AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTION-REGULATION STRATEGIES IN HEALTH CARE WORKERS...

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SECTION 1: DISABILITY & TRAUMADo Peritraumatic Emotions Diff erentially Predict PTSD Symptom Clusters? Initial Evidence for Emotion

Specifi city: DANIEL DEWEY, DAVID SCHULDBERG, AND RENEE MADATHIL ........................................... 1Personalized SC-IAT: A Possible Way of Reducing the Infl uence of Societal Views on Assessments of

Implicit Attitude Toward Smoking : BRIGITTE BARDIN, STÉPHANE PERRISSOL, JACQUES PY, CÉLINE LAU-NAY, AND FLORIAN ESCOUBÈS ............................................................................................................... 13

Perceived Risk of Co-occurrent Substance Abuse: JAMES B. HITTNER AND MARGARET A. WARNER ............. 26Murder-suicide in Workplace Violence: DAVID LESTER .................................................................................. 28Violence and Sexual Off ending Behavior in People with Autism Spectrum Disorder Who Have Undergone

a Psychiatric Forensic Examination: ERIK SØNDENAA, SISSEL BERGE HELVERSCHOU, KARI STEINDAL, KIRSTEN RASMUSSEN, BRITTA NILSON, AND JIM AAGE NØTTESTAD ....................................................... 32

Positive Psychology Group Intervention for Breast Cancer Patients: A Randomised Trial: M. VICTORIA CEREZO, MARGARITA ORTIZ-TALLO, VIOLETA CARDENAL, AND ALEJANDRO DE LA TORRE-LUQUE ........ 44

SECTION 2: EMPLOYMENT PSYCHOLOGY & MARKETINGHumor Styles and Loneliness: A Study Among Hong Kong and Hangzhou Undergraduates: XIAO DONG

YUE, ASHLEY YUEN MAN WONG, AND NEELAM ARJAN HIRANANDANI ............................................... 65Online Bartering Motivations: HSIANG-MING LEE, TSAI CHEN, AND MIN-LI HUNG ................................... 75Decision Making Under Uncertainty and Information Processing in Positive and Negative Mood States:

SACHI NANDAN MOHANTY AND DAMODAR SUAR ................................................................................ 91An Exploratory Study of Self-consciousness and Emotion-regulation Strategies in Health Care Workers:

MARIE ANDELA, LAURENT AUZOULT, AND DIDIER TRUCHOT ................................................................ 106

SECTION 3: MEASURES & STATISTICSExploratory Study Toward Development of the French Version of the Questionnaire on Personality Traits

(QPT/VKP–4) in an Elderly Population in Comparison to Young Adults: R. COURTOIS, A. ENFOUX, O. PLAISANT, N. COUTARD, I. J. DUIJSENS, C. RÉVEILLÈRE, V. CAMUS, AND W. EL-HAGE ................... 115

Assessing Factor Structure and Convergent Validity of the Work Regulatory Focus Scale : SYED AKHTAR AND JENNY S. Y. LEE ............................................................................................................................ 133

Psychometric Properties of the “Sport Satisfaction Instrument (SSI)” in Female Athletes: Predictive Mod-el of Sport Commitment: A. GRANERO-GALLEGOS, A. BAENA-EXTREMERA, M. GÓMEZ-LÓPEZ, AND J. A. ABRALDES .................................................................................................................................... 148

Analysis of the School Anxiety Inventory in Brazil Using the Rasch Rating Scale Model: SANDRA M. DA S. S. OLIVEIRA, DÉBORA C. FERNANDES, AND FERMINO F. SISTO .......................................................... 165

SECTION 4: MENTAL & PHYSICAL HEALTHAnalysis of the Private, Collective, and Relational Self-cognitions Among Han and Tibetan Chinese : WEI

HUANG, MARHABA MAMAT, RUI SHANG, TIANYANG ZHANG, HAO LI, YAO WANG, WEI LUO, AND YANHONG WU ..................................................................................................................................... 179

Preference for Non-cooperative Economic Strategies Is Associated with Lower Perceived Self-effi cacy, Few-er Positive Emotions, and Less Optimism: VASSIA KARAMANOLI, KYRIAKI FOUSIANI, AND MARIA SAKALAKI ............................................................................................................................................. 199

Life Satisfaction in Middle-aged Koreans: Mediating Eff ects of Domain-specifi c Self-esteem Satisfaction, and Sex Diff erences: HYUN-JOO PARK, DONG-GWI LEE, AND NAN MEE YANG .................................. 213

Discriminant Validity of Sense of Coherence vs Trait Anxiety in Explaining Emotional State in an Experi-mental Task: EWA GRUSZCZYŃSKA ....................................................................................................... 228

SECTION 5: RELATIONSHIPS & COMMUNICATIONSInterpersonal Views of Narcissism and Authentic High Self-esteem: It Is Not All About You: J. STEPHEN

BYRNE AND EDWARD J. O’BRIEN .......................................................................................................... 243Factor Analysis of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale in Korean Learners of English as a For-

eign Language: GI-PYO PARK ............................................................................................................. 261Unsuccessful Treatments of “Writer’s Block”: A Meta-analysis: DERRICK C. MCLEAN AND BENJAMIN R.

THOMAS ............................................................................................................................................... 276Relations Between Attachment, Resilience, and Earned Security in Japanese University Students: YUKO

SHIBUE AND MAKIKO KASAI ................................................................................................................. 279

SECTION 6: SOCIOCULTURAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGYReducing Statistics Anxiety and Enhancing Statistics Learning Achievement: Eff ectiveness of a One-

minute Strategy : CHEI-CHANG CHIOU, YU-MIN WANG, AND LI-TZE LEE ......................................... 297Honesty–humility in Contemporary Students: Manipulations of Self-image by Infl ated IQ Estimations:

P. J. KAJONIUS ...................................................................................................................................... 311Independent and Interdependent Self-construals Do Not Predict Analytic or Holistic Reasoning: ROBERT

C. MARQUEZ AND JOEL ELLWANGER ..................................................................................................... 326

00PR August 14 cover.indd 200PR August 14 cover.indd 2 16/08/14 12:55 PM16/08/14 12:55 PM

ISSN 0033-2941DOI 10.2466/20.16.PR0.115c17z4

Psychological Reports: Employment Psychology & Marketing

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTION-REGULATION STRATEGIES IN HEALTH CARE WORKERS 1

MARIE ANDELA , LAURENT AUZOULT , AND DIDIER TRUCHOT

Department of Psychology, University of Franche-Comté

Summary .— The goal of this study was to assess relations between public self-con-sciousness, private self-consciousness (self-refl ectiveness and internal state awareness), and two emotion-regulation strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppres-sion. 59 employees of a public hospital completed a survey. Public self-consciousness was not associated with either emotion-regulation strategy, while both dimensions of private self-consciousness were related to the strategies. While self-refl ectiveness was correlated with expressive suppression, internal states awareness was associated with cognitive reappraisal.

The management of emotions and expressions to conform to organi-zational rules and expectations has become an essential requirement in almost all job contexts and especially in caring professions ( Hochschild, 1983 ). Healthcare professionals are constantly interacting with others, and they are supposed to act in accordance with organizational display rules (i.e., norms about how to express one's emotions in certain situa-tions) such as, for example, maintaining a neutral tone, showing empa-thy, concern, and suppressing feelings of fear or irritation. Complying with display rules should result in more eff ective workplace interactions ( Grandey, 2000 ; Diefendorff , Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005 ). However, there are many circumstances in which the emotions felt by the employees dif-fer in type or intensity from those prescribed. Therefore, to act as profes-sionals and achieve their work goals, employees must regulate their emo-tions and the expression of those emotions.

Among the possible emotion-regulation strategies, this study focuses on two specifi c strategies, cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Considered as an antecedent-focused emotion regulation, cognitive reap-praisal modifi es one's perception of a situation to align required expressions and inner feelings ( Gross, 1998b ; Grandey, 2000 ). Expressive suppression, in contrast, is a response-focused form of emotion regulation that does not in-volve any adjustment of one's actual feelings, but refers to the management of the emotional expression ( Gross, 1998b ). Individuals engaging in expres-sive suppression adjust their emotional experience; in emotion suppression, the expression of disallowed emotions or emotional intensity is suppressed.

© Psychological Reports 20142014, 115, 1, 106-114.

1 Address correspondence to Marie Andela, Department of Psychology, Université de Franche-Comté UFR SLHS, 30-32 Rue Mégévand 25000, Besançon, France or e-mail ( [email protected] ).

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SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, EMOTION REGULATION 107

This focus on these two emotion-regulation strategies is of interest as they are operationalized with validated instruments and are known to have diff erent consequences on individuals' health outcomes ( Gross, 1998a ; Richards & Gross, 1999 ; Butler, Egloff , Wilhelm, Smith, Erickson, & Gross, 2003 ). Cognitive reappraisal is used to down-regulate negative emotions before the emotional response has been fully generated, and may reduce the experience of negative emotions. In contrast, emotion sup-pression may decrease the expression of negative emotions but may not be helpful in reducing the experience of negative emotions ( Gross, 1998a ). Therefore, since these two strategies can have diff erent eff ects on employ-ees' health outcomes, broadening knowledge concerning them is an im-portant goal. In this study, the focus is one important component involved in the emotion-regulation processes, namely self-consciousness. There is no study in the extant literature about the associations of self-conscious-ness with cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression.

Self-consciousness in the Emotion-regulation Process In understanding cognitive reappraisal, and expressive suppression,

it is important to consider self-consciousness, since it is directly involved in the regulation of emotions. Indeed, Duval and Wicklund's (1972 ) theory of objective self-awareness suggested that self-awareness involves atten-tion being inwardly focused towards the self. This state generates a pro-cess in which people evaluate themselves in relation to relevant standards. Discrepancies from standards typically generate negative aff ect ( Fejfar & Hoyle, 2000 ; Mor & Winquist, 2002 ). Some studies support this hypothesis ( Archer, Hormuth, & Berg, 1982 ), while others have shown that negative aff ect is associated with failure ( Buss, 2001 ), with diffi culties in life ( Alden, Teschuk, & Tee, 1992 ), or with a lack of self-esteem ( Brockner & Wallnau, 1981 ). In any case, perceived discrepancies motivate the individual to re-duce the discrepancies by using emotion-regulation strategies. Thus, high self-consciousness prompts individuals to take their inner states into ac-count and use adequate strategies ( Auzoult, 2012 ).

Self-consciousness, Cognitive Reappraisal, and Expressive Suppression Various conceptualizations of self-consciousness have emerged over

time, with newer formulations often adding refi nements. Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975 ) suggest that the dispositional tendency of a per-son to direct attention to the self can be further divided into public self-consciousness (attention to one's physical appearance or one's concerns about being appreciated by others) and private self-consciousness (atten-tion to one's personal feelings or introspective behaviors). Fromson (2006 ) suggests that the cognitive process of comparing one's actual self to one or more self-guides appears to be an aspect of refl ecting upon the inner


M. ANDELA, ET AL.108

world of self that is associated with private self-consciousness rather than with attending to one's self as a social stimulus. Only private self-con-sciousness emerged as a moderating variable infl uencing the relationship between self-discrepancies and emotion. Based on these results, the two types of self-consciousness may not be similarly involved in the regula-tion of emotions.

Hypothesis 1 . Public self-consciousness will not be related to cog-nitive reappraisal or expressive suppression, whereas private self-consciousness will be related to emotion-regulation strat-egies.

If studies have primarily focused on private self-consciousness as a unitary construct, Burnkrant and Page's (1984 ) refi nement studies argued that private self-consciousness was not unitary but instead was made up of two diff erent components, self-refl ectiveness and internal state aware-ness. Self-refl ectiveness refers to the aspects of private self-consciousness related to understanding of oneself, whereas internal state awareness re-fers to sensitivity to the emotions and thoughts. Results indicate that these two sub-dimensions have distinct associations with mental health.

Internal state awareness, which refl ects the consciousness of one's own emotional and physical states, is negatively linked to culpability, shame, and social anxiety ( Watson, Morris, Ramsey, Hickman, & Waddell, 1996 ), as well as tendencies to boredom ( Seib & Vodanovich, 1998 ). It is also linked to positive aspects of the self, such as general and social self-effi cacy ( Watson, Milliron, & Morris, 1995 ). By being aware of their inter-nal states, employees may be much more sensitive to the discrepancy be-tween their actual physical and emotional inner states and display rules. In other words, they may be more aware of their actual inner states, and what kind of physical and emotional inner states they wish to experience in the situation. By being aware of this discrepancy, employees could be more inclined to use appropriate emotional regulation such as cognitive reappraisal.

Hypothesis 2. Internal state awareness will be positively related to cognitive reappraisal .

In contrast to internal state awareness, self-refl ectiveness is positively linked to culpability, shame, and social anxiety ( Watson, et al ., 1996 ), de-pression ( Anderson, Bohon, & Berrigan, 1996 ; Panayiotou & Papageor-giou, 2007 ), tendencies to boredom ( Seib & Vodanovich, 1998 ), and ob-sessive thoughts ( Ghorbani, Watson, Krauss, Davison, & Bing, 2004 ). Likewise, self-refl ectiveness is negatively associated with self-esteem ( An-derson, et al ., 1996 ) and social effi cacy ( Watson, et al ., 1995 ).



Self-refl ectiveness may be associated with expressive suppression. Indeed, self-refl ectiveness is described as the disposition to think about oneself, sometimes associated with a tendency to think obsessively about events or thoughts. Employees who are highly self-refl ective seem to be characterized by a highly ruminative coping style that can be paired with problematic displays of emotion. However, in most organizations, em-ployees are expected to show positive or neutral emotions and hide their negative emotions. Employees must conform to these prescribed display rules. Individuals characterized by high self-refl ectiveness may feel more problematic emotions that they have to control by suppressing expression.

Hypothesis 3. Self-refl ectiveness will be positively linked to ex-pressive suppression .

METHOD

Participants The participants were 28 nurses and 31 nurse's aides, all women and work-

ing in the same public hospital. The participants' mean age was 37 yr. ( SD = 11.4). The mean experience in their current position was 7 yr.( SD = 8.2).

Measures Self-consciousness .— The French translation of the Self-Consciousness

Scale ( Scheier & Carver, 1985 ) validated by Pelletier and Vallerand (1990 ) was used. Public self-consciousness items referred to physical appearance consciousness or worry about others' evaluations. For example: “Before I leave my house, I check how I look” or “I'm usually aware of my appear-ance.” The two dimensions of private self-consciousness are distinguished as Burnkrant and Page (1984 ) suggested: internal state awareness was measured by three items such as “I generally pay attention to my inner feelings” or “I'm quick to notice change in my mood.” Self-refl ectiveness is evaluated by four items such as “I often daydream about myself” or “I'm constantly thinking about my reasons for doing things.” Participants had to rate the frequency with which they used attitude on a seven-point scale (anchors 1 = Never and 7 = Always).

Emotion regulation .— Emotion suppression and cognitive reappraisal were assessed by the French validation of the Emotion Regulation Ques-tionnaire ( Christophe, Antoine, Leroy, & Delelis, 2009 ). Emotion suppres-sion was assessed by four items, such as: “I keep my emotions to myself” and “When I feel negative feelings, I hide them.” Cognitive reappraisal was measured by four items such as “When I'm faced with a stressful sit-uation, I make myself think about it in a way that helps me stay calm” or “When I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I'm think-ing about the situation.” Employees were asked to think about the way



they deal with stressful situations in their jobs and how they react to them. Then, they had to rate the frequency with which they used each emotion-regulation strategy on a fi ve-point scale (anchors 1 = Never and 7 = Al-ways).

Procedure Questionnaires were distributed to the employees of a French public

hospital. The study was presented in a public context in the workplace, as a research project concerning work conditions and health outcomes. Participants were asked to return the questionnaires within the next three weeks, and were asked to place their sealed responses in a box placed at the reception desk of the hospital. Anonymity was assured. The par-ticipation in this study was satisfactory as 59 questionnaires (response rate = 58%) were fi lled out and returned.

Analysis Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted with both self-con-

sciousness dimensions as independent variables and emotion-regulation strategies as dependent variables. In the fi rst step of the analysis, the asso-ciation between public self-consciousness and the two emotion-regulation strategies was considered. In the second step, both dimensions of private self-esteem were added. The objective was to assess how much variance in emotion-regulation strategies was explained by public self-consciousness and the two components of private self-consciousness. The scale scores were centered before they were entered into the regression analysis.

RESULTS The assessment for the requirements for parametric analysis were sat-

isfactory, as the normality of the distributions was assessed for all variables with the Shapiro-Wilks test: cognitive reappraisal ( W = 0.97, p = .22), expres-sive suppression ( W = 0.96, p = .11), self-refl ectiveness ( W = 0.99, p = .84), inter-nal state awareness ( W = 0.98, p = .78), and public self-esteem ( W = 0.98, p = .39). Cronbach's α reliability estimates of the diff erent scale were above .65, as shown in Table 1 .

First, as shown in Table 2 , the results indicate that public self-con-sciousness was not related to any emotion-regulation strategies, i.e., sup-pression or cognitive reappraisal (respectively, t =.59, p = .56; t = .24 p = .81). Moreover, as shown in Tables 3 and 4 , public self-consciousness did not explain signifi cant variance in suppression or cognitive reappraisal (re-spectively, R 2 = .01, p = .81; R 2 = .01, p = .55). The results indicated a positive association between internal state awareness and cognitive reappraisal (β = 0.43, p < .05). Self-refl ectiveness was positively associated with sup-pression (β = 0.44, p < .01). Moreover, internal state awareness was not as-



sociated with expressive suppression and, likewise, self-refl ectiveness was not associated with cognitive reappraisal. The three hypotheses were thus supported ( Table 2 ).

TABLE 1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

RELIABILITIES FOR ALL STUDY VARIABLES

Scale Cronbach's α M SD

Cognitive reappraisal .74 2.91 0.89

Expressive suppression .87 3.05 1.04

Public self-consciousness .74 4.02 1.04

Internal state awareness .67 4.28 1.34

Self-refl ectiveness .70 3.74 1.06

TABLE 2 COEFFICIENTS FOR MULTIPLE REGRESSIONS PREDICTING COGNITIVE REAPPRAISAL

AND EXPRESSIVE SUPPRESSION FROM PUBLIC SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, INTERNAL STATE AWARENESS, AND SELF-REFLECTIVENESS

Model

Cognitive Reappraisal

Nonstandardized Coeffi cients

Standardized Coeffi cients t p

B SE β1 (Constant) 5.27 1.12 4.72 < .001

Public self-consciousness 0.02 0.04 .08 0.59 .56

2 (Constant) 3.40 1.31 2.59 .01

Public self-consciousness −0.07 0.04 −.24 −1.51 .14

Internal state awareness 0.18 0.07 .43 2.51 .01

Self-refl ectiveness 0.05 0.08 .09 0.61 .54

Model

Expressive Suppression

Nonstandardized Coeffi cients

Standardized Coeffi cients t p

B SE β1 (Constant) 11.70 2.14 5.46 < .001

Public self-consciousness 0.02 0.07 .03 0.24 .81

2 (Constant) 8.44 2.54 3.32 < .001

Public self-consciousness −0.03 0.09 −.05 −0.30 .76

Internal state awareness −0.17 0.14 −.20 −1.19 .24

Self-refl ectiveness 0.43 0.15 .44 2.86 .01



DISCUSSION The goal was to increase understanding of the associations between

public self-consciousness, private self-consciousness (i.e., self-refl ective-ness and internal state awareness), and the two emotion-regulation strate-gies of expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal.

Hypothesis 1 proposed that public self-consciousness would be related to self-refl ectiveness and internal state awareness, but not the two emotion-regulation strategies. As hypothesized, public self-consciousness was not as-sociated with emotional regulation in either its expressive suppression or cognitive reappraisal forms. Globally, these results supported Hypothesis 1 and were in line with studies presenting evidence for the role of private self-consciousness on consistency of various self-reports (see Nasby, 1989 ).

Hypothesis 2 posited that internal state awareness would be positively related to cognitive reappraisal; Hypothesis 3 proposed that self-refl ective-ness would be positively linked to expressive suppression. Whereas internal state awareness was associated with cognitive reappraisal, known to have positive eff ects on health outcomes, self-refl ectiveness was associated with emotion suppression, known as a detrimental emotion-regulation strategy for employees. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were thus supported. The results support the literature reporting associations between private self-consciousness and the use of emotion-regulation strategies. For example, Hamilton and Ingram (2001 ) reported that internal state awareness contributed to the use of cogni-tive regulation strategies that elicit positive health outcomes.

TABLE 3 SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION MODEL PREDICTING EXPRESSIVE

SUPPRESSION FROM PUBLIC SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, INTERNAL STATE AWARENESS, AND SELF-REFLECTIVENESS

Model R R 2 Adj R 2 SE of estimate

Change Statistics

Δ R 2 ΔF df 1 df 2 p

1 .03 .01 −.02 4.20 .00 0.06 1 58 .81

2 .35 .12 .08 4.00 .12 4.10 2 56 .02

TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF MULTIPLE REGRESSION MODEL PREDICTING COGNITIVE REAPPRAISAL FROM PUBLIC SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS, INTERNAL STATE

AWARENESS, AND SELF-REFLECTIVENESS

Model R R 2 Adj R 2 SE of estimate

Change Statistics

Δ R 2 ΔF df 1 df 2 p

1 .08 .01 −.01 2.19 .00 0.35 1 58 .55

2 .38 .14 .10 2.07 .14 4.63 2 56 .01



This study, of course, has limitations. The fi rst limitation was that the sample was recruited from a single hospital, which precludes broad gener-alization. A second limitation is that only women were represented. There are known sex diff erences in coping strategies and styles, with women consistently shown to be more likely to manifest a ruminative, self-focused cognitive style. Although results may provide general information about self-consciousness and emotion-regulation strategies among women, they cannot be generalized to men.

However, the results contribute to the emotion-regulation literature. Taking into account the positive eff ects of internal state awareness and cognitive reappraisal, a high internal state awareness may contribute to the use of cognitive reappraisal that reduces stress at work. This explor-atory study can be considered as a guide for future research concerning self-consciousness and emotion regulation.

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Accepted July 7 , 2014 .


AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTION-REGULATION STRATEGIES IN HEALTH CARE WORKERS...

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