a treasury from tabriz: a fourteenth-century manuscript ...

A TREASURY FROM TABRIZ:A FOURTEENTH-CENTURY MANUSCRIPTCONTAINING 209 WORKS INPERSIAN AND ARABIC*

A.A. Seyed-Gohrab

1. INTRODUCTION

This article is an introduction to a newly published facsimile edition of a rather uniquemiscellany containing 209 titles both in Arabic and Persian. The first paragraphs of thearticle are devoted to various physical aspects of the manuscript and palaeography, as wellas the copyist’s life and work. The remaining paragraphs introduce the manuscript’s con-tents in a thematic way, beginning with literary works, followed by religious sciences, phi-losophy and cosmographical texts.

The manuscript is written on light brown Oriental paper. It contains 368 folios (734numbered pages in the facsimile edition), measuring ca. 320 x 190 mm (reproduced in thefacsimile edition in a uniform format of 310 x 215 mm). The written area covers ca. 200 x185 mm, with 41 lines to the page in a varying layout. The quires are numbered, with a fewnumbers still visible. The manuscript originally belonged to Mirza MuÌammad-Äli Tafrishi,better known as Maädin al-Mulk. The library of the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majlis-i Showra-yi Islami) in Tehran bought this miscellany in 1995 and is now preserved underthe number 14590. No information is provided in the introduction to the facsimile about thebinding of the manuscript. Most of the texts were copied between 721-723/1321-1323.Three treatises were copied at a later date (724/1323, 725/1324 and 736/1335).

According to ̈ Abd al-Îusayn Îaîri, the present title of the facsimile is taken from anappellation occurring in the introduction of Malik MaÌmud Tabrizi’s Diwan.1 Safina is anArabic word, literally meaning “ship.” Other synonyms are jung, a Chinese word referringto a kind of sailboat, and majmuä, a word used to refer to a collection of manuscriptscontaining materials from different genres and disciplines, which were often made for per-sonal usage. The sizes of such collections differ considerably from each other. It may con-tain twenty to more than hundred titles. Roughly speaking, a regular miscellany containsaround fifty titles. Persian miscellanies include poetry and prose covering a wide range of

PERSICA XIX, 2003

* This research was sponsored by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO).1 I would like to thank Professor J.T.P. de Bruijn for reading the first draft of this paper and for his

invaluable remarks. I cannot find a reference to the word safina in this introduction. See p. 489.

126 A.A. SEYED-GOHRAB

fields; also personal notes can be found in such collections.2 The term safina as collectionof poetry appears in several classical Persian texts. NiÂami-yi Äru∂i (the Prosodist, d.ca.560/1164-5) used this term in his Chahar maqala (‘Four Discourses’).3 The poet ÎafiÂ ofShiraz (d. 791/1389) refers in his Diwan to a book of poetry as a safina-yi ghazal (“the boatof love-lyrics”):4

dar in zamana rafiqi ki khali az khilal astÒuraÌi mayy-i Òaf-u safina-yi ghazal ast

In this age, the only friend who is free from flaws,is a goblet of pure wine and a boat of love-lyrics.

In another couplet, the poet refers to his own collection of poetry as a safina:

didim shi¨r-i dilkash-i ÎafiÂ ba madÌ-i shahyik bayt az an safina bih az Òad risala budWe saw the heart-seizing poetry of ÎafiÂ in which he praised the king:one couplet from this boat was better than a hundred of treatises.5

2. THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Since a safina was usually made for private use, the selections of materials are purely basedon the owner/copyist’s choice, although the literary taste of the time and the curriculum ofthe owner cannot be ignored. The choice had also an ideological dimension as well, andoften influenced the copyist’s choice of material. For instance, Rashid ad-Din’s atelier inTabriz, which is famous for its illustrated manuscripts, followed an ideological stream. Inaddition to a safina’s personal use, there are several instances in which kings, princes andother notables ordered to copy miscellanies for their own libraries.

Abu ˆl-Majd’s selection of titles is indeed personal. As we shall presently see, he hascopied a large number of titles both by famous and lesser-known authors. The unique char-acter of the Safina lies not only in the fact that it introduces for the first time several newtitles, whose existence were unknown or questioned, but also in its rich contents covering awide range of fields. Works on the following subjects occur respectively in the Safina (itseems that Abu ˆl-Majd followed a thematic arrangement for his miscellany): Prophetictraditions, ethics, mysticism, jurisprudence, scholastic theology (kalam), exegetical litera-

2 A safina as a personal notebook often has an oblong-shape and is used in Arabo-Turkish lands. SeeJ.T.P. de Bruijn, in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under Mukhtarat, in Persian Literature; J.J. Witkam, in TheEncyclopaedia of Islam, under Nuskha.

3 See NiÂami-yi ̈ Aru∂i-yi Samarqandi, Chahar-maqala, ed. M. Qazwini, re-ed. M. Muïn, Tehran, 1375/1996, p. 47.

4 MuÌammad Shams ad-Din ÎafiÂ, Diwan, ed. P. Natil Khanlari, Tehran, 1362/1983, p. 108, gh. 46, l. 1.In several other places, ÎafiÂ refers to safina-yi ÎafiÂ. See p. 716, gh. 350, l.9 and p. 981, gh. 482, l. 10. ÎafiÂ’spredecessor, the poet Sa¨di (d. 691/1292) also refers several times to safina. In the following couplet, he tellshow his poetry is taken from Shiraz to the northern province of Khurasan: shi¨r-ash chu ab dar hama älamchunan shuda / k-az Pars mirawad ba Khurasan safinaî, “His poetry flows like water in the world in such away that it runs in a boat from [the province] Fars to Khurasan. See Ghazaliyyat-i Sa¨di, ed. N.A. Iranparast,Tehran. 1357/1978, II, p. 369, l. 4.

5 Diwan, ed. P. N. Khanlari, p. 434, gh. 209, l. 8.

A TREASURY FROM TABRIZ 127

6 This thematic arrangement is not always followed in the Safina, but it gives a good impression of theorder of books in this manuscript. See Îaîri’s introduction, p. 5.

7 See page eight of the introduction.8 See A. Tafazzoli in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Fahlaviyat.9 See pp. 678-80.10 See p. 524.

ture, history, versified encomiums, lexicography, grammar, literary criticism, philosophy,literary texts containing epic and didactic poetry, ‘the religions and the sects’ (al-milal waˆn- nihal), astronomy and astrology, geomancy, mineralogy, mathematics, medicine, epis-tles and testaments, administrative texts, collections of poetry (diwans) including a largenumber of quatrains, Persian and bilingual dictionaries, music, cosmography and geogra-phy, and lectures of Abu ˆl-Majd’s teachers.6

The Safina introduces several new titles whose existence was unknown or questioned.Îaîri has singled out these authors and their works as follows:7

1. Yusuf ibn ̈ Ali Îusayni, who made a selection of al-maÒabiÌ by Îusayn ibn MasüdBaghawi;

2. Bahaˆ ad-Din Îaydar Kashi who wrote Adïyyat an-nabi 3. Shaykh Zaîd ibn Saïd ™usi who wrote Arbaün Ìadith 4. Bahaˆ ad-Din Ya¨qub who translated a section on pilgrimage from Abu Îamid

MuÌammad Ghazali’s Ihyaˆ ülum ad-din; 5. ∑alaÌ ad-Din Musa’s Kitab fi ïlm al-faraî∂; 6. NaÒir ad-Din Äbdullah Äbidi and his Bist bab dar us†urlab; 7. Sa¨d ad-Din Masüd KhaÒbaki, the author of two treatises, one on geomancy and

one on mathematics; 8. Majd ad-Din Älkaî who wrote Ikhwaniyyat; 9. Majd ad-Din MuÌammad Tabrizi’s collection of poetry (Diwan);10. Ïzz ad-Din Ä†aî’s narrative poem Ïshq-nama;11. Zayn ad-Din Sayfi who wrote an ethico-philosophical treatise entitled Mabdaˆ wa

maäd;12. Sharaf ad-Din Üthman’s ™ariq al-akhira;13. Äbd al-Äziz Kashi’s Qalamiyya.

One should certainly add to this list Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah’s al-La†aîf al-laâli and Jalalad-Din Ätiqi’s lectures.

Another unique feature of this miscellany is the occurrence of a large number of po-ems known under the name of fahlawiyyat. These poems are written in the old dialect ofPahla areas.8 There are different theories on the regions that are called Fahla or Pahla.According to Ibn Muqaffa¨ these areas consisted of five regions including Isfahan, Ray,Hamadan, Mah Nihawand and Azarbaijan. Actually, it is a rather vague appellation for theareas in Western Iran, which in Antiquity were known as Media.9 These poems and thegeneric names given to them are of interest for the study of dialectology. In several placesof the Safina, the authors refer to the local languages spoken in, for instance, Hamadan.10

Abu ̂ l-Majd shows how several authors spoke in this dialect and composed poetry. Also thename of several poets in Pahla dialects such as Dayhun Ruz, Khaja MuÌammad Kajaji,Pahlawan AÌmad Kowharan, Pir Äli Fakhkhar and Pir Îamid are recorded in the Safina.


These poems are identified either on the margins of the manuscript as Pahlawi (‘al-fahlawi’),or in the text itself. Furthermore, other languages (or dialects) are also identified in theSafina. For instance, in ™ariq al-akhira, several poems in various Turkish dialects arecited and they are identified as Gurji, or Karaji and Tabrizi.11 A reference is also made inÎajj Bulah’s La†aîf to the Owromanan (a Kurdish dialect) and poems written in this dia-lect.12

Part of the materials collected in the Safina are Abu ˆl-Majd’s personal notes, whichcontain invaluable information about his time, his teachers and the city of Tabriz as thecultural centre of the Il-khanid period.13 Autographs of classical Persian authors are veryrare indeed. Especially in the case of medieval works, there is usually a long gap betweenthe time a book was composed and the dates of the oldest copies, which has come downto us.

Despite its great volume and its kaleidoscopic contents, the present manuscript isunfortunately not complete. Iraj Afshar has thoroughly examined the manuscript and hasconcluded that at least 119 folios of the Safina are missing; in other words, the miscellanywould have counted 972 pages.14

3. THE COPYIST, HIS LIFE AND WRITINGS

Information about Abu ˆl-Majd and his family are scanty but on the basis of the presentmanuscript it is possible to establish several facts about his life. Äbd al-Îusayn Îaîri andN. Pourjavady have recently published two articles on Abu ˆl-Majd’s life, his time andfamily. In the following paragraphs, I rely on these two articles to give some informationabout the copyist and the works selected in this collection.15 His full name reads as follows:Îajj Abu ̂ l-Majd MuÌammad ibn ∑adr ad-Din Abi ̂ l-FatÌ Masüd ibn MuÂaffar Ibn Abu ̂ l-Maäli MuÌammad ibn Äbd al-Majid Tabrizi Malikani Qurashi. Abu ˆl-Majd belonged tothe Malikan family in Tabriz. His ancestors were émigrés from the Arabian Desert (Îijaz)and originally descended from the Quraysh tribe. Several members of his family were menof letters. Abu ̂ l-Majd’s father Malik Masüd ibn MuÂaffar (d. 744/1343) was a clerk in theIl-Khanid administration and also composed poetry. Abu ˆl-Majd cites several specimensfrom his poetry in the Safina.16 His uncle Malik MaÌmud ibn MuÂaffar (d. 696/1296) was apoet too. Abu ˆl-Majd compiled his collection of poetry in 716/1316 and inserted it with anintroduction in the Safina.17 Although Malik MaÌmud’s name is recorded in several booksas a man of letters but no specimen of his poetry were known before the publication of this

11 See pp. 678-79.12 p. 524.13 For information on the Il-Khanids in Persia see D. Morgan, Medieval Persia 1040-1797, London,

1990, chapters VII and VIII.14 See I. Afshar, “Nuskha-yi bargardan” p. 529.15 Pourjavady’s article originally appeared in Nama-yi Baharistan 1/2 (1379/2000), pp. 59-84; German

translation by Thomas Ogger, “Die klassische persische Mystik in der Tabrizer Arche” in Iranistik 1/2 (2002),pp. 113-25. Îaîri’s article “Safina-yi Tabriz: kitabkhana-yi bayn ad-daffatayn” appeared in Nama-yi Baharistan2/2 (1380/2001-2), pp. 41-64, and later as an introduction to the fascimile edition of the Safina.

16 See pp. 593-612.17 pp. 489-500.


facsimile edition.18 Another poet of this family is Majd ad-Din MuÌammad, Abu ˆl-Majdcousin, whose name and works are not recorded in any literary or historical source. Hiscollection of poetry is recorded in the Safina.19

Little is known about the curriculum of Abu ̂ l-Majd. We can assume that he followedthe traditional medieval Islamic curriculum including literary, religious, natural and meta-physical sciences, jurisprudence, philosophy, astronomy and astrology, mysticism and medi-cine. Abu ˆl-Majd refers to five of his teachers in the Safina, beginning with Bahaˆ ad-DinÎaydar Kashi, the author of Adïyat an-nabi. Abu ˆl-Majd recited this book to him in 723/1323. Jalal ad-Din Äbd al-Îamid Ätiqi is another of his teachers of whom Abu ˆl-Majdspeaks with utmost respect and has recorded several of his lectures in the Safina. His shaykh-i ijaza is the famous mystic Sa¨d ad-Din MaÌmud ibn Äbd al-Karim Shabistari (d. notbefore 724/1325), the author of Gulshan-i raz (‘Rose-Garden of Mystery’).20 His other teacheris Sharaf ad-Din who advised Abu ˆl-Majd to write a ‘tenzone’ or strife-poem (munaÂara)with the title of munazara-yi chashm u gush dar maÌ∂ar-i dil (‘Dispute Between the Eyeand the Ear at the Presence of the Heart’). Abu ˆl-Majd’s most influential teacher is Aminad-Din Îajj Bulah who was one of the learned men of Tabriz and thirteen of his works bothin Arabic and Persian on various disciplines are handed down to us through the Safina. Asindicated in a treatise by Îajj Bulah’s son, he died on 1320. In the same treatise, a poem ina Pahla dialect is cited which probably belonged to Îajj Bulah. Other evidence that ÎajjBulah was also versed in writing dialect poetry is provided by several poems in his al-La†aîf al-laâli.

One wonders indeed whether Abu ˆl-Majd was conversant in all the different disci-plines represented by the texts in this collection or simply copied them out of curiositywithout a deeper knowledge of their contents. It is difficult to answer this question beforemaking a thorough analysis of all the works of this collection and of Abu ˆl-Majd’s culturalactivity in Tabriz, his curriculum, and so forth. It is, of course, possible that he was a homouniversalis (jami¨ al-ülum) like many other medieval savants, but one should be careful touse such an appellation.21 Abu ˆl-Majd authored several works, nine of which are collectedin the Safina. He wrote three debating poems, namely MunaÂara-yi sam¨ u baÒar (‘Debatebetween the Ear and the Eye’), which he completed in 717/1317; MunaÂara-yi naÂm unathr (‘Debate between Poetry and Prose’); and MunaÂara-yi al-nar wa-t-turab (‘Debatebetween Fire and Dust’), which he versified on the basis of the notes of Amin ad-Din ÎajjBulah’s lectures. The occurrence of these and ten other debating poems in the Safina showsAbu ̂ l-Majd’s fascination with this genre. It was also during the fourteenth century that thisgenre became increasingly popular and in the coming centuries many poets tried their handsat writing a strife-poem, not only in Persian but also in Turkish.

18 See M.Ä. Tarbiyat, Danishmandan-i Azarbaijan, Tehran: 1314/1936, p. 361; S. Nafisi, Tarikh-inaÂm wa nathr dar Iran wa dar zaban-i Farsi, 2nd ed.,Tehran, 1363/1984, I, p. 224 (91); II, p. 749 (65).

19 pp. 500-04.20 According to Îaîri, Abu ˆl-Majd’s reference to Shabistari dates from 725/1324. This indicates that

the dating of Shabistari’s death in 720/1320 is incorrect.21 In his interview with N. Pourjavady, AÒghar Mahdawi states that Abu ˆl-Majd was well-informed

about all these disciplines. See “Aîna-yi farhangi-yi Tabriz dar dowra-yi Il-khaniyan”, in Nashr-i Danish19/4(1981/ 2003), p. 42.


Moreover, Abu ˆl-Majd compiled a collection of five hundred quatrains, containingpoems from several lesser-known poets. Among these poets, we can refer to Abu ˆl-Majd’suncle Majd ad-Din Malik MaÌmud and his cousin Majd ad-Din MuÌammad. Abu ˆl-Majdhimself composed poetry and also wrote treatises on the rules of rhyme and metre. Histreatise al-Kafiyya fi ̈ ilm al-äru∂ wa-ˆl-qafiya deals with intricate matters of Persian prosody.Although no specimens of his poetry were known before the present publication, now wecan establish that he was an able poet, who also wrote on the rules of poetry, and wasknowledgeable of many fields of medieval sciences. Abu ˆl-Majd’s other works includeTadwin-i manabir-i Jalal ad-Din ̈ Atiqi, a selection of Jalal ad-Din ̈ Atiqi’s preaching, whichhe penned down during ̈ Atiqi’s lectures. Two other works by Abu ̂ l-Majd, entitled BadayiäÒ-ÒaÌibiyya fi bä∂ akhbar al-nabawiyya and MukhtaÒar marwi än an-nabi, concern thehistory of the Prophet’s life. In addition to these, there are a number of anonymous works inthis collection which might have been written by Abu ˆl-Majd, but we have no evidence toprove his authorship.

Abu ˆl-Majd was not a professional copyist and most probably copied these works inthe Safina for his personal use. We come across passages in which he mentions that a cer-tain work was very popular and that he copied it in order to preserve it.

4. PALAEOGRAPHIC FEATURES

The majority of texts in this collection are written in a very clear and legible Persian ta¨liqscript, but in a few places we see an untidy and sprawling hand. At several points Abu ˆl-Majd’s hand shows some new features, which differs from the traditional ta¨liq. Severalfeatures of his hand resemble nasta¨liq-script and may be considered as a development ofthe simple and clear ta¨liq to an elegant and artistic nasta¨liq.22 Only from page 211 to 220,we have a change of script. These pages are copied in an orderly naskh hand and each pagecontains some twenty lines, each line having some twenty words. Other pages contain someforty lines prose text, each line counting some thirty words. Each page of poetry is dividedinto three columns, each column consisting of some forty odd lines. In many Persian manu-scripts, coloured rules—turquoise, red or gold—are placed between columns of poetry. Inthis manuscript, however, no such columns occur, neither between the columns, the titles orthe headings; instead there is ample space left between the columns. Only at a few placesthe texts are illegible (particularly at the bottom of several pages). According to N. Pourjavady,such illegibility is due to the manuscript itself and has little to do with the photographicprocess.23

The following observations can be made about Abu ̂ l-Majd’s copying. Not all conso-nants have their proper diacritical markers. In most cases, the letters sin and shin are neatlywritten and are distinguished from each other.24 In some places, three dots are placed belowthe letter sin to distinguish it from shin. Also in majority of cases, the orthography of dhal

22 For characteristics of these scripts see Gh-H. Yusofi in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Calligraphy.23 See Pourjavady’s interview with Mahdawi where this issue shortly discussed.24 In many Persian manuscripts, copyists placed three dots below the letter sin to distinguish it from

shin.


and dal has been considered carefully. The letters kaf and gaf are not distinguished through-out the manuscript. The letter cha is sometimes marked by three dots below the letter butsometimes it is entirely undotted. On the whole it may be said that Abu ̂ l-Majd, although heis very economical with the placing of diacritical dots, has compiled this impressive wealthof material neatly and in good order.

The verses occurring in prose-texts are not set out each on a new line, but are writtencontinuously, being separated from each other by several signs. Divisions between versesare usually marked by a red sign and each verse section is sometimes introduced either bythe word shi¨r (‘poetry’), bayt (‘couplet’), or miÒra¨ (‘hemistich’), sometimes with diacriti-cal signs and sometimes without using any sign at all. Moreover, for instance, if the wordbayt is written in black, Abu ˆl-Majd adds dots on consonants in red. The copyist usescatchwords (rikaba) on the bottom of columns of poetry.

As a rule, the Arabic texts in this volume are not vocalised; in some lines vowels aremarked, but in the majority of texts this is not done systematically. In exegetical texts,words and phrases from the Koran are sometimes written in a large hand so that they can beeasily identified. In other text, in order to easily identify a section, Abu ˆl-Majd chooses towrite the title of suras in red ink, and the sentences are separated from each other by theletter jim (Ã) in red. This system is also employed in Îajj Bulah’s Persian text Minhaj, inwhich he explains words and phrases from the Koran.25

Except Risala-yi qowsiyya by Kamal ad-Din Ismaïl, which is commented upon in themargins and between the lines, an ode explaining the rules of metre and rhyme by Ismaïlibn ̈ Abbad ™aliqani, and several other infrequent notations on a few other pages, the manu-script does not contain commentary. As far as I can judge, all marginal notes are by Abu ˆl-Majd’s own hand.

The dates of each work are carefully indicated by colophons, appearing consistentlyat the end of each work. Colophons are largely composed in Arabic formulas and containdifferent texts, but almost all of them mention the copyist’s name, date of completion, timeof completion, place of completion, the title of the book and God’s praise and favour.26 Themajority of the colophons are written in a triangular form and either side of the line isadorned with several signs in black and red ink. Several of these signs resemble the Arabicletter Ê, or three dots in the form of a triangle, with a curve below them.27

10. LEXICOGRAPHICAL WORKS28

The earliest dictionaries of New Persian are said to have been written by the poet Rudakiand by Abu ÎafÒ Sughdi, in the tenth and the eleventh century respectively, but unfortu-nately both works are lost now. The Safina contains not less than five dictionaries, amongwhich is the Lughat-i furs by Abu ManÒur Äli Asadi, the oldest work of this kind still

25 See pp.131-44.26 I. Afshar “Maqam-i anjama dar nuskha” in Nama-yi Baharistan 3/1, (1381/2002), pp. 39-99; for an

English summary of this article see ibid, pp. 13-19.27 See, for instance, p. 30.28 Cf. ‘A.A. Sadiqi, J.R. Perry and H. Same'i in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Dictonaries; D.N. Mac-

kenzie in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New edition s.v Kamus. 2. Persian Lexicography.


extant, completed between 450-60/1058-68 [pp. 613-22].29 It contains explanations of about1,200 words, occurring in Persian poems written in the Eastern provinces of Persia. Lughat-i furs is an invaluable work, both on its own merits as a classical dictionary and for the factthat it cites a large number of lines by early Persian poets of whose works hardly anythinghas remained. It was Asadi's intention to elucidate the meanings of these words to poets inthe Western parts of Persia where Persian poetry was still in its infancy. The lemmas, ar-ranged alphabetically according to their final letter, are written in red ink; the quoted linesand the explanations are in black. Paul Horn's first edition of the Lughat-i furs was based onthe only manuscript known in Europe at the time, a copy in the library of the Vatican dated9 Muharram 733 (30 September 1332).30 Abu ˆl-Majd completed the copying of this dic-tionary in the Safina on Sunday, 22 jumada ˆl-akhir 721 (19 July 1321). In the nineteenthcentury, when the Safina was in the library of the Qajar prince Mirza MuÌammad ÄliTafrishi, the owner ordered Îusayn Musawi Farahani to copy the Lughat-i furs from thismanuscript. Later this copy came into the hands of Äbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, who in 1940published a new edition of the dictionary based on the text as it occurs in the Safina, whichin fact is the oldest manuscript of Asadi's work still existing.31

The second dictionary, attributed to the theologian Fakhr ad-Din Razi (d. 1210), is anArabic-Persian wordlist [pp. 128-31]. Bilingual dictionaries of this kind were immenselypopular in Persia and many authors who wrote in Arabic as well as in Persian, such asZamakhshari, Ibn Sina and Abu RayÌan Biruni, wrote separate glossaries for their Persianreaders. Zamakhshari, for instance, inserted in his Muqaddimat al-adab a list of Persianwords with their equivalents in Arabic.32 According to Haîri, this was identical to a diction-ary composed by Rashid ad-Din Wa†wa†, of which there are several manuscripts. In manysources, it bears the title of Îamd u thanaˆ, and this is also the title of a versification by thefourteenth-century poet AÌmad Daî Karmiyani.

The Safina contains two other Arabic-Persian dictionaries. Intikhab Sami fi ïlm al-lugha is presented as an anonymous work, but it is actually an excerpt from the Kitab Samifi ˆl-asami by Abu ˆl-Fa∂l AÌmad b. Maydani (d. 518/1124) [pp. 104-17].33 At the end ofthis text Abu ̂ l-Majd notes that he copied it from a defective (saqim) manuscript. Comparedto the previous dictionaries, it has a fairly larger number of entries.

The other work is the Kitab al-MaÒadir by Qa∂i Abu Äbd-Allah Îusayn Zowzani(d. 486/1093), a dictionary of Arabic infinitives with Persian explanations [pp. 117-27].Zowzani's aim was to make the meanings of the Koran intelligible to the Persians. With thesame intention he composed Tarjuman-i Qurân, a glossary of the Koran. A similar text isthe Kitab al-minÌaj fi ülum al-adab by Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah which contains literaltranslations of several books of the Koran [pp. 131-44].

29 See further C. A. Storey, Persian literature III/1, pp. 3-4.30 P. Horn, Asadi’s neupersisches Wörterbuch Lughat-i Furs nach der einzigen vaticanischen Handschrift

Ì, Göttingen, 1897.31 Ha'iri, “Safina-yi Tabriz: kitab-khana'i bayn-ad-daffatayn” in Nama-yi Baharistan 4 (vol. ii/2), 1380/

2001-02, p. 41.32 See C.A. Storey, op.cit., pp. 82-84.33 See C.A. Storey, op.cit., pp. 81-82.


11. MYSTICAL TREATISES

The Safina contains a rich collection of texts on Islamic mysticism both in Arabic andPersian, in prose and in verse. In fact, a majority of the texts collected by Abu ‘l-Majd aremystical. This includes several major works such as manuals teaching a wide range of Sufirituals. Other texts are of an allegorical nature, describing the itinerary of the mystic’s spir-itual progress in symbolic language. There are also collections of the correspondence be-tween mystics, of their private invocations, and of Sufi maxims.

The first series of mystical writings in the Safina are short definitions of key Suficoncepts, which are separately presented here as books [pp. 676-77].34 In Sufi manuals,such terminology is usually treated in special chapters. The terms defined in the Safina arerespectively: contentment (ri∂a), patience (Òabr), servitude (übuda), will (irada), endur-ance (istaqama), purity (ikhlaÒ), bringing to life again [one's belief] (iÌya), recitation (dhikr),spiritual chivalry (futuwwa), sincerity (Òidq), meditation (muraqaba), love (maÌabba), long-ing (showq), mystical audition [with music and poetry] (sama¨).

In addition to the SawaniÌ (to be discussed in the next section), Abu ˆl-Majd hasadded two of AÌmad Ghazali’s other writings, namely Risalat a†-†ayr and Risala-yi ̈ ayniyya[pp. 686-91]. The former is an allegorical treatise in which ‘thirty birds’ (si murgh) go outon a search for their king, the fabulous bird Simurgh, who's name could be read as thecollectivity of these birds and as a symbol of their most inner self.35 The latter risala is aneloquent letter Ghazali wrote to his student Äyn al-Qu∂at Hamadani, in which he explainsseveral mystical topics.36

Another treatise, which is partly included in the Safina, explains mystical terms [pp.55-56]. Since the first part is missing, the title and the author are unknown.37 As in othermystical treatises, many verses from the Koran and sayings of great mystics are cited.

Although no culinary texts are included in the Safina, the treatise entitled Asma-iabaha ba iÒtilaÌ-i Òufiyan (‘The names of foods according to the terminology of the Sufi's’)is a curious work because it translates the names of more than sixty dishes and culinaryingredients from ordinary Persian into the language of Sufis. For instance, bread (nan) isexplained as the ‘food of the faith’ (qut al-iman); vinegar (sirka) as ‘the affliction of thetable’; sweet-meat (Ìalwa) as ‘the father of benefits.’

Devotional prayers have developed into a special genre in Persian, called munajat.The most famous work of this kind belongs to Shaykh Äbd-Allah AnÒari (396-481/1006-89), from which Abu ˆl-Majd has included a selection [pp. 622-24].38 These prayers have

34 The editor has numbered these treatises from 168-181.35 This text was published in Majmu'a-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-i Ghazali, ed. by A. Mujahid, Tehran,

1358/1979, pp. 77-86, and separately in Risalat at-tayr, ed. by N. Pourjavady, Tehran, 1358/1979.36 Majmu'a-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-i Ghazali, pp. 207-38; on the publication history of this treatise

see ibid., p. 202.37 Part of the chapters 37 to 57 is preserved here. Each chapter is headed by al-qowl (‘remark,’ saying,’

or ‘report’); the number of the chapter is recorded in the loop of the letter lam.38 The full text has been printed several times, see e.g. M.J. Shari'at, Sukhanan-i pir-i Harat, Tehran,

1361/1982; M. Sarwar Mowla'i, Majmu'a-yi rasa'il-i farsi-yi Khwaja ‘Abd-Allah Ansari, 2 vols, Tehran, 1372/1993. Translation in European languages, are, for instance, Serge de Laugier de Beaurecueil, “L’Ilahi-namè deKhajè ‘Abdallah Ansari,” in Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale (Cairo) 47, 1948, pp. 151-


been always extremely popular in the Persian-speaking world, and even today they arerecited at religious gatherings called Munajat or written on cars as amulets.39 Another trea-tise in the Safina, usually attributed to AnÒari, is a shorter version of the Risala-yi dil u jan,beginning with a dialogue between the heart (dil) and the soul (jan) [p. 624].40

The major Persian works written by Shihab ad-Din YaÌya Suhrawardi 1153-91), knownas the ‘Master of Illumination' (Shaykh al-ishraq), are nearly all included in the Safina.41 Inthese texts Suhrawardi expounds his ontological views, based on gnostic notions andNeoplatonic concepts, in the form of allegories. It should be noted that the titles of sometreatises differ from those commonly found. The treatise ¨Aql-i Surkh (‘The CrimsonedArchangel’) is called here Risalat al-mutamarriq [pp. 650-52]. The second treatise is Bang-i murghan (‘Sounds of Birds’) [pp. 652-53]. The treatise known as Ruzi ba jama'at-i Òufiyan(‘A Day With the Community of Sufis’), has the Arabic title Risalat al-Òufiyya [pp. 695-96]. Then, the following works: Awaz-i par-i Jibraˆil (‘The Chant of Gabriel's Wing’),∑afir-i Simurgh (‘The Song of the Simurgh’) [pp. 698-99] and Risala fi Ìalat al-†ufuliyya(‘Treatise on the State of Childhood’), under the title of Risalat al-maktab (‘Treatise of theKoranic School’) [pp. 700-02]. The series is concluded by Lughat-i Muran (‘The Languageof the Termites’) [pp. 702-03].42

A hitherto unknown work is Tariq al-akhira, a treatise by Sharaf ad-Din ̈ Uthman, theson of Abu ‘l-Majd's teacher Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah. It describes the transient nature ofthe material world, inviting the reader to bid farewell to it [pp. 678-80]. This text is ofspecial interest, not only because it contains several quotations of Turkish and dialect po-ems, but also on account of the first-hand information it provides about the place and timeof the death of the author's father. Unfortunately, the last folios are missing.

12. MYSTICAL THEORIES OF LOVE

The Safina contains six books on the theory of (mystical) love. The oldest Persian treatiseon love known is the influential SawaniÌ by AÌmad Ghazali (d. 520/1126). It treats of thepsychological subtleties of love outlining its various stages in very concise formulations[pp. 681-86].43 Apart from the missing opening lines, the complete text is presented here in

70; W. Thackston, Intimate Conversations, New York 1978. B. Utas discussed the textual tradition of theprayers in “The Munajat or Ilahi-namah of ‘Abdu'llah Ansari,” in Manuscripts of the Middle East 3, Leiden,1988 (Persian translation by Sh. Niknam in Ma'arif, 17/1, 2000, pp. 90-101).

39 One of the leaders of such a contemporary gathering in Tehran, Husayn Ansariyan, published a popu-lar book in verse called Munajat-i ‘arifan, 9th edition, 1370/1991, which is influenced by Ansari's prayers.

40 Published by M.J. Shari'at, op. cit., pp. 3-10.41 For a biography of Suhrawardi, see S.H. Nasr, Three Muslim Sages: Avicenna, Suhrawardi, Ibn ‘Arabi,

Cambridge, Mass., 1964, pp. 52-58. His Persian works were published by S.H. Nasr and H. Corbin, in OeuvresPhilosophiques et Mystiques, Vol. ii, Tehran-Paris, 1338/1970; see also vol. iii, pp. 12-31.

42 Suhrawardi’s treatise Mu'nis al-'ushshaq, also included in the Safina, will be discussed in the nextsection. The treatises have been translated into European languages several times. See, for instance, W.M.Thackston, The Mystical and Visionary Treatises of Shihabuddin Yahya Suhrawardi, London,1982; KazimTehrani, Mystical symbolism in Four Treatises of Suhrawardi, NewYork, 1974. For a useful discussion ofSuhrawardi’s Persian treatises see Mehdi Aminrazavi, “The Significance of Suhrawardi’s Persian Sufi Writingsin the Philosophy of Illumination” in Classical Persian Sufism: from its Origins to Rumi, ed. by L. Lewisohn,London, pp. 259-83.

43 There are several commentaries on this treatise, see Shuruh-i sawanih, ed. A. Mujahid, Tehran, 1372/


63 chapters.44 According to H. Ritter, who published the book for the first time in 1942, thisis one of the most original works in this genre.45 It has been published at least nine times inthe last decades.46

The second treatise on love is Suhrawardi’s Muˆnis al-üshshaq, outlining the work-ings and effects of love, and its relationship with reason and beauty in a theoretical way [pp.691-94]. The chief difference between the Mu'nis and the SawaniÌ is that the former trea-tise is written as an allegory.

The Ïshq-nama, the third book on the theory of love, is a poem of more than onethousand lines in rhyming couplets (mathnawi) [pp. 509-18]. It is also called Üshshaq-nama and is attributed to the mystical poet Fakhr ad-Din Ïraqi (d. 688/1289).47 It is notclear when and by whom it was put to his name. The author is here called ̈ Izz ad-Din ̈ A†aî,whose pen name might have been misread as Ïraqi.48 The poet refers to himself in theintroduction of the poem by making a pun on the word ä†aˆ (‘offer,’ ‘gift’):

chun dar-i ganj-i dust wa kardandba man in shiwa ra ä†a kardandba ä†a-am chu ashnaî shudz-an ä†a kunyatam Äa†aî shud

When they opened the door of the Friend’s treasury,They offered me this style as a present.Since I was acquainted with this offering,My nickname became Ä†aî.

The SuÌbat-nama ('Book of Companionship') by Humam Tabrizi, also in the form of amathnawi poem, describes the qualities of lovers, the beloved’s beauty and several con-cepts associated with love such as fidelity, jealousy, separation and union [pp. 506-09]. Asin the Ïshq-nama, several ghazals are inserted between the rhyming couplets to take awaysomething of the didactic weight of the poem.49

The Arabic Risala fi ˆl-Ìubb by Fakhr ad-Din Razi is a very short text, dealing withthe concept of love from a philosophical point of view [pp. 322-23]. The sixth treatisecopied in the Safina is a selection from a chapter in the Risala-yi Qushayriyya, a famous

1993, which contains three commentaries: by ‘Izz ad-Din MaÌmud Kashani, Îusayn Nagori and an anonymouscommentary from the 9th/15th century respectively.

44 See N. Purjawadi, Sultan-i tariqat, pp. 15ff, where Ghazali’s journeys to various cities are discussed.45 H. Ritter, Ahmad Ghazzali’s Aphorismen über dei Liebe, p. I.46 For a list of the extant manuscripts and the publication history of the Sawanih, see A. Mujahid, Majmu'a-

yi athar, pp. 103-04 and 106-07; R. Gramlich, Ahmad Ghazzali Gedanken über die Liebe, Wiesbaden, 1976, p.3; Sawanih: Inspirations from the World of Pure Spirits: The Oldest Persian Sufi Treatise on Love, trans. by N.Purjawadi, London, 1986.

47 This text is published in Fakhr ad-Din ‘Iraqi, Kulliyat-i Shaykh Fakhr ad-Din Hamadani mutakhallisba ‘Iraqi, ed. by S. Nafisi, Tehran, 1370/1991, pp. 327-74, ll. 4809-5872, under the title ‘Ushshaq-nama yaDah-nama (‘The Book of Lovers or the Ten Letters’)

48 According to J. Baldick, ‘Ata'i was the real author of the poem; cf. his article “The Authenticity ofIraqi’s ‘Ushshaq-nama”, in Studia Iranica 2, 1973, pp. 67-78.

49 The tradition of adding lyrical intermezzi in a narrative dates probably back to the poet Äyyuqi, whoused this technique in his romance Warqa and Gulshah; cf R. Dankoff, “The Use of Ghazal in Persian andTurkish Masnavis” in Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43, 1984, pp. 9-25, and A.A. Seyed-Gohrab, Layli andMajnun: Love, Madness and Mystic Longing, Leiden: Brill, 2003, pp. 188-89.


Sufi manual in Arabic by Abu ̂ l-Qasim Qushayri (d. 1073). The present selection is entitledKitab fi maÌabbat al-Ìaqiqa (‘Treatise on the love of the Truth’) [p. 233].50 Finally, there isa brief text in Arabic devoted to the definition of maÌabba (‘affection’ or ‘love’) [p. 677].51

In addition to these separate texts on mystical love, there are also parts of other worksintroduced in the Safina, which treat of the same subject. For instance, Khaja NaÒir ad-DinTusi expounded the concept of love from an ethical perspective in part four of the thirdchapter in his OwÒaf al-ashraf [pp. 362-63]. Also one of the chapters of Hamidi’s Maqamat,which is included in the Safina, is entirely devoted to love [p. 226]. It might be added thatamong the excerpts from Sanaî’s Îadiqat al-Ìaqiqa there is a passage on love and thelover [p. 545].

Materials for the study of the Persian theory of love, which must have been a topic ofspecial interest to Abu ˆl-Majd, are also to be found in the poetic texts referred to earlier, inparticular the tenzones (munaÂarat), ghazals and quatrains in which particular attention isgiven to the nature, the functioning and the workings of love, as well as the characteristicsof the lover and the beloved. Many quatrains have been arranged in the Safina thematicallyaccording to various topics related to the typical behaviour of a beloved person.

13. LITERARY WORKS

The Safina’s literary works represent a wide range of genres and poetical forms in bothPersian and Arabic. They are important in several respects. They show to some extent theliterary canon of Persian literature in the fourteenth century Tabriz. One wonders why theworks of several classical authors are missing in this collection. Not a single line fromGhaznawid poets such as Farrukhi and ̈ UnÒuri has been copied, except where they are citedby authors who are included in the Safina. For instance, Asadi’s Lughat-i furs containsseveral lines by these poets. The question also rises why Abu ˆl-Majd has selected, forinstance, all the Persian treatises of the mystic philosopher Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi and alarge selection of NiÂami Ganjawi’s romances, but no works by the great poets such asFarid ad-Din Ä††ar (d. ca. 618/1221) or Jalal ad-Din Rumi (d. 672/1273). Only referencesto and brief poetic passages from Ä††ar’s work can be found in the Safina, particularly inÎajj Bulah’s writings.52

13.1. COLLECTIONS OF POETRY (DIWANS)

In addition to separate collections of lyrical poems, odes and quatrains, Abu ˆl-Majd hasincluded three Diwans in his Safina. The most noteworthy Diwan is by the poet Åahir ad-Din ™ahir ibn MuÌammad Fariyabi (550-598/1156-1201), the largest work in the Safina[pp. 442-89]. The Diwan contains a prose introduction interspersed with pieces of poetry.The remainder of the Diwan is divided as follows: 75 qaÒaîd (odes); 4 tarjiät (refrained

50 Contrary to Haîri’s statement that this treatise is written in Persian, actually it is in Arabic. For moreinformation on Qushayri’s treatise, see Furuzanfar’s introduction to his edition of Tarjuma-yi risala-yi Qushayriyy,Tehran, 1374/1995, pp. 14-84.

51 See also on the same page the section on longing (showq).52 See, for instance, Îajj Bulah’s La†aîf (pp. 519-38) in which he cites several lines from Ä††ar.


poems);53 1 mathnawi-poem praising MuÂaffar ad-Din Qizil Arslan; 97 muqa††aät (strophicpoems);54 10 ghazaliyyat (love-lyrics); 65 rubaïyyat (quatrains).

Another collection of poetry comes from the copyist’s uncle, Majd ad-Din MalikMaÌmud MuÂaffar Tabrizi, who died young in 696/1296. Abu ˆl-Majd collected his poetryand wrote an introduction to his Diwan [pp. 489-500].55 There is no mention of his Diwan inany source, and this is the only collection available to us, consisting of a debating poem(between love and reason), four odes, twenty muqa††aät (one of which is a riddle), 57ghazaliyyat, fourteen quatrains, two single dichtichs (mufradat) and a mathnawi-poem con-sisting of four lines. The third collection of poetry belongs to Majd ad-Din Tabrizi [pp. 500-04]. Neither the poet’s name nor any reference to his poetry have been found in other sources.This collection consists of six fragments, followed by 21 lyrical poems, and seventeen quat-rains. Majd ad-Din’s poems on love are in a simple but elegant poetic language.

In addition to these Diwans, the Safina contains several collections of lyrics, quat-rains, rhyming couplets (mathnawis) and odes in Persian and Arabic. One of the collectionsof ghazals belongs to Jalal ad-Din Ätiqi and is called al-Ghazaliyyat fi at-towÌid wa-†-†amat (‘Lyrics on God’s Unity and Great Calamities’) [pp. 440-41].56 The title is inspiredby a verse from the Koran, which is frequently used by mystics. This collection contains tenmystical lyrics, each poem with its own title.

Perhaps the most well-known mathnawi-poem in the Safina is the story of Rustamand Suhrab taken from Abu ˆl-Qasim Firdowsi’s Shah-nama (completed 1010) [pp. 568-76]. This is the tragic story of the hero Rustam who kills his own son without knowing hisidentity. Abu ˆl-Majd has included the entire story.57 The second episode from Firdowsi’sShah-nama included in the Safina [pp. 576-78] is Rustam’s fight against Ikwan-Div, count-ing 186 couplets. Abu ˆl-Majd’s last selection from the Shah-nama is a short passage fromthe famous story of Rustam and Isfandiyar, in which Rustam forgives his adversary Isfandiyar[p. 578].58 Abu ˆl-Majd gives no reason for choosing this passage, but it is certainly note-worthy that he has also selected another depiction of the fight between these two heroesfrom the Shah-nama in a mystical context. Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi’s ̈ Aql-i surkh, whichis cited in the Safina under the title of Risalat al-mutamarraq, gives a mystical interpreta-tion of this profane scene.

Another famous poem in the Safina is the Îadiqat al-Ìaqiqa (‘The Garden of Real-ity’) by Îakim Majdud b. Adam Sanaî of Ghazna (d. 525/1131).59 The poet wrote thisdidactic poem for Bahramshah. As J.T.P. de Bruijn has pointed out, “It is (…) among themost frequently copied Persian texts. It has been appreciated throughout the centuries, both

53 The refrains are written in red.54 Several of these poems consist of four lines and have the formal characteristics of a quatrain.55 One of his poems (on page 493) is about Tabriz.56 ???57 For an elegant English translation of this episode see J.W. Clinton, The Tragedy of Sohráb and Rostám,

Seattle: University of Washington press, 1987, revised ed. 1996.58 For an elegant English translation of this episode see J.W. Clinton, In the Dragon’s Claws: The Story

of Rostam and Esfandiyar from the Persian Book of Kings, Washington: Mage Publishers, 1999.59 For information on this poet and his work see J.T.P. de Bruijn, Of Piety. For a Persian translation of

this book see Îakim-i iqlim-i ishq: taˆthir-i mutiqabil-i din u adabiyyat dar zindigi wa athar-i Îakim Sanaî-yiGhaznawi, trans. M. Älawi Muqaddam & M.J. Mahdawi, Mashhad: Astab Quds Ra∂awi, 1378.


for its style and its content, and has been a favourite source of quotations, contributingmuch to the stock of Persian sayings and idioms.”60 In its complete form, the Îadiqa hassome 10,000 couplets treating a wide range of ethical, philosophical and mystical topics.The poem has been a model for many mystical poets in countries where Persian has beenthe cultural and literary language. Abu ̂ l-Majd has selected five chapters of this poem (some1,700 couplets) and calls it Nur al-Ìaqiqa li-ahl al-Ìaqiqa [pp. 539-53]. The opening foliosare missing and we do not know which other passages Abu ˆl-Majd originally cited.61

Another independent poem in the Safina is NiÒab al-Òabyan, of two hundred couplets,composed by Abu NaÒr Farahi [pp. 578-81]. It consists of 38 fragments many of which areverse translations of Arabic words into Persian. For instance, in the following couplet, hegives Persian equivalents of Arabic words for man, woman, partner, rich and poor respec-tively: rajul mard u maraˆ zan u zowj juft / ghani maldar-ast u miskin giday.62 The rest ofthe poem versifies, for example, Persian names of the months, the names of the Prophet’swives and children, and several other topics.

It is not out of place to refer here to Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah’s La†aîf, which is aremarkable text, containing numerous lines of poetry by famous poets such as Farid ad-DinÄ††ar, Fakhr ad-Din Ïraqi, the poetess Mahsati, Ashhari and several others [pp. 519-38]. Italso contains a large number of folk-quatrains known as fahlawiyyat. Îajj Bulah namesseveral poets who composed fahlawiyyat and defines the word fahlawi. He further states:“Owromanan refers to a tribe in Hamadan whose poets compose quatrains (du bayti) andsuch a quatrain is called Owromanan.63 Poems that consist of three to six couplets are calledShirwinan. These poems belong to an eponymous tribe who composed such a form of po-etry. Poems longer than six couplets are called shabistan. The reason for this name is thatthey were recited during the night.”64 Îajj Bulah cites many fahlawiyyat in different con-texts. In addition, in these texts, Îajj Bulah comments on several verses of Îakim Sanaî.65

At certain points, he gives a definition of love, and relates stories about famous lovers suchas Khuthayyr ibn Äbd ar-RaÌman al-Khuzaï and his beloved Äzza, Qays ibn MulawwaÌand Layli. Furthermore, the author tells several interesting anecdotes about famous figures

60 J.T.P. de Bruijn, Of Piety, p. 119. Noting the importance of this work, De Bruijn adds: “There existshardly a more promising source for the study of indigenous literary values than this neglected classic of Persiandidactic poetry, but this does not exhaust the arguments for devoting more attention to the poem. The “fatuoustruisms” denounced by [E.G.] Browne [vol. ii, p. 319] constitute, in fact, a comprehensive collection of reli-gious and moral ideas which, in an extensive cultural area and for many generations, have been accepted asformulations of convictions and as guidelines for manners of conduct. This makes the Îadiqa an invaluablesource for the study of popular Islam.” p. 119. Since De Bruijn’s work, other studies on Sanaî and his Îadiqahave been pubished. See F.D. Lewis, Reading, Writing and Recitation: Sanaî and the Origin of the PersianGhazal, Chicago: Illinois, 1995; V. Zanolla, I Gazal di Sanaî nei manoscritti più antichi. Testi, collazione econcordanze, Napoli: Instituto Universitario Orientale, 1999, 2 volumes.

61 For the variety of contents of the Îadiqa in different manuscripts see J.T.P. De Bruijn, Of Piety,pp. 119-39.

62 See p. 578, first fragment, last line.63 Owroman is a Kurdish dialect. For a grammar and wordlist of this dialect see D.N. Mackenzie, The

Dialect of Awroman (Hawraman-i Luhon) Grammatical sketch, texts, and vocabulary, Kobenhavn: EnjarMunksgaard, 1966.

64 See p. 524. In another place (p. 528), Îajj Bulah refers again to Owromanan, characterizing them aslovers: “It is said that Owromanan formed a tribe in Hamadan who were all lovers and also perished in love.”

65 See pp. 521-22.


such as Abu Nuwas (d. 200/815), Ibn Sina, ManÒur al-Îallaj and a score of other famoushistorical figures. Îaîri singles out Îajj Bulah’s reports of the meeting of the great mysticKharaqani and Athir ad-Din Akhsikati at a sama¨ session. Another event is the meetingbetween Fakhr ad-Din Razi and a religious jurist (faqih) named Zahid-i Tabrizi, in whichthey discuss the theme of eternal and accidental beings. The latter answers Razi in Fahlawidialect. Several of these events are not reported in any other source and they certainly needto be analysed.

13.2. COLLECTIONS OF QUATRAINS

The Safina contains several collections of quatrains by both famous and less famous poets.Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah has selected one collection of quatrains written by OwÌad ad-DinKirmani [pp. 581-92]. This collection consists of some four hundred quatrains, divided intotwelve chapters. In each chapter, the poet deals with several themes. For instance, in chap-ter six, the poet gives definitions of love, longing, separation and union. The authorship ofseveral of these quatrains is uncertain. To give only one example here, the following quat-rain has been attributed to Abu Saïd Abi ˆl-Khayr66 and Najm ad-Din Razi:67

ïshq amad u shud chu khunam andar rag-u pustta kard mara tuhi-u pur kard zi dustajza-yi wujudam hamagi dust giriftnamist zi man bar man-u baqi hama ust68

Love came and became like blood in my veins69

Until it made me empty and filled me with the Friend.The Friend has seized every part of my beingOnly a name remains of me, while the Friend lives eternally.

Another collection, which contains five hundred quatrains, is the KhulaÒat al-ashär [pp.593-612]. Abu ˆl-Majd has divided these quatrains into fifty chapters and has provided atable of contents at the beginning of the collection. Îaîri points out that this collection isunique since it contains poems by several unknown poets from Tabriz. Abu ˆl-Majd gives areason for compiling this collection, stating: “Among the rhythmic (manÂum) forms ofspeech, all people prefer the quatrain to other types of poetry. The reason for this preferenceis that the difference between quatrain metres is not immediately noticeable to them. Aperson who has not studied äru∂ may believe that the quatrain possesses only one metre.Moreover, every new and surprising idea occurring in a ghazal, is also splendidly expressedin a quatrain.”70

66 Sukhanan-i manÂum-i Abu Saïd Abu ˆl-Khayr, ed. S. Nafisi, Tehran: Îaydari, 1334/1955, p. 16,quatrain 105.

67 See Najm ad-Din Razi, MirÒad al-ïbad, ed. M.A. RiyaÌi, Tehran: Ïlmi wa Farhangi, 1371/1992, p.339. According to the editor MuÌammad Amin RiyaÌi, this quatrain belongs to Razi and it also occurs in hisRisala-yi äql u ïshq. See pp. 640-41.

68 p. 587.69 Literally, ‘love came and become like blood in my veins and skin.’70 p. 593. In his concise analysis of the metre of the quatrain, De Bruijn states: “The pattern of the rubaï

is a sequence of twenty metrical units, called mora in metrical theory. In some places of the sequence only long


The topics of many of these quatrains revolve around love, lover and beloved. Manychapters describe the beloved’s physical appearance, his house or his cruelty, while otherchapters focus on the lover’s anguish, his complaints about separation and the beloved’soppression, etc. Similar collections of quatrains are Jalal Khalil Shirwani’s Nuzhat al-majalis,containing about 5,000 poems by more than two hundred poets in the thirteenth century,and Farid ad-Din Ä††ar’s Mukhtar-nama.71

The Safina does not contain a specific chapter on the quatrains by Ümar Khayyam(1048-1131), but ten of his quatrains are cited in different texts in this manuscript and havebeen identified by Sayyid Äli Mir Af∂ali.72

13.3. ROMANTIC EPICS

The Safina contains long excerpts from four Persian romances: Wis and Ramin by Fakhrad-Din Asad Gurgani, and three romances by NiÂami of Ganja (ca. 540-605/1146-1209)[pp. 554-59]: Khusrow and Shirin, Layli and Majnun and Haft paykar. Gurgani’s Wis andRamin was completed around 1054 at the court of the Saljuq governor in Isfahan. It is aParthian romance and one of the oldest romantic narratives in Persian, comprising morethan 8,904 double lines in hazaj metre. It had a lasting influence on many other romances inPersian and other literatures written under the Persian literary spell. Abu ˆl-Majd selectsabout seven hundred couplets from this romance, covering the exchange of letters betweenthe lovers Wis and Ramin and a concluding complaint by Wis about her separation fromRamin. Wis and Ramin is the first extant Persian romance in which ten consecutive lettersare exchanged between the lovers. Poets of later centuries such as NiÂami, OwÌadi, IbnÏmad, Ärifi, Ïmad Faqih and a host of others imitated and applied this device so widelythat there is a rich genre of dah nama (‘ten letters’) in Persian literature.73

The second romance in the Safina is the tragic love story of Farhad and Shirin,74

which NiÂami had integrated in his Khusrow and Shirin, related in some 7,000 couplets inhazaj metre.75 The episode is told in some six hundred couplets [pp. 560-64]. Shirin was an

syllables (equivalent to two moras) can be used, but in others one long syllable may be replaced by two shortones so that the actual number of syllables in a line may vary between ten and thirteen. This variety gave therubaï a great measure of flexibility, which may have been one of the reasons for its immense popularity.” SeeJ.T.P. de Bruijn, Persian Sufi Poetry: An Introduction to the Mystical Use of Classical Poems, Richmond:Curzon Press, 1997, p. 7.

71 See Jamal Khalil Shirwani, Nuzhat al-majalis, ed. M.A. RiyaÌi, Tehran: Maharat, first edition 1366/1987, second edition, 1375/1996. Farid ad-Din ̈ A††ar, Mukhtar-nama, ed. M.R. Shafiï Kadkani, Tehran: Sukhan,1375/1996.

72 See Sayyid ̈ Ali Mir Af∂ali, “Rubaîyyat-i Khayyam dar ‘Safina-yi Tabriz’” in Nashr-i Danish, 1381,no 19/4, pp. 32-5. My information on these quatrains is for the most part based on Af∂ali’s findings.

73 See T. Gandjeï, “The Genesis and Definition of a Literary Composition: the Dah-nama (“Ten love-letters”)” in Der Islam, 47, 1971, pp. 59-66.

74 After NiÂami, the romance of Farhad and Ahirin became an independent romance and many poetscomposed various love stories about these lovers. One famous version was written by WaÌshi Bafiqi, but henever completed this. It was almost completed about two hundred and fifty years later by Mirza Shafi¨ Shirazi,known as WiÒal. Finally the poet ∑abir added 304 couplets to the romance and finished it. The complete ro-mance is published in WaÌshi Bafiqi, Diwan, ed. P. Babaî, Tehran: Nigah, 1373/1994, pp. 409-517.

75 For a comparison between Shakespeare’s and NiÂami’s romances see J.W. Clinton, “A Comparisonof Nizami’s Layli and Majnun and Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet” in The Poetry of Nizami Ganjavi: Knowl-edge, Love, and Rhetoric, eds. K. Talattof & J.W. Clinton, New York: Palgrave, 2000, pp. 15-27.


Armenian princess who fell deeply in love with the Sasanian king Khusrow Parwiz II, butseeing her lover’s fickleness (for instance, marrying another princess and even falling inlove with a brothel-keeper), the disappointed Shirin is smitten with love for an engineernamed Farhad. Deeply infatuated with Shirin, Farhad builds a channel in Mount Bisutun,through which milk could be transported from a distant pasture to Shirin’s palace. WhenKhusrow hears that the flame of love is growing in their hearts, he summons Farhad at hiscourt and later has him killed through a cunning trick. Abu ˆl-Majd story of Farhad andShirin ends with two chapters from Khusrow and Shirin. In one chapter, NiÂami tells whyPlato wept day and night. The other chapter consists of 37 couplets on wisdom (Ìikmat).These two chapters are clearly a kind of commentary on the story, possibly indicating Abuˆl-Majd’s interpretation.

The third romance is a short excerpt [p. 565] from the story of Layli and Majnun, atragic story often compared to Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. The story extends overmore than 4,000 couplets in the hazaj metre. The subject-matter derives from pre-islamicArabia. After a short introduction to the poem (comprising 30 lines in which God and theProphet are praised) and the episode of Majnun visiting his beloved Layli, the rest of theexcerpt relates how Majnun’s father brings his son to the House of God in order to heal hislove-madness.76

The last romance of the Safina is a chapter (about 250 couplets) from NiÂami’s ingen-ious romance Haft paykar, which consists of more than 6,000 lines in khafif metre [pp. 566-67].77 The poem is dedicated to the Saljuq prince of Maragha, Älaˆ ad-Din Kurp Arslan.The hero is a historical figure from Persia’s pre-Islamic past. It is the love-story of theSasanian emperor Bahram V Gur, who falls in love with the portraits of seven princessesfrom different regions of the earth.78 He builds seven palaces based on the astrological signsof each region and then invites the princesses. Each night he frequents another palace andeach princess tells him a story. The story selected in the Safina is the episode of Bahram inthe second pavilion, in which the golden-haired princess Humay from Byzantium resides.79

13.4. DEBATE POETRY

Another literary genre well-presented in the Safina is the munaÂara, ‘tenzon’ or ‘debatepoetry.’ This is a very old genre in Persian and dates back to the pre-Islamic period. The

76 See A.A. Seyed-Gohrab, Layli and Majnun: Love, Madness and Mystic Longing, Leiden: Brill, 2003,pp. 82, 227-34.

77 The poem’s metric pattren is as follows: faïlatun mafaïlun faïlan (-0—/0-0-/00-). Other poets be-fore NiÂami wrote poem in the same metre. Îakim Sanaî wrote his Îadiqa in the same metre khafif. AlsoJami’s Silsilat adh-dhahab, OwÌadi Maraghaî’s Jam-i Jam and Hilali’s Shah and Darwish are among didactivenarratives in the same metre. For a study of Persian metre see J.T.P. de Bruijn, “The individuality of the Persianmetre khafif” in Arabic Prosody and its Applications in Muslim Poetry, ed. B. Utas, Istanbul: Swedish ResearchInstitute in Istanbul, Transactions, Vol. 5, Uppsala, 1994, pp. 35-43.

78 For a concise introduction to NiÂami’s romances see Mirror of the Invisible World: Tales from theKhamseh of Nizami, by P.J. Chelkowski, P.P. Soucek, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1975.

79 NiÂami Ganjawi, Haft paykar, ed. W. Dastgirdi, Tehran: Armaghan, 1315/1936, second edition, ̈ Ilmi,1363/1984; the romance has been translated in European languages several times. One of the recent translationsis by Julie Scott Meisami, Haft Paykar: A Medieval Persian Romance, J. Scott Meisami, Oxford: World’sClassics, 1995.


Middle Persian text Dirakht-i Asurik depicts the arguments between a goat and a date tree.80

After the introduction of Islam in Persia, the genre of munaÂara remained popular, espe-cially at the court of the Abbasids in Baghdad, which was deeply influenced by Persianculture. The poet Abu ManÒur Äli b. AÌmad Asadi of ™us (born ca. 1010) wrote one of thewell-known specimens of munaÂara in his heroic romance Garshasp-nama. Asadi alsoinserted such debating pieces in the openings of his panegyric poems (qaÒidas). Here wefind disputes between day and night, heaven and earth, bow and lance, and a Muslim and aZoroastrian. Often the person praised in these poems appears as the arbitrator. Later poetssuch as NiÂami of Ganja and Jalal ad-Din Rumi inserted munaÂara in their romantic andmystic narratives. NiÂami’s munaÂara occurs in the story of Shirin and Farhad.81

Debate poetry has remained popular in Persia until the twentieth century. The poetessParwin I¨tiÒami (1906-1941) was a master in writing such poems.82 The favourite subjectsin medieval debate poetry revolve around disputes between Body and Soul, Sword and Pen,Wine and Rose, Love and Reason, Wine and Hashish, Heaven and Earth and so forth. Thesedebates are not doctrinal dialogues, such as we often find in the same genre in medievalEurope. In Persian poems, both speakers are usually nominally equal, trying to persuadetheir adversary by means of logical reasoning and citing many verses from the Koran, reli-gious traditions and wise maxims attributed to learned men. Although one entity or personi-fication sometimes has a privileged position, he or it will not necessarily win the dispute. Infact, the main goal of such verbal contests for supremacy is to persuade the reader of thecrucial function of both parties in this world.

In addition to NiÂami’s munaÂara in Khusrow and Shirin, Abu ˆl-Majd has includedthe following debating poems:

1) MunaÂara-yi gul-u mul (‘Debate between the Rose and the Wine’) by Abu SaïdTirmidhi, written for Qutlugh Bilga Nighu Sipahsalar Abu ̂ l-MaÌamid MuÌammadibn Äli. The book is divided into five chapters: one introduction and four tenzonsin ornate prose. [pp. 234-39]

2) MunaÂara-yi Sarw u ab (‘Debate between the Cypress and the Water’) by Qa∂iNiÂam ad-Din Isfahani [p. 239]

3) MunaÂara-yi sharab u Ìashish (‘Debate between the Wine and the Hashish’) bySa¨d Bahaˆ [p. 240]

4) MunaÂara-yi sharab u Ìashish (‘Debate between the Wine and the Hashish’) [p.240]

5) MunaÂara-yi shimshir u qalam (‘Debate between the Sword and the Pen’) [p. 240] 6) MunaÂara-yi zamin u asiman (‘Debate between Heaven and Earth’) [p. 241]

80 A. Tafa∂∂uli, Tarikh-i adabiyyat-i Iran pish az Islam, Tehran: ∑adaf, 1377, pp. 256-59.81 See the Safina, p. 562.82 For more information on Munazara in Persian literature see N. Purjawadi’s series of articles on zaban-

i Ìal in Nashr-i Danish, 17, nos 2, 4, 1379/2000, pp. 27-42, 14-26; many of the poems cited by Purjawadi aremunaÂara. See also his introduction to Riya∂ al-afkar dar towÒif-i khazan u bahar, written by Yar Äli Tabrizi,Tehran, Markaz-i Nashr-i Danishgahi, 1382, pp. 22-30; ∆.Ä. Muˆtaman, Shi¨r wa adab-i Farsi, Tehran:Afshari1346/1967, pp. 242-49; E. Wagner in Encyclopaedia of Islam, under MunaÂara. Debate poetry is afavourite genre in many literary traditions around the world and there are many similarities between thesepoems. A good monograph on this topic is T.L. Reed, Middle English Debate Poetry and the Aesthetics ofIrresolution, Columbia / London: University of Missouri Press, 1990.


7) MunaÂara-yi nar u turab (‘Debate between Fire and Dust’) by Amin ad-Din Abuˆl-Qasim Îajji Bulah [p. 241]

8) MunaÂara-yi sam¨ u baÒar (‘Debate between the Eye and the Ear’) [pp. 241-45] 9) MunaÂara-yi naÂm u nathr (‘Debate between Prose and Poetry’) [p. 245]10) MunaÂara-yi gul u mul (‘Debate between the Rose and the Wine) by Siraj ad-Din

Qumri-yi Amuli [pp. 719-21]11) Ahu u ∑ayyad (‘Debate between a Hunter and a Gazelle’) [pp. 504-05]12) MunaÂara-yi äql u ïshq (Debate between Love and Reason’) by Majd ad-Din

Malik MaÌmud MuÂaffar Tabrizi83 [pp. 489-90]

The first is the reasoning poem between the Rose and the Wine, which is written in proseinterspersed with poetry. This is a debate covering five and half pages (234-39). The debatebetween a cypress tree and water is in verse and consists of 74 couplets. It is written inmulamaˆ form: that is in Arabic and Persian. This poem is attributed to Qa∂i NiÂam ad-DinIsfahani, a poet of the 7th/13th century. The debate between the wine and the hashish by Sa¨dad-Din ibn Bahaˆ ad-Din better known as Sa¨d-i Bahaˆ contains 32 couplets. On the samepage (240), there is another short debating poem (9 couplets) between wine and hashish,which is incomplete. Its author is anonymous and these nine lines van be taken as an intro-duction to a longer poem.84

The debate between the sword and the pen is another poem by an anonymous author.The poem consists of 58 couplets and ends with another piece of poetry to which a proseextract has been added. This poem (16 couplets) names the attributes of gold.

13.5. RHYMED AND RHYTHMIC PROSE AND MAQAMAT

A popular genre in Persian and Arabic literature is maqamat (‘assemblies’ or ‘sessions’),written in rhymed and rhythmic prose (nathr-i musajja¨∞), often intermingled with verses.85

The creator of this genre is said to be Badi¨ az-Zaman Hamadani, an able poet who was bornin Hamadan in 358/968 and died in Herat in 398/1008.

There are three books of this genre selected in the Safina, the first two in Arabic andthe third in Persian.86 Only five sessions are cited from each book.87 The first book is NaÒaîÌ

83 The debate between love and reason became increasingly popular from the fourteenth century andseveral debating texts, in prose and in verse, recount the arguments between love and reason. One of the mostpopular and comprehensive debates is by ∑aîn ad-Din Äli ibn MuÌammad Turka-yi Isfahani. For a criticaledition of this text see Äql u ïshq ya munaÂarat-i khams, ed. A. Judi Ni¨mati, Tehran, Mirath-i Maktub 33,1375. These debates have several precedents, including the Risala-yi äql u ïshq by the famous Najm ad-DinRazi (better known as Daya), ed. T. Tafa∂∂uli, Tehran: Bungah-i Tarjuma, 1345/1966.

84 The editors of the Safina state that the poem comprises ten lines but there are only nine lines in the text.85 For more information on this genre see C. Brockelmann & Ch. Pellat in The Encyclopaedia of Islam,

under Makama. The authors state that the maqama is “a purely and typically Arabic literary genre.” For apossible Persian origin of the genre see MuÌammad Taqi Bahar, Sabk-shinasi, vol. 2., Tehran: Sipihr, sixthedition 1373, pp. 324-56, see especially p. 324, note 1. See also F. Ibrahimi Îariri, Maqama-niwisi dar adabiyyat-i Farsi, Tehran: Intisharat-i danishgah-i Tehran, 1346/1967, which gives a comprehensive introduction of themaqama in Persian and Arabic and also offers analyses of the works of Îariri and of Qa∂i Îamid ad-Din’sMaqamat. On al-Hamadani see E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, vol. ii, Cambridge: At the Univer-sity press, 1956, pp. 112-13; R. Blachère in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under al-Hamadhani.

86 There is another work in rhymed and rhythmic prose, describing a pen (Risala-yi qalamiyya, pp. 716-19) to which I will return later.

87 The maqamat usually consists of fifty chapters. See C. Brokelmann & Ch. Pellat, op. cit. Bahar cites


al-akbar by MaÌmud ibn Ümar Zamakhshari Kharazmi (467-538/1074-1143) [pp. 209-11]. As C. Brockelmann and Ch. Pellat have pointed out, this book differs from othermaqamat. It is a “pious discourse (…) in which [the author] addresses to himself a numberof moral exhortations (…), they would appear to testify to the repentance of the author whohas decided, after an illness, to renounce profane literature, but, unable to forget that he isalso a philologist, he produces a commentary on his own composition.”88

The other maqama is by the rhetorical virtuoso Qasim ibn Äli ibn MuÌammad BaÒri,better known as al-Îariri [pp. 211-20]. The last one is by Qa∂i Îamid ad-Din Ümar ibnMaÌmud Balkhi Îamidi (d. 559/1164) [pp. 220-27].89 The book contains 24 chapters, ofwhich Abu ˆl-Majd has quoted chapters one to four and eleven. Îamidi’s ornate style inPersian was cited as a model by NiÂami Äru∂i in his celebrated Chahar maqala. Îamidi’streatment of Maqamat differs considerably from the previously cited Arabic work. It con-tains four debating passages (munaÂarat) between youth and old age, between a physicianand an astronomer, etc. It also contains several riddles, and descriptions of seasons, cities,and abstract concepts such as love and madness.

Aside from these maqamat, Abu ˆl-Majd has added a maqama in Persian entitledRisala-yi qalamiyya by ̈ Abd al-Äziz Kashi [pp. 716-19]. This book consists of an ode on apen followed by a piece in rhymed prose, enumerating several qualities of the pen. Thisbook is not written in the usual form of a maqama in which stories about fictive protagonistsare recounted. Rather Kashi focuses on giving a detailed and poetic description of the pen inrhythmical prose. In this respect, Kashi’s text closely resembles Îamidi’s descriptive style.

13.6. ARABIC POETRY

The Safina contains a large number of poems in Arabic, covering various genres such asreligious poetry, philosophy, and literary criticism. MuÌammad ibn Rashid al-Baghdadi’sQaÒaîd al-watariyya (‘A String of Odes’) is a collection of 29 odes praising the Prophet,each of which consisting of seven couplets [p. 37]. As Îaîri has noted, in Kashf aÂ-Âununand other bibliographical sources on Islamic manuscripts, watariyya is defined as an odecontaining 21 couplets, but this collection does not match the definition. Another Arabicpoem (a qaÒida) is by Abu Bakr MuÌammad ibn Durid Laghawi (d. 321/933 h.), consistingof 237 couplets [pp. 199-201]. This long ode is followed by Abu ˆl-Îasan Äli ibn Äbd al-Ghani Fahri Muqri better known as Îasri Qayruwani’s (d. 488/1095) al-Muäsharat (‘Ten-Folds,’ pp. pp. 202-05). This collection consists of 29 lyrics and is arranged alphabeticallybased on the rhyme-scheme. Each poem consists of 10 couplets. Another qaÒida is by Abuˆl-FatÌ Äli ibn MuÌammad Busti [pp. 721-22]90 translated into Persian by Badr ad-Din

Thaälabi who reports that the original version of Badi¨ az-Zaman Hamadani contained four hundred maqamat.See op. cit., p. 326.

88 C. Brockelmann & Ch. Pellat, op. cit. A translation of al-Îariri’s book is made avalaible by T. Chenery& F. Steingass, The Assemblies of al-Hariri, London: 1867-98, ii vols.

89 See H. Massé, in The Encyclopaedia of Islam under Îamidi; E.G. Browne, A Literary History ofPersia, vol. ii, pp. 346ff.

90 Abu ˆl-FatÌ Busti should not be confused with his namesake Abu ˆl-Îasan Busti. The former camefrom the village Bust of Badghis while the latter from Bust near the city of Nayshapur. See N. Purjawadi,Zindigi wa athar-i shaykh Abu ˆl-Îasan Busti, Tehran: Muâsisa-yi mu†aliät wa taÌqiqat-i farhangi, 1364,p. 25.


Jajarmi, the author of Muˆnis al-aÌrar [pp. 721-22]. The translation is in verse and followsthe Arabic original closely. This poem is followed by a collection of Arabic poems byseveral poets such as ∑afwat al-Bahiliyya, Abu Saïd al-Rustami, and al-Qa∂i al-Arjani [pp.723-26]. A short text by the Persian mystic Îusayn ibn ManÒur al-Îallaj, which praises theProphet, is also included in the Safina [p. 727]. Ikhtiyarat ayyam al-asabi¨ is a text attrib-uted to Äli ibn Abi ™alib [p. 727].

14. LITERARY THEORY AND CRITICISM

Literary theories were written in Arabic as early as the eighth century. Authors from Persiaplayed a central role in the formation of such theories, which were later applied to Persianliterature. MuÌammad ibn Ümar al-Raduyani’s Tarjuman al-balagha (‘Interpreter of Elo-quence’) written towards the end of the 11th century, was the first Persian manual on rheto-ric, and generated many other books on poetics in the subsequent centuries. Abu ˆl-Majd’sselections of literary manuals include five Persian and Arabic treatises, dealing with theprinciples of rhyme and the rules of metre. Three of these treatises are in Arabic while twoare in Persian. The first book is titled QaÒida fi al-äru∂ wa-l-qawafi (‘Ode on Metre andRhyme’) in Arabic [pp. 153-55]. This is a poem in the form of a qaÒida containing 171 linescomposed by Üthman ibn Ümar Maliki, better known as Ibn Îajib, setting out severalrules of rhyme and metre. ‘The science of metre’ (ïlm al-äru∂) and ‘the science of rhyme’(ïlm al-qafiya) are usually considered to be distinct from each other.91

The second book on prosody is a short poem entitled Kitab al-manÂum fi ïlm al-qawafi (‘The Versified Book on the Science of Rhyme’) by ∑aÌib Ismaïl ibn ̈ Abbad ™aliqani[p. 155]. This qaÒida contains 35 couplets and is written in mathnawi form in Arabic. Thethird book, qaÒida fi ˆl-äru∂ wa-ˆl-qawafi is an important treatise on rhyme and prosody[pp. 156-69]. It was written in Arabic by ∑adr ad-Din Sawuji and contains 300 couplets.According to Îaîri, Sawuji invented new metres in this work. The significance of the textis stressed by several extant commentaries. There is also a commentary on the margins ofthe poem in the Safina, but it is not clear whether these comments are made by Abu ̂ l-Majdhimself or another person. The fourth treatise is Kitab fi ïlm al-äru∂ al-farsi by Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah in Persian [pp. 169-72]. The book contains a short introduction and twoparts, each part consisting of four chapters. The fifth treatise is by Abu ˆl-Majd himself andis called al-Kafiyya fi ̈ ilm al-äru∂ wa-l-qafiyya [pp. 173-81]. This is the longest treatise onthis subject in the Safina. Apparantly Abu ˆl-Majd is a specialist on this subject. The selec-tion of several of these treatises shows his interest in the art of rhyme and metre.

15. BOOKS ON GRAMMAR

Abu ˆl-Majd has included several books on grammar in the Safina, almost all of them inArabic. The first of these grammars is an-Nimuzaj fi ̂ l-naÌw written by MaÌmud ibn ̈ UmarZamakhshari Kharazmi (467-538/1074-1143) [pp. 146-49]. The second book is al-Äwamil

91 S.A. Bonebakker in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under Qafiya.


al-miâ by Äbd al-Qadir Jurjani (or Gurgani d. 471/1078) [pp. 149-50].92 This was one ofthe first studies of Arabic syntax to be introduced to the West. Erpenius translated it intoLatin in Leiden in 1617.93 The third book is in verse in the form of a qaÒida (‘ode’) and isentitled al-üqud [pp. 151-52]. The fourth book is TaÒrif-i Ïzzi by Ïzz ad-Din Zanjani [pp.145-46]. Unfortunately the first pages of this book are missing. The remaining pages dealwith the following aspects of Arabic grammar: muätallat (when one of the radical letters ofa verb is waw, alif or yaˆ∞); mahmuzat (having a hamza for one of the radical letters; andadverbs of time and place).

16. HISTORICAL TEXTS

The Safina contains several books on Persian and Islamic history. Several of these worksare on Islamic history, particularly the life of the Prophet and the four caliphs. The firsthistorical source is Tawarikh-i rasul Allah (‘History of God’s Messenger’) by Amin ad-DinAbu ˆl-Qasim Îajj Bulah in Arabic [pp. 100-102]. The second historical book in Arabic isTawarikh al-khulafaˆ (‘History of the Caliphs’) by an anonymous author who names cal-iphs one by one, with the period of their rule, until the end of Bani Äbbas dynasty in 655/1257 [pp. 102-03]. According to Îaîri, the author of this book lived during the fall of thisdynasty. The third historical book in the Safina is in Persian and is titled NiÂam at-tawarikh,by Qa∂i NaÒir ad-Din Abu Saïd Äbdullah Bay∂awi-yi SÌirazi [pp. 182-98]. This is anaccount of world history from the beginning until 674/1275. The author provides his ownoutline of the content of his book. It consists of four parts: the first is devoted to the lives ofprophets from Adam to Noah. The second part describes Persian kings from Giyumarth tothe last Sasanian monarch Yazdgird III. Here, Bay∂awi describes how Yazdgird flees theinvading Islamic army and hides in a mill. The miller kills him and takes his expensiveclothes and his other possessions. The third part outlines the reigns of the caliphs. Thefourth part is devoted to dynasties ruling Iranian lands, beginning with the Saffarid dynastyand ending with Hulaku’s son Abaqa Khan (reigned 663-80/1265-82), who is characterizedas the “ruler of Iran and Byzantium” (rum).

The Safina also contains a historical note on the city of Tabriz. This is actually anaccount of an earthquake that struck Tabriz during the fourteenth century and killed thou-sands of people [p. 439].94 Abu ̂ l-Majd cites the Ismaïli propagandist NaÒir Khusrow, whoin his travel-book describes how the city was destroyed by an earthquake and forty thou-sand people were killed. The other historical note in the Safina is an account by Khaja NaÒirad-Din ™usi about the early years of the Kharazmian dynasty [p. 439]. Abu ˆl-Majd himselfalso wrote a historical work on the life of the Prophet and the four caliphs. His Badayi¨ al-ÒaÌibiyya fi ba¨∂ akhbar al-nabawiyya begins with several prayers and invocations, fol-

92 For brief information on Jurjani’s works see K. Abu Deeb, in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Äbd-al-Qaher Jorjani.

93 See G. Troupeau in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under NaÌw.94 See X. de Planhol in Encyclopaedia Iranica under Earthquake, iii. in Persia. As mentioned by De

Planhol, one of the earliest earthquakes appeared in 3 October 1042 in Tabriz and killed 40,000 people. Anotherearthquake occured in 704/1304.


lowed by a succinct account of the Prophet’s life [pp. 728-33]. MulkhaÒ akhbar bani umayyais a very brief account of the Umayyad dynasty [p. 728].

The Äqaîd al-firaq, by an anonymous author, is divided into 71 chapters and dealswith the opinions of various religious sects in different regions [pp. 639-44]. The openingpart is missing and, Îaîri has noted, there are several mistakes and inconsistencies in thistreatise. Abu ̂ l-Majd himself adds that he has copied the whole manuscript from a defective(saqim) original. One wonders why Abu ˆl-Majd repeats the mistakes in the original.

The Safina contains several chronological tables, designating the lives of prophets,caliphs, philosophers and religious authorities [p. 438]. According to Îaîri, at the end ofthe first chronology, the times at which several historical buildings were destroyed are men-tioned, but these are unfortunately unreadable due to damage.95

17. PRECEPTS (ANDARZ) AND DIDACTIC LITERATURE

Wisdom literature is one of the main genres in the Persian literary tradition. Abu ˆl-Majdhas included in his Safina several treatises recording the wise sayings of great historicalfigures. Such treatises are often titled the Kalamat-i… (‘words…’ or ‘sayings of…’). AbuÜthman Jahiz of Basra’s Kalamat-i qiÒar-i Amir al-Muˆminin Äli (Maxims of Äli) is acollection of a hundred sayings attributed to Äli ibn Abi ™alib [pp. 99-100]. The secondcollection of maxims is the famous Pand-nama-yi Anushirawan (‘Anushirawan’s Bookof Precepts’) [pp. 624-26]. This Persian king is famous for his justice and has been amodel for many Islamic rulers. His sayings were widespread, and translated into severallanguages. Abu ̂ l-Majd tells the story of Anushirawan’s crown, which had 24 battlements(kungira), and ten maxims etched on each.96 The next two treatises are by Anushirawan’swise vizier Buzarjumihr and are simply called Kalamat-i Buzarjumihr [p. 626].97 The firstis a brief treatise explaining how to achieve a proper physical and moral condition:“Buzarjumihr says: Four things increase the light of the eye and four things lessen itslight. (…) The four things that increase the light of the eye are: firstly, looking at the faceof a friend;98 secondly, looking at limpid [running] water; thirdly, looking at greenery;fourthly, looking at a cloudless sky. The four things that lessen the light of the eye are:firstly, walking with bare feet; secondly, seeing the face of an enemy; thirdly, sufferinghunger; fourthly, looking at darkness.” The second treatise is extremely short, dealingwith ethical issues and giving the reader guidelines to live a blissful life in this world andthe world hereafter.

Ash-Shawahid wa-ˆl-shawarid by Abu ˆl-Îasan MuÌammad ibn Îusayn Ahwazi is aselection from his original work, dealing with the maxims and wise sayings of prophets,saints, monarchs and philosophers of Arab, Persian and Greek descent [pp. 227-32].

95 p. 439.96 Îaîri suggests that the reader compare this treatise with the story of Dakhma-yi Anushirawan.97 The name has various spellings. Originally it derived from buzurg mihr (‘great love/son’) and

Buzarjumihr is an arabicised form.98 The word friend (dust) is ambiguous. It can also mean beloved, but here, considering the word enemy

in the next line, it means a friend.


Îukumatha-yi Äli is a treatise containing several anecdotes in which Äli ibn Abi™alib appears as a just and wise arbitrator, as in the following anecdote [p. 648]: “One nighttwo women gave birth to two babies, a girl and a boy. Both of them claimed the baby boy sointensely that they had to be brought to ̈ Ali. He ordered that the milk of both women shouldbe tasted, because the milk of a woman who has given birth to a girl is lighter than the milkof a woman who has given birth to a boy.”

18. PRAYERS

Supplications and prayers are another genre included in this rich manuscript.99 One cat-egory of prayers contains verses and chapters from the Koran, which Muslims are recom-mended to recite for specific moments of the day, or that are believed to have a supernaturaland magical power. Amin ad-Dowla Îajj Bulah’s Kitab al-owrad is a good example ofsuch prayer books in the Safina [pp. 92-6]. Îajj Bulah explains which prayers should berecited for each undertaking during the day, from the moment one awakes until the time oneretires to bed.100 Another prayer book by Îajj Bulah, which is selected in the Safina, isKitab-i wird-i ÒubÌ (‘The book of Morning Prayer,’ [pp. 97-8]). This treatise contains sev-eral specific prayers to be read at dawn. Before the obligatory Morning Prayer, pious Mus-lims perform several prayers in which such texts can be used. Another treatise written byÄli ibn Abi ™alib is Daäwat ayyam as-sabä in Arabic, listing a series of prayers chosenfor each day of the week [p. 98]. Adïyya ayyam rama∂an (‘Prayers for the fasting month’)is another short text in which ̈ Ali ibn Abi ™alib reports thirty prayers believed to have beenrecited by the Prophet himself [p. 99]. Abu ˆl-Majd has included other titles of the samenature in the Safina such as the anonymous Kitab ad-daäwat fi ˆl-owqat (‘The book ofprayers for moments,’ [p. 246]).

Closely connected to the prayers for specific moments of the day are those that canalso be used to make a wish come true. This category of prayers includes incantations andmagical formula for medical purposes. Daäwat wa afsunha (‘Invocations and incantations’)is a good example. It gives guidelines on how to cure a person suffering from fever, andhow to lessen the pain of childbirth [p. 246]. Adïyyat an-nabi by Bahaˆ ad-Din ÎaydarKashi is another book on prayer, consisting of six chapters [pp. 31-6].

19. THE LEGEND OF ALEXANDER

The exploits of Alexander the Great constitute a separate genre in Persian literature, begin-ning in the Middle Persian period.101 In New Persian poetry there is a rich tradition of theAlexander romance, starting with Abu ˆl-Qasim Firdowsi in the tenth century. This wasfurther elaborated by NiÂami Ganjawi in his Iskandar-nama, a poem of about 10,800 cou-

99 For more information on this popular religious genre see H. Algar in Encyclopaedia Iranica, underDoä.

100 Such texts are also included in Îajj Bulah’s La†aîf. See p. 524.101 For the earliest story of Alexander in Persian see Iskandar-nama: rawayat-i Farsi-yi Kalistin-i

(Callisthenes) durughin, ed. I. Afshar, Tehran: 1343.


plets, in the second part of which the poet introduces Alexander as a mystic, philosopherand prophet. Like his other narratives, NiÂami’s work generated a long line of imitators inPersian and in Turkish, Urdu, Pashto and Kurdish.102

Despite the negative associations of Alexander’s name in Middle Persian texts, inwhich he is referred to as an invader, in later sources Alexander is usually linked to wisdomand mysticism. In many Alexander romances there is a sub-genre, in which he asks severalphilosophical and ethical questions from his teacher Aristotle. These queries are virtuallythe same in different sources. Abu ˆl-Majd’s version comprises a short treatise, consistingof some seventy brief questions and answers, which are formulated cryptically [pp. 653-54]. Often each answer leads to another question, creating a chain of answers and questions.I give one example here: “He said: ‘what is the soul?’ He answered: ‘that which is limitedby its own essence.’ He said: ‘what are its limitations?’ He said: ‘its ranks.’”

20. TESTAMENTS (WA∑AYA, SINGL. WA∑IYYAT)

Abu ˆl-Majd has included several testaments of various kinds in the Safina. Some of thesetestaments have the character of wisdom literature, while others tell how to go about distrib-uting an estate among the heirs. ∑alaÌ ad-Din Musa’s Kitab fi ïlm al-faraî∂ is a goodexample, outlining in eloquent Persian how to deal with one’s estate [pp. 90-2]. Abu ˆl-Majd has also included personal letters, waqf-nama (letters of religious donations and en-dowments), ätiq-nama (‘deeds of manumission’), etc. One example of such letters comesfrom Shams ad-Din MuÌammad Juwayni, and consists of eight letters and his testament[pp. 412-14]. This testament is followed by another testament by Bahaˆ ad-Din Juwayni inwhich he speaks of the world’s transient nature [pp. 414-15]. According to Îaîri, this ismost probably the opening of his testament in which Bahaˆ ad-Din wished to distribute hispossessions among his heirs. The testament of Fakhr ad-Din Razi is important since herefers to his religious opinions and asks his students to conceal his death and to bury him atthe foot of a mountain in the vicinity of Mardajan.103

An example of a testament belonging to the genre of wisdom literature is WaÒayaTiyadhiq al-Ìakim l-Anushirawan (‘Precepts of Teoducus, Anushirawan’s Phisician’), ex-plaining how to maintain good health [p. 626]. As Îaîri has rightly added, Teodocus can-not be Anushirawan’s physician, rather he was in the service of Îajjaj ibn Yusuf.

In addition to these texts, Abu ̂ l-Majd has added one testament attributed to the Prophet,which he wrote for his son-in law and cousin ̈ Ali ibn Abi ™alib [pp. pp. 645-46]. We do nothave any way to establish its authenticity. It is in fact a didactic text, giving thirty pieces ofadvice to the reader. Each maxim commences with the vocative particle ya (‘O’) followedby Äli. This testament is followed by two other testaments written by the prophet’s son in

102 For NiÂami’s imitators see J.T.P. de Bruijn, in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under Khamsa. ForAlexander romance see P.J. Chelkowski, “Nizami’s iskandarnameh” in Colloquio sul Poeta Persiano Nizami ela leggenda Iranica di Alessandro Magno, Roma: Academia Nazionale Dei Lincei, 1977, pp. 11-53. a recentpublication on Alexander romance is by F. Doufikar-Aerts, Alexander Magnus Arabicus: Zeven eeuwen Arabischealexandertraditie: van Pseudo-Callisthenes tot ∑uri, Universiteit Leiden: 2003.

103 p. 415.


law and the first Shiite imam, Äli, for his two sons Îasan and Îusayn respectively [pp.646-48].

Another short didactic treatise is al-Mukhtar min at-towrat by Ka¨b al-Akhbar, whichtransmits twelve pieces of wisdom based on the Pentateuch [p. 645]. One of the favouritegenres of religious literature is a specific type of sermon that is attributed to religious fig-ures. Khu†bat an-nabi is a short sermon by an anonymous author, and it is not clear whyAbu ˆl-Majd calls it the sermon of the Prophet [p. 207].

21. LETTERS

The Safina contains a good selection of personal letters by a variety of people as well astreatises on the art of tarrasul (letter-writing). La†aîf-i sharafi by ̈ Abdullah ibn MuÌammadTabrizi, known as Falak ̈ Alaˆ or Falak ad-Din, is one of these, which the author has selectedfrom his other comprehensive book, the Saädat-nama [pp. 418-34]. Ikhwaniyyat wa tahaniis a collection of fifteen personal letters belonging to Majd ad-Din Älkaî [pp. 416-18].Another letter is by Jamal ad-Din Jili. This correspondence is written in response to a letterfrom a friend, Badr az-Zaman, who wished to visit Jili [p. 416].

22. BOOKS ON ETHICS, PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, AND RELIGIOUS SCIENCES

A considerable number of treatises in the Safina deal with religious sciences, philosophyand ethics. Abu ˆl-Majd’s selection provides a representative sample of both major worksand lesser-known treatises on these topics. The majority come from Ibn Sina (Avicenna,370-428/980-1037), Fakhr ad-Din Razi, Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazali (450-505/1058-1111) and Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi. Abu ̂ l-Majd has cited an abridged version of Ghazali’sIÌya ülum ad-din (‘Revival of the Religious Sciences’), which is selected by Amin ad-DinÎajj Bulah [pp. 37-54]. Îajj Bulah follows the structure of Ghazali’s book: it is dividedinto four parts of ten chapters each. Unfortunately, several folios of this work are missing.The present manuscript contains a section of the tenth chapter in Part IV. The first pages ofGhazali’s other treatise, the Minhaj al-äbidin104 are missing and only the last section of thisbook is preserved in the Safina [p. 275]. The Minhaj is followed by another famous book byGhazali, al-munqidh min a∂alal (‘Deliverance from error’), in which he defends his reli-gious opinions [p. 275-83]. His al-Ma∂nun bih ̈ ala ghayr al-ahla is also cited in its entiretyin the Safina [pp. 283-88] and is followed by the al-I¨tiqad and Mishkat al-anwar (‘TheNiche for Lights’).105

Another important author selected in the Safina is Ibn Sina, who is introduced byseven titles, six in Arabic and one in Persian. Ibn Sina is known in the West primarily for histreatises on medicine, but Abu ˆl-Majd cites mainly his philosophical, religious and mysti-cal works, as well as his correspondance with the great mystic Shaykh Abi Saïd Abi ˆl-

104 His Qanun fi ˆ†-†ibb (‘Laws of Medical Sciences’) was translated into Latin in the 12th century.byGerard of Cremona (1114-1187)

105 For al-I¨tiqad see pp. 288-89 and for Mishkat al-anwar see pp. 289-97. For an English translation ofMishkat see Al-Ghazali’s Mishkat al-Anwar, Trans. W.H.T. Gairdner, London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1924.


Khayr. Kitab al-isharat wa-ˆl-tanbihat (‘The Book of Indications and Remarks,’ [pp. 325-343]) is the last book written by Ibn Sina, dealing with logic, metaphysics, mysticism andseveral other subjects. The book sets out his philosophical and mystical thinking during thelast years of his life.106 This book is followed by Ibn Sina’s treatise on predestination enti-tled Masâla fi sirr al-qadr.107 Kunuz al-muäzzamin (‘Treasures for Great Men’) is a shorttreatise attributed to Ibn Sina. At the beginning the author explains that he wrote the bookon magic, talismans and amulets at the request of a group of friends.108 M. Achena consid-ers this small manual to be apocryphal. 109

Treasures for Great Men is followed by two letters exchanged between Ibn Sina andAbu Saïd. The first is from Abu Saïd to Ibn Sina and the second is Ibn Sina’s answer[p. 345]. According to Haîri, the first letter is also known as ÎuÒul-i ïlm wa-Ìikma (‘Gain-ing Knowledge and Wisdom’). Generally speaking, scholars agree on the authenticity ofIbn Sina’s correspondence. Although the two great men probably never met, there is atradition of popular stories about the encounter between the philosopher and the mystic.One especially famous story is that Abu Saïd, when asked about Ibn Sina’s knowledge,said: “Everything that we see he knows.” When Ibn Sina was asked about Abu Saïd, hesaid: “Everything I know, he sees.” Scholars such as Y.I. Bertel’s, F. Meier, and D. Gutasgenerally agree that Ibn Sina had no relation to the Sufis.110

Ibn Sina’s other treatise, which is presented here under the title of Tafsir-i Sura-yiIkhlaÒ wa muäwwadhatayn, is actually an exegesis of three different books (surah) of theKoran, namely al-ikhlaÒ (112), al-falaq (113) and al-nas (114) [pp. 345-48]. Another bookrelated to religious subjects is Khu†bat at-towÌid (‘An Address on God’s Unity’), which ishere translated and commented upon by Ümar Khayyam [pp. 323-24]. In addition to theseprose writings, Abu ̂ l-Majd has included an ode by Ibn Sina (known as QaÒida-yi ̈ ayniyya,‘ode rhyming on the letter äyn,’ [p. 206]). This poem is in Arabic. It is twenty coupletslong, and deals with ontological subjects such as the relation between body and soul. Abuˆl-Majd has also included a commantary on this poem by Shams ad-Din Samarqandi[pp. 206-07].

The Safina contains several Persian and Arabic treatises by Fakhr ad-Din MuÌammadibn Ümar Razi. In addition to a dictionary ascribed to Razi, there are several religious andethical works in Abu ̂ l-Majd’s collection. Khu†bat al-dars is a long didactic sermon dealingwith the themes related to God’s unity [pp. 297-302]. This is followed by a short sermon[p. 302]. The following two titles al-Tanbih äla Ìaqiqat al-maäd and Tafsir sura a¨la areparts of Razi’s larger work, al-Tanbih äla ba¨∂ al-asrar al-muwaddaä fi ba¨∂ suwar al-

106 The book was translated into Persian in the 13th century by Äbd as-Salam ibn MaÌmud ibn AÌmadal-Farsi. This translation has been edited and published in Iran by I. Yarshatir, Tehran: Silsila-yi intisharat-ianjuman-i athar-i milli, 1332/1953; Isharat itself was first published in Leiden in 1892. It has also been trans-lated into French by A.M. Goichon, Livre des Directives et Remarques, Paris, 1951.

107 pp. 343-44. See A.J. Arberry, Avicenna on Theology, London, 1951.108 p. 344. Jalal ad-Din Humaî published this manual in Tehran in 1331/1952. This book is not available

to me and I do not know which manuscripts Humaî h has used for his critical text edition.109 See Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Avicenna xi. Persian Works, p. 103.110 Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Avicenna xi, p. 80. See also F. Meier, Abu Saïd-i Abu ˆl-Îayr,

Wirklichkeit und Legende. Acta Iranica, 3/4, Tehran/Liège: Bibliothèque Pahlavi, 1976, pp. 26-8. Also seeShafiï Kadkani’s introduction in Abu Saïd Abu ˆl-Khayr, Asrar at-towÌid fi maqamat ash-shaykh Abi Saïd,vol. i, ed. M.R. Shafiï Kadkani, Tehran: Agah, 1371/1992, pp. 43ff.


qurân, which is also included in the Safina [pp. 348-51]. In the first book, Razi discussesthe theme of Resurrection (maäd), based on the 95th book of the Koran, the Sura al-tin[pp. 302-03]. Razi’s second book deals with the themes of prophetology and other theologi-cal matters on the basis of the 87th book of the Koran [pp. 303-04]. Îaîri mentions that thistreatise is also attributed to Ibn Sina. These Arabic treatises are followed by three Persianworks by Razi. One of these is an ode of 78 couplets in four sections: the first sectiondealing with logic, the second with physics and the third with divine matters, while thefourth is devoted to the praise Razi’s patron NaÒir ad-Din Malikshah [pp. 304-05].111 This isthe only manuscript of the work that has come down to us thus far. The next treatise is Rah-i khuday shinakhtan (‘How to know God,’ [pp. 306-10]).112 This is a book in six chaptersdealing with mystico-philosophical issues. The next treatise is entitled TaÌÒil al-Ìaqq fiMadhahib al-khalq [pp. 310-14]. Kitab al-uÒul ad-Din wa-l-milal wa-nihal is the same asRazi’s TaÌsil al-Ìaqq wa-t-taÌqiq al-firaq [pp. 314-22]. It deals with various sectarian divi-sions within Islam, explaining the reasons for such divisions in two parts (jumla), which arefurther neatly subdivided into chapters (bab) and sections (faÒl).

Another prolific Persian writer included in the Safina is Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi(597-672/1201-1274). The first work of ™usi occurring in this collection is a short exegesisof surah 112 of the Koran [p. 351].113 Aghaz wa anjam (‘The Beginning and the End’) is thenext treatise by ™usi [pp. 352-57]. This is organised in twenty chapters, describing theposition of mankind in this world and the world hereafter.114 ™usi’s other treatise is OwÒafal-ashraf (‘Qualities of the Nobles,’ [pp. 357-64]), a mystico-ethical work in six long parts,each divided into six chapters, except that the last part consists of one chapter.115 Anotherbook by ™usi is az-Zubda fi ˆl-hayâ, [pp. 365-81] an astronomical treatise, which is organ-ised in thirty chapters, and contains many fine drawings showing the positions of the plan-ets and stars. Ma¨rifa at-taqwim is another astronomical treatise in thirty chapters [pp. 381-86]. This treatise is followed by Madkhal-i manÂum fi ma¨rifat at-taqwim, another astro-nomical text, in the form of 313 couplets [pp. 386-89]. The authorship of this poem isdoubtful. According to Îaîri, it is also ascribed to Äbd al-Jabbar Khujandi, Fakhr ad-DinMubarakshah Ghuri and even to Anwari. The next poem of 37 lines is NaÂm-i aÌkam-iqamar dar buruj and is attributed to ™usi [p. 389]. In addition to this title, there is anothershort text attributed to ™usi. This is a poem of three couplets bearing the title NaÂm danistan-i an ki mah dar kudam burj ast bi taqwim [p. 389]. Abu ˆl-Majd has also included ™usi’spolitical writings, namely his correspondance to the governors of Damascus and their an-swer to Hulagu [pp. 439-440].

111 This philosophical poem is published and discussed by N. Pourjavady in Maärif, vol. 17, no. 3,2001, pp. 3-16.

112 The book also has an Arabic title, the Kitab fi ma¨rifat Allah.113 For bibliography of ™usi’s works see E. Alexandrin “Éléments de bibliographie sur NaÒir al-Din

™usi” in NaÒir al-Din ™usi: Philosophe et Savant du xiiie Siècle, Tehran: Iran University Press, 2000, pp. 207-13; for Russian works on ™usi see S. Tourkin “Bibliography on al-™usi (Works in Russian)” in NaÒir al-Din™usi: Philosophe, pp. 215-18; For a Persian bibliography see Sayyid Ibrahim Ashk-i Shirin & Î RaÌmani,“Kitabshinasi-yi Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi” in NaÒir al-Din ™usi: Philosophe, pp, 71-118.

114 For an edition of this treatise with an extensive commentary on the text see Aghaz wa anjam, ed. Î.Îasanzada Amili, Tehran: Islamic Culture and Propaganda Ministry, fourth edition 1374/1995. Unfortunatelyit is not clear what manuscript(s) Amuli used for this edition.


Zayn ad-Din Sayfi’s treatise entitled al-Mabdaˆ wa-ˆl-maäd (‘The Beginning and theEnd,’ [pp. 649-50]) deals with the nature of Necessary Being (Wajib al-wujud), the spirit,the origin of man, his position in this world, his relation to other creatures, and finally hisreturn to the original Abode. Îaîri adds that this treatise is also known under the Persiantitle Aghaz wa anjam and that it is attributed to Ithir ad-Din Abhari in other manuscripts.

Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah’s Risala-yi ïlm wa äql [p. 713] consists of two parts, thefirst dealing with the classification of human knowledge and the second with the nature ofreason and its stratifications. The author wrote this treatise at the order of Sultan MuÌammadÖljeitü and at the request of his vizier Rashid ad-Din Fa∂l Allah.

Yusuf ibn Äli ibn Îasan Îusayni’s Intikhab al-maÒabiÌ [pp. 2-30] is a selection ofÎusayn ibn Masüd Baghawi’s MaÒabiÌ al-sana. Îusayni dedicated the book to the Saljuqidsultan Abu ˆl-FatÌ Kay Qubad ibn Sul†an Faramarz. Îaîri considers this manuscript to beunique; not only is it the only copy to have survived, it is reliable, since the copyist statesthat he copied from the original manuscript.

Az-Zubda fi ˆl-man†iq by Amin ad-Din Abu ˆl-Qasim Îajj Bulah is a treatise on logicin three chapters, of which only the first is included here [pp. 248-53]. This is followed byNajm ad-Din Dabiran Katibi Qazwini’s (d. 675/1276) ash-Shamsiyya fi ˆl-qawaîd al-man†iqiyya, which is organised in three chapters, an introduction and a conclusion [pp. 253-60]. Qazwini’s other book is Îikmat al-äyn, [pp. 260-74] in two parts, the first devoted tometaphysics and the second to physics (†abiï). Unfortunately the text after chapter five ofthe second part is missing.

23. TRADITIONS, EXEGETICAL LITERATURE AND TRANSLATIONS OFTHE KORAN

Several books on the study of the Koran and how the Koran can be translated and inter-preted are included in the Safina. In the section on Lexigraphical works I have referred toseveral literal translations of the Koran. Here I will concentrate mainly on Koran exegesis.Persian commentaries on the Koran originate in the tenth century. They were aimed at aPersian public, who could not understand Arabic, and put forward a variety of doctrinalviews.116 The earliest such text included in the Safina is by MuÌammad Jarir ™abari (d. 310/923) who wrote it for the Samanid Amir ManÒur b. NuÌ (reigned 350-65/961-76). SharÌ-imajmu¨-i qurân-i qadim wa-dhikr ˆl-karim [p. 435] is a diagram explaining the number ofchapters, the sections into which the Koran is divided (a¨shar), and the verses, words, andletters.

After the Koran, traditions are the most important source of doctrine for Muslims, andÌadith collections have been one of the favourite genres in Islamic literatures. There is anold custom, continued even today, of writing forty Ìadith as a separate book. The Safinacontains a book of forty traditions by Zaîd ibn Saïd AÌmad ibn al-Îusayn a†-™usi [pp. 36-

115 For an analysis of this work see N. Pourjavady “Ïrfan-i Khaja NaÒir dar ‘OwÒaf al-ashraf’” in NaÒiral-Din ™usi: Philosophe, pp. 39-56.

116 For a concise study of the development of the Persian exegetical literature see A. Keeler in Encyclo-paedia Iranica, under Exegesis, iii. in Persian.


7]. This is a rare book and its name, al-Arbaïn fi ˆl-aÌadith al-nabawiyya (‘Forty PropheticTraditions’) as well as the name of the author does not occur in any other sources. It chieflydeals with the excellence of poverty, ethics of mystics and ascetics, and the responsibilitiesof the rich. Mystics regarded poverty as an attribute of the Prophet who is reported to havesaid: “poverty is my pride.” Persian literature is rich in stories describing the sober lifestyleof the Prophet and his family.117

24. A TREATISE ON MUSIC

Music is regarded as one of the mathematical sciences. As O. Wright has briefly summa-rized: “Islamic writings on music are often theoretical treatises concerned with the analysisof pitch and duration, the constituent elements of melody. They are conceived less as de-scriptive accounts of contemporary practice than as systematisations of possible structures,utilizing, in the case of pitch, mathematical formulations derived from the Greek legacy.”118

There is one musical treatise in the Safina, by Üjb az-Zaman MuÌammad ibn MaÌmudNayshaburi [pp. 632-33]. The author’s name is not recorded here but in 1344/1965Danishpazhuh published this treatise based on a manuscript dated from the 14th century inthe collection of the Russian Academy of Sciences.119

25. MATHEMATICAL TREATISES

There are several mathematical treatises in the Safina. Two of these treatises are anony-mous. The first is a short text entitled Kitab fi ̂ l-Ìisab (‘Treatise on Mathematics,’ [pp. 631-32]). This is followed by a longer work with the same title. Another treatise is al-Badiˆ fiïlm al-Ìisab by Sa¨d ad-Din Masüd ibn AÌmad ibn Äbdullah KhaÒbaki, which is organ-ised in three parts, each divided into two chapters [pp. 404-08]. We have no informationabout the author and his other writings, although KhaÒbaki’s manual on geomancy is alsoincluded the Safina [pp. 399-404]. Apparently KhaÒbaki’s major work on mathematics washis Kifaya dar ïlm-i Ìisab, which he refers to at the beginning of al-Badi¨. He says that agroup of his friends asked him to write a shorter version for beginners. In addition to thesetreatises, there are several other mathematical texts for astrolgical purposes, which I willrefer to in the next section.

26. ASTROLOGICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL TEXTS

The Safina contains several astronomical and astrological treatises. Bist bab dar us†urlab(‘Twenty Chapters on Knowing the Astrolabe’) has the same title as NaÒir ad-Din ™usi’s

117 For the theme of poverty see A.Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, Chapel Hill: The Univer-sity of North Carolina Press, 1975, p. 121, see also the index under poverty.

118 In Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Avicenna, ix. Music, p. 92.119 For more information on this author and his treatise see A.Î. Purjawadi in Maärif, 12, no. 1-2, 1374/

1995, pp. 32-70.


famous work on the astrolabe and it is placed after ™usi’s treatises on these topics [pp. 390-95].120 This treatise is by NaÒir ad-Din ̈ Abid Allah ̈ Abidi, who also wrote a commentary on™usi’s Tadhkira dar hayât.121 Äbidi’s Bist bab could be a commentary on ™usi’s work.Îaîri mentions that ̈ Abidi’s treatise is probably the only extant manuscript but more inves-tigation is required to establish the position and nature of this work. In addition to thesetreatises, Abu ˆl-Majd has copied many astronomical and astrological tables in the Safina[pp. 395-96].

In addition, there are two treatises on mathematics as applied in astrology. Kitab al-mowjiz fi ïlm a¨dad al-wifq [pp. 435-36] is a treatise that Abu ˆl-Majd himself wrote at therequest of people (ba iltimas-i makhluqan niwishta shud). The next treatise, entitled Kitab-i khawaÒ-i a¨dad-i wifq [pp. 436-57] shows how these mathematical figures can be used toforesee the influences of the stars and the planets on created beings.

27. GEOMANCY AND THE RELATED ARTS

Geomancy (ramal) and related arts have always been very popular in Persia.122 In the Safina,Abu ˆl-Majd has included a short treatise entitled Fal-i MuÒhaf (‘divination by the Koran,’[p. 397]), explaining how to use the holy book to predict the future. Apparently the practiceof bibliomancy was common in Abu ̂ l-Majd’s time. He states: “If someone wants to divine(fal gushayad) by the great Koran and this glorious book, he should first of all purify him-self by performing ritual washing (†aharat) and afterwards he should recite the first chapterof the Koran. Then he should specify his pure intention in his heart before opening the book.He should neither become happy if he opens a page with a verse presaging mercy, nor heshould become depressed if he sees a verse describing punishment. He should rather focushis eyes on the first letter of the seventh line on the right-hand page. Then he should consultthis book (referring to kitab-i fal-i muÒÌaf) and see what this book says about the specificletter. Certainly all prophets (…) followed this way.” After this short guideline, Abu ˆl-Majd lists the hidden values of each letter of the Arabic alphabet systematically.

Divining the future of a person by opening a book at random is an ancient practice inPersia. Even today’s, Persians open ÎafiÂ’s Diwan or other collections from poets such asRumi and Sa¨di at random, in order to foresee the future, tell their fortune, and make deci-sion.123 The Koran is also used for this purpose. It is interesting to note that many editions ofthe Koran published in Iran contain the words khub (good) and bad (bad) alternately, and

120 For the content of ™usi’s work and commentaries on this text see Sergei Tourkin “Copies of NaÒir al-Din al-™usi’s treatise on the Astrolabe and Commentaries on it in the Manuscript Collection of the Institute ofOriental Studies, St. Petersburg” in NaÒir al-Din ™usi: Philosophe et Savant du xiiie Siècle, Tehran: Iran Uni-versity Press, 2000, pp. 177-89.

121 See NaÒir al-Din al-™usi’s Memoir on Astronomy (al-Tadhkira fi ïlm al-hayâ), 2 vols., ed. F.J.Rageb, New York: Springer Verlag, 1993.

122 For the art of geomancy in Persia see I. Afshar in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Fal-nama; M.Omidsalar in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Divination; H. Massé in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, under Fal-nama; see also E.G. Browne, A Literary History, vol. iii, 1956, pp. 315-19; idem, A Year amongst the Persians,London: Adam and Charles Black, 1893, pp. 145ff. NiÂami the prosodist refers to a falgir in his Chahar maqala.See Chahar maqala, p. 103.

123 E.G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia, vol. iii, pp. 315-19.


important decisions are made on the basis of these indications and the verses occurring on acertain page.

There are three other books on the art of geomancy in the Safina. Ashkal-i ramal(‘Forms of Geomancy) is a poem of eight couplets by an anonymous author. It describes therelationship between odd and even numbers and their influence on events. The second trea-tise is called Risala fi ïlm al-ramal (‘Treatise on the Science of Geomancy,’[pp. 397-99]), consisting of a table of divination and a long explanatory section describingthe secrets of this occult art. Its author is not known. The third treatise on geomancy is bySa¨d ad-Din Masüd ibn AÌmad ibn Äbdullah KhaÒbaki. It is called at-TuÌfa fi ïlm ar-ramal (‘A Gift on the science of geomancy,’ [399-404]) and contains six long chapters. Inaddition to these treatises, the Safina contains a short treatise on alchemy written by ShaykhÄli Maghribi under the title of Kitab fi ïlm-i kimiya [p. 633].

28. JURISPRUDENCE

A considerable number of teatises selected in the Safina are on Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh).Two are by Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah. His al-Hidaya fi uÒul al-fiqh [pp. 58-9] consists ofthree parts, the first of which explains the most important jurisprudential terms, which arewritten in red. The other two parts are missing. Îajj Bulah’s second book is entitled at-Tadhkara fi ˆl-uÒulayn wa-ˆl-fiqh, [pp. 60-70] and is divided into three parts. The first isdevoted to the principles of (kalam), the second to principles of jurisprudence and the thirddeals with many related issues. These Arabic books are followed by a rare Persian treatiseon jurisprudence, which is written by the Shafiïte scholar Abu MuÌammad Îusayn ibnMasüd Farraˆ Baghawi (436-510/1044-1117) [pp. 70-82]. As Îaîri has pointed out, one ofthe features of this treatise is Baghawi’s style and the words and compounds he has coined.Another treatise on principles of jurisprudence occurs on pages 247-48; the first folios ofthis treatise are missing.

29. MEDICAL TREATISES

Abu ̂ l-Majd has selected several medical treatises in the Safina. Ba¨∂ al-masaîl a†-†ibbiyya[pp. 633-34] is a small medical book in five chapters dealing with snake bites, feeling thepulse, the signs of bile and black bile (melancholy), signs of moisture in the body anddiagnosis from urine. Abu Bakr MuÌammad ibn Zakariya Razi’s Barra saä [pp. 411-12] isanother medical work in this collection.

Apart from these treatises, Abu ˆl-Majd has included a number of medical tablets [pp.409-10]. Arghun Khan commissioned Amin ad-Din Owtaji to write al-Jadawil fi ˆ†-†ibb,which describes the benefits and harms of various fruits, breads and meats on man based ona Galenic diagram of the relationships between elements, the humours and the seasons. Thistext resembles Abu RayÌan Biruni’s Kitab at-tafhim, which explains the beneficial andbaneful influences of the stars and planets on created beings.124

124 See Abu RayÌan Biruni, Kitab at-tafhim li-awaîl Òanaät at-tanjim, ed. J. Humaî, Tehran: Babak,


A number of treatises included in the Safina deal with the traditional medicinal func-tions of minerals and vegetables.125 For instance, the treatise KhawaÒ-i muättarat (‘Intrin-sic Nature of Scents,’[p. 656]) deals with the pharmacological qualities of scents such asamber (änbar), musk (mushk), a kind of perfume (ghaliya), Saffron (za¨faran), aloe (üd),camphor (kafur), hyacinth (sunbul), sandal-wood (Òandal), costus (qus†) and parfumedistillated from willow blossoms (bid mushk).126 Another treatise of the same nature is theanonymous KhawaÒ-i ghallat (‘The Qualities of Grains,’[p. 657]), which consists of tenchapters, each dealing with a specific type of grain and its medical benefits.

One remarkable treatise deduces people’s psychological traits and character on thebasis of their physiognomy. It is called Dalaˆl-i a¨∂aˆ (‘arguments for the members of thebody,’ [pp. 654-55]) by an anonymous author.

30. MINERALOGY

Knowledge of minerals is one of the favourite topics in Persia. Several medieval scientifictreatises are devoted to the study of minerals to establish their uses in magic, in astrology,in mysticism and in other fields. The most comprehensive text on this subject is Abu RayÌanBiruni’s Kitab al-jawahir fi ma¨rifat al-jawahir (‘The Book on the Sum of Knowledgeabout Precious Stones’). Abu ̂ l-Majd has added several mineralogical treatises in the Safina.The first is KhawaÒ al-aÌjar by an anonymous author, the last part of which is missing[pp. 634-38]. According to Îaîri, the content of this manuscript differs considerably fromother mineralogical works and requires a separate examination. The author first names amineral and after naming its quintessential quality, describes its medical and magical func-tion.

Another treatise on minerals is entitled KhawaÒ-i maädin-i kani [p. 656]. This isentirely devoted to the traditional medical functions of gold (zar), silver (sim), copper (mis),iron (ahan), lead (surb), lead (arziz) and brass (ruy).

28. COSMOGRAPHICAL WORKS

Abu ˆl-Majd has selected a number of cosmographical works. Dalaˆl-i barf wa baran waghayrihuma (also called at the end of the treatise Risala fi ˆl-masaîl al-Ìikmiyya), by ananonymous author, describes the phenomena of rain, snow, rainbow, winds, earthquake,thunder, lightning, etc., in twenty chapters [pp. 657-60]. Another treatise on the same themeis al-Risala qowsiyya by Kamal ad-Din Ismaïl Isfahani, which concentrates on the phe-nomenon of the rainbow [pp. 704-10]. This treatise is written in rhyme and rhythmic prosein Arabic and contains a detailed commentary on literary devices in the margins and be-

1362/1983; for an English translation see R.R. Wright, The Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art ofAstrology, London: Luzac, 1934.

125 For minerals see secion on mineralogical treatises.126 The text reads big-mushk, which is unknown to me and might be the parfume distillated from willow

blossoms, which is called in Persian bid-mushk. For more information on perfumes cited above see F. Aubaile-Sallenave in Encyclopaedia Iranica, under Ä†r.


tween the lines of the text. The name of the commentator is not mentioned. Another trea-tise on the rainbow is al-Qowsiyya an-niÂamiyya by Qa∂i NiÂam ad-Din Isfahani [pp. 710-11].

Kitab-i aqalim wa bilad is a very short text [pp. 660-61] referring to several places,including the famous wall that Alexander is said to have built to prevent the Gog and Magog(yaˆjuj wa maˆjuj) peoples invading civilized lands. Another book with the same title andthe same subject-matter is by someone called ‘Sulayman’ (the rest of the name is illegible)[pp. 714-15]. This sets out the traditional seven climes and the sizes of cities, using figures.Aqalim as-sabä [p. 733] is another short text on the same subject.

TITLE AUTHOR PAGE LANGUAGENUMBER

1 Intikhab al-maÒabiÌ Îusayn ibn Masüd Baghawi 2-30 Arabic

2 Adïyyat an-nabi Bahaˆ ad-Din Îaydar Kashi 31-36 Arabic

3 al-Arbaïn fi aÌadith al-nabaw- Zaîd ibn Saïd ™usi 36-37 Arabic wiyya

4 Intikhab iÌyaˆ ülum ad-din Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 37-54 Arabic

5 no title: the text contains reports 55-56 Arabic of several mystics

6 al-QaÒaîd al-watariyya MuÌammad ibn Rashid Baghdadi 57 Arabic

7 al-Hidaya fi uÒul al-fiqh Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 58-59 Arabic

8 al-Tadhkira fi ˆl-uÒulayn wa-l-fiqh Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 60-70 Arabic

9 Kitab dar fiqh-i Shafiï (Kafaya fi Îusayn ibn Masüd Faraˆ Baghawi 70-82 Persian ‘l-furu¨)

10 Manasik-i Ìajj Bihaˆ ad-Din Ya¨ghub 82-90 Persian

11 Kitab fi ïlm al-faraî∂ ∑alaÌ ad-Din Musa 90-92 Persian

12 Kitab al-Owrad Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 92-96 Persian

13 Kitab-i wird-i ÒubÌ Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 96-98 Persian

14 Daäwat ayyam as-sabä reported by Ali ibn Abi ™alib 98 Arabic

15 Adïyya-i ayyam-i Rama∂an al- reported by Ali ibn Abi ™alib 99 Persian mubarak

16 Kalamat al-Amir al-muˆminin Äli compiled by Abu Üthman JahiÂ 99-100 Arabic al-Basri

17 Tawarikh ar-rasul Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 100-102 Arabic

18 Tawarikh al-khulafaˆ 102-103 Arabic

19 Intikhab as-sami fi asami 104-117 Persian

20 Intikhab al-maÒadir Qazi Abu Äbd Allah Îusayn 117-127 Persian Zowzani

21 TuÌfa (Arabic-Persian lexicon) Fakhr ad-Din Razi 128-131 Persian

22 Minhaj dhu ˆl-Ìasab fi iktisab Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 131-144 Arabic ülum al-adab

23 TaÒrif al-Ïzzi Ïzz ad-Din Zanjani 145-146 Arabic

24 al-Nimuzaj MaÌmud b. Ümar Zamakhshari 146-149 Arabic

25 al-Äwamil al-miâ fi al-naÌw Äbd al-Qadir Jurjani 149-150 Arabic

26 QaÒida fi ˆl-naÌw 151-152 Arabic



27 QaÒida fi al-äru∂ wa-l-qawafi Ibn Îajib Maliki 153-155 Arabic

28 al-Kafi fi ïlm al-qawafi ∑ahib Ismaïl ibn Äbbad ™aliqani 155 Arabic

29 QaÒida fi al-äru∂ wa-l-qawafi ∑adr ad-Din Sawuji 156-169 Arabic

30 MukhtaÒar dar äru∂ wa qawafi-yi Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 169-172 Persian Parsiyan

31 al-Kafiyya fi ïlm al-äru∂ wa-l- Abuˆl-Majd MuÌammad ibn Malik 173-181 Persian qafiyya Masüd ibn MuÂaffar

32 NiÂam at-tawarikh Qa∂i NaÒir ad-Din Bay∂awi 182-198 Persian

33 QaÒida ad-Duridi Abu Bakr MuÌammad ibn Durid 199-201 Arabic

34 al-Muäsharat Abu ˆl-Îasan Äli Fahri-yi Muqri 202-205 Arabic known as ÎaÒri-yi Qayrawani

35 QaÒida [Äyniyya] Abu Äli Ibn Sina 206 Arabic

36 Commentary on Ibn Sina’s qaÒida Shams ad-Din Samarqandi 206-207 Arabic

37 Khu†bat an-nabi 207 Arabic

38 I†baq adh-dhahab Sharaf ad-Din Shafruh Isfahani 207-209 Arabic

39 Maqamat MaÌmud ibn Ümar Zamakhshari 209-211 Arabic

40 Maqamat Qasim ibn Äli Îariri Basri 211-220 Arabic

41 Maqamat Qa∂i Îamid ad-Din Ümar Balkhi 220-227 Persian

42 ash-Shawahid wa-sh-shawarid Abu ˆl-Îasan MuÌammad Ahwazi 227-232 Arabic

43 Kitab fi maÌabbat al-Ìaqiqiyya Qushayri 233 Persian

44 Asmaˆ-i abaha ba IÒ†ilaÌ-i ∑ufiyan 233 Persian

45 MunaÂara-yi gul-u mul Abu Saïd Tirmidhi 234-239 Persian

46 MunaÂara-yi Sarw u ab Qa∂i NiÂam ad-Din Isfahani 239 Persian/Arabic

47 MunaÂara-yi sharab u Ìashish Sa¨d ad-Din ibn Bahaˆ ad-Din 240 Persian

48 MunaÂara-yi sharab u Ìashish 240 Persian

49 MunaÂara-yi shimshir u qalam 240 Persian

50 MunaÂara-yi zamin u asiman 241 Persian

51 MunaÂara-yi nar u turab Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 241 Persian

52 MunaÂara-yi sam¨ u baÒar Abu ¨l-Majd MuÌammad ibn 241-245 Persian Masüd

53 MunaÂara-yi naÂm u nathr Abu ¨l-Majd MuÌammad ibn 245 Persian Masüd

54 Kitab ad-daäwat fi ˆl-owqat 246 Persian

55 Da¨wat wa afsunha 246 Persian

56 UÒul al-fiqh 247-248 Arabic

57 az-Zubdat fi ˆl-man†iq Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 248-253 Arabic

58 ash-Shamsiyya fi ˆl-qawaïd al- Najm ad-Din Dabiran Katibi-yi 253-260 Arabic man†iqiyya Qazwini

59 Îikmat al-äyn Najm ad-Din Dabiran Katibi-yi 260-274 Arabic Qazwini

60 Minhaj al-äbidin ila al-janna Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazzali 275 Arabic

61 al-Munqidh min al-∂alal Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazzali 275-283 Arabic



62 al-Ma∂nun bi äla ghayr ahlih Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazzali 283-288 Arabic

63 al-I¨tiqad Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazzali 288-289 Arabic

64 Mishkat al-anwar Abu Îamid MuÌammad Ghazzali 289-297 Arabic

65 Khu†bat ad-dars Fakhr ad-Din MuÌammad ibn 297-302 Arabic Ümar Razi

66 Khu†ba Fakhr ad-Din Razi 302 Arabic

67 al-Tanbih äla Ìaqiqat al-maäd Fakhr ad-Din Razi 302-303 Arabic

68 Commentary on the sura A¨la Fakhr ad-Din Razi 303-304 Arabic

69 QaÒida (dar falsafa wa man†iq) Fakhr ad-Din Razi 304-305 Persian

70 Rah-i khuday shinakhtan Fakhr ad-Din Razi 306-310 Persian

71 TaÌÒil al-Ìaqq fi madhahib al- Fakhr ad-Din Razi 310-314 Persian khalq

72 UÒul ad-din wa-milal wa-n-nahal Fakhr ad-Din Razi 314-322 Persian

73 Kitab fi ˆl-Ìubb Fakhr ad-Din Razi 322-323 Arabic

74 Khu†ba at-towÌid Abu Äli Sina 323 Arabic

75 Tarjama-yi khu†bat at-towÌid Ümar ibn Ibrahim Khayyami 323-324 Arabic

76 al-Isharat wa-tanbihat Abu Äli Sina 325-343 Arabic

77 Masâla fi ˆl-sirr al-qadar Abu Äli Sina 343-344 Arabic

78 Kunuz al-muäzimin Abu Äli Sina 344 Persian

79 Kitab al-Shaykh Abu Saïd ibn Abi 345 Arabic ˆl-Khayr ila ibn Äli ibn Sina

80 Kitab ibn Äli ibn Sina fi jawab 345 Arabical-Shaykh Abi Saïd

81 Commentary on the sura al-ikhlaÒ Abu Äli Sina 345-348 Arabic and muäwwadhatayn

82 al-Tanbih äla ba¨∂i al-asrar-i Fakhr ad-Din razi 348-351 Arabic muwaddaä fi ba¨∂ suwar al- Qurân al-Karim

83 Tafsir-i sura-yi ikhlaÒ Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 351 Persian

84 Aghaz u anjam Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 352-357 Persian

85 OwÒaf al-ashraf Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 357-364 Persian

86 al-Zubdat fi ˆl-hayât Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 365-381 Persian

87 Ma¨rifat at-taqwim Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 381-386 Arabic

88 Madkhal-i manÂum Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 386-389 Persian

89 Danistan-i anki mah dar kudam ascribed to Khaja NaÒir ad-Din 389 Persian burj ast bi taqwim ™usi

90 AÌkam-i qamar dar buruj ascribed to Khaja NaÒir ad-Din 389 Persian ™usi

91 Ma¨rifat-i us†urlab NaÒir ad-Din Übaydullah Übaydi 390-395 Persian

92 Jadawal-i aÌkam wa ikhtiyarat-i 395-396 Persian nujumi

93 Fal-i musÌaf 397 Persian

94 Ashkal-i ramal 397 Persian

95 Kitab fi ïlm al-ramal 397-399 Persian



96 TuÌfa [dar ïlm-i ramal] Sa¨d ad-Din Masüd ibn AÌmad 399-404 Persian ibn Äbdullah KhaÒbaki

97 Badi¨ [dar ïlm-i Ìisab] Sa¨d ad-Din Masüd ibn AÌmad 404-408 Persian ibn Äbdullah KhaÒbaki

98 Jadwal-i ma¨rifat-i ghalib u 408 Persian maghlub

99 Kitab fi ˆl-†ibb Amin ad-Din Owtaji 409-410 Persian

100 Alfiyya Abu Bakr MuÌammad ibn Zaka- 411-412 Arabic riyyaˆ Razi

101 Munshaât Shams ad-Din MuÌammad Juwayni 412-413 Persian

102 WaÒiyyat-nama Shams ad-Din MuÌammad Juwayni 414 Persian

103 WaÒiyyat-nama Bihaˆ ad-Din Juwayni 414-415 Persian

104 WaÒiyyat Fakhr ad-Din Razi 415 Arabic

105 Nama Jamal ad-Din Jili 416 Persian

106 Tarassul (Ikhwaniyyat) Majd ad-Din Älkaî 416-418 Persian

107 La†aîf-i sharafi Äbdullah ibn Äli known as 418-434 Persian Falak-i Tabrizi

108 SharÌ-i majmu¨-i Qurân al-karim 435 Persian wa-dhikr al-karim

109 Mowjiz [fi ïlm a¨dad al-wifq] Abu ˆl-Majd MuÌammad ibn malik 435-436 Persian masüd

110 KhawaÒÒ-i a¨dad-i wifq 436-437 Persian

111 Jadwal-i ikhtilaj 437 Persian

112 Jadwal-i tawarik-i anbiyaˆ wa 438 Persian khulafaˆ wa Ìukamaˆ wa ülamaˆ wa muluk

113 Jadwal-i tawarikh-i anbiyaˆ wa 438 Persian ÒaÌaba wa ülamaˆ wa salatin

114 Tarikh-i Tabriz 439 Persian

115 Ibtidaˆ-i dowlat-i Kharazmshahiyan Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 439 Persian

116 Nama-yi Hulaku ba umaraˆ-i Sham Khaja NaÒir ad-Din ™usi 439-440 Arabic wa pasukh-i an

117 Ghazaliyyat dar towÌid wa †amat Jalal ad-Din Ätiqi-yi Tabrizi 440-441 Persian

118 Diwan-i ashär Åahir ad-Din Fariyabi 442-489 Persian

119 Diwan-i ashär Majd ad-Din Malik MaÌmud ibn 489-500 Persian MuÂaffar-i Tabrizi

120 Diwan-i ashär Majd ad-Din MuÌammad Tabrizi 500-504 Persian

121 QiÒÒa-yi munaÂara-yi ahu Jalal ad-Din Ätiqi-yi Tabrizi 504-505 Persian

122 ∑uÌbat-nama Humam ad-Din Tabrizi 506-509 Persian

123 Ïshq-nama Ïzz ad-Din Ä†aî 509-518 Persian

124 La†îf al-laâli Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 519-538 Arabic / Persian

125 Nur al-Ìadiqa li-ahl al-Ìaqiqa Îakim Sanaî Ghaznawi 539-553 Persian (Îadiqa al-Ìaqiqa)

126 [guzida-yi] Wis u Ramin Fakhr ad-Din Asad Gurgani 554-559 Persian



127 [guzida-yi] Khusrow u Shirin NiÂami-yi Ganjawi 560-564 Persian

128 [guzida-yi] Layli u Majnun NiÂami-yi Ganjawi 565 Persian

129 [guzida-yi] Haft paykar NiÂami-yi Ganjawi 566-567 Persian

130 [guzida-yi] Shah-nama Îakim Abu ˆl-Qasim Firdowsi 568-578 Persian

131 Nisab aÒ-subyan Abu NaÒr Farahi 578-581 Persian

132 Rubaïyyat-i OwÌad ad-Din Selected by Amin ad-Din Îajj 581-592 Persian Kirmani Bulah

133 Khulasat al-ashär fi ˆl-rubaïyyat Abu ˆl-Majd MuÌammad ibn 593-612 Persian Masüd ibn MuÂaffar

134 Lughat-i Furs Asadi-yi ™usi 613-622 Persian

135 Kalamat-i Shaykh al-Islam 622-624 Persian AnÒari (1)

136 Kalamat-i Shaykh al-Islam 624 Persian AnÒari (2)

137 Pand-nama-yi Anushirwan 624-626 Persian

138 Kalamat-i Buzurjmihr (1) 626 Persian

139 Kalamat-i Buzurjmihr (2) 626 Persian

140 WaÒayaˆ tiyadhuq al-Îakim li- 626 Arabic Anushirwan

141 Uns al-wajidin Abu Saïd ibn Munshi Astarabadi 627-630 Arabic

142 MadiÌa-yi bi nuq†a 630 Persian

143 MukhtaÒar dar ïlm-i Ìisab 631 Persian

144 Kitab fi ˆl-Ìisab 631-632 Persian

145 Risala dar musiqi MuÌammad ibn MuÌammad Nay- 632-633 Persian shaburi

146 Iksir-i kabir Shaykh Äli Maghribi 633 Arabic/Persian

147 Kitab fi ba¨∂ al-masaˆ il a†-†ibiyya 633-634 Persian

148 KhawaÒÒ al-aÌjar 634-638 Persian

149 Äqaîd-i firaq 639-644 Persian

150 La†aîf at-towÌid fi gharaîb at- Sa¨d ad-Din Humawi 644-645 Persian tafrid

151 al-Mukhtar min al-towrat 645 Arabic

152 WaÒaya-yi piyambar khi†ab ba Äli 645-646 Arabic

153 WaÒiyya Äli Ibn al-Îasan 646-647 Arabic

154 WaÒiyya Äli li-walada al-Îusayn 648 Arabic

155 Îukumat-i Äli 648 Persian

156 al-mabdaˆ wa-al-maäd Zayn ad-Din Sayfi 649-650 Persian

157 Risala al-mutamarraq (Äql-i Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 650-652 Persian surkh)

158 Bang-i murghan Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 652-653 Persian

159 Suâlat-i Iskandar az Aras†u 653-654 Persian

160 Dalaîl al-a¨daˆ 654-655 Persian

161 Dar ïlm-i firasat 656 Persian



162 KhawaÒÒ-i maädin-i kani 656 Persian

163 KhawaÒÒ-i muä††arat 656 Persian

164 KhawaÒÒ-i ghallat 657 Persian

165 Dalaîl-i barf u baran 657-660 Persian

166 Aqalim u bilad 660-661 Persian

167 Manabir Jalal ad-Din Ätiqi-yi Tabrizi 661-676 Persian

168 Kitab fi ˆl-ri∂aˆ 676 Arabic

169 Kitab fi ˆl-Òabr 676 Arabic

170 Kitab fi ˆl-übudiyya 676 Arabic

171 Kitab fi ˆl-irada 677 Arabic

172 Kitab fi ˆl-istiqama 677 Arabic

173 Kitab fi ˆl-ikhlaÒ 677 Arabic

174 Kitab fi ˆl-iÌyaˆ 677 Arabic

175 Kitab fi dh-dhikr 677 Arabic

176 Kitab fi ˆl-futuwwa 677 Arabic

177 Kitab fi Ò-Òidq 677 Arabic

178 Kitab fi ˆl-muraqiba 677 Arabic

179 Kitab fi ˆl-maÌabba 677 Arabic

180 Kitab fi sh-showq 677 Arabic

181 Kitab fi s-samaˆ 677 Arabic

182 ™ariq al-akhira Sharaf ad-Din Üthman b. Îajj 678-680 Persian Bulah

183 SawaniÌ AÌmad Ghazzali 681-686 Persian

184 Risalat a†-†ayr AÌmad Ghazzali 686-687 Persian

185 Tadhkira (Risala-yi Äyniyya) AÌmad Ghazzali 687-691 Persian

186 Muˆnis al-üshshaq Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 691-694 Persian

187 Risalat aÒ-Òufiyya Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 695-696 Persian

188 Awaz-i par-i Jibraîl Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 696-697 Persian

189 ∑afir-i Simurgh Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 698-699 Persian

190 Risalat al-maktab (Îalat-i †ufu- Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 700-702 Persian liyyat)

191 Lughat-i muran Shihab ad-Din Suhrawardi 702-703 Persian

192 Risalat al-qowsiyya Kamal ad-Din Ismaïl Isfahani 704-710 Arabic

193 al-Qowsiyyat an-niÂamiyya Qa∂i NiÂam ad-Din Isfahani 710-711 Arabic

194 Risalat al-khargahiyya Kamal ad-Din Ismaïl Isfahani 711 Arabic

195 Risalat al-khayl Qa∂i NiÂam ad-Din Isfahani 712 Arabic

196 Risala-yi ïlm u äql Amin ad-Din Îajj Bulah 713 Persian

197 ∑uwar al-aqalim (aqalim u bilad) Sulayman (…) 714-715 Persian

198 Risala-yi qalamiyya Äbd al-Äziz Kashi 716-719 Persian

199 MunaÂira-yi gul u mul Siraj ad-Din Qumri-yi Amuli 719-721 Persian

200 QaÒida Abu ˆl-FatÌ Busti 721-722 Arabic

201 Tarjama-yi [manÂum-i] qaÒida-yi Badr ad-Din Jajarmi 721-722 Persian Busti



202 ashär al-Ärabi 723-726 Arabic

203 Na¨t an-nabi MuÌammad Îusayn ManÒur Îallaj 727 Arabic

204 Ikhtiyarat ayyam al-asabi¨ ascribed to Äli ibn Abi ™alib 727 Arabic

205 MulakhkhaÒ akhbar Bani Umayya 728 Arabic

206 Badayi¨ Ò-ÒaÌibiyya Abu ˆl-Majd MuÌammad ibn Malik 728-733 Persian Masüd

207 MukhtaÒar fi dhikr al-aqalim al- 733 Arabic sabä

208 AÌadith an-nabawi Abu ˆl-Majd MuÌammad ibn Malik 733 Arabic Masüd reports from Sa¨d ad-Din MaÌmud ibn Äbd ˆl-Karim ibn YaÌya Shabistari

209 Maktub Ghiyath ad-Din MuÌammad Wazir 733-734 Persian

a treasury from tabriz: a fourteenth-century manuscript ...

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