2015

Natural sciences 52 – Algae: The future biofuel

Done By: Karam Saleh College of Business 1052695 Raghad Jz Abuolwan College of Engineering 1045560 Dania El Zahab College of Business 1052931 Hanin Hamed

Source: http://electrictreehouse.com/algae-biodiesel-extracting-oil-from-algae/

Algae: The future biofuel Table of content

Content Page Number

- Table of figures ……………………………………………………………….……..… 2

- Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….…….. 3

- Introduction …………...……………………………………………………...…….…. 4

- Objective ………………..………………………………………………….................. 5

- Literature review ...……………………………………………………………………

* Definition of Algae Biofuel ………………………….…………………................... 5 * Cycle of Algae: Conversion to Biofuel…………………..………….………….…..6 * History of producing Algae Biofuel……………………………………................... 7 * Technologies used to produce Algae Biofuel..……………………………………... 8 * Use of Algae Biofuel ………………………………………………………...….…. 11 * Advantages and disadvantages …………………………………………............... 13 * Conclusion .………………………………………………………………............... 14

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- Discussion …………………………………………………………………................. 15

-Bibliography…………………………………………..….………………………….... 16

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Tableof figures

Figures Number of page figure isfound

FigureDescription

Figure 1 Page 5

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Figure 4 Page 6

Figure 5 Page 6 Life cycle of AlgaeBiofuel

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Figure 8 Page 8

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Figure 10 Page 9

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Figure 12 Page 10

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Figure 14 Page 11

Figure 15 Page 12

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Figure 18 Page 13

Figure 19 Page 15 Discussion

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History ofproducing Algae

Technologies usedin producing Algae

Biofuel

Uses of AlgaeBiofuel

Definition ofAlgae Biofuel

Abstract: Algae are photosynthetic aquatic organisms with simple constructions that reproduce rapidly both sexually and asexually and make their own food. Algae have various types that could be classified based on their features of similarity. Mainly, they are classified into both macro-algae and micro-algae. Macro-algaeor seaweed can be seen without microscopy whilst micro-algae withtheir types of diatoms and dinoflagellates need a microscope to be viewed. Furthermore, introducing the three stages known as resources, production, and conversion, life cycle of algae startsas taking the raw materials from natural sources, extracting oil and using solvents, and then converting algae into biofuel. Moreover, as micro-algae and macro-algae have a promising potential to provide humanity with power, many people have turnedtheir interest in algae biofuels, which can be produced from micro-algae that use CO2. CO2 in the process is a photosynthesis organism that cleans the atmosphere. Also, the basic processes tomake algae biofuels produced from these two are: cultivation and harvesting. The next steps depend on the technology used to produce the biofuel, and scientists nowadays are trying to find more effective and cheaper processes that would decrease the costof the production and increase its feasibility. Adding to all that, the uses of algae are numerous, but they mostly include pharmaceuticals, victual, beauty products, agriculture, precaution of pollution, and biofuels. Advantages and disadvantages; in addition, are taken in consideration when testing algae’s reliability as a future biofuel. Algae could soakup gases like Carbon Dioxide, could also be boosted very fast andin variety of places, and could aid the waste water found in different depths. However, algae are also found expensive when described in economics; they are still counted as neoteric, and are known for their need of exceptional transportation and stockpiling.

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Introduction: Humans in life have an average and limited use of everything according to the sources they happen to have includingfood, shelter, materials like wood, and energy. Some of these sources can come to an end while others can be replaced with alternatives. As for energy; it is the strength needed to be capable of doing an action and could be taken from anything depending on the type of the original matter. Also, energy could either be renewable or non-renewable; renewable as in being able to restore energy from sources that stay for a long time in life such as the sun, the wind, or the plants. This type of energy could help hold non-renewable types of energy for the longest period of time due to never running out, and could also support the earth and the environment from other chemicals that are dangerous if spread each day without taking care of the effects. However, non-renewable energy is the energy created over years and one that could expire sooner or later. Most of that energy was created from fossil fuels of the previous generations like Carbon, natural gas, and Petroleum; in addition, they are high inenergy and easy to be found and off printed. Hence, knowing that

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people’s towering source of energy comes from non-renewable energy, it is of great importance to replace such energy with renewable sources. One source that does work as renewable, and itis what will be explained in details is algae. Algae are easy to grow and will have a main certain rule in being the future biofuel if used in the right way. In this project, the main focuswill be on defining what algae are, explaining the life cycle of algae and how they are converted into biofuels, bringing the history of the production of algae biofuel and the technologies used to generate algae biofuel, and then demonstrating the uses as well as the advantages and disadvantages of algae biofuel. After that, discussion will be made on these points to point out the findings of the project, and what could be done to support improvement of using algae as the future biofuel.

Objective:To strengthen the understanding of readers about the importance of using algae as an alternative, and to increase the rates of new ideas that include ways of introducing algae in people’s

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lives.

Literature review: -Definition: When someone says algae, all what goes through one’s mind

are slimy green sickening materials that grow anywhere and everywhere. Algae are not only green plants that

evolve in water but also they do not have any tissue differentiation; unlike plants, algae are composed of cells that are generally all the same. They are also eukaryotic organisms, which means that they havea nucleus that differs them from bacteria and cyan bacteria; moreover,

Algae have simple constructions and can reproduce quickly as Environmental Measurement Systems (2015) mentioned. Algae; in addition, can be grouped with similar features where some of themare large enough to be seen by the naked eye while others can only be seen under a microscope; this allows them to survive in almost any environment they are subjected to. Greenwaterlab (2014) said that “They are found in a wide variety of habitats including ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries, oceans, soils, snow, and in symbiotic relationships with other organisms such as fungi.”

Algae are aquatic organisms that make their own food by carrying outphotosynthesis, and are majorly classified as either Macro or Micro-algae. Macro-algae are

aquatic photosynthetic multi-cellular organisms that can be seen without the aid of a microscopeunlike micro-algae, which are unicellular and abnormally small that they require microscopy tobe seen according to Greenwaterlab (2014). Also,Algae use a green pigment to carry out

photosynthesis called Chlorophyll, and it is what gives7 | P a g e

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

the algae its green color; however, not all algae appear green assome contain other pigments which make them appear reddish or brownish said in Environmental Measurement Systems (2015).

Macro-algae are commonly known as seaweed that lack roots,stems, leaves, seeds, fruits, and flowers; their body is called athallus. Now a person might wonder how they stay in place on holdof the rock or on the sand floor of the sea if they do not contain any roots. Because instead of roots, they have what is called a holdfast, which is a structure that keeps the seaweed attached to what it is holding on and anchors it. They; in addition, have stem like structures called stipe, which keep it elevated and withstand wave action as mentioned in Oceanlink (2015).

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Moreover, there are two commontypes of micro-algae: Diatoms andDinoflagellates. Diatoms are well knownby their golden-brown wall color that ismade up of cellulose; they also containoil droplets that help them float. Thecell wall of a Diatom is also popular for having silica that gives it its rigidity to be resistant to decay. Dinoflagellates or flagella; on the other hand, contain these structures to help them swim, and they reproduce so fast that the water may appear red producing “red tides” as indicated by Environmental Measurement Systems (2015) . Last, algae do not only exist as

these kinds; many other kinds of algaeare discovered and listed as also the variety of types of algae put the scientists in a position to take advantage of them rather than letting them grow anywhere with no usage or consumption.

-Cycle of Algae: Conversion to Biofuel:Growing algae is not as easy as it sometimes seems to be, for the whole process of making algae is divided into three main stages that are also parted into many procedures. These

three main stages are resources stage, production stage, and conversion stage. This whole process is also called the cycle of algae. The first stage, resources stage, is associated with raw materials that the cycle needs to be fully complete. These raw materials include Carbon Dioxide, water, and energy coming from the sun to provide the fundamental part of life, which are plantsknown as the life’s biomass. When plants are to grow, and algae are considered not fully plants but have almost the same basic

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Figure 4

Figure 5

Source: http://bio-fuel-

needs of plants, they are harvested and moved to factories. This movement to factories is the start of the second stage of production. In industrial fields, algae are taken as to have oil extracted and to have sediments removed; factories also process some parts of algae to cellulose, which afterwards is broken downinto sugars by certain enzymes like what Reilly (2008) studied about a cellobiohydrolase enzyme that does the same role. Sugars are then given back to nature in an indirect way for microbes to brew them and give ethanol biofuel instead. Also, it is the same way when converting to other types of biofuels, which are new sources of renewable energy. That is when the stage of conversionbegins. Conversion is using packages of the biofuel made by algaein human activities like transportation of cars, trucks, and evenplanes in order to create more Carbon Dioxide, which helps in starting the cycle all over again. Orfield (2013), in his dissertation, “Life Cycle Design and Assessment of an Algal Biofuel that is Sustainable, Scalable, and Salable” named these three stages according to his studies, and provided a lot of additional details about the cycle of algae. -History of producing Algae Biofuel: In the 1950s, the research of cultivation of micro-algaedid not deepen in the process. The first research that studied the cultivation of micro-algae was by Oswald and his colleagues shown in Figure 6. Their research studied producing methane by digesting the micro-algae biomass aerobically meanwhile the treatment of wastewater. This research lead to conclude that micro-algae biomass can grow on the waste water or sewage drainage. Oswald and his colleagues claimed that algae have a potential comparable to the power of the nuclear power. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

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Figure 6: Methane and electricity generation schematic model of Oswald (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

In Oswald’s experiment the bio-mass was harvested by chemical flocculation then thickened. The deposited sludge is mixed with the bio-mass harvested from the algae in a digester inorder to produce bio-gas. This report has discussed a similar method but less costly. Oswald’s method failed to gain others support at that time, and a little number of people showed attention to it. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

In 1973, the occupation of Zionists had postponed bombardment from Syria and Egypt in Yom Kippur war. As a result, Petroleum exporting countries (OPEC) has decided to stop exportingoils and petrol to the USA, which created an energy crisis in 1973. 66.7% of USA imported petrol was exported from OPEC. Due to

the embargo USA has faced lack of energy resources to supply for its citizens; as a result, they enacted rules to preserve energy such as banning Christmas lights. (Angelova & Wile, 2013)

Figure 7 show the effects of embargo of fuel exportation from OPEC, the petrol stations during the energycrisis in 1974 has limited its services to regular customers only. Some stations have closed down due to the shortage of fuels. (Angelova & Wile, 2013) This crisis has created an urgent need for USA to generatepower which led to researches being re-conducted in order to produce methane by digesting the biomass of algae anaerobically. The attention as a result was drawn to Oswald’s researches. The main goal of these researches was to find an alternative process that will harvest algae biomass at a lower cost using micro-algae

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Figure 7

that has been cultivated into the raceway ponds. The process recycled the harvested bio-mass partially to determine the filamentous cyanobacteria. Micro-strainers were used to harvest the bio-mass. In order to demonstrate the work of the micro-strainers, the function of the FAM 600 shown in Figure 8 will be explained.

Figure 8: Micro-strainer (Spirexaquatec, 2015)

This type of micro-strainers removes solid wastes from water by passing the solid on a rotating screen that directs the waste into a pipe.

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Figure 9

-Technologies used to produce Algae Biofuel: Micro-algae are source for the future supply of biofuels that can completely be an alternative for petroleum. As humanity experience major drawbacks of burning petroleum, the atmosphere and environment are affected which created ozone holes and globalwarming. Besides, we cannot ignore the fact that petroleum supplies are running out. Human beings have been using oil and petrol supply that were created from remains of animals and plants for millions of years. Because the process takes millions of years, scientists are increasing the rate of algae growth to secure the oil supply for us and the next generation. This reportwill discuss the production processes of algae biofuel from both micro-algae and macro algae.

Algae production technology has three standards: scalability, lower energy required, and economical convenient cost. The cultivation of algae is usually done in open raceway ponds (ponds are artificially built and used to cultivate algae) which were used in commercial micro-algae production plants and some biofuel projects. In the raceway ponds, there are paddle wheels that ensure mixing the pond in a persistent rate. The technology analyzed in this report differs than the commercial microalgae production plants in Figure 11. The latter design consists of larger individual ponds compacted together with clay

instead of plastic. Biomass is derived from living organisms likeplants which are used to create fuels. (Yourdictionary, 2015) Harvesting the biomass of micro-algae can be done by bio-flocculation which happens naturally, and then the sedimentation of algae by the water of ponds occurs. Flocculation is the

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process in which solids in water are separated from the solution in the form of flocks due to a chemical reaction (Oilgae, 2015) shown in Figure 12. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

Figure 10: The paddle wheels that are used in the raceway ponds to ensure mixing the mixture at a persistent rate.

Figure 11: Commercial micro-algae production plants

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The process of harvesting the biomass of algae is similar to the process of wastewater treatment process. Gravity sedimentation thickens algae slurry. For producing oil from algae, biomass is dried the heat of the sun. In order to get oil from the dried biomass a hexane extraction is used. The remaining algae are returned again to the pond, after wetting it

again, and digesting it anaerobically. The resulting oil is utilized to generate electricity using the flue gas. (CO2) is essential for the growth of the algae in the pond. The recycled algae that are wetted again and digested anaerobically use the carbon supplied to the pond as carbon dioxide and nutrition for its nourishment. Algae are photosynthesis, which means that it splits water to it components (oxygen and hydrogen). Some types of algae are non-photosynthesis that doesn’t require light in order to get its nutrients. Algae as it consumes CO2 that is produced during the process, it contributes in cleaning the environment from CO2. While micro-algae biofuel consumes CO2 in the process of micro-algae cultivation, Fossil fuels like petroleum releases significant amounts of CO2 that pollutes earth’s atmosphere. Micro-algae can be manufactured to be a renewable power supply. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

Figure 12: visualizes the Flocculation process of micro-algae.

There are two processes micro-algae biofuel can be produced, either as the main product with wastewater as a by-product, or as the by-product of wastewater treatment. Figure 13 shows the systemic wastewater treatment process that produces

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algae oil as by-product. This process discharges large quantitiesof water. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

The technologies that produce algae biofuel are costly, and currently cannot compete with the fossil fuel. Therefore, theproduction process of algae biofuel produces by-products. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010) Benemann (2008) also stated that, “The advantage of biofuels and other renewable

energy sources is that they will be so scarce and expensive that we will need to use them very frugally instead of wasting them wantonly as we do with fossil fuels, and would with nuclear energy”

Figure 13: introduces the systematic process of wastewater treatment that produces algae biofuel as a by-product.

As mentioned previously, Algae have two types that producebiofuels such as: Micro-algae, and macro-algae. Macro-algae such as seaweed have a comparable potential in supplying biofuels. There are four steps for biofuel production process using macro-algae. The first step is to cultivate the macro algae including seed production.

Seaweed lives floated in the water functioning as an essential part of the food chain for organisms that live in the sea. Some types of macro-algae such as kelp that is huge, and some have normal size. Those are brown, red, and green. (NOAA, 2015)

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After cultivation, macro-algae such as seaweed, is harvested then treated. The harvested macro-algae is cleaned, reduced, kept by preservatives and stored. Extraction of energy is the process of harvesting the biomass from the macro-algae. Energy can be extracted in two processes that differ in their requirement of macro-algae drying. Processes require drying macro-algae are: direct combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and trans-esterification to biodiesel. While other processes such as: fomentation to bioethanol or bio butanol, and an-aerobatic digestion doesn’t require drying the macro-algae. Biofuel technologies nowadays use solar heat to dry macro-algae instead of using costly heating methods that would increase the cost and affect the EROI. EROI is the energy returned on investments whichis a scale to measure the effectiveness of the biofuel production. (Peakoil, 2011) Combustion is burning the dried macro-algae biomass forms one of the main and most important methods to generate energy. However, researchers didn’t study in depth combustion. Dried macro-algae have high combustibility. In fact, dried macro-algae are easier to burn than wet macro-algae,

for the moistures and liquids in the biomass could lower the heatutilized in the process by 20%. Another method for biofuel production from macro-algae is heating the biomass until the organic composition of dried macro-algae gets disintegrated. Thismethod, which is called pyrolysis, produces huge amounts of bio-fuel compared to the amount of biomass invested in the productionprocess. Gasification is another process that requires drying thebiomass before extracting the energy. In this kind of process the matter reacts with oxygen under a condition of high

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temperature producing a gas which has the ability to burn producing energy. The combustive gas consists of H2, CO, C02, CH4,C2H4, N2, and water vapor. The energy the gas release can be used to generate electricity, to produce methanol (CH40), and to

produce H2. The gas produced in this process is called syngas. (Milledge, Smith, Dyer, & Harvey, 2014)

Figure 14: The process of gasification (FischerTropsch synthesis)

-Use of Algae Biofuel: Algae are used widely in many different fields; their structure and components enable humans to discover uses that would not really come to mind when thinking of algae. Algae mainly contribute in the production of explosives and the manufacture of paint. It also hasdiverse uses in pharmaceuticals, innourishment, in beauty products, inagriculture, in prevention of pollution,and in making of biofuel.

Algae Industry Magazine (2013) said that “All living cellsevolved from algae. Animals have relied on algae for eons to provide the essential nutrients, vitamins and trace elements to support the healthy cellular metabolism required for an active life. Cellular metabolism evolved to take advantage of the nutrients and energy delivered by algae. Algae compounds support health at the cellular level by helping to regulate energy, neurological signaling, blood pressure and viral and bacterial threats. Systemic illnesses such as obesity, diabetes, digestion,heart, eye, skin or respiratory diseases would have terminated animal evolution eons before early hominoids appeared. Therefore, algae had to offer dietary nutrients that enabled health and vitality. Algae micronutrients,antioxidants and trace elements facilitate hormone release; regulate body temperature and balance brain chemistry. Algae compounds facilitate healthy functioning of all the major systems, especially the brain, eyes, immunity and heart.”

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Figure

Figure

Algae as aliment are widely used in thewestern world. They have many uses in food as theyare dried and served in dishes; as well as, it is amajor ingredient in sushi by. Agar jelly can alsobe extracted from algae and has another use incuisines rather than the usage of it to growmicroorganisms, so it is used as a soup thickener. Not only that but also, if pigments in algae are extracted, people would be able to use it in food coloring, and that is after processing it depending on the color of the pigment extracted. Algae are also dried and used as snacks, or even powdered and used for food seasoning as pointed out by Food and Agriculture Organization (2015). Some people also eat algae as vegetables; for example, adding them in salads or making them the main course of the day; Jurkiewics (2007) said, “Humans obtain algin from algae to help make ice cream, pudding” adding that algae can also be found in yoghurt and dairy products, and can even be found in cakes and hamburgers.

Another application in which algae is used in the modern age is in beauty products and cosmetics.Oilgae (2015) mentioned, “Cosmetics that could be produced from algae include algal soaps, algal clay mask, algae beauty serum, algal beauty oil, algal oil/salt scrub, algal whole cell shampoo and conditioner, algae anti-ageing creams and so on.” Algae are also used in makeup products where they are really beneficial to the skin and provide it with minerals and nutrients nourishing itas reminded by Jurkiewicz (2007). In addition, algae can contribute to acne-free skin without causing irritation or

dehydration for the skin when used as recollected in Oilgae (2015).

More, algae play a huge role in agriculture. “Bio fertilizers represent a promising alternative to synthetic fertilizers.

Bio fertilizers include microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria, and algae and their metabolites that are capable of enhancing soil fertility, crop growth, and/or yield”, Said

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Figure17

Connelly (2011). Algae are being used extensively now since they contain all the possible minerals a plant would require for its growth and survival. From this and according to Connelly (2011), it is understood that they could perform the same actions and give the same results to the plants but with more advantages towards our environment yielding more crops without the need for excess consumption of fossil fuels that are usuallyrequired to process fertilizer.

A person would think after how algae would prevent pollution when they look like pollution to inhabitants. Taking this as an example that Jurkiewicz (2007) mentioned; “Lake Texcoco flowed near the Aztec civilization. The Aztecs disposed of their wasted in the lake. The human waste added nitrogen to the water. The nitrogen helped algae to grow and then the algae performed photosynthesis. Photosynthesis gives off oxygen, and oxygen purifies polluted water.” This, as Connelly (2011) said, indicates that algae right here are acting as bio filters, but that does not mean that waste should be dumped in water, because the excess growth of algae can cause eutrophication and cause organisms to die out. Adding, algae are used as a major source for energy; especially fuels. Since algae cells contain a lot of oil; they can be converted into fuels that replace the usage of gasoline and diesel.

-Advantages and disadvantages: Algae are needed in environment as they have many benefits that could affect life positively. The first benefit is one that is connected to gases. When algae grow, they absorb great amounts of Carbon Dioxide in order to create biofuel, whichin fact helps in cleansing the air from excess CO2 that might be considered toxic if it has a higher concentration than other useful gases. According to Rosenthal (2013) (Cited in Elsevier), “With significant emissions reductions, a positive energy balance, nutrient recycling and CO2 reuse, algae-based fuels willbe a long-term, sustainable source of fuels for our nation.” The second benefit of algae is that they grow so fast and almost anywhere. This supports in giving greater numbers of algae that

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Figure

can as well be cropped in a daily routine. Also, in lands where life conditions are tough to survive in for long periods like in arctic or deserts or oceans, algae are able to grow as they have all the sufficient nutrients to maintain their life cycle. Algae as well do not compete with agricultural activities for they growin lands that may not be proper for cultivation. The third benefit is that algae could actually help in cleaning waste water. The Economist (2015) mentioned that when in waste water inshallow places, algae require sun to complete photosynthesis in order to feed bugs; therefore, all the nutrients they need are taken from the water causing these bugs’ systems to stop growing,and water becomes cleansed from them. However, not all places areshallow and while algae can grow in deep places for they feed on the nutrients provided from organic matters that bugs love instead of using photosynthesis, algae could make water run more smoothly and cleanse it.

As algae have many benefits, they also have disadvantages.The first disadvantage is that of economical side. Extracting algae and producing biofuel are expensive processes and may not be available for all countries to make use of, even in the richest countries. Also, people would go for other cheaper sources that give the same result only for the reason of cost. Asfor Haluzan (2015), he mentioned that, “Bioreactors have proved to be the most effective systems that produce high quality algae but they are very expensive (high operational and maintenance costs), and therefore not economically acceptable for commercial production.” The second disadvantage is that algae biofuel are still considered new sources of alternative energy and researchesabout the topic are still being conducted, and that causes companies and industrial factories to doubt themselves to use such sources or not as some would rather choose safe non-renewable options without thinking about the future of their choices at that moment. A third disadvantage as pointed out in Oilgae (2015) is that algae biofuel need specialized types of transportation materials and storage reliability. Different types

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of algae need various levels of temperature when stored after theextraction as each type is naturally grown in places where temperature allows accretion of that type to continue. Furthermore, if algae is used as an official source then to transport algae, larger numbers of transportation materials wouldbe needed to be provided with the right engines and to be set with right temperatures to keep algae in their natural flow as they move from one place to another.

-Conclusion: In conclusion, algae can be defined as green hydrous creatures that produce their own nutrition by photosynthesis, andadding to that, there are two major forms of algae; the first is micro algae, and the second is macro algae. Moreover, algae in three stages in their cycle pass through resources stage, production stage, and conversion stage, which all help in turningalgae into biofuels. Moving on, the first algae research was performed in the year of 1950, and then in 1973, countries that export petroleum did decide to stop exporting oils to United States of America; therefore, USA suffered from an energy crisis causing researches to be re-conducted. There are; in addition, two prime technologies used to produce algae biofuel; agricultureand harvesting. Adding, medicine, food, beauty products, harvesting, prevention of pollution, and biofuels are implementations of algae in which are important in people’s lives. Algae may also have utilities and detriments. Utilities like reduction of CO2, rapid growth rates that make these sourcesunlimited, and purification of waste water. As for the detriments; producing biofuel costs a huge wealth, algae biofuelsare contemporary to the field of energy, and algae biofuels need expert transportation materials and storage.

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Discussion: Although it is proved that algae as the future biofuel notonly work as useful alternatives but also as great sources of energy, they are still not completely functional enough as other types of fuels like fossils’. To open the door for algae to be exploited in the future generations and to be improved within limited duration of time, discussion of the previous points in this project will be made to evince to others that algae could result in success with amelioration. As it has been mentioned, algae biofuel has a portentous power to produce various types of bio-fuels that couldbe used to generate electricity and provide oil to operate cars. Algae biofuel has the potential to completely replace the fossil based fuels that take millions of years to be produced because algae themselves take lesser time to offspring. However, the economical perspective and economic analysis does not agree with scientists’ claims about algae’s biofuel ability to be an alternative for fossil fuel. Recent technologies produce algae biofuel at high prices than fossil fuels. For example, the first model which was mentioned before uses clay instead of plastic. Figure 19 shows the capital cost of plastic used to compact the ponds versus clay. Due to the fact that the minimum cost of one meter square of plastic would cost $3.5, clay seems to be a better alternative, so in order to ensure reliability of the raceway ponds, such cheap equipment are not used as they may require replacement consistently. Clay also is not as reliable, for it can be cracked easily and may require changing too. Plastic liners are essential to ensure consistent cleaning of theponds, and using clay in order to reduce the cost to increase thefeasibility of the design might make people unable to choose the types of algae that live in the ponds. In fact, ponds that used

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plastic or clay compacts had the same production rate. As a result, the need of finding another costless, productive design is of interest for scientists. (Lundquist, Woertz, Quinn & Benemann, 2010)

Figure 19: The capital cost of plastic used to compact the ponds versus clay

In addition, plans need to be put for algae to be tested,used little by little by small ventures, and then used in bigger ranges by factories and big organizations. Such tactics will cause economy of algae to grow as it will also make people trust,try, and accept new sources rather than overusing the same non-renewable sources. New ways are being developed to make the cost of the algae biofuel less and could also be subservient. One of these ways that could be considered by others is the Proterro process. Casey (2013) explained that, “The heart of Proterro’s process is a balloon-like, low-cost photobioreactor, where the company’s patented cyanobacteria are grown with the help of sunlight and carbon dioxide. While conventional algae farming is water-intensive, the system significantly reduces the amount of water needed by growing the cyanobacteria on vertically arranged thin films of a composite fabric.”

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Casey, T. (2013). Algae Farm-In-A-Balloon Could Silence The Algae Biofuel Boo-Birds. CleanTechnica. Retrieved 16 May 2015, from http://cleantechnica.com/2013/09/29/proterros-algae-farm-balloon-silence-algae-biofuel-boo-birds/

Connelly, R. (2011). Sustainability Symposium 2011 - How Algal Biofertilizers Can Accelerate Sustainable Agriculture. Utexas.edu. Retrieved 15 May 2015, from http://www.utexas.edu/sustainability/pssc/symposium/2011/16/

Environmental Measurement Systems,. (2015). Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll - Environmental Measurement Systems. Environmental Measurement Systems. Retrieved 15 May 2015, from http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/algae-phytoplankton-chlorophyll/

Food and Agriculture Organization,. (2015). 8. SEAWEEDS USED AS HUMAN FOOD. Fao.org. Retrieved 15 May 2015, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4765e/y4765e0b.htm

Greenwaterlab,. (2014). What are algae and cyanobacteria? Cyanobacteria identification importance.Greenwaterlab.com. Retrieved 15 May 2015, from http://www.greenwaterlab.com/algae-cyanobacteria.html

Haluzan, N. (2015). Biofuels from algae advantages and disadvantages - Renewables-info.com.Renewables-info.com. Retrieved 15 May 2015, fromhttp://www.renewables-info.com/drawbacks_and_benefits/biofuels_from_algae_advantages_and_disadvantages.html

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