An exploratory study of the human resources development framework for the Zimbabwean Tourism and...

ADRRI JOURNAL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

ADRRI JOURNALS (www.adrri.org)

pISSN: 2343-6891 ISSN-L: 2343-6891 VOL. 3,No.3(1), June, 2014

1




An exploratory study of the human resources development framework for the

Zimbabwean Tourism and Hospitality sector.

Never Ndemera1, Zivanai Francis Mazhazha-Nyandoro2 and Gerald Munyoro2* 1Wolverhampton Business School, Wolverhampton University, Wulfruna St,

Wolverhampton, West Midlands WV1 1LY, United Kingdom.

2Graduate Business School, School of Business Science and Management, Chinhoyi

University of Technology, P. Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe.

2*Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 21st May, 2014 Revised: 23rd June, 2014 Published Online: 30th June, 2014

URL: http://www.journals.adrri.org/

[Cite as: Ndemera, N., Mazhazha-Nyandoro, F and Munyoro, G. (2014). An exploratory study of the human

resources development framework for the Zimbabwean Tourism and Hospitality sector. ADRRI Journal of Arts

and Social Sciences. Vol. 3, No.3 (1).]

Abstract

The study explored the human resource skills gap within the Tourism and Hospitality sector in

Zimbabwe. A qualitative exploratory research design was used in the study. A semi-structured

interview schedule and tape recorded data was collected from key informants. Content analyses were

used to analyse the data. The Tourism and Hospitality sector lost significant numbers of skilled

personnel to regional and international countries during the period 1998 to 2009. The study reveals a

fragmented, under-funded and under- resourced approach to address the skills and competencies

gap. The lack of financial resources and capacity by national bodies, private companies and training

entities adversely affect the ability to train and replenish the human resources essential in restoring

the country’s global competitiveness as an international tourist destination. Despite the

acknowledgement by key players in the Tourism and Hospitality industry on the skills deficient there

is lack of consensus on national and industry-wide strategies to address the problem. There is need

for stakeholders to develop a coherent and transparent national qualifications framework for

strengthening the human resource skill base for the tourism and hospitality sector in Zimbabwe.

Keywords: human resource skills gap, tourism and hospitality sector, development framework,

Zimbabwe, the UK NVQ framework.

mailto:[email protected]




2

INTRODUCTION

A number of countries are looking at improving their workforce skills base through

education and training as a catalyst to enhance economic performance (Penn, 1999). In

Zimbabwe, the political instability and economic meltdown during the period 1998-2000

resulted in migration of skilled personnel to regional and international destinations.

According to Finegold and Soskice (1988) the failure to educate and train the work force to

the same levels as international competitors has been a cause for poor economic

performance for some countries such as the United Kingdom. In Zimbabwe, the impact of

migration of skilled and experienced personnel created a significant skills-gap nation-wide.

For the tourism and hospitality sector, this affected the competitiveness of the country as a

tourist destination. Notwithstanding the availability of global tourism attractions, the

tourism and hospitality industry needs to craft a coherent skills and competencies

upgrading strategy that restores the competitiveness of the Zimbabwean tourism product.

The skills shortages will likely continue in the absence of political and economic stability

and most sectors will increasingly become net exporters of trained and skilled personnel.

Africa is developing and has to stay in touch with the changes in the global world. The

advances in technology require some formal organization for vocational training and

ensuring better co-ordination of efforts between enterprises and schools (Bas, 1989).

Therefore, it is imperative for the tourism and hospitality industry to explore ways of

building and developing the human resource skills and competencies through on-the-job

training frameworks premised on vocational-based training programmes such as the United

Kingdom National Vocational Qualification framework.

Therefore the central aim of this study is to explore the efficacy of adopting the UK NVQ

framework to address the skills gap in the Zimbabwean tourism and hospitality industry, a

sector that covers leisure, tourism, travel and hospitality and includes hotels, bars, night

clubs, restaurants, visitor attraction, travel services and holiday parks.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Factors influencing the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) Framework

The main reasons behind the launching of the National Vocational Qualifications in the

United Kingdom included the following: raising and updating skill levels across a wide

range of manufacturing and service occupations, improving the criteria of choosing

qualifications most appropriate to a given job and overcoming the situation where, for some

occupations, there were no formal qualifications and, removing the stigma that had made

vocational qualifications to be treated, in various contexts, as inferior to more academic

qualifications (Hyland, 1992). As a result, the introduction of the National Vocational

Qualification framework in 1986 was essentially a response to the need to increase

participation rates that became a necessity in order to compete with other European and

Pacific Rim systems (Hodgson and Spours, 1997). Skills were identified as accounting for




3

about one-fifth of the productivity deficit in the United Kingdom when compared with the

world’s top producers, notably the United States and France (Perry and Sherlock, 2008).

Society is changing rapidly that nobody has a job anymore: everyone has a career and thus

the constant demand for a flexible and multi-skilled workforce and vocational education in

many sectors seemed to plug the gap (Ainley, 1990). Penn (1999) highlights the

overwhelming evidence on the skill shortages in Britain. The United Kingdom reflected a

disequilibrium in which the education and training system delivered badly educated and

minimally trained school leavers thereby affecting the national economic competitiveness

(Finegold and Soskice, 1988). Jessup (1991) argues that the creation of the National

Vocational Qualifications framework sought to address the skills levels of individuals and

the country. He further points out that the National Vocational Qualifications are a

statement of competence relevant to the world of work that intend to facilitate entry to, or

progression in employment and further formal learning awarded to an individual by a

recognized awarding body. The nascent concept portrayed how the National Vocational

Qualification’s outcomes could bridge the gap between formal education and work-based

training. He further argues that the classroom approach has its weaknesses and suggests the

need for an alternative approach to education and training focused on outcomes rather than

inputs addressed by using a single framework that opens access to learning for more people

thereby contributing both to the economy and the individual’s development (Jessup, 1991).

The changes in the labour market had rendered the significance of compulsory education

questionable. The traditional way of education has been the one favoured by employers

when recruiting, insisting that although there is no direct co-relation between grades and

practical competence in occupations for which they are qualified they at least indicate

discipline and sustained application (Ainley, 1990). However, this punitive criterion has

rendered many entrants with lower achievements to be regarded as worthless.

Evaluation of the benefits of the NVQ Framework

The introduction of the National Vocational Qualification framework in the United

Kingdom represented an opportunity for continuous academic and professional

qualification overseen by the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ). A

record 7.6 million NVQs/SVQs have been awarded in the United Kingdom between the

introduction of National Vocational Qualifications in 1987 and the end of September 2008

(The Data Service, 2009). Education and training initiatives are essential to keep pace and

remain competitive within the changing global economic environment. He cites comparative

international statistics to show how Britain’s education and training produces less qualified

people than its international competitors. Although it is difficult to demonstrate a direct link

between education and training and national economic performance empirically it can be

claimed that education and training can help improve economic performance.




4

The scope of the framework forged a close interaction between employers, trade unions,

trainees as well as local and national governments who judged the standards of vocational

training. Similarly, coordinated in- house training contributed towards the development of a

flexible and multi- skilled workforce (Ainley, 1990). Grugulis (2003) evaluates the British

system of National Vocational Qualification focusing on their capacity to increase skill

levels. Her overall conclusion acknowledges the flexibility of NVQs and the underlying

argument that the National Vocational training framework is ill- equipped to encourage

knowledge creation. National Vocational Qualifications exerted a major influence on

training and education in Britain despite the widespread criticism (Franklin, 1997). Policy

makers emphasized the positive role of developing ‚human capital‛ and promoting

economic prosperity, economic growth and social inclusion. Stevens (1999) examines the

claims of market failure in vocational training provided by the human capital theory

proponents who cite the apparent under- investment in training. He points out that, the

notion of human capital reaffirmed the resource embodied in people and the capacity of

generating income. He further suggests that compared with other investments, the

investment in people through vocational training has economical benefits which create

productive skills tradable in the labour market.

Since the mid-1980s, a number of social, economic and technological developments, global

as well as European competitive trends slowly forced the reassessment of the strategic

significance of Vocational Educational Training in the UK (Young and Guile, 1997). It is

recognized that the quality of Vocational Educational Training is vital, both for the "human"

resources of organizations and the economic future of the country as a whole (EU, 1996).

Perry and Sherlock (2008) highlight the quality improvement in Adult Vocational Education

and Training through skills training and the significance for governments to invest in skills

training in order to effectively compete in the global economy. They state that the National

Vocational Qualification (NVQ) is the most common award available through work-based

training judged through observed performance of a series of tasks. Although the credibility

of the NVQ was contestable, as its initials were derogatorily interpreted as ‘not very

qualified’ however, the evidence showed that there were between 1,500 and 2,000 training

providers, and estimates of up to 10,000 sub-contractors offering everything from

assessment to work experience.

Parker et al ( 2000) point out the National Vocational Qualification has significant benefits to

women because of its flexibility as they do not have to leave their work to pursue an

expensive college education. Nowadays women constitute the majority in service sectors but

are still undervalued, underpaid and undertrained (Parker et al, 2000). National Vocational

Qualifications are achieved at a pace that suit the trainee (Harrison, 1994). NVQs can also

map career progression and development paths within the work environment.

Notwithstanding the critics of the National Vocational Qualifications (eg., Hyland, 1994)

there is general agreement on the role of the National Vocational Qualification framework

as a means of redefining the competences and skills gained by the trainees upon completion

(Hyland et al 1992). The initiative by the United Kingdom government on National




5

Vocational Training, among others, gave the opportunity to revisit and appraise key issues

in vocational training and its impact on organizational culture, management styles and most

of all the promotion of equality (Hyland, 1992).

Challenges in the implementation of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs)

The main challenges highlighted include the funding issues given that employers are not

willing to invest in training due to the fear of competition for skilled workers from other

employers. Despite inconsistencies in government policy statements employers should

invest in their employees as they stand to benefit from doing so (Stevens, 1999). In the case

of the UK, the most plausible explanation is that, for many employers the supply-side of

skills was inadequate due to the ill-defined and inappropriate training available for frontline

jobs (Stevens, 1999). The benefits of vocational training were expected to be shared between

the individual employees and future employers.

A growing number of studies claim that employers are neither involved nor satisfied with

the outcomes of National Vocational Training. Hyland (1996) concluded that employers who

are supposed to be the key players in the implementation do not possess the knowledge

about the nature and purpose of National Vocational Training. He further points out that it

is the system that is failing employers, employees and trainees not the people running the

National Vocational Framework. The question as to who is to provide the funding for

national training initiatives is highlighted in the literature. Greenhalgh (1999) contrasts the

French and British systems for adult training and highlights the fact that provision for

training adult workers is a human capital investment with considerable benefits. The French

system is interventionist and compels employers to contribute towards skill development

through a training levy in contrast to the British system which is anchored on the voluntary

initiative by workers and employers (Greenhalgh, 1999).

A study by O'Connell (1999) investigated continuing education among adults in Australia,

Belgium, Canada, New Zealand, Poland, Switzerland, United States and United Kingdom.

Notwithstanding the national differences, the study shows emphasis on-the-job

training than education and training undertaken for personal interest. Franklin’s (1997)

review highlights the ‘conspiracy theory’ argument in sections of the literature that regarded

vocational training as a vehicle designed to take over and devalue formal education and

training. Overall, the review gives some important critical evidence on the shortfalls of the

National Vocational Qualifications Framework. He further highlights the government’s

action plan published by the DfEE (1996), in response to Beaumont (1996) that emphasized

the longer term developmental aspects of the National Vocational Training framework.

Bennell et al, (1999) examined the developments in vocational education and training in the

context of economic reform through a case study of firms in Zimbabwe and Tanzania’s

manufacturing and tourism industries. They interviewed and surveyed 200 training

managers and policy makers in each country to assess the demand for skills training. The




6

findings showed that Tanzania had made significant progress in adjusting its vocational

education and training compared to the Zimbabwean government which had retained tight

control over vocational training and education.

Implications for Cross-cultural transfer of knowledge

Turbin (2001) highlights concerns of transferring policies across national systems of

education and training. The skills acquisition of management practices between successful

economies like German and Japan are given as examples of the way economic growth is

linked to skill acquisition systems. He highlights the need to address the question as to

whether an aspect or component of the education and training system of one country can be

transferred to another with the same effects. For instance the introduction of the National

vocational training was influenced by German’s greater productivity but the system

conflicted over the input –output distinction such that the United Kingdom NVQ system

shifted from its previous front-ended initial training to a continuous training model (Turbin,

2001). Therefore the knowledge transfer challenges relate to the task of transferring

synergies from the embedded training systems across national, sector and organisational

contexts.

It is difficult to assume that developing countries are ready to learn from their developed

counterparts and the assumption that industries in the same sector share the same

characteristics irrespective of the environmental conditions (Turbin, 2001). However, there

is much to be learnt from studying the best practices from other countries but in practice it is

difficult to extract such practices from one societal condition and expect the same effects in a

different society (Turbin 2001).

METHODOLOGY

This study adopted the qualitative approach (Seidel and Kelle, 1995 and Saunders et al.,

2007). The qualitative approach seeks to obtain accounts from diverse players such as

employers, employees, trainers, consultants, key customers and government in the tourism

and hospitality sector (Saunders et al., 2003; Seidel and Kelle, 1995; Seidel, 1998). Whilst this

study is based on using data from the hospitality and tourism industry, it did not focus on

the organisations themselves, but drew from a cross-section of managers who outlined the

gaps in their organisations. This strategy had some similarities to that of the Practitioner-

Researcher (Bryman and Bell, 2007). The researchers ensured that when the interviews were

undertaken that assumptions were not made about participant’s knowledge. In order to

ensure the reliability of the data all participants’ information was confidential, as those

interviewed were not employees of one organisation. The interview questions investigated

the central research aims given its Qualitative stance it was not appropriate to make

generalisations but to yield deeper understandings of the reality surrounding the research

question from the point of view of the respondents (Saunders et al., 2007).




7

Primary data was collected through non standardised semi-structured interviews that

sought to obtain qualitative research data (Saunders et al, 2007). The utility of semi-

structured interviews allowed for a list of themes and questions and these varied from

interview to interview as questions were not asked in strict order, but were dictated by the

flow of the conversation as noted by Bryman and Bell (2007), Fontana and Frey (1994), Fern

(2001) and Thorpe and Holt (2008). An interview guide was used to provide some structure

to the interview and to focus participants’ responses on the issues at stake (Remenyi et al,

2000). This type of interview was preferred by the researchers as it allowed additional

questions to draw out more information where necessary. This would not have been

possible if a structured interview was used. The interviews were individual and face- to-

face. The researchers had considered other options such as telephone interviewing or using

the internet, but did not feel that it would get the most out of the respondents as it would

not allow a rapport to be built up. The interviews were recorded and a transcript produced

for most interviews. Consideration was given to the recording of the interviews, and those

interviewees who were uncomfortable with the recording notes were taken (Saunders et al,

2007).

A number of sources were consulted for secondary data which included documents,

historical reports and industry publications and trade journals published over the last 10

years. These documents were all consulted in the preparation of this study as suggested by

Saunders et al (2007). The study followed Cooper and Schindler‘s (2006) model and adopted

purposive sampling, where the researchers selected participants for their unique

characteristics or their experiences, attitudes or perceptions. This also enabled the

researchers to use their judgements to select cases that enabled answering the research

question (Saunders et al, 2007). The study sample comprised of 12 individuals, drawn from a

range of occupations, ages ranging from 19 – 60 years. Each participant had five (5) years or

more experience in the tourism and hospitality sector and three quarters had a degree in

their respective professions. The researchers ensured that different industry sectors and

cultures were taken into consideration. The knowledge of each respondent regarding

vocational training was not specifically known and the interviews lasted between 30

minutes - 1½ hours as noted by Saunders et al (2007).

Data analysis was based on thematic and narrative discourse analysis. The data was

categorised to make the analysis easier and to allow themes to emerge. This was undertaken

through a manual approach as suggested by Seidel (1998) and Seidel and Kelle (1995).

FINDINGS

The findings were divided into themes as stated below:

Themes

The perceptions on the impact of migration of skilled personnel




8

The majority of the participants commented on the ‘brain drain’ that resulted from economic

and political instability, in particular, that this led to the loss of skilled personnel across the

board. Overall, the tourism sector was reported to have experienced a significant ‘brain

drain’ across all skill categories. As a result the sector performed poorly during that time

and has failed to retain and replace most of the key staff who have been absorbed regionally

and internationally. The consequences for the Tourism and Hospitality sector, among others,

include poor service delivery standards as organisations have to cope with less and often

under-skilled personnel. The prevailing situation in Zimbabwe with respect to skill

shortages echoes. Penn’s (1999) observation on the skill shortage in the United Kingdom and

the benefits of improving skill levels for individuals, organisations and the broader

economy. This observation was also noted by other participants from Zimbabwe Tourism

Authority, Ministry of Tourism and Hospitality, Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education

and the University of Zimbabwe. This supports the research findings by Finegold and

Soskice (1988) on the then failure of the United Kingdom to educate and train its workforce

to the same levels as its international competitors that had caused its poor economic

performance over that period. They reiterate the importance of education and skills training

initiatives for national economic competitiveness within the changing global economic

environment.

The absence of a coherent framework

The absence of a coherent framework brought out some differences amongst the

stakeholders in their approaches to dealing with the skills gap. The views from some of the

participants were that the ZTA efforts were inadequate, since they have been a victim of the

brain drain as well. At the time the study was conducted there was only one trade tester.

Notwithstanding, the cited efforts by ZTA in launching a national customer service training

themed ‚Zimpride‛ a number of participates felt that this was insufficient due to the lack of

continuity as this runs over a limited time usually two weeks. Similarly the Zimhost

program funded by the private sector seeks to achieve the same broad national goal of

nurturing a hospitality culture in all sectors of the economy. In many ways, the approach

adopted by ZTA to address the skills gap was cited as inadequate for a number of reasons.

Firstly, ZTA was reported by most participants as having no capacity or framework to

provide training in specialist areas. Secondly, the organisation’s role should be mainly

regulatory, ensuring compliance and the maintenance of standards in the industry. Thirdly,

the training is considered to be too general and does not address the core skills that have

been lost over the years. However, participants from the hotel sector had some reservations

about the quality and consistence of the skills of the trainees coming out of the State and

private sector training institutions. The main reason cited was the lack of a common

framework to benchmark the standard of skills and competency provided by these national

institutions. From the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority’s (ZTA) perspective the focus is on

upgrading skills and competences to enhance Zimbabwe’s international reputation and

competiveness as a preferred Tourist destination. In turn, ZTA which is funded by a levy

paid by stakeholders in the industrial sector prescribes the national standards and offer

training programs.




9

In many ways this reflects the findings by Hyland (1992) that by 1986 there was general

acceptance amongst employers, trade unions and educational institutions that the skills of

the British workforce needed to be improved. This same scenario is apparent within the

Zimbabwean Tourism and Hospitality sector and the nation at large. As a result there is

need for a national consensus with respect to the adoption and implementation of a

framework that holistically addresses the skills gap in order to compete on the global market

level. In view of this reality, the study findings were that for the hotel sector the large hotel

chains have either established their own in-house training schools or have engaged

internally accredited training providers to train their employees. This situation works

against the small players who have no capacity to adopt similar strategies for plugging the

skill gap as well as upgrading their employees’ skills and competences.

The feasibility of adopting a national framework for developing employee skills and

competencies in Zimbabwe

The main research focus was to explore how the stakeholders perceived the significance of

adopting a national framework and in particular the United Kingdom NVQ framework as a

remedy for addressing the skills gap within the Tourism and Hospitality sector. This draws

on the UK experience where the NVQ framework has been adopted by companies in the

service sector such as the Whitbread group and MacDonald’s (Parker, 2008). This is the

backdrop within which the study explored the views of the participants with respect to the

efficacy of the NVQ framework within the Tourism and Hospitality sector. All the

participants were familiar with the UK NVQ framework as well as other European models.

Some of the challenges with respect to the adoption and implementation of NVQs for the

sector cited by participants include the issue of acceptability. The sentiments on the

acceptability of the NVQs were highlighted by Matlay (1999) over the extent to which the

UK NVQ training initiatives needed to be employer-driven. The need for involvement by all

stakeholders need to address the initial reservation amongst employers on the intended

outcomes of the NVQs as was the in the UK (Terry, 1996). The challenges reported about the

experiences from countries such as Oman and Sri Lanka that have adopted the UK NVQ

were to do with compatibility with host country cultural norms and traditions Wilkins

(2002) and Vajira (2007) respectively.

Overall most of the participants agreed on the urgent need to establish a national framework

on the lines of the UK NVQ model. However, the main challenges highlighted by the

majority of the participants include the establishment of a transparent and well-funded body

to regulate the standards. They noted the problems with non-delivery by government-led

bodies such as NAMACO and ZIMDEF that are funded through training levies. In turn, the

role of all stakeholders in the establishment of standards of skills and competency was

reiterated by all participants. In particular the need to benchmark the standards to

international best practices was emphasised.




10

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

It is apparent from the study that there was consensus across the board on the loss of skills

by the sector to regional and international countries. All categories of skills from managerial

to operational / front line were lost by the sector to levels that threaten the viability and

competiveness of the entire sector. In addition, the study shows that there is lack of coherent

sector strategies for addressing the skills gap mainly due to the fragmentation of the efforts

amongst the national bodies such as, Zimbabwe Tourism Authority, Zimbabwe Council for

Tourism, relevant government Ministries, individual institutions and training providers.

Furthermore, the study shows that there is need to establish a national framework to

address the skills shortage while most participants were familiar with the UK NVQ they

expressed caution on its wholesale adoption and preferred the development of a home

grown and internationally recognised qualifications framework. In addition the need for

transparency and stakeholder involvement were cited as prerequisites for an employer-led

qualifications framework.

The main recommendations for Practitioners and policy makers within the Tourism and

hospitality sector in Zimbabwe include the following:

To develop a tourism industrial sector framework to address the acute skill shortages

that draws from the Zimbabwean national culture and traditions whilst

benchmarked on international best practices.

To upgrade the current skills base through a work based framework that recognises

prior learning, experience, and empowers the largely marginalised female workforce.

To consider the establishment of a fund that has vested interest in promoting local

talent and national centres of excellence and independent research bodies and think

tanks.

Future Research

The recommendations for future research include conducting cross-cultural comparative

and in-depth case studies on the transferability of training frameworks such as the UK NVQ

framework model. Similarly, future research can explore the cross cultural factors

influencing the adaptation of skills and competency training models. In turn different

methodological approaches should be considered in researching the area of knowledge

transfer across different national cultures and value systems.




11

REFERENCE

Ainley, P. (1990) Vocational Education and Training. London: Cassel

BAS, D. (1989) On the Job Training in Africa. International Labour Review.Vol.128, 485-496.

Bennell, P., Bendera, S., Kanyenze, G., Kimambo, E., Kiwia,S., Mbiriyakura, T., Mukyananuzi, F.,

Munetsi, N., Muzulu, J., Parsalaw, W., Temu. J. (1999) ‘Vocational education and training in

Tanzania and Zimbabwe in the Context of economic reform’. Department For International

Development/ Education Research Paper no. 28. Page 122.

Bennell, P. And Segerstrom, J. (1998) ‘Vocational Education and Training In Developing Countries:

Has The World Bank Got It right?’ International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 18,

271-287.

Bryman, A. And Bell, E. (2007) Business Research Methods. London: Oxford University Press.

Collins, J. And Hussey, R. (2003) Business Research: A practical guide for undergraduates and

postgraduates students. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cooper, D. R. And Schindler, P. S. (2006) Business Research Methods. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.

European Union (EU). (1996) Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society. European Union:

White Paper.

Fern, E.F. (2001) Advanced Focus Group Research. London: Sage.

Fontana, A., And Frey, J.H. (1994) ‘Interviewing the art of science’. In Denzing, N.K. and Lincoln,

Y.S. (eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research, p.361-376.

Finegold, D. And Soskice, D. (1988) The Failure Of Training In Britain: Analysis and Prescription.

Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 4 (3): 21-53.

Franklin, K. (1997) ‘National Vocational Qualifications, Scottish vocational qualifications and

competence based education and training: from de Ville to Beaumont’. Journal of Vocational

Education and Training, Vol. 49 (4): 511-530.

Grugulis, I. (2003) ‘The Contribution of National Vocational Qualifications to the growth of skills in

the UK’. British Journal of Industrial Relations. 41(3). p. 457-475.

Harrison, C.T. (1994) ‘S/NVQs and professional qualification in library and information services’.

Librarian Career Development. 2(4) p.24-28

Hodgson, A. & SPOURS, K. (1997) From the 1991 White Paper to the Dearing Report: A Conceptual

and Historical Framework from the 1990s. London: Kogan Page.

Hyland, T (1992). ‘Moral vocationalism’. Journal of Moral Education. Vol. 21(2), p.139-150

Hyland, T (1994). ‘Competence, Education and NVQs: dissenting perspectives. London: Cassel.




12

Hyland, T. (1996) ‘Why NVQs have Lost their Vocation’ Daily Telegraph.

Jessup, G. (1991) Outcomes: NVQs and the emerging model of Education and Training. London: Taylor

and Francis

Lancaster, G. (2005) Research Methods in Management: a concise introduction to research in management

and business consultancy. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Lockheed, M. E. & Hanushek, E. A., (1988) ‘Improving Education Efficiency in Developing

Countries: What do we know?’ World Bank

Matlay, H. (1999) ‘Employers perceptions and implementation of S/NVQs in Britain: A critical

overview’. International Journal of Training and Development. Vol. 3(2): page 132-141.

Perry.N, and Sherlock ,D. (2008) Quality Improvement in Adult Vocational Education and Training:

Transforming Skills for the Global Economy. London: Kogan Page

O'connell, P. J. (1999) ‘Adults in Training: An international Comparison of Education and Training’.

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris: Centre for Educational

Research and Innovation.

Parker, A. (2008) Whitbread Launches NVQ apprentice programme. Caterer and Hotelkeeper, Vol.198,

9-9.

Parker, S., HARE,C and GANNON-LEARY, P. (2000). National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs):

one route to improve the status of women in libraries’ International Federation of Library

Associations

Penn, R. (1999) ‘The dynamics of decision-making in the sphere of skills formation’. Sociology, 33 (3).

p.621-638

Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A And Swartz, E. (2000) Doing Research in Business and

Management, An introduction to process and Method, London: Sage Publications.

Saunders, M, Lewis, P and Thornhill, A. (2003) Research Methods for Business Students. London:

Pearson Education.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2007) Research Methods for Business Students. London,

Pearson Education.

Seidel, J. (1998) Qualitative Data Analysis: The Ethnographic Manual, Appendix

E/http://www.qualisresearch.com

Seidel, J. and Kelle, U. (1995) ‘Different Functions of Coding in the Analysis of Textual Data’ in Kelle, U.

(Ed) Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis: Theory, Methods and Practice: London: Sage

Publications




13

Steedman, H., Mason, G. & Wagner, K. (1991) ‘Intermediate Skills in the Work place:

deployment, standards and supply in Britain, France and Germany.’ National

Institute of Economic and Social Research

Stevens, M. (1999) Human Capital Theory and UK Vocational Training Policy. Oxford Review Of

Economic Policy, Vol. 15 (1) p.16-20.

The Database Service (2009) Vocational Qualifications in the UK’ in Statistics: Supplementary First

Release, 26 March

Tharenou, P., Donohue, R and Cooper, B. (2007) Management Research Methods. Oxford: Cambridge

University Press.

Thorpe, R., and Holt, R. (2008) The Sage Dictionary of Qualitative Management Research. London: Sage.

Turbin, J. (2001) ‘Policy borrowing: Lessons from European attempts to transfer training practices’.

Working Paper no. 27. Centre for Labour Market Studies, University of Leicester, (CLMS)

Vajira, P. (2007) ‘NVQ: new qualification system for vocational training ’. Daily News

Young, M. and Guile, D. (1997) ‘New possibilities for the professionalization of UK Vocational

Education Training’. Journal of European Industrial Training Vol. (21) 6/7), p.203-212

Wilkins, S. (2002) ‘The implementation of NVQs in the Sultan of Oman’. Education and Training, Vol.

44(2/3) p.144-152




14

This academic research paper was published by the Africa Development and Resources

Research Institute’s Journal of Arts and Social Sciences. ADRRI JOURNALS are double

blinded, peer reviewed, open access and international journals that aim to inspire Africa

development through quality applied research.

For more information about ADRRI JOURNALS homepage, follow:

http://journal.adrri.org/aj

CALL FOR PAPERS

ADRRI JOURNALS call on all prospective authors to submit their research papers for

publication. Research papers are accepted all yearly round. You can download the

submission guide on the following page: http://journal.adrri.org/aj/

ADRRI JOURNALS reviewers are working round the clock to get your research paper

published on time and therefore, you are guaranteed of prompt response. All published

papers are available online to all readers world over without any financial or any form of

barriers and readers are advice to acknowledge ADRRI JOURNALS. All authors can apply

for one printed version of the volume on which their manuscript(s) appeared.

An exploratory study of the human resources development framework for the Zimbabwean Tourism and...

Documents

Transcript of An exploratory study of the human resources development framework for the Zimbabwean Tourism and...