This research focused

on producing A3 size sheets for testing product potential.

Further research is required to investigate the best methodolo

gies for producing larger sheets for the creative market.

• Market demand: In the face of excellent export opportunities, the market

may become too large for local projects to keep up with

demand. For the quality to remain constant, however, produc

tion cannot be speeded up. A new solution may be to establish

new mills to assist in coping with overflow orders.

RECOMMENDATIONS / POSSIBLE SOLUTIOI':S

An investigation is required to address and develop the technology required to

mechanise the sheet-forming process. This could include the development of

a low-end paper machine that mimics the formation of handmade paper. A

similar model is in operation in Hollands, in which pulp is fed onto a moving

screen, which allows for the production of Ai sheets of paper.

155

The introduction of manufacturing paper from sheet pulps in South Africa

could aid in the production outputs of handmade paper mills. It reduces pulp

preparation times significantly, thereby increasing the mill's production capaci

ty. Most mills in Europe and the USA utilise these pulps for paper production.

3. ARCHIVAL SfANDARDS

Archival standards in papermaking can be met if all the production proce

dures are completed sufficiently. Constant monitoring of quality control with

regular testing of products will aid in ensuring the authenticity of the product.

The establishment of a viable relationship between mills and organisations like

SAPPI are important in ensuring quality through regular product testing. This

partnership could offer endorsements for archival products to assist in sustain

ing mills as reputable businesses.

ENVISAGED PROBLEMS

The papers developed through this investigation were of a relatively low pH

reading. According to Alexio Motsi, Deputy Director of the National Archives

of South Africa, pH amounts of 6 and higher are considered to meet accept

able South African archival standards. The reason for these papers testing

below 6 is probably due to the water source in the facility from which they

were produced. A filtered water source is critical for archival papermaking and

should be regularly monitored and tested. However, according to the pH tests

completed at SAPPI, the imported mouldmade papers tested below 6. By

international standards they are required to be above 7.5 on the pH scale. This

may indicate inadequate testing, or that further testing could have yielded dif

ferent results. An alternative technique of testing pH also needs to be pursued.

RECOMMENDATIONS / POSSIBLE SOLUTIOi\S

One solution to help raise the pH value of the paper, would be the installation

of a water purification systems into mills which produce archival papers. The

effect of these purification systems would require further research. in order to

evaluate the improvement and impact this may have on the paper's pH value

and cost.

156

4. T RADIDONAL PRINTMAKING TECHMQUES

This investigation only covered selected traditional printmaking techniques for

testing the printability of the final product. As discussed in Section 2 above,

the handmade paper product can easily be replicated or further designed by

following or adapting the procedures laid out in the 'paper recipe'. The out

come of this research investigation suggests that any kind of paper can be

developed and tested, if paper specifications and requirements are clear. This

could open many avenues of research for future products simply by applying

the research to other situations and product requirements.

ENVISAGED PROBLEMS

The problem and challenge for the printmaking/creative industry may be that

the mill which produces the papers for this purpose may not be able to main

tain adequate standards. Handmade paper manufacturing for this sector will

require a highly skilled artisan to ensure optimum quality paper.


An important solution is for the mill to keep testing the products on a regular

basis, and to liaise with professionals in the field. If the producers are able to

keep up with market demand, trends and product development, it will provide

a strong basis for sustaining business for the mill, as well as future new prod

uct potential.

5. CosrsAccording to the costing of the product (see Annexure F), the wholesale price

of the handmade equivalent will be approximately R16-15 per Az sheet

(420mm x 594mm) 250gsm. The average retail price of a mouldmade paper,

depending on make and quality, ranges between R23 and R46 for Az

(420mm x 594mm) 300gsm. When comparing these two products and

prices, the Az handmade equivalent may retail at approximately R32-30. This

proves that although the handmade equivalent is higher than some of the

mouldmade papers, it also remains cheaper than some of the imported

papers.

157

This investigation proves that the handmade equivalent may exceed that of

imported papers in its properties of quality and strength, and may also have a

higher degree of desirability as a specially designed product.

ENVISAGED PROBLEMS

The products available on the market cannot be compared with the imported

handmade papers of Asian countries. Eastern papers are mostly decorative

papers that are extremely low in price. A comparison will not reflect the pur

pose and design of the locally handmade equivalent to mouldmade papers, as

these papers strive for quality and perfection and are specialised for various

artistic processes. They should always be categorised in a different context,

rather than compared, as comparisons will also lower product expectations

and purpose.

The price of the handmade equivalent is high due to its specialised nature.

This is, however, an estimated price and offers grounds for further investiga

tion. Once a mill has been set up, and production is consistent, one can re

evaluate the cost price of the product in terms of exact overhead costs and

production outputs. This is a very difficult task to attempt to finalise before

production of a product has begun. This is, therefore, only a basis for discus

sion and a starting point for entering a predominantly international market.


A solution which helps to compensate for the high retail price of this product.

is to ensure that the highest possible quality is maintained at all times. If a

consumer is satisfied with a product, he or she will continue to purchase the

product. As previously discussed, product prices may decrease in accordance

with progress and competition within the industry.

158

In concluding this investigation, I believe that all the objectives of the research

have been addressed with varying results. A range of possibilities and potential

avenues of research has been opened for discussion and further exploration.

Hand papermaking is in the beginning stages of a new tradition and offers

the potential for technological advancement in South Africa. This ancient

craft is only beginning to penetrate the local market, and it is creating many

opportunities for emerging students and small business initiatives. As Silvie

Turner (1998: 10) discusses, the new development of hand papermaking is a

renewed appreciation for a very fine tradition. She states that

".. .it is in the recognition of mutual needs an active cross-fertili

sation occurs; listening to the creative solutions for both hand and mind

simply produces the new insights, new directions, new awarenesses and

new methods that continue to respond today" .

Opportunities such as this new industry requires South African paper produc

ers to work together to develop these new insights and ideas, in order to

improve our economy and build our nation.

159

Notes:1. Archival products: Refers to all the products used at the National Archives for boxing and

housing valuable government documents.

2. Fibres that produce archival paper: All non-wood fibres can produce archival paper if pre

pared under the correct papermaking procedures (i.e.

all non-cellulose materials need to be removed before

beating procedures are undertaken).

3. Papiermolen "De Schoolrnecster", Zaanse stad, Holland - Site visit, 23 May 2000 as part

of a European research visit and student exchange programme, April-June 2000.

160

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166

ANNEXURE A

BATCH CODING SYSfEM AND PAPER PROPER1lFS

BATCH COOING AND PAPFR PROPERTIFS

01

~THIS INDICATES THE

PAPERS FIBRE lYPE:

01 indicates Cotton 100%

02 indicates Cotton 50%Sisal 50%

03 indicates another fibre(RESEARCH APPUCATIONS:

either Hessian, cottonbast or sisal 100%)

04 indicates bought papersfor comparative analysis

01

~This indicates theBATCH NUMBER, running consecutivelyfrom 01,02,03, etc.

101-201

~This indicates the papersAPPLICATION OF SlZlNG ;

100 = No internal sizing at thetime of initial making

101 = Internal sizing with Aquapel at the time of initialmaking

+ 201 = External sizing withGelatin once dried

BATCH CODE FIBRE PROPERTIES

01-01-100-101 Cotton 100% • Good strength and formation

• Contains additives (Titanium Di-oxide: Calcium

Carbonate) and is bright white in colour

• Un sized at time of making. externally sized

with Gelatin

• Absorbent

• Good weight and surface texture

01-02-101 & 201 Cotton 100% • Poor strength and formation

• Contains additives (Titanium Di-oxide: Calcium

Carbonate) and is dull white in colour

• Internally sized with Aqua Pel. externally sized

with Gelatin

• Repels water (not at all absorbent)


01-03-101 & 201 Cotton 100% • Good strength and formation

• Contains no additives and is off-white in

colour


with Gelatin.

• Fairly absorbent

• Varying weight and poor surface texture

02-01-100-101 Cotton 50% • Good strength and formation

Sisal 50% • Contains additive (Calcium Carbonate) and is

cream in colour

• Unsized at time of making, externally sized

with Gelatin

• Absorbent




light cream in colour

• Internally sized with Aqua Pel, externally sized

with Gelatin.


• Varying weight and surface texture



light cream in colour

• Internally sized with Aqua Pel, externally sized

with Gelatin.


• Vc:ying weight and surface texture

03-01-101 & 201 Cotton sheet pulp • Good strength and formation

(from Carriage House) • Contains additive (Calcium Carbonate) and is

bright white in colour


with Gelatin.



03-02-100-101 Cotton bast fibre • Good strength and formation

• Contains additive (Formation aid) and is brown

in colour

• Externally sized with Gelatin only



03-03-100-101 Sisal 100% • Good strength and formation

• Contains no additives and is cream in colour

• Externally sized with Gelatin only

• Absorbent


03-04-101 & 201 Hessian 50% • Good strength and formation

Cotton 50% • Contains additive (Calcium Carbonate) and is

light brown in colour

• Internally sized with Aqua PeL externally sized

with Gelatin



ANNEXURE B

PRODUCTION DATA SHEETS (PDS'S)

PRODUCI10N DATA SHFET (PDS)

DErAILS OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 21-25 May 2001

NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, TWR PRDU: MTech

Researcher

BATCH # 01-01-100-201

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Ukotini

DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPLICATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief, Litho & Silk-

screen testing

TYPE OF PAPER

- CATEGORY: Handmade

- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORi'1ATK>N :

NAME OF FIBRE (BOTAf\!CAL & COMMON) - Cotton: Gossipium Hersupum

FIBRE TYPE - Seed hair

FIBRE DESCRIPTION - Long staple cotton that was spun first. then woven into cloth. The

cotton is purchased from G. Fox & Co in rag form (hospital rags)

DATE HARVESTED (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

PRfPARATIONS U!'l'DER TAKEN :

RETTING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

STRIPPII':G PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - N/A

WEIGHT OF DRY FIBRE (BEFORE STRIPPII\G. IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY FIBRE (BEFORE COOKIi':G & BEATIi':G) 2 kg

PROBLEMS Ei':COU"TERED/NOTES

None

COOKING PROCEDURES:

DURATIOi': OF COOKI!\G - 2 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20'ib (400 grams)

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES

None

1

BFATING METHODS:

TYPE OF BEATING METHOD (HAND/MACHINE) - Machine

TYPE OF BEATER - Hollander Beater Duplex (100 litre), A. Moreno design

DESCRIPTION OF BEATING PROCESS - Filled beater with 2/3's of water. Set the beater to

10. Turned the beater on and fed the fibre in slowly. When all the fibre was circulating prop-

erly, turned the roll down closer to the bedplate (about 5), and left it for about half an hour.

Then turned it down to about 3, for 20 minutes, then to 2 and leave it for another 45min-

utes. After an hour and a half (all the above times added), the roll was lowered to just above

o for maximum beating. It was then left at this level until the pulp was in it's desired form.

DURATION OF BEATING - 5 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 50 mls: Titanium di-oxide 2 table spoons

DECKLE BOX TESTS (AMOUNT, DURATION OF INTERVALS & DRYING METHOD) -

500ml samples, every half hour, starting after first hour and half of beating. Samples were

hot pressed.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Titanium di-oxide gave the paper a bright white look.

STZlNG TECHNIQUE:

TYPE OF SIZE - Gelatin (surface sized)

METHOD OF APPLICATION - GELATIN: Dipped in a bath of solution and 'loft' dried.

AMOUNT/RECIPE - 2.5% solution diluted in boiling water =150mls dissolved into 2 litres

of boiling water. then diluted into 4 litres of cold water. (Total of 6 litrcs solution which did

±70 A3 papers)

METHOD OF RE-DRYING - Air dried then pressed.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - None

SHFET-FORMING PROCESSES :

ADDITNES & AMOUNT - N/A

FORMATION STYLE - Western

SHEET SIZE - A3 size (297mm x 420mm)

GRAIN DIRECTION - Multi-directional

DECKLE EDGES - 4 true deckle edges (to A3 sheets)

SHEET THICKl\ESS - Varied: ± 250 gsm - 300 gsm

AMOUNT OF SHEETS FORMED - ±40 sheets

WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Bright white

DRAINAGE RATE - Medium

PROBLEMS El\COUI\TERED/NOTES - Pulp was difficult to couch (slippery)

2


PRESS TYPE & DETAILS - Hydraulic press (10 ton) - A. Moreno design (jack on top)

MAXIMUM WEIGHT - 10 ton

DURATION OF PRESSING - 30 minutes

PAPER'S WET-STRENGTH - Very good


DRYING PROCB){JRES :

TYPE OF DRYING & DETAILS -

AIR: None RESTRAINT: dried in restraint dryer overnight using blotters.

DURATION OF DRYING PERIOD - Overnight

SURFACE FINISH/TEXTURE OF FINISHED SHEET - Medium

DRY SHEET COLOUR - Bright white

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Discolouration on sheets because of dirty blotters.

QUALIIY CONTROL AND YlELD:

AMOUNT OF A GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS) - 30 ±250-300gsm

AMOUNT OF B GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS) - 8 ±250gsm

AMOUNT OF REJECT SHEETS - 2 ±200gsm

FIBRE YIELD (# OF SHEETS PER KILO) - 40 sheets per 2kg of fibre

PRODUCTIVITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (l person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)


CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS (RFPOR T):

- UNIFORMITY / FIBRE DISPERSION: Good

- THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±250-300 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Fast

- STABILITY: Good

- GRAIN DIRECTION: Multi

- ACIDITY & pH: Neutral

- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Few

- RATTLE: Crispy

- STRENGTH: Excellent

- SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS: Smooth and uniform

- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (!\CLLDi\G COLOCR OF P,\PEn.. COLOL·R F,\ST\ESS. ETC): Bright

white, good

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS / RECOMMENDATIONS

Paper was generally very good quality, uniform and had good optical characteristics. 'Roller'

marks need to be controlled, as well as unwanted particles. Sheet forming requires attention.

Thickness/weight, good.

FINAL PAPER SAMPlE:

DATE OF COMPlEIlON :

REsEARCHERS SIGNAlURE :

1 June 2001

4

PRODUCTION DATA SHFEf (PDS)

DEfAll.S OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 4 December 2002


Researcher

BATCH # 01-02-101 & 201

PAPER INFORMATION :


DESCRIPTNE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATIOf\i) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief, Litho & Silk-

screen testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION:

NAME OF RBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) - Cotton: Gossipium Hersupum


FIBRE DESCRIPTION - Long staple cotton that was spun first, then woven into cloth. The



PRB>ARATIONS UNDfRTAKEN:

REnING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

STRIPPING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - ± 6 months after cooking and rinsing

WEIGHT OF DRY RBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY RBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 1 kg

PROBLEMS ENCOUl'HERED/NOTES

The fibre was soaked for such a long period because there were problems with the beater

(roller bent) at the time of preparation. awaiting beater to become operational.

COOKING PROCEDURES:

DURATION OF COOKING - 2 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20% (400 grams)

PROBLEMS ENCOU~TERED/NOTES - None

1

BEATING MElHODS:


TYPE OF BEATER - Hollander Beater (50 litre), A. Moreno design



erly, turned the roll down closer to the bedplate (about 5), and left it for about 10 minutes.

Then turned it down to about 3, for 10 minutes, then to 2 and leave it for another LUmln-

utes. The roll was then lowered to just above 0 for maximum beating. It was then left at this

level until the pulp was in it's desired form.

DURATION OF BEATING - 1 hour

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 50 mls; Aqua pel: 1 cup diluted with 1 litre

of cold water (in tub)

DECKLE BOX TESTS (AMOUNT, DURATION OF INTERVALS & DRYING METHOD) - N/A


Pulp was beaten very quickly as the soaking made the fibre very soft.

SIZING TECHNIQUE:

TYPE OF SIZE - Aqua Pel & Gelatin (various sheets)

METHOD OF APPLICATION -

AQUA PEL: Tub sized GELATIN: Dipped in solution

AMOUNT/RECIPE -

AQUA PEL: 500mls diluted in 1 litre GELATIN: 2.5% solution diluted in boiling water

of water added to tub. =150mls dissolved into 2 litres of boiling

water, then diluted into 4 litres of cold

water. (Total of 6 litres solution which did

±70 A3 papers)

METHOD OF RE-DRYING - Air dried then Pressed for 3 weeks.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - The papers seemed to reject the gelatin solution and

caused a 'sheen' on the surface of the paper

SHEET-FORMING PROCESSES :

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - N/A

FORMATION STYLE - Western with watermarks




SHEET THICKNESS - Varied: ±300-400gsm

AMOUNT OF SHEETS FORMED - 30 sheets

2

WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - White - slightly grey (probably from beater)

DRAINAGE RATE - Medium to slow

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Slipping when couching. Added titanium di-oxide (2

teaspoons) and calcium carbonate (2 tspoons) to vat.


PRESS TYPE & DETAILS - Hydraulic press (20 ton) - J. Robertson design



PAPER'S WET-STRENGTH - Poor


DRYING PROCEDURES :

TYPE OF DRYING & DETAILS - AIR: None

RESTRAINT: Restraint dried 30 sheets in drying system

DURATION OF DRYING PERIOD - Over weekend (3 days)

SURFACE FINISH/TEXTURE OF FINISHED SHEET - medium

DRY SHEET COLOUR - White (dull)


QUAUIY CONTROL AND YIElD:

AMOUNT OF A GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS) - 15

AMOUNT OF B GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS) - 7

AMOUNT OF REJECT SHEETS - 8

FIBRE YIELD (# OF SHEETS PER KILO) - 30 sheets per 1 kg

PRODUCTIVITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (1 person, 8 hrs + 4 hrs)


CONCLUSIVE ANDINGS (REPORT):

- UNIFORMITY / FIBRE DISPERSION: Medium

- THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±300-400 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Fast - STABILITY: Medium

- GRAIN DIRECTION: Multi - ACIDITY & pH: Neutral

- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Yes

- RATTLE: Soft

- STRENGTH: Poor

- SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS: Cotton particles (unbeaten) present

- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC) - Poor (dull)

3

AnomoNAL COMMENTS / RECOMMENDATIONS :

The paper is very soft, poor quality but will undergo various print testing.

FINAL PAPER SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPlEflON :

REsEARCHERS SlGNAl1JRE:

1~_2....,O"",O_3_5~__

~

4

PROnuCOON DATA SHEEr (PDS)DErAILS OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 13-14 February 2003


Researcher

BATCH # 01-03-101 & 201

PAPER INFORMATION:


DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief, Litho & Silk-

screen testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION :

NAME OF FIBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) - Cotton: Gossipium Hersupum





PREPARATIONS UNDERTAKEN:



SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - N/A

WEIGHT OF DRY FIBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY FIBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 1 kg

PROBLEMS ENCOUi'frERED/NOTES - None

COOKING PROCIDURfS :

DURATION OF COOKING - -No cooking procedures under taken

BEATING METHODS:




1

10. Turned the beater on and fed the fibre in slowly. When all the fibre was circulating prop






ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - None



SIZING TECHNIQUE:


METHOD OF APPUCATION-

AQUA PEL: Internal in vat GELATIN: External, dipped

AMOUNT/RECIPE -

AQUA PEL: 1 cup diluted in 1 litre cold GELATIN: Two tablespoons of Gelatin was

water and added to the vat dissolved in hot water then diluted to 2

litres of cool water. The sheets were

dipped in the solution and hung to

to dry (air dried), then mist-sprayed and

re-pressed.

METHOD OF RE-DRYING - Air dried then Pressed for 3 weeks.


SHEEr-FORMING PROCESSES :






SHEET THICK1~ESS - Varied: 00 sheets < 00 gsm; 00 sheets> 00 gsm


WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - White

DRAINAGE RATE - Slow-to-Medium

PROBLEMS ENCOUl\lfERED/NOTES - None

2

lYl/""'\.AJlVlUlVl VVLl\Jlll - ~V lUll


PAPER'S WET-STRENGTH - Medium


DRYING PROCEDURES :


AIR: Loft-dried 5 sheets (individually) RESTRAINT: Restraint dried 20 sheets in

drying system

DURATION OF DRYING PERIOD - Over weekend (2 days)

SURFACE RNISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET - Rough

DRY SHEET COLOUR - Off white


QUALITY CONTROL AND YIElD:

AMOUNT OF A GRADE SHEETS (INCLUDING WEIGHTS) - 20 ±200gsm


AMOUNT OF REJECT SHEETS - 2

FIBRE YIELD (# OF SHEETS PER KILO) - 25 sheets per 1 ko

PRODUCTIVITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 davs per batch (l person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Cotton threads visible in caner

CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS (REPORT):

- UNIFORMITY / RBRE DISPERSION: Good

- THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±200gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Medium

- STABILITY: Good


- ACIDITY & pH: Neutral

- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED tvlATERIALS: Yes

- RATTLE: Crispy

- STRENGTH: Good

- SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS: Threads present - rough

- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC)

Slightly off-white

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS /RECOMMENDATIONS :

Paper is good quality, but has unbeaten cotton particles present. Is very strong.

FINAL PAPER. SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPLEIlON : 17F~:.2003 •

REsEARCHERS SlGNATIJRE: _.;...-.,,---..,.,:;.:;.,."r------

4

PRODUCTION DATA SHEEr (PDS)

DEfAll..S OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 18-20 June 2001


Researcher

BATCH # 02-01-100-201

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Sisal & cotton

DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief & Silkscreen

testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION :

NAME OF RBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) -

FIBRE 1: Cotton: Gossipium Hersupum FIBRE 2: Sisal: Agave Sisalana

FIBRE TYPE -

FIBRE 1; Seed hair FIBRE 2: Leaf (hardy)

FIBRE DESCRIPTION -

FIBRE 1: Cotton rag - Long staple cotton that FIBRE 2: Sisal decorticated Grade A fibre.

was spun first, then woven into cloth. Purch- Dry, decorticated and combed fibre.

ased from G. Fox and Co. Purchased from Rebtex.


PRFPARATIONS UNDERTAKEN:

RETrING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPLICABLE) - N/A


SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - Overnight after cooking

WEIGHT OF DRY RBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY RBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 1 kg of each


1

COOKING PROCEDURES :

DURATION OF COOKING - Cotton: not cooked Sisal: 8 hours

ADDITNES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20% (200 grams for sisal fibre)


BEATING MEllIODS:




10. Turned the beater on and fed the fibre in slowly. When all the fibre was circulating prop





DURATION OF BEATING - 4 1/2 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 50 mls

DECKLE BOX TESTS (AMOUNT, DURATION OF INTERVALS & DRYING METHOD) - 500ml

samples, every half hour, starting after first hour and half of beating. Samples were hot

pressed.


Sisal needed alot of attention when in beater. Kept getting stuck.

SIZING lECHNIQUE:


METHOD OF APPUCATION - GELATIN: Dipped in a bath of solution and 'loft' dried.


of boiling water, then diluted into 4 litres of cold water. (Total of 6 litres solution which did

±70 A3 papers)




ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - NIA





SHEET THICKNESS - Varied: ± 250 gsm - 300 gsm

2


WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Cream









DRYING PROCFDURFS :




SURFACE RNISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET - Medium

DRY SHEET COLOUR - Cream


QUAl1IY CONfROL AND YIELD:





PRODUCTMTY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (1 person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)

PROBLEMS ENCOUi'.'TERED/NOTES - None

CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS (RFPOR T):

- UNIFORMITY / RBRE DISPERSION: Good - THICKNESS/WEIGHT: :t250-300 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Fast - STABILITY: Good


- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Few - RATTLE: Crispy



- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUD!:\G COLOUR OF PAPER. COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC): Cream,

good

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS /RECOMMENDATIONS :

Paper was generally very good quality, uniform and had good optical characteristics. Paper

was a very nice colour. Sheet forming requires some attention. Thickness/weight, good.

FINAL PAPER SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPLETION :

REsfARCHERS SlGNATIJRE:

4

PRODUCIlON DATA SHEEr (PDS)

DETAILS OF REsfARCH :

DATE - 5 February 2002


Researcher

BATCH # 02-02-101 & 201

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Sisal & cotton

DESCRIPTNE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief & Silkscreen

testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FmRE INFORMATION:

NAME OF FIBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) -


FIBRE TYPE-

FIBRE 1: Seed hair FIBRE 2: Leaf (hardy)

FIBRE DESCRIPTION -





PREPARATIONS UNDERTAKEN:



SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - 2 months after cooking

WEIGHT OF DRY FIBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY FIBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 1 kg each fibre


None

1


DURATION OF COOKING - Sisal: 8 hours; Cotton: 1 hour

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20% (100 grams) for each fibre


BFATING MEfHODS :




10. Turned the beater on and fed the fibre in slowly. When all the fibre was circulating

properly, turned the roll down closer to the bedplate (about 5), and left it for about half an

hour. Then turned it down to about 3, for 20 minutes, then to 2 and leave it for another

45minutes. After an hour and a half (all the above times added), the roll was lowered to just

above 0 for maximum beating. It was then left at this level until the pulp was in it's desired

form.


ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 30 mls: Aqua pel: 1 cup diluted with 1 litre

of cold water



STlING TECHNIQUE:


METHOD OF APPUCATION - GELATIN: Dipped in a bath of solution and 'loft' dried.



±70 A3 papers)











2

WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Light cream



PRESSING AND PARfING:




PAPER'S WET-STRENGTH - Good


DRYING PROCFDURES :

TYPE OF DRYING & DETAILS-

AIR: 5 sheets loft dried RESTRAINT: dried in restraint dryer overnight using blotters.


SURFACE FINISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET - Medium to rough


PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Air dried samples contained a rougher surface tex-

ture and contained a more impervious surface.

QUALJIY CONTROL AND YIElD:





PRODUCTIVITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCrU - 1.5 days per batch (1 person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)


CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS (RFPORT):

- UNIFORMITY / RBRE DISPERSION: Good - THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ± 180-200 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Fast - STABILITY: Good


- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Few - RATTLE: Crispy

- STRENGTH: Good


- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (L,CLL:DI'\G COLOUR OF PAPER. COLOUR FASE\ESS. ETC): Cream,

good

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS /RECOMMENDATIONS

Paper was generally good quality, uniform and had good optical characteristics. Sheet form

ing and beating procedures requires some attention. Thickness/weight, good. Surface tex

ture was a bit rough.

FINAL PAPER SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPtEIlON :

REsEARCHERS SlGNAlURE:

4

PROOOCfION DATA SHFET (PDS)

DETAILS OF REsfARCH :



Researcher

BATCH # 02-03-103

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Sisal and Cotton

DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPLICATION) - Paper for Intaglio Relief, & Silkscreen

testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION :

NAME OF HBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) -


FIBRE TYPE-

FIBRE 1: Seed hair FIBRE 2: Leaf (hardy)

FIBRE DESCRIPTION -





PRB>ARATIONS UNDERTAKEN:



SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - Cooked sisal fibre was soaked for 1 months prior to beat-

ing. Cotton was soaked for 2 months prior to beating.

WEIGHT OF DRY HBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPLICABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY HBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 1 kg of each fibre


Fibre was rinsed prior to beating

1


DURATION OF COOKING - Cotton: not cooked Sisal: 8 hours

ADDITNES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20% (200 grams for sisal fibre)


BEATING MEfHODS:








ofor maximum beating. It was then left at this level until the pulp was in it's desired form.


ADDITNES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 50 mls; Aqua pel: 1 cup diluted with 1 litre

of cold water



Fibre in beater was getting stuck in backfall and has a backwash at the intake. Beater has

problem with design. Suggestions have been addressed with Antonio.

SIZING TECHMQUE:


METHOD OF APPLICATION-

AQUA PEL: Internal in beater GELATIN: External, dipped

AMOUNT/RECIPE -

AQUA PEL: 1 cup diluted in 1 litre cold water GELATIN: Two tablespoons of gelatin was

and added during last beating cycle with the dissolved in hot water then diluted to 2

roller up high (not beating) litres of cool water. The sheets were dipp-

ed in the solution and hung to dry (air

dried), then mist-sprayed and re-pressed.

METHOD OF RE-DRYING - Mist-sprayed and flattened in hydraulic press overnight. Then

air dried and pressed for 3 weeks.


None

2


ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - N/A FORMATION STYLE - Western

SHEET SIZE - A3 size (297mm x 420mm) GRAIN DIRECTION - Multi-directional




WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Yellow



Pulp was sliding when couching. Used Gail Deery's method of stacking felt on sides of wet

sheets to aid in this problem. Technique worked well.

PRESSING AND PARfING:






Some papers were destroyed while pressing. This could be because the pulp was quite slip-

pery and were not pressed slowly enough, causing papers to 'explode'. Pressing was done

carefully after this problem was noted with significant improvement.

DRYING PROCFDURES :


AIR: 5 sheets loft dried RESTRAINT: dried in restraint dryer ovemight using blotters.


SURFACE RNISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET - Medium to rough


PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Air dried samples contained a rougher surface tex-

ture and contained a more impervious surface.

QUALJIY CONlROL AND YIELD:





PRODUCTIVITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (I person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)


3


- UNIFORMITY / RBRE DISPERSION: Good - THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±200 gms

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Slow - STABILITY: Good


- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Yes - RATTLE: Crispy

- STRENGTH: Medium - SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS: Uniform

- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC) - Good

ADDmoNAL COMMENTS /RECOMMENDATIONS :

Paper was generally very good quality, uniform and had good optical characteristics. Sheet

forming requires some attention. Thickness/weight needs to be improved.

FINAL PAPER SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPLETION : 17 February 2003

REseARCHERS SlGNAnJRE~--Z""'4----

PRODUCflON DATA SHEEr (PDS)




Researcher

BATCH # 03-01-103

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - None

DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief & Silkscreen

testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION:

NAME OF FIBRE - Cotton Rag half stuff (purchased from Carriage House Paper Supplies,

2002).

BOTANICAL NAME - Cotton: Gossipium



cotton has been cooked and partially beaten. Purchased in compressed sheet form. Each

sheet weighs ±200gms. (10 sheets per package, totalling 2 kgs [4 liz Ibs] ). 3 sheets were

used in this batch = 600gms

DATE HARVESTED (IF APPUCABLE) - N/A

PREPARATIONS UNDER TAKEN :

HETTING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE) - N/A

STRIPPING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE) - N/A

SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - Soaked half-stuff 1 hour before beating

WEIGHT OF DRY FIBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPUCABLE) - N/A

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY FIBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 600 gms


Fibre swelled quite alot - beater's capacity is less than initially thought (was going to put 5

sheets into beater 50 litre Hollander Beater).

COOKING PROCBXJRES :

DURATION OF COOKING - 0 hours (pre-cooked by manufacturer)

1

BFATING METHODS:





erly, turned the roll down closer to the bedplate (about 5), and left it for about 15 minutes.


utes. The roll was lowered to just above 0 for maximum beating. It was then left at this level

until the pulp was in it's desired form.Total duration of beating was 1 hour and 40 minutes

DURATION OF BEATING - 1 hour, 40 minutes

ADDITNES & AMOUNT - Calcium Carbonate: 50 mls; Aqua pel: 1 cup diluted with 1 litre

of cold water


PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Beater had dark banana pulp in previous load. Specs

of banana were present in final sheets.

SIZING TECHNIQUE:


METHOD OF APPUCATION -

AQUA PEL: Internal in beater GELATIN: External, dipped

AMOUNT/RECIPE -

AQUA PEL: 1 cup diluted in 1 litre cold water GELATIN: Two tablespoons of Gelatin was

and added during last beating cycle with the dissolved in hot water then diluted to 2

roller up high (not beating) litres of cool water.The sheets were dipped

in the solution and hung to dry.

METHOD OF RE-DRYING - Air dried then mist-sprayed and flattened in hydraulic press

overnight.





SHEET SIZE - A3 size (297mrn x 420mm)

GRAIN DIRECfION - Multi-directional




2

WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Bright white


PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Sheets had alot of unwanted particles present - from

previous pulp in beater and dirty studio equipment


PRESS TYPE & DETAILS - Hydraulic press (10 ton) - A. Moreno design Oack on top)





DRYING PROCEDURES :

TYPE OF DRYING & DETAILS-



SURFACE RNISH/TEXTURE OF RNISHED SHEET - Medium

DRY SHEET COLOUR - Bright white

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - None.

QUAUIY CONlROL AND YIELD:



A!\10UNT OF REJECT SHEETS - 2 ± 180gsm


PRODUCTMTY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (1 person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)



- UNIFORMITY / HBRE DISPERSION: Good - THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±250-300 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY; Fast - STABIUTY: Good


- PRESENCE OF UI'.WANTED MATERIALS: Few - RATTLE: Crispy



- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (INCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC); Bright

white, good

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS / RECOMMENDATK>NS :

Paper was of a very good quality, uniform and had good optical characteristics. Sheet form

ing was quite easy. Thickness/weight, good.

FINAL PAPER SAMPLE:

DATE OF COMPLEl1ON: 2~ Fe~/:::::2-

REsEARCHERS SIGNATIJRE • . 'i .

~

4

PRODUCIlON DATA SHF£f (PDS)

DErAIlS OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 4-7 June 2001


Researcher

BATCH # 03-02-100 & 201

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Cotton Bast

DESCRIPTIVE NAME (SUGGESTED APPUCATION) - Paper for Intaglio, Relief & Silk-screen

testing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FIBRE INFORMATION:

NAME OF FIBRE (BOTANICAL & COMMON) - Cotton: Gossipium Hersupum

FIBRE TYPE - Bast and rag sheet pulp (quarter sheet)

FIBRE DESCRIPTION - The inner bark of the cotton plant. The fibre is stripped after the ret-

ting process by steaming the fibre. The outer bark can be washed off

the larger stalks.

DATE HARVESTED (IF APPUCABLE) - 24 May 2001

PREPARATkJNS UNDERTAKEN :

RETTING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE) - Cold water retting

STRIPPING PROCESS & DETAILS (IF APPUCABLE) - Steamed fibre for 1 hour

SOAKING PERIOD & DETAILS - Overnight

WEIGHT OF DRY FIBRE (BEFORE STRIPPING, IF APPUCABLE) - 3.5kg's

WEIGHT OF USEABLE DRY FIBRE (BEFORE COOKING & BEATING) 2 kg's

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Bark was not scraped off. Stripping was easy. Fibre

yield was good (ie: 1.5kg's of useable fibre from 3.5kg's)


DURATION OF COOKING - 2 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Soda ash 20% (200 grams)


Only utilised 1 kg of the useable fibre. Outer bark seemed to rub off easier after cooking

process (during rinsing).

1

BEATING MElHODS:





erly, turned the roll down closer to the bedplate (about 5), and left it for about ten minutes.


utes. After a half hour, the roll was lowered to just above 0 for maximum beating. It was

then left at this level until the pulp was in it's desired form.

DURATION OF BEATING - 1.5 hours

ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Formation aid: 2 cups

DECKLE BOX TESTS (AMOUNT, DURATION OF INTERVALS & DRYING METHOD)- 500ml samples,

every half hour, starting after first hour and half of beating. Samples were hot pressed.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Fibre beat very quickly. lifted roller after 1 hour.

Beater test showed good formation and fibre furnish.

SIZING lECHNIQUE:


METHOD OF APPLICATION - GELATIN: Dipped in a bath of solution and 'loft' dried.

AMOUNT/RECIPE - 2.5% solution diluted in boiling water =150mls dissolved into 2litres


±70 A3 papers)

METHOD OF RE-DR'rlNG - Air dried then pressed.



ADDITIVES & AMOUNT - Formation aid, 4 cups FORMATION STYLE - Western

SHEET SIZE - A3 size (297mm x 420mm) GRAIN DIRECTION - Multi-directional

DECKLE EDGES - 4 true deckle edges (to A3 sheets) SHEET THICKNESS - Varied: ± 180

gsm - 200 gsm

AMOUNT OF SHEETS FORMED - ±22 sheets

WET SHEET (PULP) COLOUR - Medium to dark brown with specs


PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - Pulp did not seem beaten well enough. Formation

was difficult and drainage was slow. Lots of air bubbles present when couching. Left over

pulp was reserved for future use (frozen). Outer bark resulted in the dark brown specs. This

is undesirable for printmaking papers.

2

PREssING AND PARTING:

PRESS TYPE & DETAILS - Hydraulic press (10 ton) - A. Moreno design (jack on top)





DRYING PROCEDURES :




SURFACE FINISH/TEXTURE OF FINISHED SHEET - Medium

DRY SHEET COLOUR - Brown

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED/NOTES - None.

QUALIfY CONfROL AND YIELD:




FIBRE YIELD (# OF SHEETS PER KILO) - Unknown (never finished pulp)

PRODUCTNITY (TIME PERIOD PER BATCH) - 1.5 days per batch (1 person - 8 hrs + 4 hrs)


CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS (RB'OR T):

- UNIFORMITY / FIBRE DISPERSION: Poor

- THICKNESS/WEIGHT: ±150 gsm

- RATE OF ABSORBENCY: Slow

- STABIUTY: Good


- ACIDITY & Pll: Unknown

- PRESENCE OF UNWANTED MATERIALS: Yes (brown specs)

- RATTLE: Crispy

- STRENGTH: Good


- OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS (I0iCLUDING COLOUR OF PAPER, COLOUR FASTNESS, ETC): Brown,

poor.

3

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS / RECOMMENDATIONS

Fibre could be bleached to achieve a lighter colour. Beating should be longer. Try brushing

outer bark away after cooking process. Mix with a higher percentage of cotton rag for

papers for printmaking purposes.

FINAL PAPfR SAMPlE:

DATE OF COMPLEIlON :

REsEARCHERS SlGNAlURE:

4

AoomoNAL COMMENTS / RECOMMENDATIONS

Fibre could be bleached to achieve a lighter colour. Beating should be longer. Try brushing

outer bark away after cooking process. Mix with a higher percentage of cotton rag for

papers for printmaking purposes.

FINAL PAPER SAMPlE:

DATE OF COMPl..ETlON :

REsEARCHERS SlGNAllJRE:

4

ANNEXURE C

INK ABSORPTION TESTS AND RESULTS

PDS SAMPLE ANALYSIS #1DETAD..S OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 1 - 9 March 2003

NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, 1WR PROU: MTech Researcher

TEST- InkAbsorption Test

01:.01-100Cotton 100%

10

·01-03-101Cotton 100%

01-01~100-201

Cotton 100%

·01':03-101-201Cotton 100%

01-02-101Cotton 100%

01-03-101Cotton 100%

. 01-02-101-201Cotton 100%

01-03-101-201Cotton 100%

02-02-101-201Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

02-02-101Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

02-01-100-201Cotton 50% Sisal 5()OAJ

02-01-100Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

o

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

02~03-101Cotton 50% Sisal50%

02-03-101-201Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

03-01-101Sheet pulp

03-01-101-201Sheet pulp

03-02-100Cotton Bast 100%

03-02-100-201Cotton Bast100%

03-03-100Sisal 100%

03-03-100-201Sisal 100%

04-02-000Dutch cotton

samples

I 04-01-000Dutch cotton

samples

03-04-101-201Cotton 50%Hessian 50%

03-04-101Cotton 50%Hessian 50%

....-, .' ....._",-',; ,.~_ ...'.

~-;='~:J

)\,!' ,

5

7

8

9

4

6

2

3

o

10

04-06-000Rosapina

04-05-000Arches Rives

-

04-04-000Fabriano

kl d04-03-000

Hahnemuhle

4

9

8

5

2

3

o

10

PDS SAMPLE ANALYSIS #1DETAILS OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 8 March 2003

NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - BronwynMarshall, 1WR PRDU: MTech Researcher

TEST - InkAbsorption Test - Cross Hatch Test

-01-01-100

Cotton 100%

*01-03-101Cotton 100%

02-01-100Cotton 50% Sisal 500A!

02-03-101Cotton 50%Sisal50%

-01-01-100-201Cotton 100%

*01-03-101-201Cotton 100%

02-01-100-201Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

02-03-101-201Cotton 50% Sisal 50%

01-02-101Cotton 100%

01-03-101Cotton 100%

02-02-101Cotton 50% Sisal 500A!

03-01-101Sheet pulp

01':02-101-201Cotton 100%

01-03-101-201Cotton 100%

02-02-101-201Cotton 50%Sisal500A!

03-01-101-201Sheet pulp

L..===::=.::--=-~- --- --- ----03-02-100

Cotton Bast 100%

03-04-101Cotton 50%Hessian 50%

04-03-000Hahnemuhle

03-02-100-201Cotton Bast 100%

03-04-101-201Cotton 50%Hessian 50%

-04-04-000Fabriano

03-03-100Sisal 100%


samples

-04-05-000

Arches Rives

03-03-100-201Sisal 100%


samples

04-06-000Rosapina

ANNEXURE D

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHFETS

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHFET

DETAILS OF REsEARCH:

DATE - 25 March 2003

NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, 1WR PRDU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-03-100

PAPER INFORMATION •.NAME OF PAPER - Canson Aquarelle Arches (Shop code 4018)

RETAILER - Herbert Evans, Fourways Crossing

PRICE - R35-95 per sheet (+ 20% discount)

DESCRIPTIVE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For monoprinting, relief, silkscreen printing,

litho and intaglio processes

TYPE OF PAPER

- CATEGORY: Mouldmade

- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FURNISH - 100% cotton

DRYING - Air-dried

SIZING - Internally and externally tub-sized with natural gelatin

STABIUfY AND GRAIN DIRECTION - Unknown

pH - acid free

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABLE) - Watermarked 'Arches FRANCE'

DECKLE EDGES - 2 natural deckle edges, 2 tom

SURFACE FlNISH - NOT (cold pressed-irregular texture) also available in H.P.

WEIGHT- 185gsm (also available in 4 other weights, 300, 256, 640 + 850gsm)

DIMENTIONS (SIZE) - 56 x 76cm

COLOUR - Creamy white

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Contains an anti-fungus treatment. Both sides are useable. Stretches easily.

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN - France, Canson Mill (belonging to Arches, France)

ADDmONAL COMMENTS / NOTES -

Watermark on this paper has a small 'z' below - meaning unknown (no infinity symbol 00 present).

Maintained soft surface, low absorption. The sheets are hand inspected.

SUPPLIER RATING:

PAPER SAMPlE: 8800 Absorbency

8880 Speed of absorbency

8800 Wet strength

8880 Amount of size

8800 Ease of correction

8800 Whiteness

8800 Roughness

8.00 Uniformity of texture

~~-------------------

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHEEr



NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, TWR PROU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-04-100

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Fabriano Tiepolo (Shop code 4068)

RETAILER - Herbert Evans, Forways Crossing


DESCRIPTIVE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For all printing processes

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove


DRYING - Unknown

SIZING - Internally sized

STABIUTY AND GRAIN DIRECTION -

pH - acid free

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABLE) - Watermarked 'C.M.F' hand-written with a star symbol * on top of

the lettering, enclosed in a hand drawn circle (evidently made from

wire) on the botton right hand comer.

DECKlE EDGES - 2 natural deckle edges, 2 false

SURFACE ANISH - NOT (cold pressed) also available in H.P. and ROUQh

WEIGHT- 300gsm (also available in 2 other weiqhts, 200+600gsm)


COLOUR - Refined white

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Unknown

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN - Italy, Cartiere Miliani Fabriano


This mill has a reputation for the papers reliability, consistency and beauty. This grade is used mainly

for special editions but is suitable for all types of printmaking. S~ RATING: UNKNOWN

PAPER SAMPLE: 0000 Absorbency


0000 Wet strength

0000 Amount of size


0000 WhitenessI 0000 Roughness

0000 Uniformity of texture

. -"-'---".>'"~'__>O'~"" ___ ' ___ '_"'""~__"_ -----.- ._._--.._.,_._----_._--_._ .._-~_._.,~_._-_.~_...._- r'\ r-; r-; r-. r.nc::t

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHEET

DETAH.S OF REsEARCH:


NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, TWR PRDU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-05-100

PAPER INFORMATION:

NAME OF PAPER - Fabriano Artistico (Shop code 4073)

RETAIlER - Herbert Evans, Rosebank


DESCRIPTIVE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For relief, intaglio & silkscreen printing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/lAID: Wove

FURNISH - 100% cotton linters

DRYING - Unknown

SIZING - Surface sized

STABIUTY AND GRAIN DIRECTION - Stable, non-directional - short grain

pH - acid free (protected against aQing)

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABlE) - Watermarked 'C.M.FABRIAN0-100/100 COTION' running along

the sides of the sheet

DECKlE EDGES - 2 natural deckle edges, 2 torn

SURFACE RNISH - NOT (cold pressed-distictive) also available in H.P. and Rough

WEIGHT- 300gsm (also available in 2 other weights, 200 + 600gsm)


COLOUR - Off-white

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Tough and absorbent, cockles when wet and benefits from being stretched.



This mill has a reputation for the papers reliability, consistency and beauty. Surface resembles an

artists canvas.

SUPPlIER RATING:

PAPFR SAMPLE: ••00 Absorbency

••00 Speed of absorbency

••00 Wet strength

••• 0 Amount of size

••00 Ease of correction

.000 Whiteness

••00 Roughness

•••• Uniformity of texture--------- ~--------~~------- -'"' '"' '"' r'n",t

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHFEf



NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, lWR PRDU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-06-100

PAPER INFORMATION·.NAME OF PAPER - Fabriano Rosapina (Shop code 4070-ivory, F23051C-white)

RETAILER - Herbert Evans, Rosebank [ivory], X Press Graph X [white]

PRICE - R32-40 per sheet (+ 20% discount) Ivory, R42-24 per sheet White

DESCRIPTNE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For all lithography, screen printing and relief

processes

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/lAID: Wove

FURNISH - 40% cotton, 60% wood free paper

DRYING - Unknown


STABIUfY AND GRAIN DIRECTION '-

pH - Neutral pH

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABLE) - Watermarked 'm FABRIANO' running on the sides of the paper.

DECKLE EDGES - 2 natural deckle edges, 2 cut

SURFACE RNISH - Unknown (smooth)

WEIGHT- ????? gsm (also available in 2 other weights, 200+600gsm)


COLOUR - Ivory and white

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Unknown


ADDmONAL COMMENTS / NOTES-

This mill has a reputation for the papers reliability, consistency and beauty. This paper is also avail-

able in a waterleaf that is particularly suitable for intaglio (should be soaked not sprayed).

SUPPLIER RATING: UNKNOWN

PAPER SAMPlE: 0000 Absorbency


0000 Wet strength

0000 Amount of size


0000 Whiteness

0000 Roughness

0000 Uniformity of texture

MOULDMADE SPECIFICATIONS DATA SHEET



NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, 1WR PRDU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-07-100

PAPER INFORMATK>N :

NAME OF PAPER - Bockingford (Shop code 98900)

RETAII.ER - Le Papier, Benmore Gardens

PRICE - R20 per sheet (on special - last stock)

DESCRIPTIVE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For embossing & relief processes

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove

FURNISH - 100% High quality wood pulp (Photographic type) from sustainable forests

DRYING - Unknown


STABIUTY AND GRAIN DIRECTION - Stable, non-directional - short grain

pH - acid free, Nuetral pH

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABLE) - None

DECKLE EDGES - 4 cut edges

SURFACE ANISH - NOT (cold pressed) Slightly textured

WEIGHT- 300gsm (also available in 4 other weights, 150, 190,425 + 535gsm)


COLOUR - Off-white, free from optical brighteninq agents and colour stable

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Resists cockling and distortion, stretches well, easy to use and is forgiving

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN - England, St Cuthberts Mill, Somerset


A renowned economical grade particularly suitable for students. Paper is buffered with Calcium

Carbonate, which gives it its archival permanence and protection against encironmental contamina-

tion.SUPPLIER RATING:

PAPER SAMPLE: ••00 Absorbency


•••0 Wet strength

••00 Amount of size

•••• Ease of correction

•••0 Whiteness

••00 Roughness

•••0 Uniformity of texture

.000 Cost

MOULDMADE SPECIRCATIONS DATA SHEET



NAME AND DETAILS OF RESEARCHER - Bronwyn Marshall, TWR PRDU: MTech Researcher

BATCH # 04-08-100

PAPER INFORMATION •.NAME OF PAPER - Saunders Waterford (Shop code 3402)

RETAILER - Herbert Evans, Fourways Crossing

PRICE- R34-10 per sheet (+ 20% discount)

DESCRIPTIVE NAME / SUGGESTED APPUCATION - For monoprinting, embossing, litho &

silkscreen printing

TYPE OF PAPER


- WOVE/LAID: Wove


DRYING - Unknown

SIZING - Internally and surface sized with qelatin

STABIUTY AND GRAIN DIRECTION ,- Stable, non-directional - short orain

pH - acid free, buffered with Calcium Carbonate

WATERMARK (IF APPUCABLE) - Watermarked 'SAUNDERS WATERFORD' and embossed (chop-

marked) with the St. Cuthberts Mill 10QO in one comer

DECKLE EDGES - 2 natural deckle edges, 2 torn

SURFACE ANISH - Rough (cold pressed) also available in H.P.

WEIGHT- 1909sm (also available in 3 other weights, 300, 536 + 638gsm)


COLOUR - Creamy off-white

SPECIAL PROPERTIES - Good surface strength, resistant to lift and cockling, does not feather.

COUNTRY OF ORIGIN - England, St Cuthberts Mill, Somerset


The premium quality paper of St. Cuthberts Mill. Good for 2 and 3 plate intaglio printmaking. Good

stretch, both sides of paper is useable. SumJER RATING:

PAPER SAMPlE: ••00 Absorbency


•••0 Wet strength

•••0 Amount of size

••00 Ease of correction

••00 Whiteness

••00 Roughness

••00 Uniformity of texture---------.__..- +---_.. "-- -_.._--------_ .. _----------_._---------._.'-._..- -_ .. _"-_._------ ...... " r.nc::t

ANNEXURE E

SAPPI TEST RESULTS

SAPPI Test Results

Grammage Tearing Bursting Tensile Stretch TEA pHTests ... Resistance Strength Strength..Paper

+(Batches)01-01-100 228gsm 1990mN 452kPa - - - 4.8

01-01-100-201 - 3037mN - 12.11 N/mm 6.233 % 536.1 J/m"2 -01-02-101 377gsm 982mN 169kPa - - - 5.4

01-02-101-201 - 444mN - 2.467N/mm 1.339 % 19.72 J/m"2 -01-03-101 - 1148mN - 2.149 N/mm 3.592% 46.98 J/m"2 -

01-03-101-201 157gsm 2021mN 443kPa - - - 4.2

02-01-100 246gsm 2857mN 343kPa - - - 4.8

02-01-100-201 - 3678mN - 11.41 N/mm 5.753 % 450.7 J/m"2 -02-02-101 128gsm 3126mN 289kPa - - - 5.4

02-02-101-201 - 2367mN - 4.625N/mm 4.910% 153.9 J/m"2 -02-03-101 187gsm 3007mN 451kPa 5.527 N/mm 4.060% 158.4 J/m"2 5.4

02-03-101-201 - 3706mN - 7.692N/mm 4.890% 270.8 J/m"2 -03-01-101 228gsm 3155mN 388kPa 4.79ON/mm 4.927 % 171.7 J/m"2 5.4

03-01-101-201 - 1798mN - - - - -03-02-100 85gsm 1670mN 222kPa 2.616N/mm 1.930 % 32.40 J/m"2 /

03-04-101 164gsm 1702mN 255kPa 3.65ON/mm 3.312 % 83.23 J/m"2 /

04-01-000 208gsm 2335mN 473kPa - - - /

04-02-000 236gsm 1766mN 320kPa - - - /

04-03-100 185gsm 1247mN 376kPa 5.120 N/mm 3.380% 127.5 J/m"2 5.0

04-04-100 300gsm - - - - - -04-05-100 300gsm - - - - - -04-06-100 300gsm 1410mN 271kPa 8.760N/mm 1.840 % 107.0 J/m"2 5.2

04-07-100 300gsm - - - - - -04-08-100 1909sm 1115mN 360kPa 3.79ON/mm 6.307 % 186.9 J/m"2 5.2

ANNEXURE F

PROPOSED BUSINESS PlAN FOR IMPLEMENTATIONIN PIiuMANI PROJECTS

Proposed Business Plan

for Implementing Archival Hand Papermaking

into Selected Projects of Phumani Paper

Contact Person/s: Kim Berman; Bronwyn Marshall.

Address: Technikon Witwatersrand, Marydale Basement, Doornfontein Campus, 37

Nind Streeet, Johannesburg.

Postal Address: PO Box 17011, Doornfontein, 2028.

Tel: (011) 406-8111 Fax: (011) 406-8112

Date: 24 March 2003

Executive Summary

The Technikon Witwatersrand Papennaking Research and Development Unit (TWR

PRDU) has contributed to the sustainability of Phumani Paper through research, product

design, extensive training, business management skills and self empowerment, The TWR

has developed its capacity of students and community artists into specialists in the field of

hand-papennaking. The research of Mtech student B. Marshall into archival hand

papennaking can now be implemented into Phumani Projects as the market potential has

been identified.

The business objectives include sustainability of various Phumani projects through

developing innovative and advanced technology, building the TWR's capacity, improving

product quality, streamlining production and identifying market potential. The archival

paper product will provide lower cost opportunities, be readily and locally available to the

market, and will beeco-friendly and combat certain waste issues. The market that has been

identified is very large and can service the projects in its entirety, if successful. There is

also room for growth in expanding the product ranges and out-sourcing the orders to other

SMME's of Phumani Paper.

Introduction

The TWR PRDU began operating in 1997 with consecutive grants from the National

Research Foundation (ex Centre for Science Development), developing into a viable

resource for the Technikon. Government - through the Department of Science and

technology, has since demonstrated much interest in supporting the unit by funding the

Poverty ReliefPapennaking Project, Phumani Paper, at the TWR. The project has

currently set up 20 rural development papennaking projects across the country, creating

1

jobs for over 400 previously unemployed women, youth and men in South Africa. Part of

the Units' purpose is to contribute to the sustainability of these projects through research,

product design, extensive training, business management skills and self empowerment.

Through managing this project, the Technikon has developed the capacity of students and

community artists into specialists in the field of hand-papennaking. This business proposal

for archival hand papennaking can beimplemented into the potentially sustainable

SMME's of Phurnani Paper, thereby developing this industry in South Africa and

contributing to job creation.

As the PRDU at the Technikon expanded, Masters students were able to specialise in paper

research that targets certain issues that impact on and in our immediate environment. One

issue that took priority was to investigate the properties, use and production of archival

handmade papers to service local artists and students. The bulk of archival papers and

products available on the South African market are currently manufactured overseas and

imported to our country. Because of importing costs and current exchange rates, these

papers are difficult to source and are costly to the South African market. Although this

research has an artistic focus, the National Archives of South Africa have expressed an

interest in the product that could be adapted to suite their requirements.

The need for a locally manufactured product of this nature is important for developing

South Africa's economy and can be achieved by supporting the Poverty Relief Projects of

Phumani Paper. The production of archival paper by hand could assist in Projects

sustainability by providing an existing market requiring much needed service.

ObjectivesThe business will aim at producing a local handmade equivalent to imported archival

papers and products that will lower the cost and increase the availability of the product

to the local market.

Because this product can bemade from certain natural raw materials, with little or no

addition of harmful chemicals, another objective of the business is to encourage local

environmental conservation. Because of the importance of the use of certain fibres in

the textile industry, the business will target utilising the waste produced from these

products. For instance, ginned cotton has countless uses for textiles and is therefore not

targeted for papermaking, but rather cotton rag waste produced by society in order to

combat waste issues in suburban areas.

The handmade paper industry in South Africa is growing rapidly. This is evident by the

amount of handmade paper available in local craft and gift stores. However, the market

2

is becoming flooded by poor quality recycled papers, as this is generally what is

available (quality handmade papers are imported). Therefore, the need for product

specification in projects of Phumani Paper was important for sustaining hand

papermaking and the interest by industry in creating a quality product with a new

market and export possibilities.

The PRDU can be re-focussed as a high-end production mill andresearch facility that

builds the capacity of Phumani projects through its students and community artists. It

will also work with industry and network with international organisations to develop

this product and keep up with current international trends.

The PRDU can also focus its attention on developing new and advanced technology in

order to streamline production systems of Phumani projects.

Beneficiaries

The production of this product will benefit the following projects and organisations:

The Bosele Papermaking Project, in Lehurutshe, North West Province, has been

identified to produce the archival paper.

The Kutlwano Paper Project, in Welkom, Freestate, has been identified to produce the

archival products (i.e, boxes, folders, etc).

The TWR PRDU will supply Bosele with the sheet pulps required to produce the

archival paper.

Market PotentialThe market potential and commercial viability of a locally manufactured archival paper

product has vast opportunities. Due to its nature as a local handmade craft item, the cost of

production and transport is lowered considerably compared with the imported product.

This is cost effective to the consumer and increases it's commercial viability in both local

and international markets, as all archival products are imported from British or American

sources. As previously stated, the National Archives of South Africa has expressed a great

interest in the local manufacturing of this product, and has mentioned that other African

Archives would support an initiative of this nature due to its feasibility.

These markets are very large and would keep the projects in full production without

requiring any further markets for building the business. If the initial product is successful,

the market could expand its range and assist in supporting and sustaining other SMME's of

Phumani Paper (the business will focus on producing a minimum amount of products to

begin with).

3

If required, future product and market potential can result in the projects producing other

archival paper products that cater for other smaller industries, such as the art and creative

markets, (e.g. Artists paper for printing).

Product Specifications

Its status as an environmentally sound product manufactured from cotton waste material

ensures its longevity and assists in combating various waste issues we face daily in South

Africa. The production will utilise hospital sheeting and can include various invasive plant

material in order to provide a uniquely South African product which can be marketable to

overseas countries.

Sheet pulps are dry, compressed (heavy-weight) sheets which can be used directly in

papermaking, by hydrating them with water in a very basic mixer-type device. These sheet

pulps contain fibres which have undergone some form of pre-processing like

cutting/stripping, cooking, rinsing and beating processes. They are not considered useable

sheets of paper, but are pre-processed pulps for the production of specialised papers and

products. When produced, they will be available in one size only (66Omm x 23Omm) in a

very heavy grammage (still to be determined by research currently being conducted). The

sheet pulp will contain a TWR 'chop' (i.e. embossed logo) in order to identify the

authentication of the product as meeting the required archival standards.

The paper that will be produced will be available in A2 and A3 size only, depending on the

box/folder requirements of the National Archives. The pulp will be dyed a certain colour in

order to identify the paper and provide project and product identity. The product will carry

the 'Proudly South African' logo.

Boxes and folders to be produced are unknown at this stage (awaiting confirmation of

product specifications from National Archives). All the products will be die-cut and

laminated with the archival paper, meeting the required archival standards of the National

Archives of South Africa.

PriceThe price of the archival paper and product is still to be determined (still in a process of

research, determining production costs, overheads, etc). However, from consultation with

the National Archives (on imported product costs) and with extensive experience in the

field, we are confident that the products can be produced at a lower cost to the imported

product and in line with the customers price requirements.

4

Distribution and delivery

A distribution strategy will be developed in order to ensure an efficient and reliable

production and delivery process to meet company and customer standards. This strategy

will be developed according to the organisational plan (below-pg 6-7):

1. TWR will have to source raw materials eg cotton waste locally in Johannesburg.

2. Sheet pulp will be delivered to Lehurutshe, from TWR PRDU.

3. Paper will be transported from Lehurutshe and delivered to Welkom,

4. Die-cut boxes and materials will be sourced in Welkom, and final products would have

to be delivered to the National Archives project in Pilgrims Rest, Mpumulanga (pilot

project), as well as other projects of the National Archives requiring the products.

Networks & Partnerships

Various networks and partnerships will be established through the production of this

product:

Networking will take place on various levels:

TWR PRDU will collaborate with SAPPI for testing & endorsement of product;

TWR PRDU will work very closely with the National Archives of South Africa for

product specialisation and customisation;

TWR PRDU willliase and network with various international experts in the field for

streamlining and optimising production and ensuring the quality of product;

TWR PRDU will work in partnership with the selected SMME's of Phumani Paper to

ensure efficiency, productivity, development, growth and quality of the product/s

during implementation and production.

TWR PRDU will form strong links with Mapepa (c/o Walter Ruprecht), a rural

development project of Zimbabwe, to share markets, technology and product potential.

Partnerships between:

TWR and CSIR will be established in order to ensure the objectives of the individual

organisations have been reached;

TWR and SAPPI will be established in order to ensure that the endorsement of product

and the relevant testing can be completed;

TWR and National Archives of South Africa will be established in order to ensure

market stability and sustainability of the archival paper initiative.

Organisational PlanThe viability of manufacturing a product of this nature on a local scale is to produce a

handmade equivalent which meets the required archival standards. This goal can be

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achieved through careful analysis of the properties and additives to the paper, as well as

constant monitoring of the papermaking procedures. There are various critical stages in the

papermaking process which could affect the pH and longevity of the paper, which will

therefore result in the following organisational plan:

Pulp Pre-processing Unit:

Because archival papermaking is so specialised and requires constant monitoring, testing

and quality control, the pre-processing of the paper pulp would be undertaken at the

Technikon Papermaking Research and Development Unit. The pre-processing of archival

pulp is done by means of manufacturing the cotton rag into sheet pulps, which can be

transported to the projects in dry, compressed sheets. These sheets can be re-hydrated

using less sophisticated papermaking equipment, which cannot effect the quality of the

pulp.

This process of sheet pulp manufacturing involves the sourcing and purchasing of the raw

fibre (which individual projects do not have the capacity to undertake due to their remote

geographic locations), preparing and beating the rag fibre which requires specialised

papermaking equipment and resources. Beating rag fibre requires constant testing,

monitoring and data analysis, which is more feasible and in an institutional and

professional environment. This unit would specialise in sourcing and preparing raw fibres;

pulp processing and consistency; testing, data capture and analysis.

Paper Manufacturing Unit:

Once the sheet pulps are delivered to the paper processing units (which can be done easily

by post), the sheet pulps are re-hydrated then processed into specialised papers. The

papermaking process, now shortened by no pre-processing requirements, can result in a

higher production capacity with constant quality and control of pulp. These units would

specialise in sheet-forming and finishing processes only.

Product Manufacturing Unit:

Once the paper is completed for end-use, it can be sent to the product manufacturing unit

which would operate especially for the requirements of the National Archives of South

Africa. At this unit, either existing [non-archival] boxes can be laminated with archival

paper or, new archival boxes can be manufactured. This unit would specialise in archival

product manufacturing only.

The following organogram illustrates the various manufacturing units, tasks and

responsibilities and lines of production:

6

."

Pulp Pre-processing & Research Unit:

TWR Papermaking Research & Development Unit (PRDU), Johannesburg.

Main activities:- Sourcing raw materials- Preparing raw materials- Pulp preparation- Forming sheet pulps- Coordinating transport and delivery of sheet pulps to Lehurutshe- Regular testing of sheet pulps- Supply training, management and support to relevant archival paper & product

projects- Co-ordination and delivery of archival paper and product orders- Establish partnerships and networks (as previously mentioned)- Develop and research new and advanced technology for streamlining and optimising

production- Invoicing National Archives and ensuring payment to all projects and businesses

involved-- Fiancial administration of this activity- Recording, administering and reporting on relevant work related to archival paper- Development of database.

."

Paper Manufacturing Unit:

Bosele Papermaking Project, Lehurutshe.

Main activities:- Production of archival paper: Forming and finishing processes only- Ensuring postage and delivery of paper to Welkom- Manage project as a proffessional business- Partake in training activities to develop skills and qualifications- Liaise and consult with TWR PRDU on product and production issues- Production planning- Ensure production schedules are in line with targets in order to ensure profit and

business growth

Product Manufacturing Unit:

Kutlwano Paper Project, Welkom.

Main activities:Production of archival boxes and foldersEnsuring sufficient materials and die-cuts available to complete orderEnsuring delivery to customers in required time periodManage project as a proffessional businessPartake in training activities to develop skills and qualificationsLiaise and consult with TWR PRDU on product and production issuesProduction planningEnsure production schedules are in line with targets in order to ensure profit andbusiness growth

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Implementation Plan

Implementation of the business re-direction of Bosele and Kutlwano paper projects can be

implemented from the start of the Create South Africa Project of Phumani Paper beginning

1st May 2003. The two projects are highlighted as target groups for initiating the Create SA

Programme which aims at providing learnerships for NQF 2 qualifications within the

MAPP SErA. As this leamership is in the pilot phase, the skills programme can be

designed to meet the projects requirements, providing advanced training in order to

implement archival papermaking in the projects. As soon as training has begun, specific

archival product training can begin and production plans can be developed.

Monitoring & Evaluation

Monitoring and evaluation will be done on a monthly basis through monthly reports from

both the Phumani Paper Regional Co-ordinator, and the Archival Project Manager. The

Create SA Programme also contains various monitoring and evaluation processes as part of

the training programme, which can form part of this requirement.

Plans for Sustainability

Once production procedures and organisational plans have been put into place, the projects

will be able to deliver orders and receive payment. As per discussion with National

Archives, the market for this product is very large and orders can increase as the projects

production capacity increases. This subtle development can, in the long term, ensure

project sustainability.

Through the Create SA Learnership programme, the skills of the participants will increase

and projects will be advised to bring in new participants for training (by existing

participants). This would increase the production potential, thereby increasing orders and

income, in turn, securing larger markets. This will also provide more employment

opportunities

Once the programme begins supplying the Archives with the products, projects will buy the

pulp from PRDV, and resources from each other (i.e. Welkom will buy the paper product

from Bosele) and therefore this will ensure longer term sustainability. (e.g. income

generation).

Required Resources and Budget

There are various resources required in order to set up the manufacturing units as per the

organisational plan discussed. If the projects are to become long-term manufacturers of

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archival paper and products, the following budgeted items and activities will be required to

ensure their optimum manufacturing capabilities (over a 1 year period).

Item Details Amount Quantity Total

Management:1.Archival Paper Management of all issues relating R3 500pm 1 year R42000Project Management to archival paper research, orders, (part time-2and Research training, and payment days p/week)

3. Project Printing, postage, stationery, etc. Rl000pm 1 Year R12000Administration

Subtotal R54000

Training:1. Specialised Over & above Create SA training 2xR8OOpm 1 Year R19200

training Part time trainers (2) x 1 week per x 12month

2. Guest specialist To assist in production processes, R2000per 3 weeks R6000trainer communication and business week (overa6

operations (1 x 3 weeks) mnth period)

3. Transport & For part time, guest trainers & R3 OOOpm 1 year R36000accomodation manazers

Subtotal R61200Equipment:

Pulp Pre-processingUnit (PRDU)Beater Upgrade For increasing production RIO 000 1 RIO 000

200 litre Rag beater For increasing production and R30000 1 R30000(Ruprecht Beater) testing

Studio relocation and Partial costs (balance budgeted for R20000 1 R20000upgrade facilities through National office)

Water filtration system 1 unit with minimum l00litres of R8500 12 mnths R8500water per day + replacementcartridge (18 month supply)

Rag supply For production of sheet pulps Rl000pm 1 year R12000(100kgs per month)

R8000 R8000Miscellaneous Deckles & moulds, Interleavingequipment for materials, Boards, large vats,upgrading & plastic ware, chemicals, fibre andincreasing production sheet storage & temp gages

Maintenance and repair - R3000 R250pmx R3000of equipment 12 mnths

Subtotal R91500

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Paper ManufacturingUnit - BoseleDrying System Including felts, double fluted R4000 1 R4000

c/boardand blotters

Whizz beater For re-hydrating pulps and RSOOO 1 R5000increasing production

Water filtration system 1 unit with minimum l00litres of R8500 1 year R8500water per day + replacementcartridge (18 month supply)

Miscellaneous Interleaving fabrics, scales, mould R8000 - R8000equipment for & decIdes, vats, plastic ware,upgrading& sheet storage, temp gages, boards

. increasing production and chemicals

Maintenance and - R1800 RI50pmx R 1800repairs 12 mnths

Subtotal R27300

ProductManufacturing Unit-KutlwanoDie-cuts and die- For first 6 mnths RIO 000 6mnths RIO 000cutting

Miscellaneous Glue, card boards, stationery, R6000 1 year R6000consumables for tables, etcupgrading furniture &increasing production

Maintenance and repairSubtotal R16000Total R2S0 000

Purchase of die-cutting machines have been budgeted for in the motivation for additional

equipment. An additional Hollander beater for cotton rag would need to bepurchased for

the Bosele Unit. Additional equipment budget =RI50 000

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ANNEXURE G

COSTING BREAKDOWN

Costing Breakdown

Item Details Unit Price TotalRaw materials:Cotton raa 2 x 1 kg, hospital raa RIO per ka R20-00Chemicals:Soda ash 200grams R200 per 20 kg's R 2-00Calcium Carbonate 30 ml's RIOO per SOOg's R 6-00Aqua Pel lOOml's RI50 per 25litres R 1-00

R50per I kgGelatine 5Oml's RIOO per SOOg's R 2-50Titanium Di-oxide 3Oml's R 1-00Labour:Cutting cotton Into small squares for pulp preparation R15 per kg R30-00Paper production Production per batch x 1 day (2 people) Rl00 R200-00Overheads:Water and electricity Per day (estimate-R5OOpm) R25 R25Rent Per day (estimate-R20000m) Rl00 Rl00

Total =(Batch Price) R387-50Profit Maq;n (25%) R484-40

Total =(Sheet price +35"A" grade sheets) R16-15

An investigation into archival handmade papers for the South African art market

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