A Tale of Two East India Companies: Political Economy, Industry, and France's Indies Trade after...

14th International Congress for Eighteenth-Century Studies Rotterdam, July 27 – 31, 2015

TUESDAY / MARDI, 28.07.2015

KN306 (09:00 – 10:30, Room: M1-12: Oxford: Van Der Goot Building)

Keynote 2: Partial Recall: History and the Experience of Time

* Besterman plenary

Keynote Speaker: Daniel Brewer

Chair: Lise Andries

KN307 (14:00 – 15:30, Room: M1-12: Oxford: Van Der Goot Building)

Keynote 3: The Nature of the Economy: a Cultural History of the Stock Exchange

Keynote Speaker: Inger Leemans

Chair: Wiep van Bunge

RT300 (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M3-15 Forum: Van Der Goot Building)

Round table 1 - Digital Humanities

Organizer / Chair: Inger Leemans

Dan Edelstein

Keith Baker

Robert Morrissey

Nicole Coleman

Simon Burrows

Glenn Roe

Jason Ensor

RT301 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M3-15 Forum: Van Der Goot Building)

Round table 2 - The Global Eighteenth Century: Colonial Markets and the Making of European

Identities

Organizer / Chair: Hanco Jürgens, Dorothee Sturkenboom, Devin Vartija

Muthu, Sankar

Porter, David

Sturkenboom, Dorothee


S020(I) (11:00 – 12:30, Room: M1-16: Heidelberg: Van Der Goot Building)

Catering For the Reading Public. Subliminal Marketing Strategies (I)

Organizer / Chair: Rosamaria Loretelli

Prunean, Alexandra: Commercial Strategies in Paratextual Features of Late Eighteenth-Century

Children’s Books

Within the context of the rise of domestic pedagogy, the approach made by women writers of children’s literature is a substantial contribution to the renowned debate on education, providing women educators with both domestic and literary authority. The selected framework (Britain, 1780-1816) is a highly significant period as it is marked by important changes at all levels, primarily as a result of the French Revolution (1789-1799), and the subsequent social debate in Britain in response to this revolution. The authors focussed on here (Sarah Trimmer, Ellenor Fenn, the Kilner sisters and Lucy Peacock) were women writers who shared the same prolific publisher, John Marshall. All were keenly aware of the literary market and, consequently, the paratextual features of their works (titles, subtitles and intertitles, pseudonyms, dedications, epigraphs, the please-insert, advertisements, prefaces, addresses, postscripts, footnotes, table of contents, indexes, catalogue lists), targeted at parents and/or children, contain a range of resourceful strategies with the purpose of influencing their audience to purchase their “products”. My paper therefore aims at studying this aspect of the writers’ self-representation by looking at a series of literary texts and two periodicals –and their paratexts– that were used to create interest and attention, and, by doing so, help these writers advance their commercial objective.

Capoferro, Riccardo: The Commodification of Suspense in "Clarissa"

As many commentators have noted, the craze sparked by the publication of "Pamela" attests to the rise of a new way of enjoying literature, one based on a more immersive reading experience. Crucial to this change were Richardson’s experiments with storytelling, in particular his use of devices that generate suspense and predictive inferences. Rife with the new vocabulary of probability, "Pamela" consistently stages and invites predictions (a technique that Richardson probably learned from Defoe, whose fictive narratives abound with counterfactual statements). In "Clarissa", Richardson self-consciously elaborated on this approach to narrative, deftly using publication in installments to tease his readers. Aware of the features that had earned "Pamela" its dazzling success, not only did he create characters that tended, in different ways, to predict other people’s reactions, he also had these characters foreground their state of “suspense”. In doing so, he highlighted the kind of readerly experience that "Clarissa" was meant to provide: he signalized that suspenseful expectation was prominent and explicit in the novel – and that it was therefore worth to buy new volumes. This dual process of experimentation and self-advertisement arose out of Richardson’s awareness of the marketplace. With a view to highlighting, in the eyes of potential buyers, the immersive pleasure provided by his narratives, Richardson contributed to the development of a new category, one that was becoming integral to the aesthetic of the novel.

Guerra, Lia: Catching the Readers' Attention: Paratextual Elements in Travel Books

The aim of this paper is to record the dialogue between writers of travel books and their readers through an analysis of paratextual elements in books published by both male and female authors between the eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries. Gender differences will obviously be accounted for but the focus of the attention will be laid on the growing confidence or alternatively the new preoccupations accompanying travel writers in their approach to marketing strategies.


Castagnino, Alessia: The Italian “Cultures of Translation”. Publishers, Translators, and Readers in

the Long Eighteenth-Century

Thanks to the overcoming of a traditional perspective of linguistic and literary studies, during the last years translation practices have attracted the attention of the historians, who have underlined their importance as the results of processes of cultural "negotiation" between different contexts, which doesn't passively receive the text but significantly elaborates it. Starting from this perpective and trying to combine different approaches (cultural history of translations, history of reading and book history), in this paper we will reflect about the relationships between the three main actors of the translation process, the publisher, the translator and the reader, by focusing attention on the distinctive features that these relationships assumed in some of the most important political and institutional contexts of the Italian peninsula. Especially during the second half of the eighteenth century, translations held a considerable role in the Italian publishing market. Publishers took care to satisfy the readers' demands and to make an increasing number of foreign books (novels, but also historical, scientific, religious, philosophical texts) available to them, adopting various strategies aimed at adapting the texts for the new Italian public. Lexical omissions or supplements, translators' emendations or manipulations relating to sentences that could be “dangerous” for a catholic reader, but also additions of notes, tables of contents, cartographic elements are only some examples of possible textual and paratextual interventions that we will examine, particularly dwelling upon the strategies elaborated by the publishers in order to attract the readers' attention and to make their own edition competitive inside a publishing market that often proposed more than one Italian version of the same text.

S020(II) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M1-16: Heidelberg: Van Der Goot Building)

Catering For the Reading Public. Subliminal Marketing Strategies (II)

Organizer / Chair: Rosamaria Loretelli

Birke, Dorothee: Writing the Reader: Functions of Reader Address in Mid-Century Novels

Writing the Reader: Functions of Reader Address in Mid-Century Novels This paper considers ways in which mid-century novels such as David Simple (Sarah Fielding), Betsy Thoughtless (Eliza Haywood), Charlotte Summers (Anonymous) and The Card (John Kidgell) use reader address and figurations of the reader in order to negotiate the relationship between a novel’s author and its audience. Reader address, I will argue, functions both as PR strategy for the special properties of the novel as an emerging genre and as a reflection on its limits and challenges. In highlighting the transactional character of reading, reader address serves to reflect on the power relationship between author and reader: does the author teach the readers, manipulate them, cater to them? On whose terms does the reading process transpire? At a time in which novelists struggle to attain a prominent position in a growing literary market place, reader address imports such debates into the pages of the novels themselves.

Biagi Maino, Donatella: The Art Market: Books, Prints, Paintings and Antiques

In the Eighteenth century cosmopolitanism becomes watchword for the art market, almost a habit of mind that involves amateurs, collectors, writers and especially the artists themselves, to which the works are also required from distant countries and consequently must increase their knowledge to satisfy the expectations of a diverse and increasing audience. As a result, a growing interest raises in the spread of printing of authors, books, not only relative to guides and biographies but also treatises and precepts, as well as reflections on aesthetics and museology. Attention to the antiquarian, cultivated in European art from the fifteenth century, but until the Age of Enlightenment reserved to the ruling class, becomes almost common lexicon for aristocracy but also for the new bourgeoisie


and impelling therefore the need to possess it through copies in cast or incision. Hence the proliferation of printed texts, and the relative growth of specialization in the field of rendering of the ancient casts in the workshops that take on a pre-industrial production with a choice and manuals dedicated to printing. The spread of newspapers and gazettes also allows the transfer of knowledge resulting a strong impact on the international market. Even within the art academies, whose growth from the beginning to the end of the century is absolutely exponential, market takes decisive character whose visibility is returned by temporary exhibitions. The attention to the phenomenon of the academies has grown since the eighties of the last century, as well as reflection on the reasons and outcomes of the existence of workshops dedicated to making copies of ancient and significant collections of prints and engravings.

S038 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M1-08: Leuven: Van Der Goot Building)

Think of this as Theater: Idioms of Reading and Seeing in Richardson, Hogarth, and Cowper

Organizer / Chair: Andrea Haslanger

Meeuwis, Michael: Pametalepsis: Richardson, Metalepsis, and Performance in Pamela

In what senses can we consider Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740) as a performance text: specifically, as a text designed to produce embodied speech in human speakers? In many accounts, Pamela marks a change in the novel’s relationship to orality. Earlier eighteenth-century fictions could feasibly be read out loud in group settings. The length and epistolary form of Richardson’s fictions are seemingly less compatible with speech than many earlier narratives. Pamela, further, promotes non-verbal embodied practices—most prominently letter-writing and letter-reading—that favored privacy and interiority over embodiment and speech. This promotion was essentially metaleptic, occurring both to characters within the novels and among the readers of these novels themselves. Reading Pamela meant committing to an extended period of privacy and interior reflection—to removing oneself, in other words, from networks of speech. Yet, in its own time, Pamela was by many accounts a frequent subject of oral performance, read out loud in a variety of social settings. These performances often crossed class and domestic boundaries, calling into question how—and in what ways—the novel was intended to encourage private and interior practices. Drawing on a vocabulary drawn from Performance Studies, particularly as this field relates to embodiment, my paper considers the possibility that elements of this older oral culture influence Pamela: that the novel presents features intended to be compatible with social reading. I, too, consider the metaleptic relationship between the novel’s fictional world and its readers, showing how the novel’s adaption of the conduct novel led it to promote certain oral, social practices alongside private, non-verbal ones.

Ballaster, Ros: Satire and Embodiment : Allegorical Romance on Stage and Page in 18th Century

England

The novel’s challenge to the theatre’s capacity to bring character to life acquires new impetus with the politically motivated pursuit of new powers of state censorship over theatrical productions, eventually secured with the passage of the Licensing Act in 1737. This essay addresses that moment in British culture when the political stage falls victim to a life-threatening form of censorship, and writers turn to the printed prose romance as an alternative mode in which to thrive. The prose romances of the late 1730s assert the superior power of new romances not only to convey motive and consciousness by comparison with the stage play (where thought is rendered in speech acts), but also to turn abstraction into plausible personality by comparison with the old romances' idealised presentation of character. Three allegorical romances were published in 1736, the year which saw the wedding of the Prince of Wales, Frederick, and the Princess Augusta of Saxa-Gothe-Altenburg. All three novels were designed to contribute to the concerted Patriot attempt to discredit and displace the authority of Robert Walpole: Celenia and Hyempsal, The Adventures of Prince Titi, and The


Adventures of Eovaai. These works demonstrate how partisan political ends were implicated in the distinctions between old and new romance (or novel) through the representation of a variety of transformations of state—from drama to prose fiction, from one genre to another, from the human to the animal, from the natural to the supernatural, from the dead to the living. In her invention of an elaborate narrative frame to The Adventures of Eovaai (1736), Eliza Haywood finds the diegetic equivalent of the ambivalent play with the animated and embodied politics of theatrical satire with which she was familiar as an actress and in which her contemporary and colleague Henry Fielding demonstrated such proficiency. Discursive play with the magical reincarnation of ‘dead’ figures in ‘new’ forms of embodiment – puppets, ghosts, supernatural visitation -- is central to acts of generic transformation from theatre to novel. Allegory, as we see in Sarah Fielding and Jane Collier’s The Cry (1754), has an unacknowledged afterlife in the mid-century novel.

Haslanger, Andrea: Personification and the Making and Unmaking of Persons in Cowper’s

Abolitionist Poetry

Among the vast quantities of antislavery verse composed and circulated in Britain in the 1780s, William Cowper’s stands out, not only for its popularity, but also for its performance history. Cowper’s most famous antislavery poem, “The Negro’s Complaint,” was widely distributed as a pamphlet, then set to music and performed as a ballad. Like so many abolitionist poems of the eighteenth-century, “The Negro’s Complaint” employs personification, not just of familiar allegorical figures like nature, but also of human beings, specifically slaves. This paper considers the use of personification across the poem’s circulation as text and performance. In each case, the voice (whether of the poetic speaker or the performer) conjures an absent person, and in each case, the animation that the voice is supposed to deliver is haunted by the gap between what the poem or ballad attempts (transforming a non-person into a person) and what it accomplishes (no such thing). The performance history of Cowper’s poems suggests that personification, in the case of abolitionist poetry, might be better termed impersonation, in that it relies on the presence of a legally recognized person who produces, by way of figure, an ephemeral imagination of a slave as person. The notion of impersonation is distinct from sentimental identification or substitution because it acknowledges that personification, when used in antislavery poetry, longs to connect the figure of the poetic person to the figure of the legal person, but is ultimately unable to do so.

S039 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M1-09: Bergen: Van Der Goot Building)

Échanges Culturelles, Politiques et Philosophiques dans le Siècle des Lumières

Organisateur/Président: Maria Klimova

Malato-Borralho, Maria Luísa: Qu'est-ce que les Lumières, Selon Kant et J. Anastácio da Cunha

L'actuelle définition d'Aufklärung, et en particulier de quelques-unes de ses traductions (comme "Lumières", "Iluminismo" ou "Ilustracción"), bien qu'issue de l'article de Kant "Was ist Aufklärung", n'a presque rien à voir avec la périodologie du XVIIIe siècle. L'Aufklärung est plutôt (de Kant à Mendelssohn, de Bahrdt à Wieland), une attitude scientifique et encyclopédique, l'apologie et la pédagogie des études comparatistes qui mélangent le savoir scientifique, le savoir esthétique et le savoir technique: "sapere aude", ose savoir. La vie et la pensée du poète et mathématicien J. Anastácio da Cunha semblent être l'application même de l'Aufklärung: quand il semble mépriser les règles rhétoriques ou les exercices mathématiques appris par coeur, ou quand il mélange l'enseignement de la Géométrie avec celui de la Poésie, quand il conteste une interprétation littérale de la Bible ou quand il questionne les idées de son temps sur l'éducation des enfants, même quand elles viennent des oeuvres de Rousseau ou de la Mme de Genlis...


Nohe, Hanna: Possibilités de Participation du Lecteur dans les Romans Épistolaires Exotiques

Fictifs de l'Illustration

Voyageurs exotiques, qu'ils soient Turques, Persans, Marocains ou Chinois, allant passer un certain temps en différents endroits d'Europe afin d'en rapporter les expériences dans des lettres à leurs compatriotes: de telles constructions de romans épistolaires exotiques fictifs devinrent fort populaires au long du dix-huitième siècle. Commençant par L'esploratore turco (1684) de Gian-Paolo Marana, puis inspirés par les Lettres persanes (1721) de Montesquieu, nombre d'auteurs envoyèrent des voyageurs exotiques imaginés à l'étranger, tel le marquis d'Argens en Lettres chinoises (1739), Oliver Goldsmith en The Citizen of the World or letters from a Chinese philosopher (1762), Ange Goudar en L'espion chinois (1764), José Cadalso en Cartas marruecas (1774) et, enfin, Friedrich Wilhelm Meyern en Abdul Erzerums neue persische Briefe (1787). Jusqu'à présent, ces textes furent principalement étudiés par rapport à leur fonction satirique ou orientalisante. Or, quel effet cette construction narrative a-t-elle pour le lecteur? De quelle manière y réagira-t-il probablement? Basé sur l'œuvre récente de Teresa Hiergeist, Erlesene Erlebnisse (Bielefeld, 2014), dans laquelle elle analyse les possibilités de participation du lecteur et présente des outils narratologiques d'analyse littéraire, je souhaite demander, dans la communication proposée, quelles techniques réussissent à impliquer le lecteur et quels en sont les possibles effets tant pour le texte que pour le lecteur. Nous verrons que les caractéristiques orientalisantes accroissent la curiosité du lecteur concernant le monde exotique mentionné et l'invitent à entrer dans l'aventure de suivre l'étranger au long de ses descriptions du monde du lecteur. Ainsi, changeant de perspective, celui-ci commencera probablement à réfléchir également à ses propres valeurs et points de vue.

De Matos, Franklin / Luiz, Fernando: Roman et Échange de Lettres

Pour raconter l’histoire de la passion de Werther, Goethe a choisi la formule du roman épistolaire, genre qui jouissait d’un grand prestige au XVIIIe. siècle. Le choix montre le propos dramatique de l’auteur, puisqu’il n’y a pas de forme romanesque plus proche du drame que le roman par lettres. Ici, comme dans une pièce de théâtre, l’auteur se cache au bénéfice de ses personnages (un ou plusieurs scripteurs qui gagnent le premier plan), en reculant à la position de l’éditeur des lettres et en prenant la parole dans des préfaces, des avertissements et des notes. Dans Werther, l’éditeur s’adresse au lecteur dans le prologue, deux brèves paragraphes qui n’excédent pas une dizaine de lignes et, ensuite, laisse parler les lettres du protagoniste, en se limitant à faire des remarques avec des notes en bas de page (il faudra attendre le dénouement pour que l’éditeur reprenne ses privilèges comme narrateur).

S040 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M1-16: Heidelberg: Van Der Goot Building)

The International Circulation of Women’s Writings: the Case of Stéphanie de Genlis as Received in

Several European Countries

Organizer / Chair: Suzan van Dijk, Francesca Scott

van Dijk, Suzan and Scott, Francesca: Introduction: Presenting the Digital Tool and an Interesting

Case (Stéphanie-Félicité de Genlis).

The WomenWriters database was used during the last decade as the common framework in which researchers from over 20 countries stored data concerning the production and reception of publications by women authors. Developed now, thanks to CLARIN-NL funding, into a Virtual Research Environment, there will be more opportunities for studying on a large-scale the role of female authorship and also the presence in the whole Europe of a number of interesting women. Francesca Scott:


Stéphanie-Félicité de Genlis is one of those. A brief insight is given in one of her novels : La Duchesse de La Vallière (1804) incorporates an interesting narrative topos, potentially “female” by the way in which it is handled: a concealed pregnancy followed by an explicit childbirth scene – possibly a kind of "punishment" for the woman’s transgression. It is obviously a challenge for translators.

Hoogenboom, Hilde: Madame de Genlis in Russia, England and Germany

Around 1800, Genlis was the most popular French writer in Russia, England, and Germany. Russian library and master catalogs show 87 titles and editions and 148 serial publications from 1779 to 1871. Approximately 90 translations, reprinted three times (1816, 1822, 1835), belong to Karamzin. Genlis’s popularity prompted a prolonged backlash. Pushkin and Belinsky criticized her; as late as 1900, the bibliographer Semen Vengerov still vilified her influence: “The works of Genlis were translated in Russia to such an unheard-of extent that in a way they turned into a domestic hazard to good taste”. I will be using the tool WomenWriters.nl to trace the translations, especially by Karamzin, of works by Madame de Genlis in Russia, in comparison with Germany and England. This is a way to show the extent of the integration of Russia’s literary market with the European market more broadly.

Sanz, Amelia: Stéphanie-Félicité de Genlis in Spain from 19th to 20th century

With a group of students we have already explored the testimonies of Genlis’ reception in the 19th century Spanish press, working with digitized newspapers we find in the two main Virtual Newspapers Libraries in Spain. We will now make a step forward to reach a very interesting translation of Genlis’ La Duchesse de la Vallière, the only one of these novels to be translated in Spanish: La duquesa de la Vallière, la voluptuosa (Madrid, 1925), a volume which was part of the “Women in love” collection at the beginning of the century. We will study this translation and its reception in the contemporary Spanish press, comparing with references to Mme de Genlis all over the 19th century.

Mihaila, Ileana: Stéphanie-Félicité de Genlis et ses lecteurs/trices et traducteurs/trices roumain(e)s

The particular interest in the literary writings of Stéphanie-Felicité de Genlis shown by Romanian readers and translators is a richly detailed and significant page in the history of the reception of French feminine literature in the Romanian cultural space. It is even more interesting to consider her influence in the context of the complex relationship established in that period in Romanian literature between the new model of historical novel, imposed by the Romanticism, and the “old” Classicist way, less focused on the sentimental plot and more dedicated to the pedagogical perspective (as in the popular works of Madame de Genlis). There were not many feminine authors in the Romanian culture of those days, but they were eager to conquer a better place in the literary field. The example of Madame de Genlis, by her unique combination of life and works, as well as her European fame, could be considered a probable cause of the multiplication of the efforts of this new generation of Romanian women writers, educated in Romanian and French institutions as well, who were able to combine pedagogical aims, scientific knowledge (mostly historical, but also in the field of natural sciences), literary talent and foreign languages skills in their activities. Well-known names in the Romanian feminist struggle for a fair recognition in the cultural and social field, such as Sofia Cocea, Maria Rosetti and Maria Flechtenmacher, her translators (1854; 1866; 1878), prove that their choice was not accidental, but in relation with their own writings and aims. We must add the name of Helena Baitler wich, in 1875 makes a dramatic adaptation of Le Siège de la Rochelle Could she be one of the models for the works of Constanţa Dunca-Schiau (better known, but not unique, is her historical novel, Les Roumains et les Phanariotes, published in 1862 in Paris)? Could


she represent a path to integration in early Romanian literature of an European feminine literary model?

S041 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M1-19: Athene: Van Der Goot Building)

Emotional Economies

Organizer / Chair: Nina Geerdink

Daley, Margaretmary: Not-for-Profit Business in British and German Epistolary Novels

Surprising though it may seem at first, readers of epistolary novels were perfectly familiar with the de rigueur episode where the virtuous hero or heroine gives money to the poor, brings a basket to hungry cottagers, or the like, ‘doing good.’ Upon closer inspection, the institutions that epistolary heroes and heroines establish are not infrequently preceded by a detailed business plan and an astute location of necessary capital—far more than throwing a purse of coins through an open window. Readers are cued to admire these entrepreneurs who succeed where society failed by identifying unmet niches. 18th-century virtue, I argue, is only superficially about virginity. At a profound and enduring level, moral virtue is tied to the business of non-profit commercial-like philanthropy. To put it provocatively, reading for the plot line in many epistolary novels constitutes a misreading. Epistolary novels from Samuel Richardson to Sophie von La Roche excel not so much as weaving a taught line of suspense as at displaying the range of human emotions. And it is in the narrative of feeling that we find repeated detailed depictions of commercially framed acts of benevolence. Virtue derives from altruistic social welfare. In my analysis, I have found a marked correlation between public philanthropy and personal prestige in novels such as Richardson’s Grandison, La Roche’s Fräulein von Sternheim, Rebeur Wobeser’s Elisa and Unger’s Julchen Grünthal. Moreover all these eponymous figures draw on autodidactical business acumen. While male members of the commercial class are never equal in status to English gentlemen or their German noble counterparts, it is fascinating to explore how epistolary characters are able to use the behavior of the commercial class to grow their own social capital and increase their prestige without soiling their reputations.

Woodward, Servanne: Friends Helping Friends with Public Funds

Describing the human sphere of action, Mme d'Epinay engages the model student Emilie to consider that human beings are made to live in society where their daily activities consist in helping each other in their needs, business, and pleasures. In one of his plays, Beaumarchais casts a tax collector saving his friend from bankruptcy by secretly paying his creditors with public funds. Both friends are saved by the selfless largesse of a noble tax inspector. Caroline Weber analyzed this play from the point of view of selfless commercial ethics. Diderot takes the opposite approach in Est-il bon? Est-il mechant? The plot involves a widow who cannot collect her husband's pension until a friend of the deceased pretends to be the illegitimate father of her son. Diderot indicates that selfish fraudulent motivations are receivable explanations and work as an insurance that someone claims an active live investment in the social business of helping one another. Diderot may restate that thesis in a more cynical fashion in Le Neveu de Rameau. At any rate, the necessary impersonal intervention of the public in friendly and private matters are the object of this study.


Hedrick, Elizabeth: A Modest Proposal about "A Modest Proposal"

Students of the English eighteenth century have long contended that Swift’s “A Modest Proposal,” the most famous of the century’s prose satires, was a response to aspects of the money economy that Swift hated. Influential readers of the “Proposal” from the 1940’s saw it as attacking components of late-Restoration mercantilist theory, and they emphasized the author’s detachment from his speaker’s grisly argument. More recent scholars have begun to find Swift complicit in his speaker’s views to a greater degree, however. The paper I hope to offer at ISECS extends this line of inquiry by suggesting that Swift’s distance from his speaker in the “Proposal” is in one sense minimal to nonexistent. “A Modest Proposal about ‘A Modest Proposal’” argues that one important, if under-examined, object of Swift’s attack is an aspect of commercial culture about which Swift had profoundly mixed feelings: politeness—more specifically, the hypocrisy with which Swift recurrently identified it. Swift’s essay obviously attacks the genial blandness (the “modesty”) of his speaker, who recommends cannibalism as a solution to Ireland’s economic woes. But in order to produce this speaker, Swift had to enact precisely what he was satirizing: he had to suppress his ingrained hostility to the Irish poor, a hostility richly exemplified in his pamphlets from the 1720s and ‘30s, and especially in “A Proposal for Giving Badges to the Beggars.” These essays show the speaker’s characterization of the poor as cattle in the “Modest Proposal” to be a step up—tonally if not substantively--from Swift’s characterization of them as “vermin” and other lower life forms in his non-ironic works. Swift clearly found the process of suppressing his feelings painful. The famous brutality of his essay is not an epiphenomenon of its irony, in other words, but--in a muted, compositional sense--the work’s essential element.

Fludernik, Monika: Idleness and Indolence in the Eighteenth Century

This paper will summarize some of the preliminary research results of the Freiburg Sonderforschungsbereich (collaborative research cluster) on otium. It will discuss the theoretical and practical challenges of discussing the concepts of idleness, indolence and leisure in eighteenth-century English literature, using an historical semantics approach to analyse the question. Starting out from the premise that there is no single lexeme corresponding to Latin otium and German Muße, the paper will delineate how the terms idleness and indolence, but also leisure, in combination with a variety of adjectives and other collocational items allow for a flexible shift between positive and negative attitudes towards 'doing nothing' and how the understanding of idleness includes that of doing 'too much'. The paper will also show how some of the problems that the eighteenth century texts point out in relation to idleness are particularly relevant today and indeed anticipate current concerns about burnout, the disadvantages of multi-tasking and the threat of losing emotional and mental equilibrium in a world of speed and velocity in all areas of cultural and personal life.

S042 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M2-10: Rochester: Van Der Goot Building)

Atlantic Commerce, Socio-Economic Change and Consumption in Europe

Organizer / Chair: Klaus Weber

Wimmler, Jutta: A Colorful New World: The impact of Atlantic expansion on textile printing in

Central Europe

Although textile printing had been practiced in Central Europe since the Middle Ages, Atlantic expansion and technological transfers from Asia brought new possibilities and helped to turn printed cotton and linen textiles into consumer products. Large quantities of affordable and qualitatively superior dyestuffs from the Americas, and the often neglected West African gum Arabic proved vital


for the production of low-cost printed cottons and linens and made them available to broader segments of society. While the impact of American dyestuffs on the textile industries has been well researched for Atlantic naval powers such as England, Spain or France, their distribution and influence in Central Europe remains largely unexplored. This paper argues that Atlantic expansion was instrumental in broadening the reach of formerly luxurious Asian textiles by making European imitations possible. Since this was not just an issue of increasing the availability of raw textiles such as cotton, the paper will focus on the dyeing process that increased the color range of these textiles. This includes not only the dyestuffs themselves, but other non-European materials necessary in this process. The paper will combine two types of sources: 1) trade records and statistics to assess the quantity and origin of the raw materials 2) technical handbooks for information on the printing process.

Hyden-Hanscho, Veronika: Winners and Losers of Early Globalization in Vienna: Merchants, Hat

Makers, Modistes

For a long time historical research stressed, that early globalization really affected only Northern and Western Europe. Vienna, imperial capital of the nascent Habsburg Monarchy, was assumed to range in a peripheral area of a globalizing world like the rest of Central Europe. Indeed, neither Vienna nor the Habsburg hereditary lands participated directly in global trade like it did North European Atlantic ports. However, Vienna was not cut off from imports of global trade, impacts and processes of globalization. Early consumption and the participation in global trends of fashion and lifestyle by the Viennese elites stimulated the demand, imports and the manufacturing of global traded raw materials and commodities in Austria. Against all political antagonism, especially the French fashion style attracted attention in Vienna due to the efforts of Louis XIV in a French mainstream culture. Canadian beaver, Peruvian vicuña, African gum Arabic and Levantine ostrich feathers formed the basis for French commodities, which affected Viennese lifestyle, manufactured as hats or fabrics. Some of these commodities were imported as finished products by merchants, others were manufactured in Vienna and again others were imported as semi-finished products and passed the finishing process in Vienna. The aim of this paper is, to consider effects of early globalization on the labour market, the man-power and the handicraft in Vienna. New technologies and sophisticated processing procedures induced labour migration from France to Vienna. French hat makers competed with local hat makers. Whereas the traditional local hat maker handicraft lost big parts of their market shares, new branches like modistes who manufactured semi-finished hats changed the composition and the performance of the Viennese handicraft.

S043 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M2-11: Santander: Van Der Goot Building)

Court Culture

Organizer / Chair: Nadia van Pelt

Kulakova, Irina: The Circle of daily Needs of Young Russian Nobleman on the Materials of his Diary

(1775-1776)

The report is based on the Diary of the Russian mason Alexey Il'in (1775-1776) from the Russian Public Library. The author of a diary is a young nobleman, the employee in the Senate. Simultaneously he is a member of Masonic lodges. This source was not a subject of special research, been used occasionally as a material on masonic communities. We consider the diary from the point of view of everyday Russian history. (Il’in started to create the ego-text proceeding from the freemasonry requirements of "introspection". But as a matter of fact the diary became the description of everyday life of the young man and his friends.) Day after day Il’in describes the life of Moscow and S.-Petersburg of 1870th years, and the diary has kept unique material, usually not fixed in sources. It gives the opportunity not only to represent the atmosphere of mutual relations of Russian intellectuals. We can get acquainted with a way of life of ordinary noblemen, living in a big


town, a circle of their needs, purchases. We find out a lot about character of connections of the author of a diary with his relatives from a province (they not only often write one another, but also regularly send parcels, using a convenient opportunity). Consideration of a circle of consumption and ways of the decision of material problems tells us much about specificity of the Russian Economy and special way of life in general. So step by step mentally following for the author of texts, we find out a lot about the real life of Russian citisens of 1770.

Chery, Aurore: Marie Leszczynska et la question de l'image du roi

La reine Marie Leszczynska apparaît souvent comme une reine effacée dont le rôle politique a été nul. L’on doit toutefois à la thèse de Jennifer Germann, sur la représentation de cette reine, d’avoir permis de réévaluer quelque peu le personnage et la manière dont il a peu à peu gagné en autonomie et ce non pas seulement du fait de la bonne volonté des maîtresses royales. Poursuivant cette analyse, cette communication se propose d’étudier la manière dont Marie Leszczynska, reine d’abord vilipendée à la cour en raison de ses origines jugées trop obscures pour un roi de France, s’est efforcée d’influer sur la représentation royale. Quand l’impopularité de Louis XV croissait après 1745, la popularité de la reine apparaissait d’autant plus étincelante. Le modèle de vertu qu’elle proposait, particulièrement valorisé lorsqu’en 1736 le pape lui remit une rose d’or en reconnaissance de sa piété, était certes raillé par une partie de la cour mais de plus en plus révéré ailleurs. Consciente de ce décalage avec l'image du roi, elle s’efforce d’utiliser les arts pour faire refluer sa popularité vers le roi. Considérée comme une nouvelle sainte Clotilde, ses initiatives semblent rencontrer enfin un certain succès quand, après la mort de la marquise de Pompadour en 1764, Louis XV accepte de se présenter publiquement comme un nouveau Clovis. Malgré son décès précoce en 1768, l’idéal de vertu qu’elle incarnait exerça une influence durable sur la monarchie française puisqu’il continua à prévaloir pour la représentation de la famille royale pendant tout le règne de Louis XVI.

Shcherbakova, Maria: Italian composers in St. Petersburg court theatre: the European tradition in

the Russian context. According to the materials of the historical archives of the Mariinsky theatre

The 18th-century Italian Opera Collection in Mariinsky Theatre Archives virtually illustrates the development of national musical theatre in Russia, and intensified contacts with contemporary European theatre in general. The reign of Catherine II in the last three decades of the century represents the culmination of Italian opera company activities in Russia, with multiple additions to our Collection. Interest in Italian opera as a professional field of arts increased immensely. Contracts were made with brilliant Italian composers of worldwide fame taking turns as Imperial maestros di Capella. Among them were: Baldassare Galuppi, Tommaso Traetta, Giovanni Paisiello, Giuseppe Sarti, Domenico Cimarosa and Vincent Marti-y-Soler. On the one hand, this followed the common logic of emerging national art superseding foreign genre and style models. On the other, the process was largely determined by musical and theatrical efforts of Empress Catherine II. Young Catherine was taught music by the first Italian musician in Russia, Francesco Araya, as far back as 1740s. For more than three decades on the Russian throne the Empress governed the relations of Russian musical theatre to its Italian "teachers". Creating her own magical comic operas and "historical performances" with music and acting both as playwright and stage designer, Catherine changed the customary practice of employing foreign professionals as Imperial composers in a radical way. An evidence of her active interference with the composers' work is provided by contemporary scores of the great Italians in our collections. Discussed below are some of the more indicative documents contributing to a "reconstruction" of the history of the Italian opera in Russia.

Craig, Robert: Trading, Spies, and Intrigue in the American Revolutiion: Beaumarchai's Clandestine

Effort and Its Consequences


Pierre-Augustin Caron Beaumarchais was a man of many and varied talents. The son of a master watchmaker, he was born into the French Caron family in January 1732. In addition to learning the skill of watchmaking, under his father’s direction, his fanciful career saw him become both famous and infamous as an inventor, musician, diplomat, fugitive, spy, publisher, horticulturist, arms dealer, satirist, financier, and revolutionary. Rising in stature within the French court of King Louis XV, Beaumarchais attained both prominence and disfavor among the court and its advisors. As a watchmaker, he invented a device to make small watches; as a playwright he wrote the librettos of both of the famous operas, The Barber of Seville and The Marriage of Figaro. Among his greatest achievements, however, was his dynamic support for the American Revolution which included managing a clandestine trading relationship with the revolutionary colonists, providing funds from his personal fortune for arming the American colonial organizations, his forceful advice to Louis XVI for supporting the revolution against the British, and his personal support for a young Prussian officer, Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben. All in the manner of a “real live Figaro” Without von Steuben’s and Beaumarchais’s help, the American Revolution may not have succeeded. This paper will critique the life of one of the 18th-century’s most gifted individuals, and will address episodes which illustrate his unique character as portrayed by historians.

S044(I) (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M2-12: Shanghai: Van Der Goot Building)

Entre Baltique, Adriatique et la Mer Noire - Marchés D'Échange en Europe Médiane au XvIIIe Siècle

(I)

Organisateur/Président: Maciej Forycki

Malinowski, Teresa: Les représentations de la Pologne en France au XVIIIe siècle

La France et la Pologne du XVIIIe siècle connaissent d’intenses échanges politiques et culturelles. L’affaire Leszczynski, tout d’abord, attire le regard des Français vers cet étonnant pays des Sarmates. Doublement élu puis exilé, à l’origine de la Guerre de Succession de Pologne, ce roi déchu fait couler beaucoup d’encres sur les bords de la Seine. Malgré les échecs sur son sol natal, il obtient quelques succès dans son pays d’accueil : sa fille Marie devient l’épouse du Roi-Très-Chrétien et lui-même duc de Lorraine, formant ainsi deux cours franco-polonaises très vives où les contacts entre les deux pays se multiplient. Celles-ci favorisent les débats culturels et philosophiques et contribuent à la formation en France d’une connaissance et d’une représentation de la République nobiliaire polono-lituanienne alors en crise. Dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIe, les difficultés de la Pologne et les discussions européennes qui y sont attachées ne font que s’intensifier. A chaque tentative de réforme de l’Etat polono-lituanien et à chaque partage qui les suivent, la Pologne réapparaît dans les préoccupations françaises : les penseurs politiques analysent ou participent à la création des programmes de réforme, se demandent s’il faut aider la Pologne-Lituanie dans ses essais de redressement, et réagissent face à la politique expansionniste des puissances d’Europe centrale et orientale. La Confédération de Bar, la Constitution du 3 mai, l’insurrection de Kosciuszko ainsi que les trois partages connaissent ainsi un écho important dans l’édition française. Néanmoins, pour comprendre ces discours sur la Pologne, le contexte français doit être pris en compte. Le XVIIIe siècle est une période de remise en cause de la monarchie absolue, telle qu’elle était comprise au XVIIe, c’est pourquoi étudier les représentations d’un pays institutionnellement très différent peut éclairer la pensée politique française, tout en mettant en exergue les interactions entre deux cultures politiques divergentes.

Bajer, Jakub: Les réseaux diplomatiques équivoques: le rôle des femmes dans l’échange entre la

Pologne et la cour de Vienne (1764-1765)

L’objet de l’intervention est celui de présenter les échanges inconnues, quasi diplomatiques, entre la Pologne au début du règne de Stanislas-Auguste et la cour de Marie-Thérèse d’Autriche. Etant


donné la rupture dans les relations diplomatiques entre la Pologne et l’Autriche dès 1764, les deux pays voisins durent se communiquer à travers les réseaux équivoques par l’intermédiaire de la diplomatie inofficielle menée par les femmes dans l’entourage de l’impératrice-reine. Pendant l’intervention l’attention particulière sera portée au personnage très peu connu : la comtesse de Salmour, née Łubieńska, une Polonaise au service de l’impératrice-reine et la grande maîtresse des archiduchesses. La communication à travers une particulière au lieu d’un diplomate accrédité fut absolument nécessaire vu l’engagement de la cour de Vienne face à celles de Versailles et de Dresde, qui refusaient de reconnaître le nouveau, dès 1764, roi de Pologne Stanislas-Auguste, de la famille des Poniatowski. C’est ainsi, par la voie des lettres dictées aux autres et échangées en cachette que la cour impériale entretint le réseau de communication avec la Pologne voisine. Les liaisons étudiées ne portent pas seulement sur les relations réciproques entre Vienne et Varsovie, mais aussi sur d’autres cours engagées comme celle de Versailles, de Dresde et de Turin. La question des relations polono-autrichiennes est celle qui fait partie intégrale d’un sujet beaucoup plus vaste : des rapports entre la Pologne, à la veille des partages, avec le monde occidental, en l’occurence les pays du « système du Sud », alors une coalition des puissances opposées aux vues de Catherine II et Frédéric II sur la Pologne. Dans ce contexte, la question de la médiatrice inconnue, ainsi que celle du mariage échouée du roi de Pologne avec une fille de l’impératrice, deviennent fort frappantes.

Mikusek , Marcin: Influences étrangerès sur la polonaise littérature géographique et historique. Un

example de la circulation de l'information dans l'Europe des temps modernes.

La géographique et historique littérature polonaise n'existait pas dans l'isolation en dix - huitième siècle. Auteurs polonais ont souvent utilisés des œuvres des géographes, historiques et autres divers intellectuels étrangerès. Ces inspirations sont venus des plusieurs directions, en particulier de France, Allemagne, Italie, mais autant de pays d'Est et du Sud de l'Europe. La nature spécifique de cette littérature a fait qu'elle était écrit en façon encyclopedique et qu'elle a ressemblé plus des compilations plutôt que manuels et livres scientifiques. Ce schème a conduit à la situation dans laquelle les contenus de ces livres sont devenus en forme standardisée, avec beaucoup des pièces prescrites. Une observation des fluctuations de cette littérature et sa développement ne peut pas être fait sans examination de sa relation avec inspirations exterieurs. Auteurs comme Władysław Łubieński, Benedykt Chmielowski ou Karol Wyrwicz étaient liés avec atmosphère culturelle en plusieurs pays européens. Contemporain postulat de recherche peut être l'analyse de ces liens. Cela peut permettre de découverte les mécanismes qui ont conduit de la circulation de l'information dans l'Europe de temps modernes. Les marches d'échange culturelle et intelectuelle dans le contexte du mouvement du contenu geographique et historique nous donner la vision de l'Europe en dix – huitième siècle. Les voies qui reliait la connaissance de monde parmi l'ensemble du continent ont d'une importance extraordinaire. Une tentative de l'analyse holistique de flotter des contenus géographiques et historiques qui ont lié les pays d'Europe de dix – huitième siècle est aujourd'hui, peut être, un postulat difficile d'exécution. Cependant c'est un étape qui peut conduire à la complète appréhension des façons de communication intellectuel en Europe. Sans doute c'est un enterprise qui peut permettre une meilleure compréhension de la specifique de ça litterature en Pologne.

Tóth, Ferenc: Une carrière entre la mer Noire et la Méditerranée: les projets commerciaux et

politiques du baron de Tott

Les Mémoires du baron de Tott sur les Turcs et les Tartares (Amsterdam, 1784) étaient le produit des différentes missions d’un diplomate et militaire français d’origine hongroise. Fils d’un émigré hongrois issu de la guerre d’indépendance menée par le prince François II Rákóczi (1703-1711), il naquit en France, dans un village dans la vallée de la Marne en 1733. Dès sa tendre enfance, il fut élevé pour remplacer son père qui était un des agents diplomatiques les plus remarquables de la France en Orient. Il fut envoyé avec son père à Constantinople pour y apprendre la langue turque et


connaître les coutumes du pays et en faire un rapport écrit au roi. Il quitta la Turquie en 1763 et rentra en France afin de solliciter une mission diplomatique en Orient. Il fut envoyé en Crimée en 1767 en tant que consul de France auprès du khan des Tatars où il voulait introduire le commerce français. Après son séjour en Crimée, il se rendit à Constantinople où il se distingua dans la modernisation de l’armée ottomane. Retourné en France en 1775, il participa à l’élaboration d’un plan de partage de l’Empire ottoman dont la province de l’Égypte était destinée à la France. Sa dernière mission fut l’inspection des consulats et représentations commerciales français du territoire ottoman avec une mission secrète de reconnaissance militaire de l’Égypte en 1777-78. Durant son voyage dans la Méditerranée, l’inspecteur des Échelles visita les différentes postes consulaires français et en fit de nombreux mémoires et rapports qui contribuaient aux débats sur les réformes des consulats et qui aboutirent à l’ordonnance de 1781. Dans ma communication je souhaiterais présenter les projets politiques et commerciaux du baron de Tott à travers les différentes sources d’archives confrontées à ses Mémoires comportant les comptes-rendus de ses missions en Orient.

S044(II) (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M2-12: Shanghai: Van Der Goot Building)

Between Baltic, Adriatic and the Black Sea Exchanges Markets in Central Europe in the 18th C. (II)

Organizer / Chair: Filip Wolanski

Wolanski, Filip: Ecclesia et populus - Religious communication in Central Europe in the 18th c.

At the 18th century the Catholic Church in Central Europe was after a period of reform. In this time were reconstruction and strengthening of the Church’s structure. Very important was communication between clergy and simple people. I would like found answer for the question how Catholic Church in the Central and the East Europe (a special in Rzeczypospolita) religious tradition was passed down from one generation to the next.

Bąk, Justyna: Carmelite religious impact on the image of the ultimate matters in Europe

Mendicant orders, which included Carmelites, had strongly noticeable impact on the social ideas of the existential nature. The problem of death and passing discussed by them contained a clear message of spiritual asceticism and the idea of vanitas. The attitude toward ultimate matters propagated by the preachers clearly distinguished itself from other European orders, which wasn't reclusive orders, is not grossly different, which reflects in the phenomenon of social representations of assimilation with a particular cultural group. Architecture and iconography was focused primarily on promoting the spirituality of the order, in which the cult of Mary was most strongly disseminated. Both the image of Mary and the saints associated with the order referred mostly to the rituals of passion, in which suffering was the main issue, and to the tradition of the rejection of worldliness. Carmelites brought to Europe the cult of St. Joseph, under whose patronage numerous sanctuaries were led.

Ring-Ágh, Éva: Galicie et Pologne, a la Lumiere du journal du comte Karl von Zinzendorf

Ma communication porte sur une partie des relations de voyage du comte Karl von Zinzendorf, rédigées en Galicie, en Bucovine, en Podolie, sur les territoires polonaises et en Lituanie entre le 15 mai et 31 juillet 1774. Une partie des lieux géographiques, mentionnés par l’auteur appartiennent aujourd’hui à l’Ukraine et à la Biélorusse. Le comte Zinzendorf visita non seulement les territoires récemment attachées à la Monarchie des Habsbourgs, mais aussi la Russie, puis la Suède et le Danemark, mais ces chapitres seront négligées par moi. Le manuscrit résumant ses réflexions fait à peu près 200 pages, dont 50 s’occupe de son séjour en Galicie et dans le Royaume polonais. Zinzendorf visita aussi la Moldavie, notamment la partie, nommée Bucovine en 1776, quand ses territoires furent encore occupés par l’armée russe, donc, avant que la Paix de Kutchuk-Karnadji ait


cédé la région à l’Autriche. Étant un spécialiste du commerce bien réputé, il nest pas étonnant, qu’il a enregisté soigneusement les marchandises principales des bourgs et des villes visitées, se référait a l’état des boutiques, au traffic, aux routes, à la navigation, aux ponts etc. Évidemment il n’oublia pas regarder les mines et les usines se trouvant sur son chemin. Outre le côté technique et matériel Karl von Zinzendorf nous fournit des informations inépuisables concernant la sociabilité de l’époque: Il s’avère aussi de ses récits que les souvenirs des événements antérieures furent encore frais, la population raconta des histoires de combats de la Confédération de Bar partout. en traversant Galicie le comte nous transmet les informations des batailles ayant eu lieu entre les confédérés et les Russes.

S044(III) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M2-12: Shanghai: Van Der Goot Building)

Between the Baltic, the Adriatic and the Black Sea: Markets of Exchange in East-Central Europe in

the 18th Century (III)

Organizer / Chair: Martin Fabers

Faber, Martin: Did the word "absolutism" originate in Poland?

Until now scientists have assumed that the word "absolutism" was coined by historians in the first half of the nineteenth century. Some do mention an origin during the French revolution. In fact I found out during my research that the word does appear much earlier in Poland-Lithuania. There it can be found (as "absolutizm") in a document from 1733 and many times more in other texts from later in the century. The Polish nobility already from the 16th century onwards was always afraid of an "absolutum dominium" in the country. It seems plausible that it first linked this concept with the fashionable new word-ending -ism in the 18th century, from where it spread to other countries and finally entered the vocabulary of modern historians.

Forycki, Maciej: « Les Encyclopédistes et le monde slave »

Les élites intellectuelles françaises de début du XVIIIe siècle ne connaissaient que très peu le monde slave. C’est seulement dans les années 60. et 70. que les affaires des peuples slaves attirèrent l’attention de l’Occident et même plus encore : séduisirent les penseurs des Lumières avec un tel succès que l’on voit plusieurs de leurs textes être possédés du russe ou du polonais. Dans ce contexte l’Encyclopédie de Diderot joue le rôle du dernier témoin majeur du savoir et de l’imaginaire des Occidentaux sur le monde slave avant qu’ils se sont engagés dans les querelles du Nord, et plus exactement dans le conflit polono-russe, avec successivement la dite « affaire des dissidents » (1767), la confédération de Bar (1768-1772) et le premier partage de la Pologne (1772). Ces événements provoquèrent des réactions acharnées des élites des Lumières et par conséquent une violente rupture dans l’interprétation occidentale de l’identité slave. On pourrait en donner l’exemple d’un Voltaire qui se disait être Russe et blâmait les Polonais et d’un Rousseau qui en même temps s’émerveillait de la République nobiliaire et accusait l’impérialisme russe. L’objectif de cette intervention est de retracer – notamment à partir de l’Encyclopédie de Diderot et de d’Alembert – une certaine carte du savoir des Encyclopédistes portant sur le monde slave. À quel point et dans quels domaines était-il connu et valait-il des réflexions et présentations encyclopédiques ? L’analyse des textes invite à rétablir d’abord le savoir géographique des Encyclopédistes sur ces confins de l’Europe et leur compréhension de la spécificité (physique, ethnique, linguistique etc.) des peuples slaves, pour passer ensuite aux descriptions de leur civilisation : culture et histoire, questions économiques, confessionnelles etc.


S045 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M3-03: Aberdeen: Van Der Goot Building)

Panel Revolution and Identity

Organizer / Chair: Joris Oddens

Wang, Tsai-Yeh: The Identity Problems of British Dissenters in the Age of the French Revolution

The purpose of this paper is to examine the identity problems of British dissenters during the French Revolution. The outbreak of the war of the American colonies and the French Revolution not only heightened British and European national consciousness, but also intensified the call for universal freedom and natural right. The religious dissenters frequently travelled to France and other European countries in the age of the Revolution. The pens of the dissenters, therefore, recorded their support for the domestic reform, pursuit of freedom and natural right, eagerness to observe how the revolutionary changes might bring benefits to humanity and their disappointment at it. Some thought the French Revolution was an important preparation for the second coming of Christ, and their belief intensified their enthusiasm for the Revolution. Yet the experience of the Terror made them painfully questioned God’s plan. As we shall see from the paper, British dissenters’ zeal for liberty and cosmopolitanism made their lives deeply affected by the vicissitudes of war and peace and the international conflict among Britain, France and other European countries. Therefore, I would like to examine the political identity of British dissenters during the French Revolution as patriots, citizens of the world, and supporters of the Revolution, and explore how their experience of political conflict in the age of the French Revolution shacked and shaped the outlook of their identity. Most important of all, the paper will also argue that current researches tend to simplify the fluid and problematic issues of identity and belonging during the French Revolution, as well as a complex cultural shift from the High Enlightenment to the rise of the European states in the revolutionary age. Keywords: Dissenters, identity, liberty, cosmopolitanism, the French Revolution

Biagetti, Samuel: Freemasonry -- The Missing Link Between Jacobitism and the American

Revolution?

American historians have tended to see Jacobitism as alien and even anathema to American life, representing the Catholic and feudal past that the Enlightenment and the Revolution rejected. Freemasonry, which has many links both to Jacobitism and to the Revolution, challenges this notion. For instance, in 1780, a group of Jewish Masons in Newport, Rhode Island, organized King David’s Lodge, which practiced the three basic degrees of Masonry as well as the 25-degree Rite of Perfection, the forerunner of the Scottish Rite. During its first year in Newport, the lodge hosted Anglo-American revolutionaries as well as French military officers of the expeditionary force under General Rochambeau (including the General’s own secretary). King David’s Lodge perfectly re-created the Jacobite networks that had invented the Rite of Perfection decades earlier: Catholics, High-Church Anglicans, and Quakers, united in opposition to a Hanoverian king. Their activities had a


mirror image across the Atlantic in Franklin’s mission to France, during which he famously joined a Parisian lodge. Freemasonry in general, and the Rite of Perfection in particular, can be seen to transmit a set of myths and rituals from the Jacobite movement to a new generation of revolutionaries. These myths and rituals addressed and partly resolved anxieties over the legitimacy of kingship and the temptations of political power. The Rite of Perfection centers on revered kingly figures, Solomon and Cyrus, while the final degrees use apocalyptic myths and symbols to justify revolution as part of the unfolding of cosmic history. Through apocalyptic myth, one could be both royalist and republican at once, both Jacobite and revolutionary. The ritualized resolution of this paradox helps to reveal the mythical underpinnings of the supposedly secular eighteenth century.

Isérov, Andrey: Declarations of Independence of the United States and of Spanish American

Nations: Towards a Comparative Analysis

My papers attempts to present a comparative analysis of the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) with the declarations of independence of Spanish American nations proclaimed during their struggle against Spain (1809–1825). Though declarations of independence as a genre have become a popular object for research (see, David Armitage, Declaration of Independence: A Global History, Cambridge (Ma.), 2007; La era de las declaraciones. Textos fundamentales de las independencias en América, editores Alfredo Avila, Jordana Dym, Erika Pani, México, 2013), this analysis was never made in historiography. Key issues of comparing argumentative systems of the United States and Spanish American declarations of independence are the following: 1) how the conditions of proclaiming the declarations influenced their contents and thus 2) what is the relation between the universalist and the concrete in these texts; 3) what is the combination in the Spanish American declarations of the Spanish scholastic heritage and the Spanish Enlightenment views with the ideas taken from the British (including the North American) and French Enlightenment and thus – 4) is it possible to talk about the essential impact of the United States Declaration of Independence upon the Spanish American declarations; 5) what is the correlation between the use of the Spanish political and legal heritage, on the one hand, and of the leyenda negra (black legend) ideas, on the other hand, in the Spanish American declarations of independence, and is there room for comparison with the United States and British experience. Such questions bring us to major problems of the independence movements in the New World, and in the final account – to the discussion of the nature of British and Spanish colonial societies in America and of the nature of Atlantic revolutions in general.

Koekkoek, René: “All individuals that constitute the empire must be citizens”: Exploring models of

imperial citizenship in the French and Batavian revolutions, 1789-1802

Usually the transformation of the key concept of citizenship during the age of revolution is analysed within the physical and intellectual boundaries of the nation-state: the revolutionary credo was that popular sovereignty resides within the nation, that is to say, within the political community of national citizens. Both the French and Batavian Republic, however, were colonial empires. Whereas the American Revolution had established a close link between consent, citizenship and national self-determination, creating outside the boundaries of the British Empire a new polity on the basis of the – at least in theory – voluntary consent of its citizens, this spectre of colonial secession and its impact on the reconfiguration of the notion of citizenship within a ‘republican empire’ would work out differently in the case of French Saint-Domingue, and eventually the Dutch colonies. The French and Dutch imperial revolutions, then, did not imply a shift from overseas empire to nation-state. It involved, as Jeremy Adelman has argued, ‘the exploration of models of re-accommodating colonies into imperial formations […] that would stabilize, not dissolve, regimes.’ The exploration of models of imperial citizenship during the 1790s not only took place in the aftermath of the anti-imperial American Revolution, but also amidst the succession of revolutionary events taking place in the French colony of Saint-Domingue that has come to be known as the Haitian Revolution. Within


these contexts and on the basis of Batavian, French, and American commentaries in pamphlets, parliamentary debates, journals, letters, as well as colonial charters, I examine the ways in which the notion of citizenship was redefined within the framework of republican empire.

S046 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M3-04: Auckland: Van Der Goot Building)

Droit et Diplomatie au XvIIIe Siècle

Organisateur/Président: Frederik Dhondt, Eric Schnakenbourg

Dhondt, Frederik: "Le congrès de Soissons (1728-1729) et le droit des gens"

À première vue, le congrès de Soissons (juin 1728-novembre 1729), qui n'a pas mené pas à la conclusion d’un traité, fut un échec ‘infructueux’. Cependant, il s’agit d’un moment privilégié de synthèse des processus diplomatiques. Paraître désirer un accommodement sous-entend l’utilisation d’un argumentaire normatif crédible. Permettant de mener au consensus étatique, l’application de raisonnements juridiques implique une transformation d’exigences unilatérales et entraine une autolimitation. Les traités d’Utrecht (1712-1713), Rastatt (1714) et de Bade (1714) donnèrent naissance à un système de négociation continue, dirigé par les diplomaties française et anglaise. Même si cette collaboration s’affaiblit à la fin des années 1720, elle sut éviter un guerre générale jusqu’à la Guerre de Succession de Pologne (1733-1735) ou d’Autriche (1740-1748). Les traités conclus en mai 1725 par Ripperda, amenaient la paix formelle entre Charles VI et Philippe V. Cependant, ceci n’a pas pu mettre fin au rôle d’intermédiaire privilégiée des diplomates français et anglais. Les tensions entre Madrid et Vienne ont resurgi, par le retour du dossier des duchés de Parme, Plaisance et Toscane, que l’on croyait résolu en 1725. Les études sur le congrès de Soissons manquent. On retient surtout la présence temporaire du cardinal de Fleury et du comte de Sinzendorf. Vu la proximité de Paris, les diplomates retournèrent fréquemment à la capitale. Alors que la conférence était à l’agonie, la France, la Grande Bretagne et l’Espagne conclurent séparément le Traité de Séville (9 novembre 1729). L’attention prêtée par Olaf van Nimwegen au pensionnaire Slingelandt, délégué des Provinces-Unies, est une exception à la règle. Je propose d’étudier la conférence comme un théâtre de virtuosité argumentative juridique, à la lumière de l’argumentaire développé dans la décennie précédente. Ceci à l’aide du mémoire synthétique de Nicolas-Louis Le Dran, conservé aux Archives Diplomatiques, ainsi que de la correspondance des envoyés français, anglais et autrichiens.

Lloret , Sylvain: "Du langage commun au dialogue de sourds : la protection juridique des

marchands français en Espagne au XVIIIe siècle"

Au XVIIIe siècle, les marchands français établis en Espagne disposaient de la protection d’un réseau consulaire qui s’était progressivement constitué depuis la Paix des Pyrénées. La fonction juridique de ces agents revêtait une importance de taille. Le commerce était en effet un élément clé de l’alliance franco-espagnole. De surcroît, l’expertise juridique de ces agents était fondamentale dans un contexte de tensions commerciales entre les deux pays. Il s’agira de montrer dans quelle mesure le droit, langage commun réglant des contentieux, était aussi une arme diplomatique et commerciale dans les relations franco-espagnoles au XVIIIe siècle. en quoi l’expertise juridique des consuls français en Espagne leur permettait d’intervenir dans l’optimisation des transactions commerciales de leurs nationaux à une époque où leurs positions s’effritaient ? Nous analyserons en premier lieu les forces


et les faiblesses du cadre juridique qui encadrait les activités des marchands français dans la péninsule. Ces derniers jouissaient de privilèges qui visaient à protéger, faciliter et optimiser leurs activités. Cependant, en l’absence d’un traité général de commerce entre les deux pays, les ministres du Roi Catholique pouvaient aisément contester les privilèges des Français. en second lieu, nous nous arrêterons sur les acteurs de cette protection juridique. Les consuls français en Espagne étaient des praticiens du droit qui défendaient les intérêts de leurs nationaux. Ils se devaient d’être des gardiens vigilants de la bonne application des traités, lois et règlements régissant le commerce entre les deux pays. La parole juridique permettait alors de justifier les prétentions qu’ils avançaient auprès des autorités locales. Enfin, au contact du terrain, les consuls étaient à même de constater l’écart entre le cadre juridique théorique et son application concrète. Le droit apparaît comme un miroir des rapports de force franco-espagnols, dont l’application se heurtait aux interprétations différentes des deux monarchies.

Schnakenbourg, Eric: "À la recherche d’une légitimité juridique : Le droit maritime et relations

internationales au XVIIIe siècle"

Le développement et l’intensification des rivalités internationales à partir du XVIe siècle s’accompagnent de la diffusion de pratiques et d’usages qui servent de cadres aux diverses relations qu’entretiennent les États européens. en dépit de la récurrence des guerres, ils ont élaboré un modus vivendi leur permettant, malgré tout, de coexister. Bien que la politique de force n’ait jamais été abandonnée, les relations internationales s’inscrivent dans une perspective juridique de plus en plus manifeste. La récurrence des discours de droit destinés à fonder la légitimité des différentes revendications montre que les acteurs du temps n’ont pas la conviction de vivre dans un monde anarchique, mais dans un système organisé disposant de références et de valeurs communes. Les questions maritimes, plus que toutes autres, concentrent des enjeux politiques, économiques et juridiques. Le postulat de l’égalité en droit des États et de l’absence de souveraineté sur la haute mer impose l’élaboration d’un ordre juridique qui est une condition nécessaire à la cohabitation générale. Cette conviction révèle l’existence d’une sociabilité internationale maritime distinguant les pratiques tolérables de celles qui ne le sont pas. Le XVIIIe siècle est une période féconde pour la réflexion juridique maritime en temps de guerre en particulier. Cette tendance fait écho à l’idéal de régulation des rapports entre puissances que promeut la pensée des Lumières. L’étude du commerce en temps de guerre permet de poser deux questions qui seront l’objet de cette communication. La première touche à la définition des droits et des devoirs des neutres et des belligérants qui relève de l’ambition de contenir les effets d’un conflit. La seconde porte sur les fondements du droit international en formation, autrement dit sur la manière de parvenir à établir des règles qui devraient être observées par tous.

Simon, Victor: "Origine et évolution de la protection diplomatique française dans les échelles du

Levant et de Barbarie"

À partir du XVIe siècle, de nombreux négociants français s’établissent dans l’Empire ottoman, où ils développent un commerce de grande envergure. À l’instar des communautés grecques, arméniennes ou juives, les sujets du roi de France bénéficient du principe, applicable aux non-musulmans, de la personnalité des lois. Le statut du personnel diplomatique et des marchands est en effet prévu par les capitulations concédées par les sultans turcs. Définitivement fixé en 1740, le droit capitulaire octroie des libertés commerciales – la libre circulation des biens et des personnes sur le territoire de l’Empire –, ainsi qu’une forme d’autonomie, notamment en matière juridictionnelle. Qualifié de padishah dans tous les textes émanant de la Porte, les sultans reconnaissent la prééminence du monarque français sur l’ensemble des souverains européens. Au-delà des flagorneries diplomatiques, cette titulature autorise le roi de France, par l’intermédiaire de son ambassadeur et de ses consuls, à accorder sa protection aux sujets des États qui ne disposent pas de capitulations particulières. Les marchands européens sont alors autorisés à se rendre dans les échelles du Levant et de Barbarie,


sous la bannière blanche, et bénéficient du régime capitulaire concédé aux Français. Dans les échelles, une forme de protection diplomatique est également octroyée par les consuls à certains sujets ottomans au service du consulat et des marchands : les interprètes, les gardes d’honneur, les domestiques et les censaux. À l’origine, les consuls développent une pratique consistant à endosser les revendications des protégés. À partir du début du XVIIIe siècle, ils sollicitent à la Porte l’octroi de brevets étendant aux protégés ottomans le bénéfice des capitulations afin de les assimiler aux protégés européens.

S047 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: M3-05: Praag: Van Der Goot Building)

Climat, Agriculture, Commerce

Organizer / Chair: Muriel Collart

Collart, Muriel: Quel commerce pour le meilleur développement agricole? Quelques réponses du

18e siècle

Le Journal de l’agriculture, du commerce et des finances publiait en 1765 l’article «Principes sur le commerce». On y lisait : «Il est contraire aux lois de la Providence, injuste et par conséquent dangereux de vouloir réunir chez soi toutes les différentes branches de commerce. Il suffit de consulter la nature pour connaître la marche qu’on doit suivre. en favorisant chaque climat de différentes productions, ne dit-elle pas clairement à ceux qui les habitent, qu’en perfectionnant leur travaux, c’est le superflu de ces productions privilégiées, qui doit faire la principale et peut-être l’unique base de leur commerce extérieur.» Ce «superflu» deviendra la «monnaie naturelle» pour acheter celui des autres. Une production agricole insuffisante déterminera un commerce extérieur onéreux. Voici le cadre des rapports entre climat, agriculture et commerce dans lequel s’inscrivent des positions empruntées à divers types de textes. On considérera des concours, comme celui organisé par la Société économique de Berne sur «la législation la plus favorable à l’agriculture, à la population, au commerce» (1766). Des vingt-cinq mémoires soumis, celui d’Elie Bertrand fut primé. La Société royale de Montpellier participera à cette «révolution verte» de la fin de l’Ancien Régime, notamment par la réponse du Suédois Torbern Bergman à la question de 1771 : «Quels sont les principaux caractères des terres en général ? Assigner les défauts de celles qui sont peu propres à la culture des grains et les moyens d’y remédier.» On s’attachera aux considérations de l’abbé Rozier dans le Cours complet d’agriculture (1785): «L’agriculture en grand porte ses regards au-delà de la plante qu’elle cultive; elle s’occupe non seulement des défrichements, des engrais, des labours et des instruments aratoires, mais encore ne faisant qu’un corps, avec le système politique et le commerce, ces rapports et ces relations la distinguent aisément de la simple botanique.»

Vasak, Anouchka: Climat, agriculture, commerce : naissance d’une configuration conceptuelle à

visée pratique

Les historiens s’accordent à voir dans le siècle des Lumières une période décisive dans le processus de modernisation de l’agriculture, ainsi que dans le développement des échanges commerciaux. A cette idée de « progrès » sont associés des théories et des principes connus (physiocratie, libre-échange), des noms fameux (Quesnay, Smith, Young), et des textes célèbres souvent inspirés par l’exemple anglais, qui font l’éloge du commerce (Voltaire, «Le Mondain»). Par ailleurs, le 18e siècle voit l’émergence d’une réflexion neuve sur le climat dont on peut pointer deux aspects : la réactualisation de la théorie des climats par Montesquieu; le glissement lexical du mot climat, qui de lieu («étendue du globe de la terre entre deux parallèles», Dictionnaire de l’Académie française, 1re édition 1694) se charge du sens de «région (…), principalement eu égard à la température de l’air» (4e édition, 1762). Mais les termes climat, agriculture et commerce sont rarement associés, en


particulier dans les dictionnaires et encyclopédies. C’est seulement après 1750 qu’à la faveur de la publication de nombreux traités ou cours d’agriculture et de l’Encyclopédie méthodique de Panckoucke, les trois termes commencent à être articulés, dessinant une configuration conceptuelle à visée pratique inédite. On retracera l’histoire des termes climat, agriculture et commerce, séparément et en association, dans les dictionnaires et encyclopédies de langue française du long 18e siècle : éditions du Dictionnaire de l’Académie, Dictionnaires de Furetière, Trévoux, Féraud, Dictionnaire philosophique de Voltaire, Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert, Encyclopédie méthodique, mais aussi «dictionnaires géographiques» ou Dictionnaire des voyages. A quel moment cette configuration lexicale et conceptuelle est-elle opératoire, c’est-à-dire quand commence-t-on à regarder le commerce comme lié à des conditions climatiques, donc agricoles, favorables, que l’homme peut exploiter? La référence au climat n’a-t-elle pas aussi, suivant la voie ouverte par Rousseau, une fonction critique de la notion de «progrès»?

Droixhe, Daniel: Qui pollue? Doutes sur la climatologie de la maladie (Dunbar, Ramel, Retz)

The paper will consider three works: Essays on the History of Mankind in Rude and Cultivated Age by James Dunbar (1780), Some observations relative to the influence of climate by Alexander Wilson (1780) and Remarks on the influence of climate, situations, nature of country, etc. by William Falconer (1781). Dunbar deals with the relationships between illness and the « commercial establishments of the European nations ». He generally supports that the « differences and alterations » of climate « are more rightly imputed to the conduct and operations of men, than to any mutability in the course of nature ». He then mentions the « exhalations in a negro village», the different treatment of plague in Europe and in the East, the « principle of health » in societies reaching a « state of taste and refinement », with the example of the Dutch nation, etc. In the Part II, Wilson first describes the diseases peculiar to hot climates (chap XXIX), « very cold climates » (XXX), middle or temperate climates (XXXI). He then devotes special chapters to scurvy (XXXIV-XXXVII), « phthisis pulmonalis or consumption of the lungs » (XXXVIII) and « the effect of air in the small pox » (XLII). Falconer is more concerned with the development of « sensibility and imagination » in the « warm climates », opposed to « judgment, industry and perseverance » in the cold ones (chap. XV, 1). He stresses the « early appearance of genius » in « all hot climates », especially « in South America » and its « bad effect upon the moral character ». Those considerations will be put in relationships with current ideas in English and French literature..

Geriguis, Lora: Pollution Poetry: Coal Discourse in Mary Barber’s ‘Poems on Several Occasions

Mary Barber’s (1690-1755) poetry has generally been framed as the work of a ‘natural genius,’ or as poetry of class difference and patronage dependency. However, Barber’s commentary on her poor health due to respiratory distress, which is documented in her letters and traced in her Poems on Several Occasions (1734), also exemplifies her awareness of how humans are impacted by environmental degradation and how they contribute to it, primarily via air pollution resulting from the use of coal as an energy source during the long eighteenth century in England. Barber’s poetic treatments of pollution and land-use inquiries, when viewed as environmental commentary, deeper our perception of how commerce and climate were inextricably linked in the minds and experiences of people well before the industrialization and Romanticism of the 19th century.

S049(I) (09:00 - 10:30, Room: T3-02: Mandeville Building)

Materials Making Modernity. ‘Modern Materials’ in An Early-Modern Setting (I)

Organizer / Chair: Göran Rydén, Chris Evans


Holmberg, Linn and Jansson, Måns: Welcome to the Steel Bazaar: Furnaces, laboratories and

encyclopedic practices

Steel has become a symbol for the rise of modernity. Making it a material for the modern world was however not done through revolutionary breakthroughs. Our presentation focuses on various practices of imitation across eighteenth-century Europe, where the making and using of steel is further explored. Encyclopedic practices in France will be discussed, as will steel-testing in workshops and furnaces in Sweden. The making of steel making is traced in the jumble of various ‘steel bazaars’. When brought together, these point towards the importance of movements, encounters and manipulation within the gradually diversifying steel trade during the eighteenth century

Hutchison, Ragnhild: The long-term consequences of the Napoleonic war for the timber trade

between Norway and Britain

Motivated by the timber dearth caused by piracy and war with timber supplying countries like Russia and Denmark-Norway the British Parliament decided in 1814 to never again be dependent on imports of timber. The decision proved to have significant long-term consequences. For Norwegian and Baltic timber interests the decision meant that they were shut out of their main export market for several decades. For the British, and especially the timber rich British colonies in North America, the decision instead brought new opportunities for market development. Using the timber trade between Eastern Norway and Britain the paper will look at the long-term consequences of the Napoleonic war for economic development in Norway, but also in a global perspective. By looking at the trade relations between the two countries before and after the war the paper will focus on how new British policy after the war lead to structural changes in the timber trade connected to changes in quality, price and markets, in the trade balance between Norway and Britain and how it affected British and colonial timber interests.

Rydén, Göran: Ordering the oeconomia of iron making

Swedish writers often imagined society in three related layers, or ways of Hushållning (‘householding’). There was the all-encompassing Divine sphere, with a benevolent God, the ‘Common’ sphere, circumscribing politically defined countries, and the hushållning of Individual households. Eighteenth-century writers, like Anders Berch (the first Swedish professor of economy), devoted much energy in analysing the middle layer, that of a kind of ‘national economy’, but with the other spheres loosely attached to the argument. Modern scholars of both mercantilism and cameralism have often forgotten this inclusive approach, with studies centred upon the economic development or the economic discourse of certain countries. The ambition of this paper is to relate the three different levels to each other, and to do so by using Swedish iron production as a connecting element. The aim is to show how the ordering of iron making affected different levels of the Swedish society, and also created a kind of holistic and ‘systematic’ view of society.

S049(II) (11:00 - 12:30, Room: T3-02: Mandeville Building)

Materials Making Modernity. ‘Modern Materials’ in An Early-Modern Setting (II)

Organizer / Chair: Chris Evans

Riello, Giorgio: From India to the World: Cotton Textiles' Global Reach in the Eighteenth Century

Cotton and cotton textiles have long had a prime position in histories of industrialisation and more recently in narratives of the Divergence between the West and ‘the Rest’ in the eighteenth century. This paper brings together the analysis of the production and trade of raw material and that of finished cloth. It argues that cotton was the first ‘transcontinental’ manufactured product whose


commodity chain brought together capital, labour, land, technologies and consumers in different continents. Central to the creation of what can be seen as a rather ‘modern’ way of conceptualising resources and commodity production and trade was Europe and its emerging industrial technologies. Yet, the story of cotton and cotton textiles in the eighteenth century needs also to be read against a more global background that considers also India and China (as the prime producers of cotton textiles before their decline in the nineteenth century) and that gives due consideration to environmental and resource issues.

Widmalm, Hedvig: Swedish Copper: From Global Force to Domestic Use

In a period shorter than a century, from the last quarter of the seventeenth century, Swedish copper production went from a leading position on the world market to one struggling for survival. This does not mean that copper production disappeared from the agenda of the Swedish state, or that the domestic consumption of copper dwindled. The large mining town of Falun remained of utmost importance, but got a gradually different role within the Swedish metal industry. The paper will investigate this development, but also relate that to the local consumption of copper in Sweden.

Hudson, Pat: Purpose and identity: British woollens in the transition to ‘modern economic growth’

Concentrating upon the ways in which woollens were reimagined and reorientated, partly to cope with the emergence of cotton as a competitor in the eighteenth century and also to take advantage of new consumer needs and wants, this paper will explore the changing meanings and roles of woollens in Britain. Through this lens, rather than through the statistics of production, consumption and trade, the contribution of woollens to ‘modern economic growth’ will be assessed.

S050 (09:00 - 10:30, Room: T3-06: Mandeville Building)

Reason and Religious Debate

Chair: Jordy Geerlings

Ott, Emily: Roman Jansenism and Giovanni Battista Piranesi

The work of Giovanni Battista Piranesi is extensive and diverse. He is often viewed through the lens of the cultural phenomenon known as the Grand Tour, where many young wealthy individuals flocked to France and Italy in the name of refinement. Piranesi’s vedute depict popular tourist sites of eighteenth-century Rome. They served as inexpensive souvenirs, and are now invaluable source material of the architectural history of Rome. The purpose of my research is to ask a question within the realms of religious context: did Piranesi’s prints of Roman vedute suggest attitudes about the religious controversy between two groups, the Jansenists and Jesuits, that existed in Rome during the release of the prints (roughly 1748–1759)? My method of research included the following steps. In order to evaluate whether Piranesi’s prints might indicate a sympathy for one side or the other in this controversy, I have compared them with those of another prolific contemporary printmaker, Guiseppe Vasi. I then isolated the Jansenist and Jesuit sites within the prints, and compared how each artist treated the sites in relation to the actual architecture. Finally, I analyzed whether the prints favor, enhance, or diminish the site. This analysis suggests that Piranesi’s prints favored the Jansenist side of the controversy. This inclination to favor Jansenist leanings may, of course, indicate more about the collecting audience than it does about Piranesi’s partisanship. After careful examination of the vedute, I have determined that Piranesi was aware of the religious controversy between the Jansenists and Jesuits, and made design decisions based on the influence of the leader


of Jansenism in Rome, Giovanni Gaetano Bottari. This model might be successfully projected onto other artists’ oeuvres of this period, and could elucidate cultural influences that might have been previously overlooked.

Rothenberger, Eva: Le scepticisme baylien – mise en scène ou mise en pratique?

Le Dictionnaire historique et critique (DHC) de Pierre Bayle a motivé beaucoup de recherches pour faire ressortir le côté sceptique de l'auteur. De rares études ont abordé des questions concernant les relations entre la forme extérieure du dictionnaire, la structure intérieure et le contenu. Particulièrement dans The making of Pierre Bayle's Dictionaire historique et critique, Helena van Lieshout a posé les jalons de l'étude pour faire ressortir « the connection between book and author, inside and outside. » (p. XV) Les résultats de son approche inspirent beaucoup de pistes de recherche dont une des plus pertinentes questions qui s'imposent réside dans l'extension de cette relation entre livre et auteur sur la relation entre livre et contenu. Écrire un dictionnaire signifie établir un grand recueil de savoir en lui donnant une forme et une structure afin de le rendre lisible et accessible au public. L'intérêt de l'auteur est de valoriser un savoir et un certain contenu. Dans le cas du DHC, le scepticisme possède une place importante de sorte qu'il est indispensable de s'interroger sur la nature du scepticisme baylien. Bayle utilise consciemment les différentes parties de son texte, à savoir, les corps d'articles, les remarques, les références aux marges et les renvois. A part cette mise en scène du savoir sur le papier, il est également possible de trouver des traces qui montrent que Bayle met le scepticisme aussi en pratique. Dans sa façon d'aborder un sujet, il emploie des arguments propres au pyrrhonisme. La question qui s'impose en conséquence est de savoir jusqu'à quel point Bayle est l'auteur-réalisateur qui met en scène le savoir et jusqu'à quel point il est le philosophe sceptique qui met en pratique la doctrine sceptique, tout en explorant le rapport entre le livre, sa forme extérieure, sa structure intérieure et le contenu transmis.


Theatre, Opera and Urban Sociability in Eighteenth-Century Europe – Théâtre, Opéra Et Sociabilité

Urbaine Dans L'Europe Du Dix-Huitième Siècle

Organizer / Chair: Charlotta Wolff

Wolff, Charlotta: Operagoers, taste and social role modelling in > France and Northern Europe, ca.

1760–1790

A problem in the cultural history of opera and theatre is that in many cases we do not know the exact social composition of theatre audiences, particularly the parterre, because appropriate sources are lacking. This has led to a scholarly debate on audience behaviour and on how to interpret it. A subsequent problem is to what extent opera and theatre were constitutive of a public sphere, in other words what relevance we should give them with regard to the processing of enlightenment ideas and the supposed radicalisation of opinion during the pre-revolutionary and revolutionary decades. This paper approaches the problem from another direction and looks at the social and political role models proposed in operas, at opera as a manifestation of taste and, eventually, operatic taste as a political expression. The paper combines the historians’ lecture of audience-related sources with a political lecture of the texts and music, hitherto mostly used by musicologists and scholars of


literature. Such a lecture may also inform us on the expected audience of the plays. In many cases, we know the names only of those who rented loges: the aristocracy, members of the diplomatic corps and persons associated with the theatres by profession. Why did people go to the opera, with whom did they go, what did they do in the loges, and did they relate to the plays on stage? Who produced opera, for whom and why? The comparison between France, where operas were written for a given audience, and Scandinavia, where the same works were received as such or adapted to another political and cultural context, allows us to capture some of the functions and limits of operatic taste in the eighteenth century, notably at a cosmopolitan and European level, and to point at the articulation between the political and the fashionable.

Baldyga, Natalya: Practicing German Social Identity in the Theatre: Cultural Nationalism,

Performance, and the Hamburg Dramaturgy.

The theatrical performance of communal identity informs the question of “German-ness” in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing’s Hamburg Dramaturgy (1767-69). In his journal, Lessing presents a relationship between spectator and performer in which actors’ bodies have the power to regulate the cultural tastes and social identity of audience bodies through the practice of theatre-going. Rather than thinking of national, cultural, or social identity as an essential quality, this paper approaches such forms of identity in terms of a lived reality, as something that exists within and through the performance of signs of belonging. Like other types of identity, national, cultural, and social identities are established through learned, rehearsed, and practiced behaviors – such as theatre-going and audience reactions to performance – that signify one’s belonging to a particular group. Lessing suggests that audience members may not intellectually realize their commonality with characters onstage, but are capable of doing so emotionally. His didactic performance reviews work to calibrate the physiological sensitivity of audience members, so that their bodies will emotionally resonate with a particular theatrical representation of German cultural identity, the emotional register of “German moral character.” Ideally, the essays of the Hamburg Dramaturgy were to work in conjunction with the actors’ performances, which would have served as an affective model for the audience, guiding their emotional reactions to specific theatrical performances. These emotional responses are at the heart of what Lessing sees as a German community founded on shared emotional (moral) values. The applause or tears of an audience serve as a barometer by which Lessing can measure how “rightly” the audience is feeling and to what extent that feeling appears to be communal. For Lessing therefore, German moral character is defined by a capacity for feeling that can only be identified through exterior – theatrically performed – signs of feeling.


Eighteenth-Century Anti-slavery Debates

Organizer / Chair: Devin Vartija

Broussois, Lisa: The “value of our fellow-men:” Francis Hutcheson’s Radical Critique of Slavery in

the 18th Century

Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) had great influence, not only in Europe but also in Colonial America. His work was taught in the American Academies of the eighteenth century and was well known to the Founding Fathers, inspiring, for example, Thomas Jefferson. Hutcheson was one of the first philosophers of the eighteenth century to make an explicit condemnation and criticism of all types of theoretical justification of slavery, whether these pertained to nature or to conquest. He was a moderate Christian, defending tolerance and respect for the “inalienable rights” of human beings. He argues that every person is born equal and deserves respect in relation to his/her moral status as a morally responsible creature: the faculty of “moral sense” or what we might call a “natural sense of


justice” allows every human being to make the distinction between what is good or bad, just or unjust. Hutcheson denounces John Locke’s arguments in favour of slavery through conquest based on the natural right to defend oneself against an aggressor. Hutcheson encourages people to consider all practices that corrupt our sensibilities and emotions and that tend to treat sensible beings as commodities with “abhorrence and indignation.” Condemning slavery is, for him, less a matter of rational deliberation than a question of emotions and sentiments that encourage the respect of all people for humanity. With this paper, I would like to draw further attention to Hutcheson’s theory of moral sense and to his explicit condemnation of slavery, showing that both aspects were important in relation to the debates surrounding the economic and political changes that occurred in the first half of the eighteenth century.

AL-Shayban, Samia: Humanizing the Empire: Reimaging Colonists and Slave Trade in George

Colman’s Inkle and Yarico.

George Colman’s play Inkle and Yarico, play is often considered to be part of the eighteenth century anti-slavery discourse. The play was debuted at the Covent Garden Theatre Royal in 1787. Colman’s play tells the story of an English merchant, Inkle, who was shipwrecked in the West Indies only to be saved and loved by the Indian Yarico. Later, Inkle attempts to sell her into slavery only to repent at the end. This paper proposes to reread Inkle and Yarico’s attitude from slavery. The play downplays the immorality and inhumanity of slavery. This can be perceived through four calculated elements: dehumanization of the Indians; humanization of the English; promoting pragmatic commerce and distancing the English from slave trade. The Indians are dramatized as savages who practice cannibalism. By doing so, Colman dehumanizes the Indians and thus, places them outside the moral zone of human practice. Being non-human, they are turned into an acceptable target for slavery. Through the merchant, Inkle and the Governor of Barbados, Sir Christopher Curry, Colman provides the English with a positive image. Inkle is an embodiment of all the qualities required from a dedicated merchant. Sir Christopher Curry is presented as a protective father figure. Both are good characters with minor human faults that can be checked. Commerce is dramatized under a highly pragmatic concept, where moral practice is marginalized in favour of the wealth of the empire. Slavery in the West Indies as a trade and practice is not directly connected to the British. In the play, slavery emerges as an existing practice with vague sources and affiliations. On the other hand, the English find themselves working hard to elevate the damages caused by such practice. Key words; slaves, merchants, English, Indians

Allen, Regulus: Rebellious Slave Mothers in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.

Fiction of the long eighteenth century often depicted enslaved African mothers as dangerous rebels in order to repudiate them and their attempts to claim their offspring. The choice to depict mothers reflects a reality of colonial life: the paternity of slave children was not always known. Additionally, slave mothers were more likely than men to assert a claim over their children, and British writers were more likely to characterize these women as rebels, because of a fundamental contradiction in the status of mothers under the system of hereditary slavery. While any parental connection within slavery was compromised by the child’s being the legal property of the master, the fact that slavery was passed down through the mother put the black woman in a unique situation. While slavery attempted to obliterate a mother’s claim to her child, that child’s status as a slave could only be established by acknowledging his or her mother. The black woman in her specific role as slave mother evoked colonial fears about the ability to keep future generations in bondage. Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko (1688) depicts black mothers only within the institution of slavery, suggesting that African women’s reproductive powers should solely be at the service of English imperialism. Imoinda’s impending motherhood, however, brings about a defiance of her enslavers and an assertiveness towards her husband that she has not previously displayed. She becomes the instigator of a slave rebellion and a far more threatening figure to the English colonial system than Oroonoko ever was.


When their rebellion fails and Imoinda agrees to die by Oroonoko’s hand, her death allows her to preserve their child from slavery but simultaneously allows the narrative to eliminate a serious challenge to colonial slavery, and more broadly represents the antithetical status of the slave mother in Britain’s colonies in the Americas.


Migrant Merchant Cultures and the Transition to Modernity: Financial and Memorial Practices of

Trade Communities From the 18th to the Early 19Th Century

Organizer / Chair: Maria A. Stassinopoulou

Ressel, Magnus: Charitable Foundations Of Lutheran Merchants In 18th Century Venice

The “German Nation” (Nazione Alemanna) in 18th century Venice was a privileged association of merchants and their families that dominated most of the trade routes between northeastern Italy and Upper Germany. Being intensely linked to the imperial cities and towns of southwestern Germany and secretly upholding an officially prohibited Lutheran church community were the main features of this peculiar group that in many aspects resembles a closed cartel. It is interesting to note that many of these rather rich merchants did chose at the end of their lives to bequeath substantial fortunes to charitable foundations of their hometowns, several of which still exist nowadays. In the paper some spectacular cases shall be highlighted and a plausible hypothesis will be formulated as to why giving substantial donations to the “home-towns” was of special importance to Lutherans, who had lived for most of their lives on catholic soil.

Ransmayr, Anna: “Speculation And Usury”: Financial Crisis And Profiteering

The high expenses for the Napoleonic Wars caused a debt crisis in the Austrian state that resulted in the state bankruptcy of 1811 and a similar event in 1816. On the market of Vienna we can observe an explosion of the number of wholesalers until the year 1816, when the foundation of the Austrian national bank finally led to a consolidation of the situation. In the years before 1816 speculation with money as well as with real estate reached an extremely high level. While the majority of the population suffered deeply from the crisis, some merchants managed to increase their wealth and promote advancement in society based on the profits of these few years. The paper aims to examine how the financial crisis affected the businesses, commercial behaviour and public perception of Viennese wholesalers that belonged to a high degree to religious minorities (Protestant, Jewish, Greek-Orthodox) with a special focus on Vienna’s Greek-Orthodox merchants.

Saracino, Stefano / Soursos, Nathalie: Private Vs. Public Crises And The Foundations And

Endowments Of The Greek-Orthodox In Vienna (18th/19th Century)

It is a stereotype that due to the transition to modern society, religious motivations lying behind beneficiary practices were eclipsed by socioeconomic or political ones. The paper proposes an analysis of the question, if an eclipse of religious motivations and a disentanglement of the economical-political sphere from the religious are notable also in the field of foundation- and endowment-practices. It aims for this to explore micro-historically and typologically single foundations and endowments, which are contained in the archives of the communities of St. George and of the Holy Trinity in Vienna. The focus lies on the impact of the experience of crisis on


beneficiary behavior as well as on the differences or similarities existing between the beneficiary practices of the Greek-Orthodox and those of other confessional/religious groups in Vienna. The research questions addressed are: What were the effects of public economical or political crises on the beneficiary practices? What was the impact of various experiences of private crises by individuals or families? How was the relationship between economical strategies and religious-confessional duties?

Mantouvalos, Ikaros: The Social Reproduction Of The Family Capital And The Redefinition Of The

Family Memory: Greek Testators In Pest And Their Endowment Strategies (18th Century - Early

19th Century)

The effort to investigate the activities of people who belong to a migrating group frequently runs into the difficulties generated by the need to study social processes in their historical dimension, necessarily interwoven with the phenomenon of migration. This paper refers to practices regarding the social reproduction of the family capital of Greek merchants in Pest, who migrated from the Balkans to Central Europe, during the 18th century. Through an analysis of their charitable donations, an attempt is made both to highlight practices concerning the relationship between individual and familial ownership within the same ethnic group, the relationship between family and business, and to unveil the testator’s relations to his or her birthplace in Southeastern Europe through benefactions. At the same time, a comparative examination of beneficiary behavior of members of other Greek Communities in Hungary, such as the Görögök of Miskolc, permits some form of qualitative analysis on a broader network of endowment strategies concerning asset administration and family capital reproduction.


Le Marché Panckoucke (1782-1832) Ou l’Ouverture de la Connaissance (I)

Organisatrice/Président: Martine Groult, Rolando Minuti

Leoni, Marina: La Méthodique de Quatremère de Quincy. L'Architecture entre beaux-arts et savoirs

scientifiques

Initialement non prévu dans le prospectus publié par Charles-Joseph Panckoucke en 1781, le Dictionnaire d’architecture est confié à Quatremère de Quincy en 1786, année de la mort de Claude Henri Watelet, auteur des termes des arts du dessin du Dictionnaire des beaux-arts qui devait inclure l’architecture, selon le premier plan de l’éditeur. L’Architecture antique était en revanche traitée dans le Dictionnaire d’antiquités, avant de devenir une partie de celui de Quatremère. Si la genèse du Dictionnaire d’architecture met en évidence ses rapports avec ces deux autres dictionnaires, dans l’Avertissement Quatremère définit les limites de ses trois tomes par rapport à d’autres disciplines objets de dictionnaires de la Méthodique, comme les volumes d’Art et métiers, de Marine, d’Art militaire, de Ponts et chaussées, d’Architecture hydraulique ou d’Agriculture. Les renvois dans les définitions d’Architecture confirment ce système de rapport, exception faite pour les Beaux-arts, qui ne figurent pas, tandis que la Mécanique et les Mathématiques y sont ajoutées. L’analyse de ces différents aspects démontre le rôle particulier des liaisons que l’Architecture entretient avec les Beaux-arts et les Antiquités, disciplines avec lesquelles les superpositions ne sont pas limitées aux aspects techniques, mais touchent aussi des questions théoriques.


Delia, Luigi: Lumières sur le jusnaturalisme. Remarques sur la réception encyclopédique du

droit naturel

« De toutes les notions de la Morale – écrit Diderot dans l’Encyclopédie –, celle du droit naturel est une des plus importantes & des plus difficiles à déterminer ». La présente proposition d’intervention ne se donne pas pour tâche de repenser les fondements de la morale en vue de dégager une nouvelle « détermination » du droit naturel. Mêlant analyses philosophiques et contextuelles, il s’agit plutôt de chercher à mesurer les inflexions du droit naturel moderne à l’aune de l’encyclopédisme francophone du siècle des Lumières. A l’aube de la montée en force des codifications européennes, et au moment où la science juridique (que dit le droit ?) tend à se séparer de la morale (ce que le droit dit est-il juste ?), comment la conceptualité jusnaturaliste est-elle appréhendée par les encyclopédies du second XVIIIe siècle ? Objet de nombreux articles « raisonnés » dans l’Encyclopédie (1751-1765), le droit naturel joue un rôle crucial dans un dictionnaire de la Suisse romande, spécialisé en morale et en droit, et publié à Yverdon à la fin des années 1770 : le Dictionnaire universel et raisonné de justice naturelle et civile, ou Code de l’Humanité (1778). Les termes de la question se complexifient davantage avec l’Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, Liège, 1782-1832). Une exploration transversale de cette somme structurée « par ordre de matières » permettra de repérer les développements principaux concernant le droit naturel et d’en interroger les enjeux.

Doig, Ann Kathleen Hardesty: Ebauche d'une étude transversale : le Dictionnaire "Physique" de

l'Encyclopédie méthodique

D’après le tableau de sa science proposé par le premier éditeur de Physique, Gaspard Monge, cette matière serait au cœur de toutes les sciences. en effet, en plus des propriétés des corps telles l’étendue et la lumière, Monge compte traiter d’autres branches de la physique : la chimie (physique analytique), l’histoire naturelle (physique d’observation), la géographie, la botanique, la minéralogie, l’astronomie, la musique… Il n’est donc pas surprenant de trouver dans ce dictionnaire des articles également traités dans d’autres dictionnaires de la Méthodique – des jumelages qu’aurait indiqué le « Vocabulaire universel » et qui seront bientôt révélés sur une plus grande échelle grâce à ARTFL. Dans la présentation pour ISECS, je voudrais aborder ce genre d’analyse en comparant les textes de quelques-uns des articles pluridisciplinaires dans "Physique" et dans le dictionnaire apparenté (ou bien les dictionnaires apparentés, le cas échéant). Dans quelle mesure s’agit-il de simples doubles ? Quels éléments du terme chaque collaborateur souligne-t-il ? et renvoie-t-il, directement ou indirectement, aux autres dictionnaires ?

Groult, Martine: Ordre encyclopédique et ordre méthodique

Nous tenterons de mettre en évidence les rapports entre l'Encyclopédie des Lumières (17511-1772) et l'Encyclopédie méthodique de Panckoucke (1782-1832). Dans quelle mesure la volonté de l'éditeur de rendre hommage aux encyclopédistes a constitué un élan indépassable qui a permis, malgré les défauts, de poursuivre l'oeuvre de Diderot et d'Alembert et ainsi de continuer à la mettre sur le devant de la scène des encyclopédies ? Si l'ordre encyclopédique a ses racines chez Bacon, quelles sont les racines de l'ordre méthodique ? L'ordre a-t-il été la base non pas d'une inversion pour attribuer à l'entendement humain les possibilités de connaître la nature, mais d'une falsification pour faire de la circulation du savoir une ouverture sur l'instruction destinée autant aux scientifiques qu'aux amateurs ? Nous interrogerons les deux monuments encyclopédiques du XVIIIe siècle (240 vol. au total voire 254 si on ajoute les Suppléments à l'Encyclopédie) pour proposer des réponses.


Le Marché Panckoucke (1782-1832) Ou l'Ouverture de la Connaissance (II)

Organisatrice/Président: Claire Fauvergue, Pascal Bastien


Fauvergue, Claire: Histoire et langue philosophiques dans l'Encyclopédie méthodique.

L’Encyclopédie méthodique renouvelle le projet leibnizien d’« une langue philosophique qui mît en société toutes les nations » tel que Diderot le présentait dans l’Encyclopédie. De l’idée de langue universelle comme instrument de communication découle celle de langue philosophique. Naigeon envisage cette dernière dans le Discours préliminaire des dictionnaires de Philosophie ancienne et moderne en établissant un parallèle entre l’histoire des langues et l’histoire de la philosophie. Toute langue naturelle comprend en elle-même une langue philosophique. C’est en prenant en considération l’esprit d’invention nécessaire au progrès de la langue philosophique que Naigeon définit sa méthode afin de traiter de l’histoire de la philosophie. Il reformule ainsi le projet encyclopédique d’une histoire philosophique et œuvre à l’ouverture de la connaissance en perfectionnant la langue philosophique.

Albertan-Coppola, Sylviane: La spécialisation dans l'Encyclopédie méthodique : le cas de la

théologie

Cette intervention concerne le deuxième objet d’étude proposé par Claire Fauvergue, Martine Groult et Paolo Quintili pour la séance du Congrès des Lumières Rotterdam intitulée « Le marché Panckoucke (1782-1832) ou l’ouverture de la connaissance ». Elle touche aux rapports entre les dictionnaires particuliers au sein de l’Encyclopédie méthodique, en l’occurrence les rapports entre le Dictionnaire de théologie (1788-1790) de Nicolas-Sylvestre Bergier et les autres dictionnaires. Dans son « Avertissement », l’abbé renvoie indirectement aux dictionnaires de métaphysique, morale, histoire et jurisprudence, en précisant que, si le dictionnaire de théologie avait dû paraître seul, il eût été plus étendu car il aurait fallu y faire entrer des articles de ces disciplines. Il laisse donc le soin de composer ces articles aux spécialistes de ces matières, délimitant de la sorte le champ propre de la théologie. Par là, il va dans le sens d’une spécialisation de la théologie, qu’il dégage notamment de la métaphysique et de la morale, et il souligne la différence qui sépare un dictionnaire isolé d’un dictionnaire appartenant à un ensemble comme l’Encyclopédie méthodique. L’analyse de quelques articles choisis permettra de vérifier comment le dictionnaire ainsi constitué gagne en profondeur ce qu’il perd en substance : la discrimination disciplinaire se traduit en fin de compte, dans le cas du Dictionnaire de théologie, par un enrichissement intellectuel.

Droixhe, Daniel and Collart, Muriel: L’Encyclopédie méthodique et le cancer. Reconstruire une

histoire de la thérapie oncologique à l’époque des Lumières

Dans son ouvrage The Emperor of all Maladies. A Biography of Cancer (New York, 2010, p. 44), Siddharta Mukherjee fait référence au Professeur Arthur Aufderheide, Directeur du département de pathologie de l’Université du Minnesota à Duluth, qui déclarait ironiquement « there is very little early history of cancer ». Ce type de jugement expéditif semblerait partagé par les rédacteurs des articles « Squirre-Carcinome », « Tumeur », etc. de l’Encyclopédie méthodique, qui figurent dans le dernier des volumes consacrés à la médecine, en 1830. Il n’offrent qu’une présentation actualisée du problème du cancer, sans références à des travaux menés au XVIIIe siècle. Il faut chercher ces derniers ou une allusion à ceux-ci dans d’autres articles, chronologiquement plus proches des recherches en question. L’un des principaux articles concernés est consacré à la « Ciguë » (t. IV, 1792, p. 851-59). Dû à Fourcroy, il retrace l’usage de la plante et de son suc comme « adoucissants, rafraîchissants, calmants et résolutifs » dans « les tumeurs ». Ainsi, Avicenne, Sérapion, Etmuller, Ambroise Paré, Rai, Lemery, Reneaulme y ont recouru contre les « tumeurs squirrheuses » ou les «squirrhes du foie, de la rate, du pancréas ». Mais aucun médecin n’a autant exploité les vertus supposées de la plante que le Viennois Störck, qui enthousiasma les contemporains par la publication, en 1760, de son Petit livre montrant que la ciguê non seulement peut être utilisée en usage interne, mais qu’elle offre en même temps un très utile remède dans un certain nombre de maladies réputées incurables. L’Encyclopédie méthodique propose un tour d’horizon européen de


l’accueil réservé à la « découverte » de Störck. Le tableau sera notamment complété à partir de la thèse de Karl-Werner Schweppe. Deux autres contributions de Fourcroy seront utilisées. On mettra ces travaux en perspective.

Giargia, Miryam: La réception du républicanisme anglais dans la Méthodique

On a récemment souligné la forte influence des textes et idées du républicanisme anglais sur le débat intellectuel et politique français du XVIIIe s. La réception des conceptions de J. Milton, J. Harrington, A. Sidney et A. A. Cooper, a été au centre de recherches dédiées à la genèse et aux développements du républicanisme français moderne. Une grande attention a été portée, et ce avant tout, sur la période comprise entre la fin du XVIIe s. et la première moitié du XVIIIe s. Et en l’espèce, ce sont surtout les références offertes par le Dictionnaire historique et critique de Bayle, les œuvres de Montesquieu, l’Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert et, enfin, les œuvres de J.-J. Rousseau qui ont alors été analysées. Mais les idées et les textes du républicanisme anglais ont largement circulé dans la « République des Lettres » de la seconde moitié du siècle. Les spécialistes ont alors mis en lumière la grande influence jouée par le républicanisme anglais sur Mably, ou encore, sur certains révolutionnaires. en revanche, nous semble-t-il, aucune véritable recherche n’a encore été dédiée aux termes précis de la réception du républicanisme anglais dans l’Encyclopédie Méthodique. Et ceci en dépit du fait que la recherche textuelle démontre sans ambiguïté que les conceptions des anglais sont longuement discutées dans différents dictionnaires méthodiques. Nous considérerons de manière croisée les maintes références aux républicains anglais dans la Méthodique, et comparerons avec d’autres textes du XVIIe et du XVIIIe s. ayant constitué un modèle (Montesquieu, l’Encyclopédie des arts et des métiers par de Jaucourt). Cette analyse permettra, 1. de comprendre les relations existantes entre les différents dictionnaires méthodiques, ainsi que le rapport de la Méthodique avec plusieurs de ses sources, 2. d’illustrer une étape importante dans l’histoire du républicanisme moderne, et en l’occurrence une étape jusqu’alors laissée dans l’ombre.

S054(III) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: T3-35: Mandeville Building)

Le Marché Panckoucke (1782-1832) Ou l'Ouverture de la Connaissance. (III)

Organisateur/Président: Robert Morrissey, Luigi Delia

Morrissey, Robert: De L’Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert à l’Encyclopédie Méthodique : vers

une édition numérique, First Part

L’édition numérique constitue un instrument particulièrement performant pour traiter les corpus encyclopédiques, précisément parce qu'il permet de naviguer dans ce genre de corpus de la façon même que les concepteurs d’encyclopédie l’avaient imaginé. Diderot parlait du labyrinthe de son encyclopédie. C. J. Panckoucke de ses tableaux analytiques ou de son vocabulaire. Dans le cadre de la séance proposée, nous présenterons quelques nouvelles technologies informatiques rassemblées autour du logiciel PhiloLogic—moteur de recherche mis au point par le Projet ARTFL, l’éditeur numérique de l’Encyclopédie Diderot et d'Alembert. Ces technologies nous permettront de réaliser – du moins virtuellement – un élément capital du projet de Panckoucke : la constitution du « Vocabulaire encyclopédique » qui devait conclure l’Encyclopédie Méthodique (EM). Ce vocabulaire n'a jamais été réalisé en raison du débordement éditorial de l’EM : un tel vocabulaire aurait atteint des proportions gigantesques, irréalisables dans le contexte d’une édition imprimée. Non seulement


l’instrument numérique permet de rassembler ce vocabulaire général, mais mieux il permet de l’organiser pour qu’il soit utilisable et précis. De même, ces techniques numériques offrent la possibilité de rendre opérationnels les tableaux analytiques en tête de la plupart des dictionnaires méthodiques par matières. Ces tableaux devaient permettre, selon Panckoucke, de transformer à volonté le dictionnaire en de multiples traités scientifiques. Enfin, et toujours grâce à l’instrument numérique, nous pouvons aussi procéder à une comparaison précise et détaillée entre l’Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert et l’Encyclopédie méthodique qui se voulait à la fois héritière et dépassement.

Roe, Glenn: De L’Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert à l’Encyclopédie Méthodique : vers une

édition numérique, Second Part

L’édition numérique constitue un instrument particulièrement performant pour traiter les corpus encyclopédiques, précisément parce qu'il permet de naviguer dans ce genre de corpus de la façon même que les concepteurs d’encyclopédie l’avaient imaginé. Diderot parlait du labyrinthe de son encyclopédie. C. J. Panckoucke de ses tableaux analytiques ou de son vocabulaire. Dans le cadre de la séance proposée, nous présenterons quelques nouvelles technologies informatiques rassemblées autour du logiciel PhiloLogic—moteur de recherche mis au point par le Projet ARTFL, l’éditeur numérique de l’Encyclopédie Diderot et d'Alembert. Ces technologies nous permettront de réaliser – du moins virtuellement – un élément capital du projet de Panckoucke : la constitution du « Vocabulaire encyclopédique » qui devait conclure l’Encyclopédie Méthodique (EM). Ce vocabulaire n'a jamais été réalisé en raison du débordement éditorial de l’EM : un tel vocabulaire aurait atteint des proportions gigantesques, irréalisables dans le contexte d’une édition imprimée. Non seulement l’instrument numérique permet de rassembler ce vocabulaire général, mais mieux il permet de l’organiser pour qu’il soit utilisable et précis. De même, ces techniques numériques offrent la possibilité de rendre opérationnels les tableaux analytiques en tête de la plupart des dictionnaires méthodiques par matières. Ces tableaux devaient permettre, selon Panckoucke, de transformer à volonté le dictionnaire en de multiples traités scientifiques. Enfin, et toujours grâce à l’instrument numérique, nous pouvons aussi procéder à une comparaison précise et détaillée entre l’Encyclopédie de Diderot et d’Alembert et l’Encyclopédie méthodique qui se voulait à la fois héritière et dépassement.

Bret, Patrice: Chimie, physique, médecine et alii: Le vocabulaire dans tous ses états, ou le défi de

l’Encyclopédie méthodique

Dans la lignée de mes études antérieures sur la chimie / les chimies dans l’Encyclopédie méthodique, je me propose de revenir sur la question du vocabulaire de cette discipline et des disciplines associées dans le dictionnaire, non seulement la pharmacie et la métallurgie annoncées sur la page de titre, mais aussi la minéralogie. Il s’agira plus particulièrement d’essayer d’analyser, à partir des correspondances et du paratexte, la place accordée au vocabulaire par les responsables successifs, Guyton de Morveau et Fourcroy, et leur conscience des liaisons avec l’en treprise encyclopédique dans son ensemble. Il s’agira aussi d’étudier les évolutions de ce vocabulaire au cours de la publication effective du Dictionnaire de chimie (1786-1815), et les liaisons, rencontres et distorsions avec les autres dictionnaires, notamment ceux concernés par la physique, l’histoire naturelle et les arts, dans l’acception de ces termes au XVIIIe siècle.

Postigliola, Alberto: Diderot, Naigeon et Panckoucke. Quelle philosophie pour la Méthodique?

La fin de la Grande Encyclopédie de Paris, celle de Diderot et D’Alembert, coïncide avec le début du projet de l’entreprise de Panckoucke, l’Encyclopédie Méthodique. La nouveauté de la classification par matière pose des nouveaux problèmes d’ordonnancement des disciplines et des conceptions des contenus intellectuels. Diderot rencontra Panckoucke, vers la fin de sa vie, et il refusa


énergiquement la proposition que le jeune et brillant libraire venait de lui faire, pour « élargir » et poursuivre son projet encyclopédique. Après la mort de Diderot (1784) la Méthodique commence à franchir ses premiers pas ; l’élève le plus fidèle du Philosophe, son exécuteur testamentaire, Jacques-André Naigeon (1738-1810) accepte de diriger la publication des trois tomes consacrés à l’Histoire de la Philosophie (1791-An II). Tout cela arrive pendant les années tumultueuses de la Révolution de 1789. Quelle conception du philosopher propose Naigeon aux lecteurs de la « nouvelle Encyclopédie », qui met en tête de ses premiers tomes les gravures des bustes de Diderot et D’Alembert, comme étant les « pères », les inspirateurs principaux de l’encyclopédisme? De quel « engagement » intellectuel s’agit-il, au juste, pour ceux qui porterons la lourde tache d’être les « héritiers » de la philosophie du XVIIIe siècle ?


De la Culture Héroïque À la Société du Goût : Statut des Femmes et Changement des Mœurs

Organisateur/Président: Atsuko Tamada, Céline Spector

Fukuda, Maki: Le procès de Marie-Antoinette et la chasse aux sorcières. La nature masculine de la

souveraineté ?

Le 16 octobre 1793, Marie-Antoinette est condamnée à mort. Selon C. Thomas, perçue sous son règne comme une vedette rococo, sa mort porte le symbole de l’élégance féminine. De plus, la guillotine fait d’elle la dernière des reines dans la mémoire collective. Enfin elle a été aussi tuée comme étrangère. en tant que princesse autrichienne, elle fut toujours soupçonnée de machination avec ses frères. en outre, et contrairement à son mari, qui fut accusé par la Convention, elle fut jugée par le tribunal révolutionnaire. Donc, comme une citoyenne, une femme, et non une Reine. Ainsi, les journaux l’ont assimilée à d’autres suspects, comme Olympe de Gouges. Son exécution peut donc être considérée comme une représentation collective du républicanisme, de la masculinité et du nationalisme. Bien qu’elle soit poursuivie pour des motifs relevant du Code pénal, son acte d’accusation contenait aussi, les insultes sexuelles, par exemple, l’organisation d’orgie et l’accusation d’inceste. L’accusation a d’ailleurs commencé avec le mot « sangsue », anciennement attribué aux sorcières qui suçaient le sang humain. Depuis J. Bodin, et ses traités sur la souveraineté et de démonologie, la « sangsue » signifiait aussi le dilapidateur étranger du Trésor public. C. Wells a d’ailleurs souligné une relation possible entre ces deux définitions. Et dans le procès de Marie-Antoinette, nous pouvons trouver une curieuse ressemblance entre ces procès à des époques aux souverainetés contradictoires. Probablement, l’accusateur de la Reine n’a pas consulté la genèse de ce mot. Une simple coïncidence ? Dans cette intervention, nous analyserons d’abord l’acte d’accusation contre Marie-Antoinette. Puis, nous le comparerons à la pensée de J. Bodin pour souligner, comme L. Jaume, les similarités entre souveraineté conventionnelle et bodinienne. Peut-être le procès de Marie-Antoinette a contribué à l’essor à la souveraineté conventionnelle, construit elle aussi sur la valeur masculine et l’exclusion de la féminité.

Radica, Gabrielle: Les femmes, les mœurs et le langage chez Rousseau

Le dix huitième siècle s’est inquiété de la part que les femmes pouvaient avoir dans la corruption des mœurs. Montesquieu oppose ainsi la république d’une part, capable de contenir les mœurs des femmes, à la monarchie, de l’autre, où les femmes transforment, adoucissent, mais aussi corrompent les mœurs. Rousseau partage en partie ce diagnostic. Mais si les femmes ont selon lui un rôle dans ces processus de corruption, elles savent aussi être les actrices du maintien et de la conservation des mœurs, comme en témoignent la Lettre à d’Alembert ainsi que les figures de Sophie et de Julie. Il apparaît alors deux choses : d’une part les femmes sont bien susceptibles de vertu, et il convient de se demander ce que signifie la vertu féminine chez Rousseau, et pourquoi il arrive souvent dans son œuvre qu’on la trouve articulée à la question du langage, de la rumeur et de l’opinion. Ainsi Rousseau note que les anciens « avaient pour maxime que le pays où les mœurs étaient les plus


pures était celui où l’on parlait le moins des femmes et que la femme la plus honnête était celle dont on parlait le moins. » (Lettre à d’Alembert, Œuvres complètes, Paris, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1959-1995, t. V, p. 44-45). en outre, la corruption que décrit Rousseau désigne en réalité au moins deux processus différents. Ce n’est pas seulement celle qui fait passer des sociétés frugales de type militaire aux sociétés plus civilisées, d’abondance et de commodités, mais aussi celle qui fait perdre l’égalité, et encourage les distinctions de toutes sortes. Dans cette mesure, on devra chercher si la responsabilité des femmes est la même dans ces deux mouvements distincts de corruption.

Tamada, Atsuko: De la culture héroïque à la société du goût : statut des femmes et changement des

mœurs.

Dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIème siècle, la « corruption du goût » fait l’objet d’un débat critique. Tandis que Montesquieu et Voltaire soutiennent le raffinement du goût par l’association étroite entre culture et économie dans les monarchies modernes, Rousseau critique la politesse et le règne des femmes comme source majeure de corruption des mœurs. D’après J.G.A. Pocock, l’âge des Lumières se caractérise par la substitution de la civilité fondée sur le commerce et la culture des salons à la vertu civique, dérivée de la morale antique. Néanmoins, dans son étude, le retour en force d’une défense de la vertu virile et patriarcale, opposée aux thuriféraires de la politesse, semble plutôt négligé. Cette session aura pour objet d’étudier les visions divergentes de l’empire du goût, du monde des salons et de l’influence des femmes sur la formation des réputations. Peut-on parler, dans la deuxième moitié du XVIIIème siècle, d’un « retour » du modèle héroïque au détriment de la culture féminine des salons dans la République des Lettres ?

S056 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M1-09: Bergen: Van Der Goot Building)

Art and Commerce: Continent Allegories in the Baroque Age

Organizer / Chair: Wolfgang Schmale

Koestlbauer, Josef: Josef KÖSTLBAUER: Allegories of the four continents – images as historical

sources

Allegories of the four continents were a popular theme in the baroque era. In southern Germany, Tyrol and Alto Adige representations of the four continents can be found predominantly within sacral buildings, primarily in village churches. This stands in marked contrast to their occurrence in the East of the former Austrian hereditary lands where it was mainly the old orders of Benedictines, Augustinians, and Cistercians as well as the nobility, who favored this iconography for the decoration of their newly established monasteries and palaces. These allegories – even though they were of undoubtedly stereotypical character – transported learned knowledge about the world. Unfortunately the interpretation of these images poses serious methodological problems. To understand their symbolic and discursive functions we find ourselves in a paradoxical situation: the images are both the object of research and the most important source. This paper will present some approaches to tackling this problem. First, by tracing post-tridentine concepts of the significance and functions of images. Second, by looking at artists, patrons, and communities involved in commissioning images of the four continents in 18th century Tyrolean churches. The systematic survey of allegories of the four continents is being currently documented in an interactive digital collection containing detailed photographic records and descriptions. The presentation will showcase cartographical and chronological visualizations, as well as tools for comparing and annotating pictorial sources.


Kägler, Britta: Britta KÄGLER: Baroque building sites. The links between culture and

economy in 18th century Germany

Baroque architecture is characteristic for Catholic regions of early modern territories, especially in the South of the Holy Roman Empire, e.g. in Bavaria, Tyrol and the Prince-‐Bishoprics of Freising, Augsburg and Würzburg. Though (art) historical research traditionally focussed on churches and monasteries, also parish churches were constructed and baroque architecture, with its ephemeral interaction of form, decoration, representation and their elements of scenery emerged since the 1680s experienced a breakthrough and led to constant competition between bishops, abbots, abbesses, princes, nobles and even commoners. For this reason, there was an increasing number of castles owned by nobles, town halls in the possession of commoners and privately-‐owned palaces. This raises several questions: What did eventually lead to the (re-‐)opening of baroque building sites and the transformation of earlier architectural forms along baroque lines? And how to raise money for the huge amount of construction sites facing the late 17th and especially the 18th century which had to deal with financial crises and a high pressure on modernisation? My paper deals with these links between economy and art. The process from initial planning to financing, on to the actual construction with native as well as foreign craftsmen will be analysed based on case studies from Bavaria and Swabia. Contrary to expectations, economic history of baroque architecture has not been systematically explored so far. Few fields of historical research have drifted as far apart as economic and cultural history. A wide-‐spread trend of de-‐historicisation of economic research and its equivalent, and a largely de-‐economised new cultural history is noticeable. With the “cultural turn” in historiography many new topics have emerged. The spectrum spans history of discourse, history of mentalities and history of experience as well as history of the human body and history of madness.

Romberg, Marion: Marion ROMBERG: Illud vero diligenter doceant episcopi - Allegories of the four

continents in the context of catholic teaching of laymen

The iconography of the four continents dates back to 16th and early 17th centuries, at a time when the European people were confronted with the foreignness of New Worlds in the scope of their discovery and conquest. At first used almost exclusively as an element of manorial decoration programs, it started to flourish in the 18th century. This involved a remarkable vertical transfer as the allegories of the four continents expanded from manors and palaces to village churches, especially so in the territories of southern Germany, Tyrol, and South Tyrol. The visual language of the elites infiltrates the province. Up till now interpretations of various interior programs neglected mostly the allegories because it seemed that the meaning and role of these allegories were clear: They represented the world. However, a closer look regarding their positioning as well as iconography and by placing them in a greater cultural, social, and political context on a macro- and microlevel provides new insights in their role of influencing public believes in the course of the fight against the reformation. Based on several examples from the diocese of Augsburg the presentation aims to scrutinize this iconography within sacred images as a tool to teaching laymen, as degreed by the Council of Trento in 1563. The focus lies on the special relationship of the clerical or noble principals, their mainly locally working artists and its rural audience in ordering, creating and examining this iconography.

S057 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M1-18: Lund: Van Der Goot Building)

Enlightenment Song

Organizer / Chair: Evert van Leeuwen

Atanasovski, Srđan: German Lieder Market and Schubert’s ‘Reichardt Project’


Late eighteenth century witnessed unprecedented rise of music publishing business in the German speaking lands. As a result, a dynamic market for sheet music editions was created, conditioned both by editorial decisions of the publishing houses and by preferences of the customers. The rising bourgeoisie culture of home music making was inextricably linked and shaped by this market. The music publishing was especially important way of disseminating oeuvres of German Lied, establishing both the recognizable style of the genre, and giving rise to the leading composers, such as Johann Friedrich Reichardt and Johan Rudolf Zumsteeg. In this paper I will scrutinize the influence of the late eighteenth-century German Lieder market on Franz Schubert oeuvre. Schubert’s vast and original output in this genre, starting with works composed in 1814 and 1815, is often viewed as an unprecedented and unforeseen leap of disinterested artistic genius. Arguing against this perception, I will show Schubert advisedly responded to the needs of the marketplace. I will particularly investigate the relationship between Schubert’s output and the songs by Johann Friedrich Reichardt. Reichardt’s Oden und Lieder, published in three volumes in Berlin, between 17 79 and 1781, remained in wide circulation until the early nineteenth century and served as a model for the art of Lied. Not only did Schubert not evade direct comparison with his famed rival, but he often tackled same verses already rendered by Reichardt, anxious to prove his superiority as a composer. Much in the fashion of marketplace competition, through his published oeuvres Schubert fashioned his recognizable traits of originality trying to offer products which would prove competitive on the rising Lieder market. For this comparative analysis, Reichardt’s and Schubert’s songs written on verses by Goethe and Schiller, two poets whose achievements were already regarded as canonical, will prove to be of particular significance.

Robertson-Kirkland, Brianna: Venanzio Rauzzini (1746 – 1810): “The father of a new style of English

singing and a new race of singers”

Venanzio Rauzzini, an Italian castrato, was described by The Monthly Mirror in 1807 as ‘the father of a new style of English singing and a new race of singers’, and lists a number of the most esteemed opera singers of the period as his students, including Mozart’s first Susanna, Nancy Storace, Elizabeth Billington who was the star of Covent Garden and Gertrud Mara who was one of the most sought after opera stars in the late 18th century. My thesis aims to investigate how Rauzzini was training these students, comparing the repertoire and opera roles his male and female students performed while engaging in lessons with him, and contextualising what we know of his tuition from his treatise within the wider vocal tradition of the period. My paper will outline some of my key findings. I will demonstrate how Rauzzini encouraged his students to find their own vocal style, which was fundamental to their future success. I will also show how these singers engaged in continuous professional development (a concept frequently thought of as a 21st century development) while maintaining a high profile operatic career. The CPD of these three female singers was not confined to vocal tuition but extended to learning other instruments and composition. However, unlike Rauzzini’s male students, the commitment to CPD and these women’s contribution to the content of operatic productions have largely been forgotten. However, in discovering the connection between the teachers’ (i.e. Rauzzini) commitment to developing individual vocal style and opera content being adapted to suit the voices of each individual cast member, there is now insight into one of the fundamental lessons passed from teacher to student during the classical period.

Grant, Roger Mathew: The Passions in Print: Musical Taxonomies and the First Death of Affect

Theory

In the eighteenth century, music was praised for its ability to mirror the human passions—those pre-cognitive feelings we now discuss under the rubric of affect. Treatises on music theory during this period often took the form of lengthy taxonomies documenting the connections between formal


musical materials (meters, rhythms, harmonies, and so forth) and the different passions that these might be said to elicit. Eighteenth-century music theory used the tools of print—with all of their inherent contradictions—to mediate between musical experience, its creators, and its consumers. But the medium of print was not an especially friendly host to the affects. According to Condorcet, it was in fact the printed letter that had allowed humanity to escape “the tyrannical empire… exercised over the passions.” Print, Condorcet explained, made possible “a more certain and durable power over reason where all the advantage is for truth, since what art loses in the power of seduction it gains in the power of enlightenment.” In his view, the Enlightenment mediation of knowledge in print was designed to circumvent the tyranny of affect over interpersonal communication—it was intended to obviate the mimetic transference of feeling. In this respect, Enlightenment print mediation set out to undermine the very basis of the aesthetic system that it aimed to codify. Nowhere could this be more apparent than in texts of music theory, which were the print documents that had hoped to explain the musical transmission of affect. But before the contradictions of these historical circumstances were fully unfolded, documents of music theory rehearsed this drama on their pages in the their musical examples. This paper demonstrates how those pieces of musical print culture were given the impossible task of mediating the passions in the Enlightenment’s grand taxonomic project, just before affect theory’s first, eighteenth-century death.

S058 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M2-10: Rochester: Van Der Goot Building)

Geographies of Science

Organizer / Chair: Rienk Vermij

Lee, Jongchan: Transculturation between Dejima, Batavia and Amsterdam

Batavia – at the intersection of the VOC’s and Japanese trading networks with the Asian tropics – did not simply remain a place of transit in the long distance voyage from Amsterdam to Dejima-Nagasaki. Nor did it act just as an intermediary zone for the Dutch civilization between the two. Batavia provided a touchstone for differentiating between ancient authorities founded on classics and new truths verified in the Netherlands through the classification of natural products collected in the Asian tropics. It framed the process through which Dejima came to accept Dutch knowledge of natural history and medicine. The Asian tropics did not only influence the development of natural knowledge in Japan as well as in the Netherlands, but was also intrinsic to it. The five decades that sit astride the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries shaped the forms and contents of Rangaku medicine and natural history as an intellectual and practical outcome of the transculturation between Batavia, Dejima and Edo, and Amsterdam.

Wei, Sophie Ling-chia: Crosscurrents of Exchanges in the Imperial Court: Competition and

Cooperation among the Chinese Emperor Kangxi, Chinese literati and the French Jesuits in the 18th

Century

When the Jesuit missionaries came across the ocean to China to spread Christianity, it was necessary for them to be careful in their proselytization not to condemn the long worshipped tradition of Chinese classics. They needed to let Christianity prevail but also to co-exist with the revered Confucianism, which was especially honored by the highest classes of society, the emperors and the literati. This paper explored the cooperation-competition relationship among the Chinese Emperor Kangxi, the Chinese literati and the Jesuit figurists in the Early Eighteenth Century China. In addition, the detailed examination of the different versions of well-crafted manuscripts, handwritten by the French Jesuits, also demonstrated the crosscurrents of exchanges between the Emperor and the Western missionaries. These Jesuit figurists’ work on these manuscripts was not in vain at the end. In the initial stage, their beautifully hand-written manuscripts in Chinese helped attract the attention of the Emperor Kangxi and built rapport with some Chinese literati, who were willing to learn Western


mathematics and astronomy. Their handwriting in the style of calligraphy and the format mimicking literati’s commentaries assisted them in opening a gate to step into the important circle of the imperial court. Later, these manuscripts did not just remain in the Chinese imperial court; the French Jesuit Foucquet took these unpublished manuscripts back to France. In this paper, the manuscripts stored in Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (the Vatican Library) and Bibliothèque

nationale de France, including several versions of Gu jin jing tian jian 古今敬天鑒 (The Mirror of Paying Homage to God in the Ancient Times and at Present), will be closely examined, to manifest the high demand from the domineering Emperor and the fluctuating support from the Chinese literati.

Motsch, Andreas: Jesuit Botany and the Cultural Histories of Ginseng

In 1716 a French Jesuit by the name of Joseph-François Lafitau followed up on a suggestion by another Jesuit writing from China and discovered ginseng in New France. His discovery was met with great interest by people invested in natural history and discovery for reasons of learning as well as by trading companies on the lookout for lucrative products and new markets. In China where the ginseng trade falls under the monopoly of the Emperor the profit margin is a 3000% and American ginseng becomes the first or one of the first export products of America to Asia. Due to this strong economic incentive Lafitau’s discovery lead around the middle of the 18th century to a ginseng frenzy which threatened the survival of the plant in the forests of North America. While the importance of Lafitau’s discovery for the economy of the colonies is established, his contribution to botany was initially contested by members of the Académie des Sciences who privileged other sources for the identification of the plant and also claimed prior possession of a ginseng specimen in their collection. This confusion was settled in 1718 when Lafitau published his Mémoire concernant la précieuse plante de ginseng de Tartarie découverte en Canada. If the «scientific» controversy is instructive with respect to the history of science, the scope of Lafitau’s publication extends, however, beyond these questions, anticipating the methodology of his future enterprise on comparative ethnography. The Mémoire anticipates in natural history what his later work, the Mœurs des sauvages amériquains (1724) seeks to establish in human history. Lafitau’s Mémoire therefore raises the very issue of the instrumentalisation of knowledge (natural history) and the various cultural histories of ginseng can be reinscribed in a different epistemological and ideological framework. This will be the point of my presentation.

S059 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M2-11: Santander: Van Der Goot Building)

Between East and West

Organizer / Chair: Peter de Voogd

Spânu, Anda-Lucia: Urban Views as a Medium for transmitting Knowledge: Historical Images of

nowadays Romanian Cities.

Long before the emergence of photography, the role of prints was to illustrate and to document. Over the centuries, they have become increasingly present in modern world, as a special category of private collections, as posters displayed on advertising pillars, as book illustrations, maps in libraries, diaries and calendars in offices, playing cards in pockets. Since the 18th century collecting prints was so widespread in the West that prints industry and marketing was more than thriving. Any topic could be converted into prints. Among the most frequently reproduced images those of cities stand out; therefore, inside the great collections of prints, a significant proportion is formed of urban views. A main purpose of building up collections of urban views was the educational. The history of urban life, as well as the political and cultural history of the Romanian provinces, took place between


West and East, between Vienna and Constantinople, at the interference of the Habsburg Empire with the Ottoman Empire. As a result, the historic images of the cities from nowadays Romania belong to two different “worlds”, the Western and the Oriental. The contemporaries, according to the cardinal point the beholder belonged to, have differently perceived these worlds. The urban views made by them are a clue about their understanding of a foreign world. This paper intends to study the role of the printed images of cities as a medium for transmitting knowledge. Not only from teacher to pupil, from father to son, from author to reader, from artist to viewer, but also from Christian to Muslim, and vice versa. In my investigation I will insist upon the paths and means of the circulation of prints, emphasizing on 18th century historical images of cities from nowadays Romania.

Blalack, Juliet: Cogitating with the Enemy: Arab-European Cultural Exchange in Two Resistance

Leaders' Works

The year 1787 witnessed the birth of two eminent Arab scholars who left their intellectual and literary marks on reform movements in the Arab World as well as on Western Orientalism: the Algerian religious scholar Muhammad bin Ali al-Sanusi (d. 1859) and the Palestinian writer Hussein Saleem al-Dajani (d. 1858). From opposite ends of the Arab World, both men spearheaded local resistance movements against French occupation while still engaging with European intellectual currents. They later became the subjects of study of famous Orientalists including the French polymath Constantin de Volney (1757-1820), French explorer Henri Duveyrier (1840-1892), Scottish historian H. A. R. Gibb (1895-1971), and the English anthropologist E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-1973). This paper examines how cultural contact and conflict, especially that springing from European political designs, shaped al-Sanussi and al-Dajani’s respective contributions to Arabic literary and intellectual life in the 18th century. Their lives and work show both the absorption of values associated with the European enlightenment and the assertion of a religious and intellectual identity which resists European hegemony. The authors build largely on Palestinian scholar Ahmed Sedki Dajani’s compilations of Arab-European intellectual exchanges concerning that period. We contrast al-Sanussi and al-Dajani’s ideas as expressed in their own words with their significance as presented by European writers. We aim to bring to life a literary space where ideas flowed between Western and Arabic cultures without erasing the power dynamics therein.

S060 (11:00 - 12:30, Room: M3-03: Aberdeen: Van Der Goot Building)

Political Thought General

Organizer / Chair: Matthijs Lok

Primo, Marcelo: Athéisme et moral chez Bayle et Holbach

La réhabilitation morale de l'athéisme dans la Modernité gagne leurs contours définitifs dans les œuvres de Pierre Bayle et du Baron D’Holbach. Le premier, dans ses Pensées Diverses sur la comète, Continuation des Pensées diverses et dans la Réponse aux Questions d'un provincial, comprendra l'athéisme non pas comme un synonyme de l'immoralité et de la dépravation, mais comme la fondation de son arsenal critique contre l'idolâtrie, le fanatisme et la superstition. À partir d'un épisode sur l'apparence d'une comète, Bayle refléchira sur le lien d'explications infondées de phénomènes naturels avec l'opinion calomnieuse de l'athéisme résultante des opinions faites par des physiciens, des historiens, des philosophes et des théologiens. en ce sens, si le premier mouvement de la critique de Bayle a son point de départ la critique du consensum universalis accepté et répandu, lequel equivaut des événements naturels à des signes de la colère divine des dieux pour avertir les hommes des écarts, le deuxième mouvement est constitué d'un rôle constructif, à savoir le découplage des explications naturelles de tout fondement religieux, où Bayle soulage la moralité de toute croyance religieuse, en réhabilitant ainsi la figure athée. Dans le sillage de Bayle, Holbach


associe l'athéisme à l'exercice de la vertu, de le comprendre comme la pratique de faire le bien dans un contexte social particulier, en faisant de l'athéisme vertueuse l'opposition radicale et absolue à la promotion du fanatisme et de la superstition. Toutefois, si athée dans ce contexte signifie la négation de la notion absolument contradictoire de la divinité avec les événements dans le cours de la nature, y voyant une illusion inventée par l'homme, mais sans ignorer ce que la droite raison prescrit et conduisant par l'honnêteté et la vertu, on peut conclure que l'athéisme a toutes les conditions pour être en ligne avec la morale.

Kawauche, Thomaz: Le commerce des saintes lois chez Rousseau

On peut comprendre la religion civile, de façon figurée, comme un commerce entre les dieux et les hommes en ayant les lois comme objet d’échange et le législateur comme intermédiaire. La figure d’un personnage surhumain, extérieur au corps politique, guidant le peuple dans la création du système législatif, ainsi que la prescription d’une profession de foi assurant l’unité de l’Etat, paraissent être incompatibles avec l’image d’une association qui s’auto-institue en tant que telle et ne se soumet qu’aux lois établies par ses propres membres. Si l’ordre social n’est qu’un droit qui « ne vient point de la nature ; il est donc fondé sur des conventions », il faut se questionner sur le pourquoi du recours aux sentiments religieux, soit par le caractère divin de l’autorité du législateur, soit par les dogmes de la religion civile que tout citoyen est obligé de professer. Puisque, à première vue, les efforts de Rousseau pour affirmer la possible autonomie du corps politique paraissent inutiles devant l’apparition d’une figure paternaliste qui rend nécessaire la croyance en la providence divine et en sa justice future pour la préservation de l’Etat. On examine l’hypothèse du législateur en intermédiaire d’un commerce impossible.

Hörcher, Ferenc: Political realists of the 18th century. Smith and Hume on the connection between

liberty and commerce

Both Hume and Smith are traditionally taken as representatives of classical liberalism. Beyond this, Smith is taken as a founding father of classical (capitalist) economic thought. However, the relationship between politics and economy is shortcut in most accounts of the Scottish thinkers. It is this connection between these two fields that will be investigated in this paper. The context of this reconstruction is the recent criticism of mainstream liberalism by contemporary theorists, usually associated with political realism, including Bernard Williams, Raymond Geuss and Richard Bellamy. This criticism claims that the normativity of liberal thought is displaced, as the context of politics does not allow the sort of naïve idealism, which is characteristic of liberal theories which focus on individual rights and justice. Political thought had better to focus on ‘the political’, i.e. on the specificity of this field of human action and knowledge. A way to do so was presented by historians of political thought, like the late Istvan Hont, a Cambridge historian, whose Jealousy of Trade provided fresh insights into the political significance of the economic thoughts of Smith. Hont claimed that Smith’s whole idea was to understand how modern liberty came to be grounded in commercial society. To justify this claim, Hont gives an analysis of Smith’s historical jurisprudence as we have it partly in the WN, and partly in his LJ. The paper tests Hont’s claim by picking out a single issue: Smith’s understanding of the relationship between two concepts of balance: balance of power and balance of trade. It shall compare Smith’s relevant views on these issues with Hume’s analysis of it in two essays, entitled The Balance of Power and The Balance of Trade (both published in 1754).


Silva, Saulo: Locke, Filmer and the emergence of liberal philosophy.

The sustained thesis throughout this paper is oriented from start to finish by the following problem: if we consider the Two Treatises of Government (1689) by John Locke as the first book which lists the basic principles of what we could call liberal philosophy, which were the sources that influenced the English philosopher in the construction of this theory? The explanation of these response is pursued throughout this research and follows of the required decomposition of the proposed problem. First, Locke cites no tradition or authors who exercised direct influence on the composition of his major political works, but makes a great effort to refute an author considered of occasion and little known by his contemporaries, it is Robert Filmer and his démodé patriarchal theory. Secondly, the study of the works of Filmer has provided an extensive and detailed theoretical context whose principles and guidelines often assume the thesis of Locke and anticipate in over fifty years. These two observations, we raise the hypothesis that the secret of the influences of the political philosophy of Locke can be discovered by the theories and authors criticized for Filmer throughout their works. Additionally, to be possible conjecture that the works of Filmer map and try to refute the emergence of certain ideas which later, gathered by the pen of Locke, can be understood as the seeds of liberal philosophy. Keywords: Locke, Filmer, Patriarchalism, Popular Sovereignty, Liberal Philosophy.


Rousseau

Organizer / Chair: Annelien de Dijn

De Dijn, Annelien: Rousseau and Republicanism

Rousseau was arguably one of the most important and influential of eighteenth-century republican thinkers. However, contemporary republican theorists, most notably Philip Pettit, have written him out of the republican canon by describing Rousseau as a ‘populist’ rather than a republican. I argue that this miscasting of Rousseau is not just historically incorrect, but that it has also led to a weakening of contemporary republican political theory. Rousseau was one of the few early modern republican thinkers to take seriously the problem of the tyranny of the majority and to attempt to formulate a cogent answer to that problem. Ignoring his contribution to republican political thought therefore cuts off contemporary republicans from an important resource for thinking about this problem.

Verhoeven, Willem: Reason or Sense? Rousseau’s Moral Epistemology and Conception of Natural

Law

Keywords: Rousseau, Natural Law, Moral Philosophy, Epistemology Rousseau’s diverging and often imprecise remarks on the topic of natural law have caused a wide array of interpretations of the relevance and role of the concept in his political and moral philosophy. While some commentators interpret Rousseau as dismissing natural law as either non-existent or irrelevant to civilized man, others regard it as central to his philosophy. The question from where Rousseau thinks natural law is derived, and how it actually may be ascertained, has been another issue in this debate. This presentation will attempt to complement existing interpretations by approaching Rousseau’s conception of natural law by way of his moral epistemology. I will first investigate how Rousseau envisions moral judgments are formulated and how they may conform to natural law. As the result of this enquiry I will maintain that Rousseau identifies man’s moral sensitivity as the veritable source of natural law, as opposed to theorists who seek to ground natural law in reason. This interpretation of Rousseau as moral sense theorist is of course hardly revolutionary. But often Rousseau’s dismissal of reason and endorsement of sentiment has been presented as merely the consequence of his sentimentalist personality. While there is undoubtedly some truth in this interpretation, this


presentation will claim that Rousseau’s adherence to moral sensitivity was not just a personal predisposition, but also rooted in more fundamental epistemological preconceptions derived from a somewhat idiosyncratic adoption of Lockean sensationalist epistemology. I will thus try to substantiate that therefore Rousseau – in a fashion somewhat similar to Hume – was sceptic about the abilities of isolated reason to construct moral judgments, and that as a consequence he turned towards moral sensitivity as an alternative basis for natural law.

Vargas, Thiago: “No one touches his neighbor's garden”: Rousseau's economic lessons in Émile.

The purpose of this paper is to outline considerations on the economic thought of Rousseau as presented in his book Émile. The initial steps towards social and economic learnings are set in the Robert’s garden episode, in which elements dating back the origins of property are taught through the notion of labor (travail). Initially resuming Locke’s conceptions on property, particularly the aspects concerning labor theory of property, Rousseau then discuss and points out problems regarding these principles, resuming the previous critiques and remarks he had made in his Second Discourse. In Émile’s Book III, the notion of work – and more specifically the critique of the social division of work – is mobilized as an essential conception to guide the pupil through his lessons on economics. If in one hand labor and handwork (travail des mains) may ensure independence and well-being, bringing Émile close to humankind natural conditions, on the other hand the pupil shall learn that his work is connected to the pursuit of a social and economic function, from which no person can escape; briefly, by learning a métier, he must necessarily observe his social debt (la dette sociale). Thereafter, we shall have elements to analyze Rousseau’s critique to social division of labor, and how it produces dependence among men. Keywords: Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Émile. Economics. Division of labor. Free market. Critique of political economy.


The Construction of Children and Childhood in the Long Eighteenth Century

Organizer / Chair: Cliona O Gallchoir, Conrad Brunstrom

O Gallchoir, Cliona: The Children of the Nation? Constructions of Childhood in the discourse of

Religious Conversion in Ireland, 1695-1765

The penal laws and the sectarian divisions of eighteenth-century Ireland provided a very specific context within which the philosophical focus on the child and childhood which was common to European culture took on a certain shape. Some of the earliest plans for popular education in Ireland were for instance motivated by the drive for conversion. Aside from the essentially educational thrust of conversion as an activity, and its reliance on the production of printed texts, on reading, schools and other techniques of education and instruction, it can also be observed that advocates and promoters of a policy of religious conversion such as Edward Synge drew on the language of Enlightenment rational enquiry as they outlined their case. The figure of the educable child is therefore of critical importance in these texts. In his Tracts on the Popery Laws, however, Edmund Burke argued that the Penal Code subverted the “normal” relations between parents and children. The laws for instance included a provision that a son who converted to Protestantism could “aquire the reversion and inheritance” of his father’s estate even while his father was alive. The 1695 Act “to restrain foreign education” is also condemned by Burke on the grounds that it inappropriately


assigns the legal status of adult to a child who can be “convicted” of being sent abroad to a Catholic institution. This paper will outline and analyse the competing constructions of childhood and of adult/child relations that were formulated in the context of religious and social divisions in Ireland in the period 1695-1765.

Byrne, Angela: A Small World: Anglo-Irish Adolescent Travel Diaries, c. 1815–40

This paper considers Anglo-Irish adolescent travel diaries in c.1815–40, paying particular attention to the roles of travel and travel diaries in the construction of adolescence as a space between childhood and adulthood. These diaries are considered within the contemporary context of the popularity of travel writing. The diary of 13-year-old Caroline Clements, for example, reads as a juvenile response to that genre, checking off the important sights and corresponding to the standard contemporary young lady’s travel diary. Travelling just three months after the Congress of Vienna, Caroline’s journey was one of cultural, historical and political education. Her diary abounds in references to the recent wars, forming a checklist of the must-see sites of Paris and her considered evaluations of those sites. It portrays a young woman at the commencement of forming her own social circle, noting new and existing acquaintances. She, and the others considered in this paper, can therefore be considered as occupying a space between the adult and child worlds – occasionally eschewing responsibility and duty; occasionally embracing the opportunity to earn praise for good behaviour – with travel offering opportunities to demonstrate their ability to navigate their parents’ social worlds, while simultaneously delimiting set socio-cultural boundaries. This paper both rehabilitates travel as a formative experience and demonstrates the extent to which new experiences were bounded by class and custom. Much of what these young people experienced on their tours was already familiar – the celebrated cities and sites described time and again in popular travelogues. The ‘grand tour’ world then, was an extension of the ‘small world’ (Coe 1984), the family remaining the nucleus of experience and of understanding new experiences.

Dietz, Feike: How to Use the Book as a Moral Touchstone? The Teaching of Media Wisdom and

Morality in Eighteenth-Century Youth Literature

During the eighteenth century, the Dutch book market experienced a revolutionary rise in the production of books for youngsters. Existing research has demonstrated that educators and philosophers were ambivalent about this abundance of books for young audiences. On the one hand, they considered these books as important instruments to transmit moral behavior between generations. But one the other hand, the substantial growth of youth literature caused anxiety about the youngsters’ incompetence to analyze, structure and evaluate media messages in a safe way. Educators saw a serious risk that youngsters would misinterpret and misuse their media, and assumed that this would have a harmful effect on their moral development. As I will demonstrate, the book market itself offered a solution to this problem: it produced youth literature as a tool for acquiring vital media skills. By both instructions and fictional representations of media practices, books for youngsters invited their readers to reflect on media and its moral impact: how to evaluate media and their truthfulness, how to use media safe and wise, how to turn media messages in moral lessons? Youth literature helped young readers to think over these questions, and thus encouraged them to use media as moral touchstones. My aim is twofold. First, I will show how youth literature functioned as a tool for training media wisdom (instead as a vehicle of ‘cut-and-dried’ knowledge). Focusing on some cases (such as the youth novel De kleine Grandisson and Willem de Perponcher’s Onderwys voor kinderen), I will highlight strategies applied by book producers to enhance the functionality of texts as instruments of media literacy. Second, I will explore which ‘media morals’ were transferred to young audiences. Which views on the morality of media did book produces and educators spread, and which relationship between media practices and moral growth did they assume?



Critiquing the Rococo in the Century of Lights

Organizer / Chair: Olaf Recktenwald

Bailey, Gauvin: Rococo and Enlightenment in late Colonial Brazil

In Brazil Rococo lasted longer than in any part of the world, still promoting the style as the very image of modernity as late as the late 1820s—less than a decade before the first Rococo revival movement, under King Louis-Philippe (1830-48) in France. It would be easy to dismiss this late manifestation of Rococo as the poor taste of uncultured colonials. Yet the level of intellectual engagement in the Enlightenment salons of places like Minas Gerais was far from uncultured and progressive patrons—including freedom-fighters in Brazil’s first independence movement, the Inconfidência Mineira (1788-89)—directly supported some of the greatest monuments of the international Rococo, such as the church of São Francisco in Ouro Preto (1766-1802), financed in part by Enlightenment poet Cláudio Manuel da Costa. The leading intellectuals of the day read the latest philosophical and religious treatises from Paris and modelled their lives—and, I argue, their approach to religion—on their examples. Brazil (and its Spanish neighbours to the South) had an exceptional understanding of Rococo: unlike in urban Europe where it came to be seen as outmoded and corrupt, Rococo appealed to a growing Enlightenment-inspired aesthetic in Brazil that sought a return to logic and clarity, especially in church design. Printed model altarpieces from Paris and Augsburg provided a lightness and transparency of structure that were a welcome escape from the heavy, ornament-saturated altarpieces of the Hispanic Baroque or even the bulky Rococo of Portugal—both popularly associated with colonialism. Rococo décor’s references to the natural world, luxury, and pleasurable sensations also harmonized with a new French-inspired theology of happiness promoted by reformist thinkers. The people of South America went further than any other region in acknowledging something that perhaps only rural Central Europe was willing to admit: Rococo’s essential modernity.

Magnusson, Carl: Neither Rococo nor Neoclassical : The In-Betweens of the History of French

Eighteenth-Century Styles

The historiography of French eighteenth-century art is founded upon the opposition between rococo and neoclassicism. This caricatural point of view is mainly due to a biased interpretation of the critical discourses that emerged around 1750 and targeted the so-called mauvais goût of contemporary French painting and interior decoration, in order to bring forth an artistic regeneration. The writings of La Font de Saint-Yenne, the abbé Le Blanc, Cochin, Blondel and Diderot, but also those of Winckelmann, have been used to define categories that rely upon a specious dichotomy, opposing superficiality to deepness, whimsicality to rationality and feminity to virility. A closer reading of these sources reveals an overall much more complex situation. The défenseurs du bon goût advocating for


a radical change were in fact very few and most of them would have agreed with the words of the marquis de Marigny : ‘’Je ne veux point de chicorée moderne ; je ne veux point de l’austère ancien ; mezzo l’uno, mezzo l’altro.’’ Convenance condemned austerity as much as whimsicality. My paper aims to show the impact of these misreadings on the definition of the historiographical status of objects produced during the second half of the 18th century. Most of them are regarded as not pure enough to be affiliated with neoclassicism. They are often described as by-products of a belated rococo spirit or as caricatures of truer neoclassicism (Honour, 1968). They are stuck inbetween two irreconciliable categories, which result from an unnuanced view of the Siècle des Lumières, and classified in various more or less fanciful categories, such as Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette, Transition or, more recently, Antique fleuri. These sub-styles, however, far from lessening their already inessential status, tend to stress it.

Yonan, Michael: Friedrich August Krubsacius, Enlightenment Formal Systems, and the Rococo

Material World

This paper analyzes the ideas of the self-proclaimed Enlightenment critic Friedrich August Krubsacius (1718–1789), whose Gedanken von dem Ursprunge, Wachstume, und Verfalle der Verzierungen in den schönen Künsten exemplifies a broader eighteenth-century German critique of rococo design. My goal will be to explore two aspects of rococo art’s theoretical underpinnings by examining Krubsacius’s ideas. The first will be to demonstrate that in the visual and semantic complexity of rococo prints lies the conceptual basis of rococo design broadly conceived. The second will be to show that those prints achieve this through more than a simple exploration of formal qualities; they also engage in a proto-scientific examination of perception in the material world. By “material world,” I refer to represented objects, ranging from flowers to shells to leaves and even incorporating living or once living creatures. By asking viewers to approach the representation of things with a specific mindset—indeed, creating that mindset through the structures of representation employed—rococo prints invite them to assume specific stances toward art. Those who can assume that position find in the rococo a celebration of artistic ingenuity and, more profoundly, a theorization of human sensation. Those who could not would find their critical sensibilities stifled, confused, or at worse eradicated. Many eighteenth-century figures who chose to write about the rococo, including Krubsacius, fell into this latter category. He critiques the rococo as an art of aesthetic nonsense and pointless mixing, but I shall argue that he is wrong, and in the substance of his critique can be detected the broader terms of his Enlightenment aesthetics.


Theatrical Transactions: Commercial Exchange On The London Stage

Organizer / Chair: Daniel O’Quinn

Freeman, Lisa: On the Political Economy of Social Complaisance: Vanbrugh's -The Relapse-

In the contest between Young Fashion and his elder brother Lord Foppington, critics have tended to favor Young Fashion and have remained dismissive of the self-regarding follies of Lord Foppington. This paper asks us to take a closer look at how Young Fashion's and Lord Foppington's actions are framed within the historical period and to consider which of these equally flawed characters emerges from the comedy as a more apt model of conduct. It demonstrates that where Young Fashion engages in an old tactic—masquerading as his brother to gain access to the heir Hoyden—Lord Foppington represents a new and more subtle post-revolutionary stratagem—hiding in plain sight beneath a cloak of manners and cultivated equanimity to gain access to social and economic opportunity. The paper thus argues that while we might mock the fop and derive a great deal of humor from a society that allows for the purchase of a title, Lord Foppington nevertheless emerges,


as much if not more than his trickster brother, as a shrewd consumer of the new kinds of opportunities afforded by the political and economic culture of the 1690s.

Rosenthal, Laura: Men of Mode: Fops, Fashion, and Finance

While fops have mainly been read for their gender performances and sexual identities, this paper look at global commerce and Restoration cosmopolitanism as crucial factors in their popularity.Rather than attempting to shore up confidence in natural superiority or radically undermine the system of rank, Restoration theatrical performances proposed a realignment of the markings of value through the relentless exploration of manners. What Steele would later call being “a man of the town and of the world” becomes in Restoration comedy a goal in itself, never detached from social standing but at the same time not simply a birthright either. Thus while Gerald Newman reads the period’s “theater of greatness” as a strategy for securing the authority of one class over another, the obsessive reenactments of mannered gestures and the relentless analysis of them in the plays suggests a dynamic instability rather than a secure structure. Over and over, the plays interrogate and thematize the relative cosmopolitanism of various characters: within limits, characters can be worldly without being well born, and they can also lack refinement but possess significant estates. The fop, of course, reveals his insufficient refinement by overshooting the mark, but his very excess becomes for audiences a crucial source of fascination and delight, particular in his love for and mismanagement of exotic accessories. The fop, then, becomes a very special kind of satire on manners, suggesting that attempts to master polished behavior can themselves be a sign of failure; the fop scandalizes by revealing and thus denaturalizing all the work that goes into becoming a man of the town and of the world. In his play *The Man of Mode,* George Etherege launched this particular version of foppery; it is to Sir Foppling Flutter that subsequent English stage fops return.

Anderson, Misty: Marketing Hell: Harlquin, Hades, and the Economy of the Supernatural.

Harlequinades exploded in popularity on the early eighteenth-century stage. Without a doubt these spectacles appealed to a broader audience as afterpieces, accessible to the footmen and servants who joined the full-price audience at the end of the evening. B their supernatural content also reflects material negotiations of belief and unbelief, giving audiences some "thing" to believe, localized in three objects: Harlequin's black mask, his wand, and dragons. Harlequin's wares circulate as commodities but also as talismans, signs of primitive belief in a modern and global economic age.

Havard, John: Incalculable Shylock.

“Which is the merchant here and which the Jew?” Portia’s infamous question to the Venetian assembly in act four of _The Merchant of Venice_ has been seen to open a dazzling hall of mirrors, in which the respective identities of the Christian insider and his Jewish antagonist fracture. In _The Jew of Venice_, the adaptation of Shakespeare’s play that held the stage for the early part of the eighteenth century, much of this ambiguity was stripped away. This paper asks how this skewed rewriting—in which Shylock appears as a “stock-jobbing Jew,” while his Christian antagonists are figured as uniformly generous, upright citizens—refigured emerging debates about the integrity of the nascent eighteenth-century body politic and the fragmenting forces of modern Whiggish commerce through their intertwining with emerging conceptions of the white, British subject, protected from the harms posed by the glinting blade of Shylock’s knife and his "stock" villainy more widely. Based upon a larger article, entitled “Shackles, Subjects, and Slaves: Shylock in the British Atlantic,” the paper concludes with some speculations on how the adaptation’s rewriting of the “pound of flesh” extraction scene obliquely invokes the contemporary practice of the Atlantic slave trade, whose violence became remediated, in reverse, by the magical rescuing of the “royal merchant” Antonio (who had recently appeared as Behn’s “royal slave” in Southerne’s adaptation) from violent decapitation.



Protesting the Slave Trade and Slavery in the French-American atlantic: A Fresh Look at Religious

Factors

Organizer / Chair: Nina Reid-Maroney

Van Ruymbeke, Bertrand: The Benezet Story and the Huguenot Atlantic Diaspora

This paper seeks to discuss the specifics of the Benezet family’s migration out of France and to Pennsylvania within the larger issue of the Huguenot Diaspora. It is based on a series of observations. First the Benezets, originally from Southern France (Languedoc, a stronghold of Protestantism) but settled in Northern France (Picardy) where Protestantism was weak, left France in 1715, or thirty years after the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Most Huguenots fled France between 1680 and 1700, the years 1685-1687 being the peak of the migration. Then Jean-Etienne Benezet, Antoine’s father, converted to Quakerism whereas most Huguenot refugees in the Anglo-American world conformed to the Church of England. Finally, the Benezets settled in Pennsylvania where very few Huguenots relocated. Most Huguenots who migrated to British North America settled in South Carolina, New England, New York or Virginia. These facts make the geographic and spiritual itineraries, and as well as their timing, of the Benezet family, and therefore Anthony’s background, an oddity with the Huguenot Atlantic Diaspora. This paper is an attempt to provide explanations to these developments.

Rossignol, Marie-Jeanne: Benezet’s influence in France before 1789: Myth and reality

Apart from A Short History of Quakers, drafted both in French and English by Benezet himself in Philadelphia in 1780, little of Benezet’s works seems to have been really translated and published into French in pre-revolutionary France. This paper questions 20th century historiography claiming that some of Benezet’s work on antislavery was translated prior to the French Revolution, as well as more general statements saying that Benezet’s ideas circulated in France before the Revolution. But it also investigates Benezet’s influence over French antislavery thinkers and activists in the 1770s and 1780s. The Quaker antislavery campaign was made popular in France just before the French Revolution mainly thanks to two Benezet enthusiasts, Crèvecoeur and Brissot, although their rendering of the Quaker faith and of Quaker ideas reflected their own beliefs more than they did justice to the French-born activist. Although discussions within the “Société des Amis des Noirs” mentioned existing translations and leaders planned to have Benezet’s and other antislavery pamphlets translated in French, these translations appear never to have taken place, thus limiting whatever impact the thought of Quakers may have had on the French movement at that stage. However Benezet and the other antislavery Quakers had become icons amongst antislavery French thinkers from the late 1760s to the 1790s, as one can find references to them in the works of Diderot


and Raynal, the physiocrats, and Bernardin de St Pierre. Although Bernard Chevignard was once dismissive of this influence, yet it is worth investigating as historical evidence of the sincere antislavery commitment of some of Benezet’s supporters (Crèvecoeur) now surfaces.

Popkin, Jeremy: Religion and Abolition in France during the Revolutionary Era

The French revolutionaries’ decision, in February 1794, to decree the abolition of slavery has usually been attributed to the secular ideology of the Enlightenment and the doctrine of natural rights enshrined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The French abolition movement has been distinguished in particular from the British and American strains of abolitionism because of its presumed secular character. Even the Catholic priest Henri Grégoire, the one prominent clergyman associated with abolitionism in France, has often been described as an Enlightenment thinker, in spite of his own insistence that he was above all a devout Christian. I have argued elsewhere (Popkin, You Are All Free: The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (2010) that the revolutionary abolition decree was not a simple consequence of the revolutionary doctrine of natural rights. In this paper, I will examine the evidence that religious convictions did indeed play a significant role in the French abolitionist movement during the revolutionary period. An examination of the calls for the reform or abolition of slavery in the cahiers of 1788 points to a hitherto unrecognized current of Christian abolitionism among the Catholic clergy. At the same time, Protestant spokesmen, including not only the minister Froissard but also the prominent Patriot leader Rabaut Saint-Etienne, spoke out strongly on the issue of slavery; Rabaut Saint-Etienne was the only revolutionary leader in 1789 to call for the immediate abolition of slavery in the French colonies. Another Protestant, Boissy d’Anglas, played a crucial role in preserving the policy of abolition during the thermidorian period. Finally, there is some evidence that priests in the colony of Saint-Domingue sympathized with the anti-slavery movement and even aided the black insurgents whose revolt in 1791 would eventually lead to the creation of the independent black nation of Haiti.


Diderot, the Encyclopedie and Science

Organizer / Chair: Jan-Frans van Dijkhuizen

Loveland, Jeff: A Comparative View of Diderot as Editor of the Encyclopedie

The goal of this paper is to evaluate Denis Diderot’s work as editor of the Encyclopédie. Such evaluations have regularly been made in studies of Diderot and the Encyclopédie, but they are often made in passing and outside of any relevant comparative framework. Here, building on previous research, I will compare Diderot to several other eighteenth-century editors of encyclopedias as well as to later ones. In particular, after reviewing the duties of an editor of an encyclopedia in Diderot’s time and after, I will examine his work in three different areas: planning, recruiting and managing collaborators, and revising submitted texts to impose homogeneity. Though not widely accepted as an editor’s duties till around 1800, these tasks were all discussed by Diderot as possibly desirable in an editor. Individually, moreover, each of them was shouldered by at least some eighteenth-century editors of encyclopedias. In other words, although my retrospectively established list of an editor’s tasks brings in the risk of anachronism, I believe that it helps understand the historical specificity of Diderot and the Encyclopédie.

DeMarte, Isabelle: Le Pari de Diderot : Ouvrir le marché de la connaissance à tout un chacun à

travers le “microscope” de la Première Lettre d’un Citoyen zélé de Denis Diderot.

Alors qu’elle se range plutôt du côté des « grandes lettres philosophiques » que sont la Lettre sur les aveugles et la Lettre sur les sourds et muets, les hasards de la mise à jour des textes de Diderot, l’ont ignorée dans la Correspondance éditée par George Roth. en la présentant ainsi dans la seule


introduction critique de la Lettre, Roger Lewinter esquisse les contours d’une lecture de cette lettre comme l’une des branches maîtresses de l’arbre de la connaissance encyclopédique. Diderot publie en effet la Première lettre d’un citoyen zélé au moment où il traduit de l’anglais le Dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie de James, près d’être appelé auprès de d’Alembert pour éditer le « grand dictionnaire ». Nous explorons ici l’hypothèse que dans la Première Lettre, Diderot tente un pari mettant à l’épreuve l’idée encyclopédiste de changer la façon commune de penser, d’une part, et usant d’autre part de stratégies de persuasion à plusieurs niveaux par sa forme épistolaire. A partir de ce contexte, nous lisons la Lettre en trois temps : 1. en examinant les dessous idéologiques de la situation épistolaire de la Lettre ; 2. en analysant les liens entre le « microscope » de l’épistolier (dans lequel il invite son destinataire à regarder avec lui), sorte de transition métaphorique vers une nouvelle épistémologie ; 3. en nous arrêtant sur un autre procédé stylistique, celui de la fable de l’estropié, pendant de la lecture de Véronique LeRu sur le « bâton de la raison » de la Lettre sur les aveugles, ce, dans le cadre d’une oscillation entre raison et fiction. en dernier lieu, nous proposerons l’idée que si la lettre donne un corps à la littérature selon Anne Chamayou dans L’esprit de la Lettre, 18è siècle, celle de Diderot en donne le sien, à la philosophie des Lumières.

Arndt de Santana, Christine: La réforme du drame diderotien et le projet des Lumières Au XVIIIe siècle français, l’homme éclairé est celui qui est instruit dans les sciences et doté de valeurs morales qui orientent ses actions. Sagesse et vertu sont ainsi étroitement associées. Pour Diderot, le théâtre possède un pouvoir pédagogique efficace car il offre la possibilité capable d’unifier ces qualités, et ce, au moyen d’une éducation de nature esthétique. en ce sens, cette présentation a comme but de discuter l’Entretien sur le fils naturel (1757) et De la poésie dramatique (1758) afin de montrer que la réforme diderotienne proposée à travers sa théorie du drame a été élaborée afin que le théâtre devienne un instrument valable dans la formation de cet homme que l’on souhaite éclairer. Claude, Klein: Rétif de la Bretonne éditeur de son théâtre sous la Révolution Rétif de la Bretonne a tenté en vain de faire jouer son théâtre sous la Révolution, il imprime malgré tout en 1793, Le Drame de la vie, une autobiographie théâtrale qu’il ne mettra cependant en vente qu’en 1797. Cette prudence liée aux circonstances historiques révèle un homme de lettres conscient de la place du théâtre dans le champ littéraire de l’époque, comme l’indique le reste de son œuvre. Si le théâtre ne l’a pas fait connaître, il fait tout de même partie de ses préoccupations, puisqu’il se range résolument du côté des réformistes. Les réflexions théoriques exposées dans La Mimographe dès 1770 proposent un « Plan de réformes » proche des idées de son ami Mercier, dont les pièces connaîtront un grand succès, mais qui verra ses propositions de réformes vivement contestées par les comédiens. Rétif ne s’obstinera pas à vouloir imposer ses « idées singulières » dans ce contexte, mais il se servira à plusieurs reprises du drame bourgeois pour exprimer l’originalité de son Moi. La Prévention nationale (1783) sera suivie d’une édition complète de son Théâtre en 1787 ; entre adaptation et rupture il choisit une forme d’expression résolument tournée vers le spectateur. Mais alors que ses romans connaissent un succès notable, son théâtre ne sera pas apprécié. Il contient pourtant de nombreuses innovations, peut-être trop disparates pour convaincre, mais ces hésitations sont peut-être liées à la situation économique de la bohême littéraire. On peut dès lors s’interroger sur les paradoxes de cette stratégie éditoriale, de la part d’un homme qui manifeste par ailleurs une intuition aigüe des enjeux littéraires de son époque.


Dutch Historiography in the Enlightenment

Organizer / Chair: Jan Rotmans, Jacques Bos


Velema, Wyger: Ancient History in the Dutch Enlightenment

The way in which the Dutch Enlightenment regarded ancient Greece and Rome remains an understudied topic. This paper explores the issue from the perspective of historiography. It first of all analyzes the reputation of Greek and Roman historiography during the Dutch Enlightenment and demonstrates that whereas some eighteenth-century Dutch commentators such as Elie Luzac and Laurens Pieter van den Spiegel regarded classical historiography as entirely superseded by modern developments in the field, others showed considerable respect for the achievements of the ancients. The Harderwijk professor Kornelis Willem de Rhoer, for instance, in 1789 argued that the historiographical achievement of Herodotus was deeply impressive and demonstrated an exemplary critical attitude to the sources. The paper then moves to the actual writing of the history of ancient Greece and Rome in the Dutch Enlightenment. The bulk of this second part of the paper will be devoted to an analysis of the Roman Histories of Martinus Stuart, a work which appeared in thirty volumes between 1793 and 1810, constituted the first lengthy history of ancient Rome in the Dutch language, and has hitherto been largely and unjustifiably ignored by historians of historiography.

de la Porte, Eleá: The Afterlife of the Ars Historica

This paper explores how the tradition of the ars historica was in the eighteenth-century Dutch Republic continued in the context of the learned societies. Anthony Grafton has stated that in the eighteenth century the tradition of the ars historica – early modern manuals that specified how to read and write histories and how to critically evaluate primary sources – gradually declined and disappeared. The university became the proper setting to learn and study history. For the eighteenth-century Dutch Republic, however, this narrative would constitute almost a century in which the question of how to write history would lack a solid base, i.e. from the disappearance of the ars historica around 1750 to the formation of history as a discipline at the universities around 1850. A vital link thus appears to be missing in the dominant analysis of the history of the ars historica. This paper will take Teylers Tweede Genootschap in Haarlem as a case study to show how the tradition of the ars historica was in the eighteenth-century Dutch Republic partially taken up by learned societies. Not only did the committee explicitly write out price questions on the field of history every five years, but they also endeavored to direct historical research in new directions by asking socio-economic questions, questions on the theory of history and by favoring contemporary history.

Rotmans, Jan: A Modern Historical Consciousness? Progress and Decline in Dutch philosophical

histories

Searching for the origins of a modern historical consciousness in the Enlightenment is understood here as an ahistorical way to approach enlightened historical thought. This paper rather develops an understanding of Dutch Enlightenment historiography in which linear and cyclical visions of history exist together in an uneasy tension. A cyclical conception of historical development - the rise and fall of republics through the cultivation and corruption of virtue – complicates the enlightened narrative of the development of European civilization. Tension between interests and virtues, which characterizes human nature as well as history, arguably explains why progress and decline coexist in the Dutch Enlightenment. This tension is mainly explored here through an analysis the work of the philosophical historian Cornelis Zillesen, who wrote two six-volume histories and several pamphlets during the revolutionary end of the eighteenth century. That analysis complicates the dominant historiographical position – often associated with the work of Reinhart Koselleck - that a modern historical consciousness is born at the end of the eighteenth century.

S069 (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M1-18: Lund: Van Der Goot Building)

Thinking About Theatre

Organizer / Chair: Kornee van der Haven


Ferrari, Sônia: Theatre and education in the XVIIIth century

In this paper I intend to discuss the importance of theatre as a mean of socialization and education. Drawing upon Diderot´s text on the comedian it is possible to see a change in the consideration of the theatrical activity in the XVIIIth century. Although Diderot claim that the importance of the theatre at this time is similar to its role in ancient Greece, and although Marx affirms that the development of the superstructure is slower than the development of the infrastructure, there are in fact qualities that belong specifically to the XVIIIth century theatre. And these are related to the form that society assumes in this century. Transmission of knowledge, values and habits is now made according to the model of exchange. The author of the play, and also the actor offer a image to the public and receive in exchange recognition based on identification, judgment (depending on the public) or boos. Author and actor are terms of an equation that makes this activity similar to abstract values. So we can examine Diderot´s consideration of theatre as a means of education. It is also our aim to examine the quality of this public that XVIIIth theatre creates.

Mariani Pires, Helderson: The Actor in the Lettre à d’Alembert sur les spectacles by Jean-Jacques

Rousseau

In the French Enlightenment, theatre was one of the main subjects discussed among its thinkers – they were used to be called philosophes, who fiercely expressed their ideas about the theatrical performance phenomenon and its possible pedagogical effectiveness, as well as about its social, political and economic implications in the 18th Century. Rousseau found, on his view about theatre, the metaphor of the human laceration, that occurred in the passage of man's state of nature for that of life in society. The conflict between being and seeming, as well as the duel between amour de soi, which is present in the natural being, and amour propre, which artificializes the social being, is a fundamental matter for the understanding of the Genevan. Though this subject runs through all his work, it is in the Lettre à d’Alembert sur les spectacles that Rousseau devotes himself exclusively to his criticism of theatre. Besides that, the text also brings a definition of the talent and the craft of the actor. Alembert proposed the formation of a theatre company in Genève, an idea which would be strongly and radically rejected by Rousseau. The Lettre directly addresses the relation among the spectacle, the actor’s performance and the corruption of the man in the society, which makes the aforementioned conflict between being and seeming once again present. The actor's craft is the simulation, the clear expression of the conflict between being and seeming, once it lives in their ability to deceive, to seduce the audience, seeming to be what they are not, offering themselves as a show in exchange for money, transforming the theatre in a commerce of vanity, luxury and appearances.

S070(I) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M1-19: Athene: Van Der Goot Building)

Facts and Figures For the Market: How Evidence Entered Political Economy (I)

Organizer / Chair: Ida Nijenhuis, Ida Stamhuis

D'Onofrio, Federico: Giunta delle Annone and Giunta d’Agricoltura: Discipline and Security of

Grains in Naples around 1780

Since its independence, in 1734, grain trade proved a particularly contentious field for reforms in the Kingdom of Naples. In more than one occasion, Neapolitan authorities tried to soften the mechanism that channeled into the capital most of the grain marketed in the Kingdom. When a terrible famine struck the kingdom in 1763, the Neapolitan First Secretary Bernardo Tanucci to started a new series of attempts at liberalizing the export of grains. In this article, I will discuss the competition between


different sorts of information that the Neapolitan government collected and used. I first will summarize the kind of data that Tanucci’s government could rely upon to make its decisions, and how the Tuscan-born minister tried to make the market of foodstuff more efficient. The reforms begun by Tanucci were carried on by Acton in the 1780s, and occasioned a little known episode in the long lasting tension between reformers and conservatives. The incident took place in the period 1778-1784, shortly after the dismissal of Bernardo Tanucci. Towards the beginning of the 1780s, proto-statistics information was mobilized in support of the liberalization of grain trade, while traditional administrative networks of informers were relied upon in order to stop exports. In fact, reformers’ statistics were modelled on a very invasive set of institutions that had been in place in Sicily at least since the early 18th century and that proved difficult to enforce in the continental Kingdom of Naples. The network of informants that the conservatives could count upon won the day, in the end, also because the information it provided proved more reliable and less costly.

Nijenhuis, Ida: Two versions of Dutch wealth: Luzac’s transformation of La richesse de la Hollande

In historiography Elie Luzac’s Hollands Rijkdom (Leiden, 4 vols. 1780-1783) has been characterized as the first serious history of Dutch commerce. In my contribution to this ISECS-panel on evidence in political economy, I want to investigate the grounds for this qualification by comparing in detail the Dutch edition with its French source, La richesse de la Hollande, written by the French journalist and economist Jacques Accarias de Sérionne. This work was published by Luzac in 1778, in 5 volumes. In his 1993 book on Luzac’s political thought, Wyger Velema has shown that the Leiden-based enlightened conservative writer and publisher had been in a working relationship with Sérionne from the 1760s onwards. In 1766 Luzac published the Frenchman’s Les intérêts des nations de l’Europe développés relativement au commerce and at that time they had already exchanged information regarding the history and condition of Dutch commerce. By the time Sérionne’s Richesse was published by Luzac, the latter already had planned a translation into Dutch. However, upon closely examining the French original, he decided it contained too many errors. According to Velema, Luzac consequently transformed the original by producing an extended and revised Dutch version. Luzac treated the history of Dutch commerce in far greater detail than Sérionne and supplemented the Dutch edition by a large number of sources on Dutch economic history. Additionally he also paid more attention to the relationship between economy and polity and to the specific role of the stadholder in governing Dutch economy. In my paper I want to examine how his sources helped Luzac to improve Sérionne’s analysis of Dutch wealth and whether this also meant he was the better political economist.

Stamhuis, Ida: Kluit’s assessment of facts and figures in the new statistics

Notwithstanding its innovative character, the first teaching of statistics or political economy in Leyden by Adriaan Kluit (1735-1807) in 1802 did not come like a bolt from the blue. In statistics or political economy a state was the focus of attention. That was also the case in fields like state history, study of constitutional law and of state structure. According to Kluit, the innovative character of statistics, through which it distinguished itself from these other discussions of a state, was that it was based on facts and figures and not on preconceptions. In the course of the nineteenth century official statistical institutions would emerge and become settled. The quality of the facts and figures would correspondingly improve. Kluit could however not yet rely on this official information. When investigating where he did get his facts and figures from, several kinds of sources can be distinguished: (often voluminous) surveys, publications of learned societies, communications in newspapers and a few official compilations. I will discuss how he used these sources. Did he discuss their quality and reliability? Which criteria did he use to assess this? I will illustrate my exposition


with Kluit’s arguments as I found them in his lecture notes and in his published exchange of ideas on the size of the population of Amsterdam with professor of mathematics Jan Hendrik van Swinden (1746-1829), and professor of medicine Gerardus Vrolik (1775-1859).

S070(II) (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M1-19: Athene: Van Der Goot Building)

Facts and Figures For the Market: How Evidence Entered Political Economy (II)

Organizer / Chair: Ida Nijenhuis, Ida Stamhuis

Beckett, Guy: Spiritual Arithmetic How quantitative social questions were understood before social

statistics

This paper looks at the historical development of early British social statistics. I argue that the 19c development of social statistics needs to be understood within the context of changing conceptions of the social and seen as one consequence of colonial and religious influences on 18c and early 19c political thought. It is broadly agreed that the emergence of new knowledge tools (statistics, maps, communication networks, filing systems) in 19c profoundly changed how states governed. However there has been surprisingly little analysis of the transition from political life without numbers to life with data. In part this is because 19c government statisticians did not start with a blank slate, but were able to bring together data that had been collected by local authorities throughout the early modern period. In India, where Britons were newly governors, modes of administrative and political thinking were more clearly delineated and we can see precisely when new forms of knowledge entered debates. My research has shown that it is possible to date precisely when British statistics on Indian social topics enter political debates. The first social statistics on widow-burning were published in London in 1805. The figures were collected in an innovative research project, run by Fort William College. This was one of a number of East India Company colleges set up to train young British men to be colonial administrators. They were the first British higher education institutions to teach political economy. Prior to 1802 when the surveys began, there was no systematic data collected on this topic. This paper focuses on the period before data collection when there was no published or unpublished data. Examining how widow-burning was conceived as a social question before statistics, it will show that quantitative questions were debated for fifty years prior to the survey.

Carvalho dos Santos Lopes, Maria-Helena: École du Commerce

AULA DO COMMERCIO- 1756 - La Société et le Commerce au Portugal et au Brésil. Parmi l’Histoire du Portugal on doit identifier la fondation d’une école scientifique commercial – AULA DO COMMERCIO – l’École du Commerce - qui va donner aux commerçants et leurs fils l’opportunité d’un période d’administration agressive et moderne envisagée par le Marquis de Pombal. On va inaugurer un capitalisme d´Etat très progressiste et productif en même temps que les forces sociaux changent parmi une noblesse et une bourgeoisie commercial savante qui doit être instruit à l’École.


On peut trouver une intention illuministe chez le Ministre qui a passé presque dix années hors du Portugal, moitié à l’Angleterre et moitié en Autriche.

Ronge, Bastian: Clearing Up Economic Experiences. Therapeutic Evidence in Adam Smith’s Wealth

of Nations

When Adam Smith published the Wealth of Nations (WN) in 1776, his contemporaries perceived the book as the hour of birth of a new science. This perception, however, is quite surprising, since the WN did “not contain a single analytic idea, principle, or method that was entirely new in 1776” (Schumpeter 1954, 185). In my talk I make the claim that the scientific perception of the WN followed from its particular therapeutic evidence. In order to support this thesis, I firstly elaborate on Adam Smith’s therapeutic understanding of philosophy, before I show in a second step, that several well-known theorems in the WN correspond to this therapeutic-philosophical idea. In the end, I conclude that the great success of the WN does not depend on its scientific character, but on its therapeutic impact.

S071(I) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M2-10: Rochester: Van Der Goot Building)

Houses of Pain and Houses of Pleasure: Forms of (Counter)Domesticity in the Long Eighteenth

Century (I)

Organizer / Chair: Francesca Saggini, Suzanne Pucci

Denzel, Valentina: Incest as a (Utopic) Revolution in the Family. Eugenics and Gender Roles in the

late Eighteenth Century

This paper analyzes the function of incest in Sade’s materialist philosophy. Incest is the condition sine qua non of Sade’s transgression of the social and moral order of the bourgeoisie, as Marcel Hénaff lays out in his L’invention du corps libertin (1978). That is to say, incest embodies for Sade, according to Hénaff, a utopian dream of a world without rules and orders. Among libertines, incest therefore becomes a rite of initiation, proving that once the symbolic order avant la lettre has been infringed, the libertine will have transgressed all bounds and reticence that linked him to bourgeois morality. But the thrill of incest is also a sensational and materialistic one, a unique experience that confines to it a special status in Sadean philosophy. Furthermore, incest can enhance the libertine pleasure through a “congeneric perversion” such as in the incestuous relationship between Madame de Saint-Ange and her brother Le Chevalier de Mirval. Hence, the relation between incest and medical and materialist discourse needs to be analyzed further. This paper explores different categories of incest, their role in the economy of Sade’s literary work and their (un-)successful enactment of a utopian libertinism.

Rutler, Tracy: Winged Victorin: Hybrid Families and Savage Domesticity in Rétif de la Bretonne's

*Découverte Australe*

In Restif de la Bretonne’s Découverte australe par un homme volant, the protagonist, Victorin, builds a flying machine to kidnap and marry Christine, a noblewoman above his station. In the story that follows, the couple and their servants work together to sustain their utopian space (Mont Inaccessible), displaying a domestic harmony that would rival that of Julie and M. de Wolmar (La Nouvelle Héloïse). However, the author’s use of an inherently libertine language, combined with the details leading to the installation of the community (which include kidnapping, threats of rape, and grandiose lies), unravel the myth of a happy – republican – domestic sphere such as the one we encounter in Rousseau. In this novel, published just three years after Rousseau’s death, heteronormative kinship structures become something that, to borrow a term from Carla Freccero,


“haunt” the Christinians of Mont Inaccessible; in other words, the models of kinship in La Découverte contain the altered traces of earlier versions of domesticity. In this presentation, I will argue that Bretonne’s novel, which borrows tropes from the libertine, domestic, and utopian novels, presents hybrid forms of kinship that are reflected in the very form of the novel. Furthermore, his use of tongue-in-cheek language to describe the family offers a corrective to Rousseauvian ideas of domesticity.

Rossi, Laura: Other 'Families': Servants and Concubines in Russia in the Long Eighteenth Century

This paper tries to investigate some kinds of enlarged domesticity within the Russian aristocratic households in the long Eighteenth Century. Post-Petrine modernization has been also seen in terms of domestic space, as the transition from the (allegedly) sexually segregated environment of Muscovy to St Petersburg's new-style apartments with spaces for mixed company, which in turn in would be submitted to the paritarian experiments of Nineteenth-century nihilists, described in Chernyshevsky’s novel *What is to Be Done?* It has been argued, though, that one of the most peculiar consequences of the Petrine secularisation and Westernisation was the legitimation of serf harems. In general, it is well known that the permanence of serfdom well into the Nineteenth century led to peculiar intimacy between aristocratic children and serfs, these latter both children and adults, in particular the wet nurse (njanja), especially but not only in the country estate. Less attention has been devoted so far to the phenomenon of the presence in Russian aristocratic households of concubines of foreign origins. The fact that several distinguished Russian writers’ (V. A. Zhukovsky, A. I. Herzen, A. A. Fet) mothers belonged to this group of women induces to put the question of their specific role in the household. Primarily on the basis of memoir material it will be attempted to define it, with special attenyion to the domestic spaces they occupied and their symbolic meaning.

S071(II) (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M2-10: Rochester: Van Der Goot Building)

Houses of Pain and Houses of Pleasure: Forms of (Counter)Domesticity in the Long Eighteenth

Century (II Session) (II)

Organizer / Chair: Francesca Saggini, Suzanne Pucci

De Michelis, Lidia Anna: "The House a Bedlam and the Conversation a Hell": (counter)domesticity

in Defoe's *Conjugal Lewdness*

Drawing on Cynthia Wall’s well established comment that “almost all of Defoe’s didactic treatises are novelistically peopled” (2008: 170), and elaborating on J.P. Hunter’s analysis of Defoe’s conduct books as imaginative and rhetorical spaces where the defence of family values and a desire for “didactic closure” open up to the blurring of fact and fiction, and embrace “the mixed values of dialogue and drama and theatrical commerce along with hortatory and even coercive didacticism” (2008: 237), my presentations aims to map out the fictional fabric underpinning, but at the same time challenging and subverting, the didactic agenda of the matrimonial treatise Conjugal Lewdness (1727). While primarily meant to cohere the disciplinary social and religious message of the tract through the inscription of dysfunctional examples, Defoe’s novelistic cameos vividly bring to life alternative portraits of family life, where (counter)domesticity serves both to evoke the dangers of moral and social dis-connection accompanying the changing moral economies of early eighteenth century London, and to highlight new patterns of articulation between social discipline and individual freedom. Building on E. Bond’s notion that the literary genre of conduct books came to represent, in Defoe’s times, an “imaginative, experimental tool for organizing readers” (2007: XVII), and relying,


mostly, on a cultural studies approach, I shall attempt to explore the aesthetics and ideological functions of the (counter)domestic narratives in Conjugal Lewdness against the backdrop of Defoe’s other moralizing tracts and early depictions of family dis-order in The Review and the novels. Bond E., 2007, Reading London: Urban Speculation and Imaginative Government in Eighteenth-Century Literature, Columbus, The Ohio State University Press. Hunter J.P., 2008, “Defoe and poetic tradition”, in J. Richetti (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Daniel Defoe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 216-236. McKeon M., 2005, The Secret History of Domesticity: Public, Private and the Division of Knowledge, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press. Wall C., 2008, “Defoe and London”, in J. Richetti (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Daniel Defoe, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 158-181.

Bragone, Maria Cristina: Between transgression and modernization: manuals of etiquette for

young girls in eighteenth-century Russia.

During the reign of Czar Peter the Great manuals of etiquette for young girls were an important manifestation of the early secularization of the Russian society. The behavioural norms they conveyed should be considered rather as elements of transgression and innovation than as instruments of coercion. With the ongoing modernization and seculariza-tion of the Russian society during the 18th century the manuals tend to lose the character of innovation and transgression regardless of their popularity

Johner, Aline: Illicit sexuality, politics and family. Mechanisms of the reproduction of sexual and

political identities in a Swiss region in the 18th century

In our paper we will try to show how the micro-historical study of political and family network in a Swiss rural region challenges numerous quite widespread historical and anthropological assumptions about illicit sexuality and early modern rural societies. Our inquiry is based on a micro-historical approach which aims to make the social activities and the political participation of working class women and men more visible, despite scarce “classical” historical information about their biographies. Difficulties to collect precise information have often led historians to conclusions which fatally underestimate the agency of pre-modern working classes, for example in sexual life. Yet in the 18th century, nearly half of all couple in Pays de Vaud had children who were conceived before the marriage. Matching demographic and political sources, it is interesting to notice that families belonging to the political opposition in the 18th century or to the radical movement in the 19th century were characterized by this form of sexual behavior. Our analysis will focus on two connected aspects: 1. The link between reproduction of kinship, political allegiances and sexual identities. 2. The building of specific networks between families characterized by particular sexual attitudes in a protestant region.

S072(I) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M2-11: Santander: Van Der Goot Building)

La Transylvanie, la Moldavie, la Valachie au Carrefour des Échanges (I)

Organisatrice/Président: Emese Egyed

Egyed, Emese: La mission du traducteur. Kelemen Mikes traducteur de livres catholiques pour

l’Europe Orientale


Dans l’entourage du prince Ferenc II Rákóczi se trouvait, dès 1707 le jeune noble de Transylvanie, Kelemen Mikes, qui a partagé l’exil avec le prince (en Pologne, en France et en Turquie). Il est considéré de nos jours un des écrivains remarquables connaisseur de la philosophie des Lumières par son roman épistolaire Lettres de Turquie (rédigé en hongrois, publié en 1794). Les recherches récentes ont prouvé que les traductions qu’il avait fait d’œuvres francaises entre 1724 et 1750 ne représentent pas des passe-temps d’exil mais tiennent d’un programme complexe qui avait pour but le renforcement de l’Église catholique dans la région de l’Europe Orientale. Après la mort de Rákóczi, Mikes avait fait des voyages de nature diplomatique: il s’est rendu en 1739 en Moldavie (à Iaşi) puis à Bucarest – séjours partiellement décrits dans ses lettres. Rentreé a Constantinople, Il avait continué à faire des traductions; une douzaine de livres restés en manusccrit marquent les théories de son isolement. Ces ouvrages semblent être destinés à l’éducation des jeunes de y compris les femmes (des oeuvres de Charles Gobinet, François-Aimé Pouget, Benoît van Haeften,Nicolas Letourneux, Nicolas de Mélicques, Claude Fleury, Antoine de Courtin, Augustin Calmet). Pour des raisons de politique l’auteur est resté persona non grata dans sa patrie mais l’Empire Autrichienne soutenait les positions de l’Église catholique dans les provinces et sur les territoires limitrophes – ainsi les ouvrages qui pouvaient servir de manuels à l’enseignement et à l’éducation catholiques contribuaient indirectement au renforcement du pouvoir autrichien dans tout la la région. Les recherches actuelles se concentrent sur la relation qui existait entre la Cour, la noblesse et l’Église catholiques dans la période 1711 et 1794 dans l’Empire des Habsbourg, relation exemplifiée dans la carrière de l’homme de lettres nommé Kelemen Mikes (1695–1761). .

Mihaila, Ileana: Les études de Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville sur la Dacia vetus et nova et

leur réception roumaine

Ma communication se propose de passer en revue quelques contributions appartenant à un des plus insignes historiens et géographes français du XVIIIe siècle qui représentent une partie de l’effort de construire une image cohérente des Pays Roumains, peu et surtout mal connus à cette époque en Occident. Elles sont dues au célèbre géographe et historien Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville. Ils constituent l’objet principal de mon analyse. Si ses cartes sont mieux connues et étudiées, ses études présentées à l’Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles Lettres dont il était membre furent moins interrogés par les spécialistes d’aujourd’hui. J’ai pu trouver néanmoins un lecteur et traducteur roumain au XIXe siècle les ayant bien connues, traduites et publiées. Ensuite elles furent négligées. Pourtant ils nous apportent un regard particulier, bien riche en détails, qui synthétise un certain acquis scientifique à l’époque des Lumières. Les textes en question sont consacrés à ces contrées, qui y apparaissent aussi bien du point de vue historique que géographique, suivies au fil des siècles.

Bartha, Katalin Ágnes: Staging Shakespeare in Transylvania in the first decades of professional

acting

Established in 1792 in Kolozsvár /Cluj with the help of the local aristocracy, the first Hungarian professional theatre company excelled in experimenting with various Shakespeare plays: their first Shakespeare performance was staged already the following year . In this early (1792-1833) period of theatrical reception (with an emphasis on Transylvania), the company staged also The taming of the shrew, King Lear, Romeo and Juliet, and Macbeth. The present study analyses the mechanisms involved in translating two of the abovementioned Shakespeare plays onto the stage, namely Hamlet as translated by Ferenc Kazinczy and Macbeth by Gábor Döbrentei. Being literary personalities of their time, both Kazinczy and Döbrentei are considered as being representative with regard to Shakespeare’s Hungarian reception because they produced two landmark translations of the British playwright: Kazincy translated Hamlet from German (in 1790), while the philologist Gábor Döbrentei translated Macbeth from the English original at the beginning of the 19th century. Although their translation principles and practices differed from each other, both had a great impact


on the reading public as well as on the wider theatrical audience in communicating Hungarian Shakespeare-culture. Within this period, the cultural transfer of Shakespeare’s work was actively facilitated by various persons (translators, readers, actors, bookshop owners) ; however, the institution of the theatre playead also an important role in organising and structuring the transfer. Therefore, the reconstruction analysis of the adapting process of the two translations will concentrate first on textual transformations; then, by examining the remaining sources about one of the earliest Hungarian perfomances of Hamlet (from January 27, 1794) the relationships between text and scenery will be dealt with. Finally, the scope of the analysis will be completed by revealing also the casting and doubling practices of the era in the context of the Macbeth-premiere from April 11, 1812.

S072(II) (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M2-11: Santander: Van Der Goot Building)

La Transylvanie, la Moldavie, la Valachie au Carrefour des Échanges (II)

Organisatrice/Président: Emese Egyed

Fazakas, Emese: Les mots roumains et allemands dans les textes hongrois écrits en Transylvanie en

18ème siècle

Les textes hongrois écrits dans le 18ème siècle présentent plusieurs mots et expressions roumains et allemands qu’aujourd’hui ne font part de la léxique hongroise, même de la léxique régionale. C’est trés intéressant de voir quelles sont les catégories sémantiques qu’on peut situer ces mots et ces expressions, parce qu’on peut tirer des conclusion non seulement sur les échanges linguistiques, mais sur la vie quotidienne des hommes qui habitaient la Transylvanie en 18ème siècle. Par example on peut observer que plusieurs mots de la vocabulaire des bergers est principalement roumain parce que ce métier était pratiqué par les roumains. Mais plusieur autre métier font usage des emprunts roumain. C’est la même chose pour quelque nourritures et boisson, textures, instruments etc. Les questions à répondre sont : quelles sont les catégories sémantique ? qu’est qu’on peut conclure des catégories à regard de la vie quotidienne des hongrois de Transylvanie ? qu’est que c’est changé au cours des siècles suivant qui a conduit à un changement de vocabulaire ? Les textes consultés font part du Dictionnaire historique de la langue hongrois de la Transylvanie (Erdélyi magyar szótörténeti tár, 1985–2014) que comprend de nombreux types de textes : des lettres, des documents de la cour, etc., et à partir de ces textes on peut voir non seulement le vocabulaire des nobles mais même des paysans, et on peut voir quelles sont les régions où on utilise fréquemment ces mots et ces expréssions.

Chisacof, Lia: Medicine In The 18th Cent. Romania

The aim of the present paper is to give a larger picture of the 18th cent. medicine in Romania . Up to now most contributions concentrated on the institutions such as the hospitals and on the personal stories of the doctors.A manuscript (called THE ART OF MEDICINE (MESTESUGUL DOFTORIEI) it focuses on which has recently been made an edition of by the very author of the present paper seems to be most helpful. It has up to recently been thought to belong to the 19th cent. instead of the 18th although it is dated 1760 and arguably datable around the same time. Its contents are the description of diseases (probably the most frequent ones) and their remedies which range from very simple ones for the poor to more sophisticated ones for the rich. A striking feature is the multilingualism the author resorts to in giving the names of the diseases and of their remedies in various languages Except from their scientific names in Latin and ancient Greek, they are given in


Romanian , modern Greek, Turkish, Hungarian, Italian . Far from being unintentional it is in our opinion meant to assure the treaty a large use all through the central and Balkan European area and that in a push which is a typical Enlightenment gesture. The author himself is anonymous, perhaps in a logics of solidarity with the Hippocratic tradition but there are many elements which very likely send to eponymous personalities. The main conclusions of the paper , besides the multi-ligualism and multi-cultural aims afore mentioned, are a high fidelity to ancient medical tradition and to the Ottoman practices as well as a synchronisation with the Central European realities.

Sikó, Beáta: A Travel Account of the 'New World' Written by Alexander Bölöni Farkas, a

Contemporary of Alexis de Tocqueville

Alexander Bölöni Farkas is considered to be the Transylvanian Columbus of American – Jacksonian – democracy, since his travel account entitled 'Journey in North America' (1834) was far more than a record of extensive travels: it was interpreted as an essay in praise of the young republic that in the age of national awakening served as a political and economic guidance for Transylvania existing under feudal conditions. As a Unitarian Bölöni Farkas was brought up in a deeply religious atmosphere, but his mind and perception was also marked by the influence of the philosophy of the Enlightenment – the catalogues of his personal library prove that he got well acquainted with the writings of Immanuel Kant, Thomas Paine or with the works of Montesquieu and Rousseau. Since due to political reasons his initial travel plans (going eastwards to Russia) failed, he changed his itinerary. Using contemporary travel accounts – as Auguste Levasseur’s journal entitled 'Lafayette in America' –, Bölöni Farkas embarked on a journey to discover the New World in 1830 as the secretary to count Ferencz Béldi and as an accredited diplomat of the Transylvanian Unitarian Church. The main aim of this paper is to explore the way the Transylvanian government functionary – who eventually crossed Tocqueville's path in 1831 and met him during the visit of the Charlestown state penitentiary – organizes his journey and the way his experiences or impressions are represented in his travel writings. The study also revolves around such questions: did Bölöni Farkas follow the itinerary outlined by contemporary, mainly West European travel writers? did he adopt their perspective although he was coming from such a country that was lagging behind in terms of economic development?

S073(I) (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M3-03: Aberdeen: Van Der Goot Building)

Risky Business: Spies, Smugglers, Pirates, Police and Financial Crime (I)

Organizer / Chair: Klaas van Gelder

McNeil, David: “The London Spy: Financial Speculation and Opportunity”

This paper analyzes the depiction of the financial centres described in Ned Ward’s The London Spy (1700), a work that begins and ends in the east end of the city.(1) This cyclical structure is appropriate given the satirical mode of the work; human corruption being ubiquitous one’s experience tends to lack any sense of progress. The east end of London was also its financial centre. Having made an actual trip to Jamaica, Ned Ward was speaking from experience when his London Spy narrator describes the method used by the servants of the Office of Plantations of trepanning unsuspecting youth and getting them to sign on for indentured service to the colonies (Spy 49).


Later, narrator and guide take a tour of the Royal Exchange. Here we encounter the opposite of the idealized, Whig vision of world-trade as represented in Number 69 of Addison’s The Spectator (19 May 1711), a work which ironically borrows the “spectating” metaphor for urban description from Ward. The Spy’s commentary is laden with ethnic epithets--xenophobia run amuck. In the last few sections of The London Spy we are back in the east end, and the Spy serves up a description of Jonathan’s Coffee-House (section 16) which emphasizes crowd behavior and ultimately employs the classical binary of “knaves” and “fools” (Spy 297-98). Characters of the “stockjobber” and “banker” follow. I conclude by recognizing the importance of colonial plantations in the emerging financial empire after the establishment of the Bank of England (1694) and by placing Ward with the Tory satirists who condemned the new financial tools. (1) The London Spy, ed. Paul Hyland (East Lansing: Colleagues Press, 1993). This text is based on the 4th edition of 1709.

Haug, Tilman: The Political Economy of Chance – Debating and operating lotteries in 18th century

France and Germany.

Lotteries were arguably among the most controversial branches of business in the early modern period and stirred debates on whether or not they should be admitted in a political community. The following paper seeks to explore the norms and arguments alongside which debates on individual and collective responsibility for economic unreason were conducted. But French and German case studies will also demonstrate how social and political norms on a practical level not only contested but also opened and structured 18th century lottery markets. Therefore, in the first part I take a look on the fierce public controversies surrounding lotteries in the 18th century and the different positions on the risks and consequences for individual actors as well as the collective social and economic order, the gradual shift from a theological to a socio-economic debate and the various positions on state responsibility in this debate. The second part shows, how lotteries integrated elements of chance in charity economies, “second hand good” lotteries and created intersections of economic and “aleatoric” elements in early modern stock markets. I intend to show how these economies of chance were constantly contested but also renegotiated by the often opportunistic use of references to economic knowledge, theological and moral norms and claims of public responsibility by authorities. In the last part will take a closer on state authorities as operators of lotteries. The close observation of administrative practices surrounding the lotteries does not only to dispel simplistic notions of lotteries as secure and “despotic” way raise money. Lotteries were a risky business and forced fiscal administrations to switch and to negotiate between often contradictory requirements weighing in economic protection of their subjects, fiscal interests, minimizing own financial risks but also compliance with interests and preferences of subjects, who had to be increasingly addressed as consumers and investors.

S073(II) (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M3-03: Aberdeen: Van Der Goot Building)

Risky Business: Spies, Smugglers, Pirates, Police and Financial Crime (II)

Organizer / Chair: Klaas van Gelder

Chevalier, Noel: Plutarch on the Spanish Main: Intertextual and Narrative Strategies in Johnson's

General History of the Pyrates

The account of the pirate Edward Teach in the 1724 General History of the Pirates draws and explicit connection between Teach's nickname, Blackbeard, and the cognomen associated with the "great men" of Plutarch's Parallel Lives of Noble Greeks and Romans. The allusion to Plutarch suggests that the General History is an attempt to impose a particular literary and narrative shape on a multifacted


collection of true histories, legends, and fictions; the purported author, Captain Charles Johnson, deliberately situates stories of maritime criminals within a tradition that has classical antecedents. Moreover, it is an attempt to create a new kind of narrative for individuals who, despite their criminality, delineate the characteristics—however ironically—of the first "great men" (and women) of a burgeoning global economy. This paper will examine various intertexts and narrative strategies employed in the General History, to show that the book as a whole is not so much a set of cautionary tales of the wages of sin, as it is a complex, ambivalent exploration of the relationship between commerce, individual endeavour, and meditations on the notion of “greatness.” The paper will situate these pirate narratives in the context of work such as Bernard Mandeville’s Fable of the Bees and the anti-Walpole sentiment of Mist’s Weekly Journal (Mist himself has been proposed as a possible author of the General History), as well as the appearance of these narratives following the disaster of the South Sea Bubble. General History is consistent with Mandeville’s view of vice as essential to a global economy—the narratives of pirates show that a social and political system based on commerce and trade—and one which underlines the fluid nature of social standing through money—has to allow for and accommodate those individuals who seize their opportunity, even if by illegal means.

Mulryan, Michael: The Shadows of Ancien Régime Tyranny: Latude’s Mémoires (1790) as a source

for Borel’s Madame Putiphar (1838)

Pétrus Borel (1809-1859) wrote his under-appreciated novel Madame Putiphar a full half century after the French Revolution. As Victor Brombert has noted, it is a noteworthy homage to eighteenth-century prison literature. Its most important literary ancestor is arguably escape artist Jean-Henri de Latude (1725-1805) and co-author Luc-Vincent Thiery’s Le Despotisme dévoilé, ou Mémoires de Henri Masers de la Tude (1790). As an amalgam of fact and fiction, Latude’s memoires proved to be riveting reading for a revolutionary public eager to hear the story of a “gentleman” who perfectly personified the corruption of absolutist government, having spent several decades behind bars for a trivial offense: awkwardly seeking the favor of Louis XV’s mistress, La Marquise de Pompadour. What is particularly compelling in Latude’s work is the relationship between tyranny and madness: both the victim’s descent into madness and the supposedly crazed mental state of the tyrants themselves. In both works, this relationship between madness and tyranny is developed, and La Marquise de Pompadour (Madame Putiphar), personifies tyranny, subjecting a young man to her caprices (Patrick in Borel’s novel) causing his madness by attempting to bend his will. I will show that like Latude and Thiery, Borel attempts to touch a nerve by seizing upon contemporary sensibilities to political injustice, yet he intensifies this approach with a novel in the revolutionary tradition that has a more fully developed vision of the psychological relationship between tyranny, madness, and imprisonment. Madame Putiphar provides a coherent and complex analysis of the various modern manifestations of tyranny and their psychological impact on their victims: the disenfranchised, the colonized, and foreigners, among others. By using the feudal trope of arbitrary power, Borel accurately depicts modern people’s struggle for freedom in the face of daunting visible and invisible obstacles, and the psychological alienation it causes.

Freedman, Jeffrey: 'Wounded Imagination: Fear and Paranoia in Enlightenment France

The eighteenth century as “the age of Enlightenment” is usually seen as inaugurating a new epoch in the history of fear, one in which traditional religious fears lost much of their power. That same period, however, also saw the emergence of new fears—political fears that arose in response to the growth of state power and what Michel Foucault described as the ‘Great Confinement.’ Evidence for the existence of such fears is contained in the archive of the Paris police, a source that records episodes such as the tragic case of a Parisian worker so terrified of being followed by the police and thrown into prison that in May 1750, he took his own life. Neighbors of the suicide victim testified that he was insane. His paranoid delusions, however, existed on a continuum with the more


“normal,” quotidian fears of working-class Parisians. They also echoed the concerns of the philosophes, many of whom were themselves subject to police surveillance and the threat of an embastillement. From the works of Montesquieu to the tomes of the Encyclopédie, the issue of fear emerged as a crucial object of analysis. The chevalier de Jaucourt, writing in the Encyclopédie, inaugurated a veritable analytics of fear, distinguishing sharply between “peur,” the direct response to imminent danger, and “crainte,” a permanent condition of dread or anxiety. While “peur” sprang from a healthy survival impulse, Jaucourt depicted “crainte” as a demonic tormenter, the enemy of human happiness. Ironically, however, the campaign to free French subjects from the fear of extrajudicial imprisonment relied in no small measure on scare tactics, or what can be called the “public use of fear.” Two noteworthy examples are the prison memoirs published by two former prisoners in the early 1780: Mirabeau, the future leader of the National Assembly during the early phase of the Revolution, and Linguet, a disbarred lawyer and muckraking journalist. Those authors sought to mobilize public opinion against the practice of extrajudicial imprisonment by depicting the horrors of their own experiences behind bars. While they did not mention physical tortures, both stressed the psychological torments of imprisonment—the isolation, the looming threat of insanity, and above all the relentless dread of some unspecified evil. Their depictions of prison life gave concrete expression to the vision of “crainte” evoked by Jaucourt. But in their vivid depictions of the poisonous fear of fear, they also made strategic use of fear.


Montesquieu: de L'Esprit et des Lois

Organisateur/Président: Catherine Volpilhac-Auger, Lorenzo Bianchi, Rolando Minuti

Méricam-Bourdet, Myrtille: Myrtille Méricam-Bourdet - « Je disais… » dans mes Pensées : théorie

et pratique de l’esprit

La diversité présente dans les Pensées permet sans surprise d’envisager la large palette recouverte par la notion d’esprit, qu’elle soit mobilisée du point de vue le plus général dans des articles renvoyant à L’Esprit des lois ou à l’Essai sur les causes qui peuvent affecter les esprits et les caractères, ou saisie en tant que catégorie spécifique rendant compte d’un à-propos, d’une agilité ou d’une pertinence attendus dans une certaine société, mondaine, aristocratique ou encore littéraire. Ce sont certainement ces notations qui sont majoritaires dans les trois tomes des Pensées, qui circonscrivent la façon dont l’esprit est devenu « un attribut principal de nos temps modernes » (no 1354) et dont il cherche notamment à se faire valoir en société, comme l’ont fait les Lettres persanes. Mais tout comme dans ces dernières, Montesquieu n’analyse-t-il pas une partie de ces tendances en mettant lui-même en scène son propre esprit ? Théorie et pratique de l’esprit coexistent donc de manière singulière dans les Pensées.

Bandoch, Joshua: Joshua Bandoch - Montesquieu, Esprit, and the Politics of Place

One of Montesquieu's central goals in /De l'Esprit des lois/ is to demonstrate that it is not possible to develop a universalistic account of the right political order. He states in I, 3 that "it is better to say that the government most in conformity to nature is the one whose particular arrangement best relates to the disposition of the people for whom it is established." He also argues that laws "should be so appropriate to the people for whom they are made that it is very unlikely that the laws of one nation can suit another." Montesquieu favors an approach I call the "politics of place." He thinks that the politics, economics, and morals of a society must fit a particular place and its people. As long as states commit to pursuing security, liberty, and prosperity, states can - indeed, /should/ - define and advance these goals in their own particular ways. One crucial reason for the necessity of his politics of place is that the /esprit des lois/ and /esprit général/, and the variables that comprise them, vary


greatly across time and place. In this paper I examine Montesquieu's two conceptions of /esprit/ to show how and why he thought that political actors needed to take account of a wide range of variables, including religion, commerce, laws, institutions, physical environment, and mores - to determine the best political, economic, social, and moral order for a particular place.

Pujol, Stéphane: Stéphane Pujol - De l'esprit faux et des mauvais esprits. Quand Voltaire réécrit les

Lettres persanes

L'influence des Lettres persanes sur Voltaire a été souvent commentée. Notre communication aimerait néanmoins revenir sur la définition de l'esprit que propose Montesquieu dans son roman satirique, notamment sur le discours (et ses représentations) d'un certain mauvais esprit que l’auteur des Lettres nomme "l'esprit de vertige" et qui concerne les défenseurs d’une certaine orthodoxie en matière de religion. Il s’agirait de voir comment et dans quels contextes Voltaire se saisit de cette critique pour en faire le fer de lance de sa lutte contre le fanatisme.

Vernazza, Diego: L’esprit général, l’objet d’une nation, et le problème de l’idéal

On tentera dans cette communication d’articuler deux notions centrales, à la fois proches et distinctes, du lexique de Montesquieu : celle d’ « esprit général » et celle d’« objet direct » d’une nation. La première comprend, dans les successives définitions qu’il en donne (Considérations, XXII ; Pensées N° 542, 854, 1903 ; Esprit des lois, XIX, 4 ; et Essai sur les causes), une série de facteurs qui déterminent le mode d’être, le caractère, d’un peuple. Dans sa formulation définitive, celle de XIX, 4, l’esprit général apparaît comme le résultat de la confluence des « causes », aussi bien « physiques » que « morales », comme le climat, la religion, les lois, les maximes du gouvernement, les exemples des choses passées, les mœurs et les manières. L’autre notion sur laquelle nous nous arrêterons est celle d’« objet direct » d’une nation. Elle revient à plusieurs reprises, mais elle n’est définie qu’une fois, dans un chapitre qui lui est entièrement consacré, « De l’objet des Etats divers » : « Quoique tous les Etats aient en général un même objet, qui est de se maintenir, chaque Etat en a pourtant un qui lui est particulier. L’agrandissement était l’objet de Rome ; la guerre, celui de Lacédémone ; la religion, celui des lois judaïques ; le commerce, celui de Marseille ; la tranquillité publique, celui des lois de Chine […] » (EL, XIX, 4). La liste est longue, et elle conclut avec l’objet d’Angleterre : « la liberté politique », l’« objet direct de sa constitution », c’est-à-dire ce vers quoi tendent, ou devrait tendre, ses lois et ses mœurs. Chaque Etat aurait donc un « esprit général » qui lui donne une forme, et un « objet » qui lui donne un sens. Quels sont leurs rapports ? Comment se conforment-ils ? De quelle façon évoluent-ils ? Ce sont les questions que nous poserons dans cette communication.


Political Drinking and toasting in the Eighteenth Century

Organizer / Chair: Rémy Duthille, Anne Wegener Sleeswijk

Duthille, Rémy: Political Toasting in the Age of Revolutions: Britain, America and France, c.1765-

c.1800


From the Stamp Act and the crisis leading to the American Revolution to the end of the French Revolution decade, political toasting achieved prominence as the American Insurgents, and later the French Revolutionaries, adopted an originally British practice to publicize their (essentially anti-British) grievances, aims and values. This paper builds on the rich historiography on American festivals and civic culture, and on the Atlantic economy, and expands the analysis to France, in order to examine how toasting contributed to express political and national identities in revolutionary situations when loyalties were dramatically questioned and shifting. Toasting was a particularly appropriate medium to crystallize public opinion around charismatic freedom fighters and express support for the cause of liberty throughout the world. Such commitment to universal values, however, went along with nation-building as the Americans transformed British monarchical rituals to express loyalty to their new republican institutions. American-style toasting appeared in France on a few occasions during the Independence War, as French officials and sympathizers sought to honour the Americans and celebrate their alliance with them. Toasting, however, really started as the political institutions, practices and symbolism were reshaped in the course of the French Revolution. When some Jacobin clubs chose to drink toasts to British and American friends of liberty, tostes were perceived as a new practice imported from England. After Robespierre’s fall, the Directory integrated toasts into the vocabulary of civic and military festivals, and, as Bonaparte rose to prominence, toast lists increasingly served to publicize the French Republic’s warlike aims and values to a national and international audience.

Powell, Martyn: Political Toasting and the Commonwealthman Tradition in Eighteenth-Century

Ireland

The importance of the toast in eighteenth-century Ireland rests on the symbolism and ritual inherent in alcohol consumption, but also on the political messages that could be conveyed – messages that were all the more potent when they were transmitted beyond those attending via the medium of newspapers. One strain of political thought that remained remarkably persistent in Ireland during this period was the evocation of the Commonwealthman tradition, as identified by Caroline Robbins in her The Eighteenth-Century Commonwealthman. Although some historians have argued that by the late eighteenth-century men of property were rejecting the attractions of the leitmotifs of the Commonwealthmen, it is, I will argue, possible to see a survival in Irish toasting. The exploration of this phenomenon raises a number of questions about the nature of Irish public opinion in this period. Firstly, when traced to the radical societies and publications that emerged in the 1790s it suggests a variant of republicanism that was ‘nationalistic’ in a rather more complicated way than is currently perceived in some historical quarters. Secondly, it can indicate that the most obvious kinds of political credo that emerge in the 1780s and 1790s share the same whiggish lineage, a lineage that was persistent in both camps. This paper will also utilise a comparative perspective, looking at the survival of Commonwealthman toasts in England and Scotland, and will therefore raise broader questions relating to political culture in Britain and Ireland during this period.

Brunstrom, Conrad: “More famous he for Drinking, than for Thought”: Beer and impudent

discourse at the Robin Hood Society.

In the third quarter of the eighteenth-century, the “Robin Hood Society” became the most prominent and notorious debating club in London. Denounced by poets, moralists and essayists, it was considered shocking both in terms of its inclusive attitude to membership and speaking privileges as well as the ambitious versatility of the topics debated. It is notable, however, that class-based disapproval of the society took the form of mockery rather than demands for legal suppression. Virtually all surviving detailed accounts of the society are hostile. These accounts choose to emphasise the prevalence of beer drinking at club meetings. The plebeian impudence of these gatherings is referenced in terms of the beverage of choice. Politics is, apparently, the curse of the


drinking classes. Porter beer (synonymous with London’s heavy lifting classes) is sometimes accompanied by whiskey (or uisge beatha) illustrating the strong representation of the London Irish among this heterogeneous discursive community. Intriguingly, accounts of the Robin Hood Society Debating Club are very similar to accounts of “Spouting Clubs” dedicated to amateur dramatics. Beer drinking typifies the assembly both of would-be politicians and would-be actors. This paper will consider the meaning of the drink-inflected denunciations of the Robin Hood Society, alongside discussions of the meaning of beer itself in eighteenth-century London, considering georgic poems such as “Brown Beer” by John Peake in ways that illustrate ways in which beer connotes a particular definition of hard and necessary labour. The scandal of beer drinking political discussants is therefore the scandal of labour in a state of leisure and the conspicuous consumption of beer therefore reflects the threat of people who will not “mind their own business”.

Mee, Jon: Songs and Toasts in the London Corresponding Society: The Case of Robert Thomson

Songs and toasts were central to the political sociability of the LCS. In the first year of the Society's formation, Thomson had a key role in sustaining the Society's morale in the songs and toasts collected in his Tribute to Liberty (1793). Not everyone in the Society, however, saw the role of songs and toasts in the same way. This paper explores the case of Robert Thomson, including his return from exile in France in 1815 in the context of changing understanding of songs and toasts in political culture.

S076 (14:00 - 15:30, Room: M3-06: Luxemburg: Van Der Goot Building)

Humans and Gold

Organizer / Chair: Joost Hengstmengel

Shinde, Nandkumar: Humanism : Eighteenth Century’s souvenir

The 16th century Dutch humanist Erasmus is the pioneer of ‘Humanism’ who along with the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, began issuing new translations, laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Henceforth Renaissance humanism, particularly in the German North, became concerned with religion, while Italian and French humanism concentrated increasingly on scholarship and philology addressed to a narrow audience of specialists, studiously avoiding topics that might offend despotic rulers or which might be seen as corrosive of faith. During the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany (by the Left Hegelians), humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. On this firm foundation, the structure of ‘Humanism’ is firmly established by 18 th century Humanist whose impact in the liberation and justice till present day is the aspect of this research paper. Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, D'Holbach, Paine and Hume stood foursquare for human liberation from all tyrannies, not least the tyranny of established religion. Alexander Pope's “Know then thyself, presume not God to scan/ The proper study of mankind is man” expresses well the prime focus humanity received in itself within the context of the Enlightenment, as subverting its traditional interest in God and the transcendent hierarchy. The center is shifted from divinity to humanity in this age as Copernicus replaced Sun by the Earth in his cosmological system. David Hume with his radical philosophical empiricism and skepticism, Voltaire with his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, Denis Diderot an eminent rationalist, Rousseau, forebear of modern socialism and Communism advocating justice, freedom and equality forged Humanity, a path to be followed by 19 th and 20 th century Humanist. The inspiration was a boost to several humanitarian movements in 20th century. Mahtma Gandhi, the crusader of Indian freedom struggle owe lot to these philosophers. Nelson Madela, Martin Luther King(Jr),Dalai Lama, Aung San Suu Kyi are the products


of this movement and a bless to the Humanity. Key words : Humanism, Enlightenment, eighteenth century, philosophers, humanity.

Craig, Charlotte: Golden Lessons

Gold! This precious metal has been used through the ages for coins, jewelry, in dentistry, and much later in electronics and related industries, lesser amounts for decorating china and glassware, gold leaf used for gilding. Along with this remarkable development there appeared in the language terms such as “Golden Fleece,” “Golden Bull,” “Golden age,” “gold standard,” “golden retriever,” “golden rule,” “goldfish,” “gold leaf”, “gold mine,” “goldsmith,” “gold medal,” “golden anniversary,” the “Golden Lane” in Prague, where a “protoscience” was being practiced by alchemists, “manufacturing gold” from lesser metals. Influenced by the Italian Renaissance, the Reformation, by humanists, such as Erasmus Desiderius of Rotterdam, the founding of the universities of Prague and Vienna, intellectual life was furthered by Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press. As a prominent advocate of “Christian humanism,” Erasmus’s tolerance , prudence, and decency were reflected in his major works, "Handbook of a Christian Knight," and "In Praise of Folly.” Another author of the age, Georg Wickram, titled his prose novel, "Der Goldfaden," later adapted by Clemens Brentano. The eighteenth century continued its preoccupancy with gold, example: Wieland’s political novel, titled "Der Goldene Spiegel." Considerable examples may be found in Goethe’s Faust I, Schiller’s poetry, Romantic fiction by Tieck, E.T.A. Hoffmann’s " Der goldene Topf," Brentano’s ballad "Lore Lay," and others, fiction in Tieck’s " Der Blonde Eckbert," also collaboration with Achim von Arnim in his popular collection of "Des Knaben Wunderhorn," and the Brothers Grimms’ acclaim with their collections of folk tales. These “golden lessons” represent an emerging ethic in parsimony and an educator for the general public.


Language Choice in Enlightenment Europe: Education and Sociability (I)

Organizer / Chair: Vladislav Rjeoutski, Willem Frijhoff

Velle, Thomas: Writing Latin to reach the European market? Language and Translation in Holberg’s

Nicolai Klimii Iter subterraneum.

In order to reach a European public, the ‘father of Danish literature’ Ludvig Holberg published his Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum (1741) in Latin. At that time, Latin was an unusual choice for social satires and imaginary voyages, which were mainly written in vernacular. The Iter became immensely popular throughout Europe because of its many and quick translations in vernacular languages, facilitated by the Latin original. Latin thus was a ‘lingua franca’ of intellectual Europe, but also a language that asked for translations. Holberg was very aware of this paradoxical nature of Latin and thematized it in the Iter in various ways. In the story, the status of a ‘lingua franca’ or a universal language Holberg strictly reserves for Potu, the utopian society of the subterranean world. Furthermore, the hero Klim constantly learns subterranean languages and needs to be assisted by translators as Latin proves to be totally useless in the underground world. In the second edition of the Iter in 1745, Holberg makes Klim’s text a Latin translation of an originally Danish manuscript. The countless references to classical literature in the Iter then could be attributed to the fictitious translator Abeline who persists in writing Latin. Holberg hereby satirizes the antiquarian academic world, personified by Abeline. By analysing these textual instances, I will show that Holberg was a European-minded author who, notwithstanding his deliberate choice to write the Iter in Latin, was well aware of the problematic place of Latin and the growing importance of translations and vernacular in the European literary landscape of the 18th century. The choice for Latin and the many quotations of classical authors were not a way to stubbornly hold on to the past, but rather exemplifies Holberg’s modern and renewed look on the classical tradition.


Rjeoutski, Vladislav: Latin in civil education in Russia in the eighteenth century: the story of a

defeat

Latin was one of the languages which were learned by some representatives of the Russie elites from the 17th century. In the reign of Peter the Great Russia opened itself to the western world and there was a hope that Latin, together with other foreign languages, such as German and French, would be intensely learned by Russian nobility and non-noble Russians involved in various activities where a certain knowledge of European languages, old and new, was needed. After all, Latin was still used, at least to some extent, in many domains such as diplomacy, science etc. However the story of Latin in Russian civil education in the 18th century is largely the story of a defeat. While Russian Orthodox Church, after some debate, strangely enough as it may seem, adopted Latin as one of ist main languages of culture and studies, Russian nobility did not embrace the study of Latin with such enthusiasm as it did for German and French. If in western countries Latin began to lose its importance as well, the process was not at all so straight forward and continued for a very long time. We thus find in the 18th century a rather clear dichotomy between western European linguistic practices where Latin conserved to some extent its place and value, and Russian situation where a great majority of nobles of all strata ignored even basic Latin and clearly preferred modern vernaculars, German and French, to Latin. In my paper I will first consider the reasons for refusal of this important part of the European linguistic heritage, which have never been clearly elucidated. Secondly I will analyze the cultural consequences of this situation taking into account various aspects of the process of education of the nobility in Russia during the 18th century.

Balazs, Peter: Trouver sa langue dans la Hongrie des Lumieres

Dans mon exposé, consacré aux facteurs qui pouvaient déterminer les auteurs et traducteurs á choisir la langue dans laquelle ils allaient composer leur texte, je me propose de partager avec les participants quelques réflexions portant sur le statut du latin et du francais. Le latin a conservé son rôle dans l’éducation et dans la vie publique du royaume multiethnique. Voilá ce qui explique qu’il existe des traductions en latin de quelques ouvrages majeurs des Lumières françaises : dans la première partie de mon exposé, je présenterai le contexte de la traduction manuscrite en latin (récemment découverte) que Károly Koppi, professeur d’histoire de l’université de Buda, a préparée de l’Histoire des Oracles de Fontenelle. Non moins intéressante est la question des ouvrages publiés en français dans la Hongrie du 18e siècle. Il existe une véritable tradition dans la recherche qui consiste à associer la philosophie et l’influence francaises à la subversion. Dans ce paradigme le fait que quelques auteurs ont choisi de s’exprimer en langue française pouvait s’interpréter comme indice d’un contenu radical, subversif. Or, les deux dernières décennies ont amené une réorientation majeure dans la recherche. La volonté de rompre avec l’identification des Lumières avec les ouvrages parisiens les plus audacieux (athées ou déistes), l’attention accrue accordée aux productions intellectuelles des auteurs « bien-pensants », la mise en scène du français comme instrument majeur de la sociabilité nobiliaire, enfin l’exploration systématique de l’édition en langue française ont déchiré les liens entre le choix du francais comme langue d’écriture et l’adoption d’une posture subversive. Dans la seconde partie mon exposé, je me proposerai de revenir sur ces résultats récents de la recherche et d’avancer l’argument que, complétée de quelques éléments paratextuels orientant les lecteurs, l’adoption de la langue française peut bel et bien servir d’indice et d’avertissement d’un contenu dangereux.

Khavanova, Olga: Language proficiencies and the phenomenon of multilingualism among the royal

servants in the Kingdom of Hungary in the late eighteenth century

Two things among others circumscribe cultural horizons of the Hungarian royal servants in the eighteenth century: the dominance of Latin in the public sphere – be it legislation, administration, or


jurisprudence, and the multilingual character of the country. The famous Hungarian school-curriculum Ratio Educationis (1777) specified seven folks of the kingdom – Hungarians, Germans, Slovaks, Croats, Ruthens, Illyrians (Serbs), and Valachians (Rumanians), – whose languages were to be taught at school both to the native speakers, and their direct neighbours. On the one hand, education before (and long after) 1777 was Latin-orientated, inasmuch as sufficient proficiency in it was indispensable for any public career. By the same token, an individual grown up in a multilingual milieu often possessed proficiencies in speaking and understanding vernaculars. Both those who were applying for a position in the royal administration, and the authorities judging upon competitors considered multilingualism as an advantage, since this was an important tool of communication with the local population. From the 1760s on however, the Vienna Court was making slow but decisive steps towards gradual replacement of Latin with the German language and was eager to be informed about the language proficiencies among different layers of its administrative apparatus. This resulted in requirements addressed to the stuff of the central and local governmental bodies to evaluate their own competence in German. (Joseph II’s Konduitlisten are probably best known in this respect, but this practice is at least ten to fifteen year older.) More or less detailed accounts received back give a diversified picture of generational, local, personal factors defining the language-knowledge. The paper suggests an analysis of archival sources from the 1770s and 1780s, which allow coming to some most general conclusions regarding the schooling and socialising of different generations of lower nobility and ignoble literati in the royal service.


Language Choice in Enlightenment Europe: Education and Sociability (II)

Organizer / Chair: Vladislav Rjeoutski

Frijhoff, Willem: Routines and innovations in Dutch foreign language education after 1750

Ever since its origin multilingualism was a distinguishing mark of the Republic of the United Provinces. In addition to Dutch, the rising national language in the course of unification, French imposed itself as the language of international commerce, the everyday tongue of a considerable part of the numerous refugees and immigrants, and above all as the cultural means of expression of the political and intellectual elites, in rivalry with academic Latin, and, of course, Dutch itself. Next to the Latin grammar schools, a broad network of so-called French schools developed in interaction with the immigration of refugees, merchants, skilled workers, teachers and intellectuals from the French-speaking parts of the Southern Netherlands. French became the gateway to the acquisition of civic values and modern skills and sciences, such as commerce, history, geography, literature etc. During the 18th century, the so-called ‘francization’ of the elites was denounced by liberal intellectuals as a harmful routine, detrimental to the development of national culture and national consciousness, and a major cause of the national decline experienced by these critics. Simultaneously, a profound innovation of linguistic education was proposed, both in matters of method (including in the Latin schools) and in the choice of foreign languages, such as German or English. The French presence in the Batavian Republic and the Kingdom of Holland and its incorporation into the Napoleonic Empire (1795-1813) implied however a revival of French as the language of Revolution and Empire in Dutch society. Based on some late 18th-century surveys of the educational system this paper will sketch a measure of the penetration of foreign languages in Dutch society, next to the analysis of the discourse on foreign language teaching advanced by some influential treatises on the reform of the educational system by authors such as Schomaker and Vatebender.


van Strien-Chardonneau, Madeleine: Pratiques et fonctions du français langue seconde dans

une famille patricienne néerlandaise, les Van Hogendorp (18e-début 19e)

Dans une étude récente (2010), l’historien néerlandais Willem Frijhoff analysant la situation de plurilinguisme dans la Hollande des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, souligne la place privilégiée du français qui devient progressivement langue de la diplomatie, langue du commerce international, langue de la République des lettres, mais aussi langue de distinction politique et sociale. Nous nous proposons d’examiner l’usage écrit du français dans une famille patricienne néerlandaise, les Van Hogendorp dont les archives offrent de nombreux documents (correspondances, journaux de voyage et journaux personnels, Mémoires) et permettent de voir l’usage et les fonctions du français sur trois générations (XVIIIe-début XIXe) : parents pratiquant un bilinguisme franco-néerlandais, enfants et petits-enfants ajoutant au néerlandais et au français langue seconde, allemand et anglais. Nous voulons présenter globalement, au sein de cette famille, ces pratiques, dégager la relation entretenue avec le néerlandais et montrer les évolutions (par exemple du bilinguisme de la première génération au plurilinguisme des générations ultérieures). On s’interrogera également sur les interprétations possibles à donner à ce bilinguisme et plurilinguisme en tenant compte du contexte politique de l’époque, ainsi que de la question du genre, les documents de la main des femmes de cette famille étant également nombreux.

Nesse, Agnete: «Bilingual education 1754 – 1837: Norwegian and German trade apprentices in

Bergen, Norway

At the ware house and in the company of merchants, foremen and apprentices, the young trade apprentices in Bergen during the late 18th century came into contact with a general bilingualism that seems strikingly pragmatic. This can be traced within a number of domains, one of them is the educational system. There were clearly defined rules for what the apprentices were to learn, and how the exam that granted them the title of gesell ‘foreman’ were to be conducted. My paper will be a presentation of two of the key texts dealing with the education of the apprentices: First a printed text book from 1754, where every second page is in Danish and every second page is in German. This text book offers interesting data not only on the bilingualism in the society, but also on different practice in the use of French loan words, and on the translation process: Even though the book is clearly based on an older, German only version, the foreword claims that it is indeed a translation from Danish and into German. This tells us that – pragmatic as the merchants might be when it came to language choice – language was indeed important on a higher level of the society. The second text is a protocol of the testimonies that were granted to the boys after they had passed their foreman exam. Here it is stated which boys wanted the testimony in German and which boys wanted the testimony in Danish. Combined with the information on where the boys were born, one can see the degree to which language choice followed place of birth, or if there were many instances of crossing.


The Ancient World in The Eighteenth Century

Organizer / Chair: Ivo Nieuwenhuis

Galé, Pedro: Winckelmann, between aesthetics and the history of art

Published in 1764, Winckelmann´s “History of the art of antiquity” is a text that rests itself between two brand new disciplines: History of art and Aesthetics. Acclaimed as the founder of Art History, Winckelmann, as we assume, had also a major role in the beginning of aesthetics as a philosophical discipline. As said by Goethe: “He is like Columbus, when he had not yet discovered the New World, yet had a presentiment of it in mind. We learn nothing by reading him, but we become something”. To become something in this pathway means to learn to look and understand the visual arts with a


new pattern in terms of theoretical and aesthetical appreciation. It is rom the inside of the major works that a true appreciation of art becomes possible: “the ability of appreciating what is beautiful in art is a concept that incorporates at the same time the person and the object, that which contains and that which is contained”. From the training of the capacity of perceiving the beauty in objects of art emerges the possibility of a new rearrangement, in chronological sense, of the arts. It comes from the inner essence of the works, which arose in the description: “The description of a statue should show us the reason for its beauty and indicate something specific about its artistic style”. The description is what ties together the aesthetical ground and the possibility of a sistem. It is a way to reconstruct the objects of the ancient world and bring the whole complex of antiquity together, bringing a new criteria for a historical arrangement. History of art as a “doctrinal building” should arise from an union of the eye and the spirit which brings a new statement for history and its methods.

Muhammed, Hend: Ancient Egyptian inscriptions at the Entrances to Constructions in Cairo during

the 18th Century

This paper is an attempt to follow the phenomenon of using inscribed slabs at the entrance of many modern constructions in Cairo, including Khankawat where supposed to be the Sufis who considered the ancient Egyptians infidels. The constructors’ attitude towards ancient Egyptian inscriptions and if there was any knowledge with the decipherment of the writings on these utilized slabs . Travelers described certain ancient Egyptian constructions that were dismantled to be used in establishing t Mamluk and Othoman buildings, so I will try to discover the actual attitude towards these inscriptions if it was random use or intended due to certain concept in the constructors’minds. I will also tackle the entrance blocks with ancient Egyptian inscriptions in 18th C. constructions and if there is a definite text or formulae was preferred to be used in these buildings. I will also follow the knowledge of natives with the decipherment of ancient Egyptian inscriptions.

Otabe, Tanehisa: Toward A Problem Area of ‘Common Sense’: From Aristotle’s ‘Perception of

Perception’ to Kant’s ‘Aesthetic Consciousness’

Based on commonly held beliefs, there are two strands in the idea of ‘common sense’: the Aristotelian idea of something intra-subjective that is common to the different senses in one individual and the Ciceronian idea of something inter-subjective that is common to different individuals. Kant’s concept of common sense is regarded as belonging to the second strand. In contrast to such beliefs, I argue as follows: 1. In De Anima, Aristotle defines ‘common sense’ as the sense that perceives something common to various senses, e.g., movement, form, size, etc. He also argues that when we perceive, we perceive (aisthanesthai) that we perceive, attributing this second order perception to common sense. In Nicomachean Ethics, based on and generalizing his analysis of ‘common sense’ concerning the perception of perception, Aristotle further claims that we perceive that we perceive or think and that perceiving our perceiving or thinking is perceiving our existence or life. He even goes on to argue that for a friend as alter ego we co-perceive (synaisthanesthai) our friend’s existence by living together and sharing thoughts with the friend. Such co-perception belongs to a problem area of the Aristotelian idea of common sense, leading the first strand to the second. 2. In the CPJ, Kant bases a judgment of taste on common sense, i.e., a ‘communal sense’ that takes inter-subjectively ‘account of everyone’s way of representing’. At the same time, however, he defines common sense as a feeling effected by the intra¬-subjective free play of our cognitive powers (i.e., imagination and understanding) and argues that ‘we become aesthetically conscious of’ this play; in a judgment of taste ‘the subject feels itself’, which is nothing other than the ‘feeling of life’. In this sense, Kant’s aesthetics prominently resonates with the Aristotelian concept of common sense in the broadest sense.

Merolle, Vincenzo: Ciceronianism in eighteenth-century Britain


In this Paper The Author Demonstrates That Newton's Cosmology And Eighteenth-Century

Cosmology -See, In Particular, Adam Smith's Philosophical Works And Hume's The Natural History Of

Religion And Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion- Are Nothing More Than Cicero's Cosmology, As

Discussed Especially In On The Nature Of The Gods . Therefore, Ciceronian Philosophy Was

Superseded -If It Ever Was- With The Physics Of Maxwell And Einstein


Bread and Branding: Writing as Work, the Author as Commodity

Organizer / Chair: Jan Frans van Dijkhuizen

Van Leeuwen, Evert: The Price of Being Godwin: The Author as Monster – Stories as Tainted Goods.

This paper will present an analysis of William Godwin's 1799 novel St Leon and Edward du Bois' 1800 parody St Godwin. Du Bois presents St Leon as a stereotypical example of a specific 'brand' of paranoid Gothic fiction that became extremely popular during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.

Wagenaar, Detlef: The Cult of the Celebrity Author: A Nineteenth-Century Perspective’

This paper investigates the differences between author celebrity in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. If it is true that the concept of the celebrity author first emerges in the eighteenth century, how can we look at the role of fame for the newly emerging professional authors of the nineteenth century? Many of the tropes concerning authorship which pervaded the eighteenth century literary discourse were also prevalent in the nineteenth century, and certainly most of the elements of celebrity status can be found in both eras, albeit on a different scale. The question is whether it is only a matter of the size of the reading public which constitutes the difference, or whether perhaps the nineteenth-century professional celebrity author is a different beast altogether.

de Voogd, Peter: How Laurence Sterne Became Tristram and Yorick

Laurence Sterne became instantly famous in January 1760, and immediately began marketing himself. I will outline the various ways in which he did this -- by using the media at his disposal at the time, by eliciting imitations, attacks, and piracies, by turning his authorial alter ego into a public figure -- and argue that his public "persona" influenced changes in his writing: by becoming a commodity he lost his independence.

Leclair, Marion: Portraits of the writer at work: William Godwin's changing conception of the

writer's place in Caleb Williams, St. Leon and Fleetwood

William Godwin's three best-known novels, published between 1794 and 1805 (Caleb Williams, St. Leon and Fleetwood) have often been interpreted as mirroring Godwin's growing disillusionment with radical politics in the aftermath of the French Terror and Pitt's « gagging acts ». Thus, if Caleb Williams, published a year after Godwin's Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, was a straightforward criticism of « things as they are », depicting an aristocrat's relentless efforts to silence his former (peasant-born) secretary, and the institutions enabling this continued oppresion, Godwin shied away,


it seems, from such overtly political subjects in his next two novels. In Fleetwood, the « ordinary » story of a jealous husband grown repentent, the slice of reality represented, so to speak, is restricted to the domestic sphere, while in St. Leon, the fantastic « tale » of a sixteenth-century nobleman who is given the philosophal stone, realism is given up altogether. Yet, I would like to suggest another way of reading Godwin's work, in which the three novels would no longer be seen as falling neatly on either side of a chronological and political divide, but rather as three stages in a reflection on the writer's work and function continued from one work to the other: who can write, at what price, what can he write? - or rather as three portraits of the writer at work, each time in a different historical situation, as The Fall of the Bastille eventually led to Robespierre's Terror, and Buonaparte's conquests culminated in the « coup » that put an end to the French Republic and Republican hopes across Europe. Thus, I would argue that three different paradigms of the writer emerge from the novels, charting the evolution of the writer's role and position, as perceived by Godwin, through the eventful 1790s: a « Jacobin » paradigm of the writer as artisan, painfully trying to show the world as it is, without becoming either a patron's puppet or a hack pandering to the taste of the reading public; a « Napoleonic » paradigm of the writer as benevolent enlightener, using his superior gifts and power to instruct the people; and a « Romantic » paradigm of the writer as cultured private gentleman disillusioned with the world, writing for his own pleasure and solace. This paper's aim, then, will be twofold: it will seek, first, to expose in greater detail the way in which writing is represented in the three novels; and then to relate the distinctive conception of writing surfacing in each novel with some of its formal features – in other words, to try and see how Godwin's changing sense of his task as writer and of his relation to the public affects the way in which he addresses this public.


The Indies Companies in The Age of Revolution

Organizer / Chair: Malick W. Ghachem, Leos Müller

Fatah-Black, Karwan: The dismantling of the chartered companies in the Dutch Atlantic

Already from its inception in 1621 the Dutch West India Company (DWIC) came under pressure to relinquish part of its monopoly rights in the Atlantic. This was mainly the result of conflicting economic interests. I argue here, however, that the final dismantling of the chartered companies in the Atlantic was mostly one of symbolic value. In the metropolis the urban centers and provincial states, which had unified in their struggle against the Habsburg Empire, attempted to acquire competitive advantages over each other in the Atlantic. Because of the federal nature of the Republic parts of its Atlantic domains were parceled out. The DWIC was divided into five urban Chambers with their own specializations, and the domains were further divided into patroonships and subsidiary chartered companies catering to specific towns in the Republic. Between 1791 and 1795 the various chartered companies, including the DWIC and its chamber system, were dismantled, ending urban privileges in access to the colonies. This paper will study the political and economic changes behind the dismantling of the DWIC, Suriname Company and Berbice Company as symptoms of both changing ideas about colonial empires and a restructuring of the relationship between urban government and the central state in dealing with colonial affairs. This paper argues that the dismantling of the chartered companies was mostly a symbolic act in a power struggle between urban centers and the States General. Robbing cities of their colonies changed little in the economic structure, but did take away icons of urban autonomy. Especially in Amsterdam the urban elite was made to relinquish its imperial aspirations.

Stern, Philip: A Plassey Revolution?: Rewriting the English East India Company in the Late

Eighteenth Century


This paper explores the relationship between politics and historical thought in the Age of Revolutions, by reconsidering the eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century debates in Britain over the expansion of the East India Company’s empire in India. While the literature has focused almost exclusively on the ways in which British interpretations of South Asian history were critical to the making of empire, this paper suggests that there was a simultaneous political battle over the nature of the East India Company’s constitution that turned on whether the Company was a legitimate political body, and thus whether British state intervention in its affairs was justified. Looking at arguments made by intellectuals in both Britain and India, this paper suggests that the definition of the East India Company’s transformation through the eighteenth century was an ideological argument rather than objective fact; the subsequent notion of a Plassey “revolution” or inqilab represented various and competing attempts to critique, control, or restrain the expansion and growth of the Company’s empire. Moreover, these arguments were made in direct comparison with interpretations of other European experiences in India, particularly the Portuguese, Dutch, and French. In turn, the ultimate “reform” and regulation of the Company helped ensconce a particular version of its history, as a trader that turned into an empire with its territorial expansion in the mid-eighteenth century. This paper thus emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between definitions of sovereignty and the construction of historical narrative, while also suggesting a more multi-dimensional approach to understanding the dynamics of the debates over the changing British empire in the late eighteenth century. In conclusion, it will offer some preliminary thoughts about the contested nature of Anglophone contemporaries’ understanding of the “age of revolutions” in global perspective.

Ghachem, Malick: The Revolt against the French Indies Company

“Knowledge of the rights of a trading company as considerable as the Indies Company seems to me to be of sufficiently great interest to merit all of your attention,” wrote one of the Company’s larger shareholders to his fellow investors on August 27, 1789 – the day after the National Assembly promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. During the revolutionary period, the Indies Company took its place at the table of rights-bearing (moral) persons, a transformation with roots deep in the Old Regime and the Company’s status as a monopoly state-chartered company. During that same period, the Company found itself the object of an increasingly robust, ultimately irreversible assault on its powers and status. The revolutionary crisis proceeded in interrelated phases: first, a revocation of the Company’s Indian trading monopoly; second, liquidation; and finally, a criminal trial in 1794 for fraud. At each of these stages, the Company and/or its shareholders fought back, asserting rights to the indemnification of property and other legal claims that both reflected and defied the political culture of the period. But the revolutionary crisis of the Indies Company was not simply one of the central acts in the drama of the Terror, as it has often been portrayed. It was also a chapter in the Company’s own, long-contested evolution as a transnational corporate actor, one still remarkably active in Indian commerce during the early revolutionary years. In that context, the culture of corporate rights proved no match for an anti-mercantilist politics of fraud. The paper concludes with some comparative reflections on how the other European East India companies fared on similar fronts.

Van Rossum, Matthias: A troublesome Company: The VOC and revolts, circa 1740-1800

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the Dutch East India Company was confronted with various serious challenges. As one of the biggest early modern companies, it recruited and employed many thousands of European and Asian workers on route between the Dutch Republic and Asia, and throughout its Asian empire. It had faced mutinies, desertion and other forms of resistance in varying levels from its beginning. In the second half of the eighteenth century, however, the challenged faced


by the VOC increased. Changing conditions, such as toughening recruitment practices in the maritime labour market of the Dutch Republic and a weakening military and economic position in Asia, were accompanied by increasing resistance to Company authority, among others through the revolts of slaves (Meermin 1766, Mercuur 1782), convicts (Edam 1772, 1781), corvée workers (Ceylon 1757-58 and 1783-90) and sailors and soldiers (various revolts in Asia and the Republic). This paper will investigate the challenges the VOC faced by these revolts. Taking into account their particularities as well as their possible connections, it will link and contextualize the factors behind these revolts as well as their effects.


Eighteenth-Century Rereadings of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries


Vámos, Éva: Les métamorphoses d’un dialogue d’Erasme dans la Hongrie du XVIIIème siècle

« Que tout se passe dans la joie et la gaitée » – instruit Eulalie la jeune Xantipe dans un dialogue d’Erasme de Rotterdam particulièrement populaire en Europe dans la littérature de colportage. Une littérature qui s’épanouit à la frontière de la grande littérature et du folklore, de la communication visuelle et auditive. Ce dialogue réapparaît sous diverses formes et dans des traductions différentes en hongrois et en allemand dans les livres colportés et dans des calendriers de la Hongrie au XVIIIème siècle. Nous n’avons que quelques rares exemples de toutes les variantes du dialogue d’Erasme, La femme mécontente de son mari. Pourtant, selon les données de l’époque il y avait 70 000 exemplaires de calendriers imprimés par an en Hongrie. La foire de Pest était dénommé foire aux almanachs et c’est le mémoire d’un imprimeur célèbre en Hongrie qui nous renseigne sur les titres de ses imprimés. On connaît aussi les décrets émis par les empereurs contre les imprimeries clandestines et pour règlementer le caractère incontrolable, voir subversif des calendriers. Les livrets avec les inscriptions des possesseurs et des lecteurs nous sont précieux pour connaître la diffusion de cette littérature dans les divers milieux sociaux et à l’échelle européenne. A travers quelques exemples de calendriers hongrois et allemands de Hongrie, nous allons analyser comment la culture dite savante et populaire se côtoient s’entremêlent à cette époque.

Franceschini, Pedro: Herder’s reading on Shakespeare: towards a truly modern aesthetics

Herder occupies a decisive place in the development of German aesthetics of eighteenth century and represents an important shift in the consideration of art from a philosophical point of view: mobilizing important concepts from the works of Winckelmann and Lessing against the reigning approach of the Enlightenment, he plays a central role in the constitution of aesthetics as a new and autonomous discipline. Our proposal is to investigate how the key notions introduced by his aesthetical texts are summoned in his famous essay about Shakespeare, from 1773, an important document for the German reception of the intriguing English author. Starting with the debate brought up in his “Critical Forests” and “Fragments on Recent German Literature” against aesthetics built “from above”, deductive and rational, Herder poses a concrete understanding of aesthetic perception, considering man as whole, not only characterized by abstract reason. This opening to sensibility and imagination, which marks his opposition to the epistemology of Rationalism, also introduces the multiplicity of time in the universality of reason: mankind changes throughout history, thus requiring a historicized interpretation, opposed to timeless paradigms of Classicism. True appreciation of art must consider man in his social-cultural relations, which mutate in each time and


place. Likewise, authentic creation does not follow eternal abstract rules, expresses national and popular culture. This double-sided critique of enlightened aesthetics finds great resonance in Herder’s praise of Shakespeare. Far from the monster viewed by French Neo-Classicism, he demonstrates a truly modern creation, rooted in its time and its people. Consequently, Herder’s approach to Shakespeare, much more than a mere literary critique, sheds light to the most important elements of his aesthetics and, at the same time, gives a truthful document of Modernity in its own historical comprehension, witnessing the great role of aesthetics in German philosophy of the eighteenth century.

Leontsini, Maria Constantina: Women’s Contest for Liberty and Knowledge in Eighteenth century

Italy.

My aim in this paper is to examine the factors that allowed a number of learned Italian women to achieve academic authority and to open a public discourse on women’s rights during the eighteenth century. In particular, I will prove that women’s participation in eighteenth-century Italian Enlightenment is due, amongst other factors, to three Venetian literate, Lucrezia Marinella (1571-1653), Moderata Fonte (1555-1592) and Arcangela Tarabotti (1603-1652), who had the intellectual pleasure of ‘conversing with books’ and ‘to acquire a voice’, by publishing books and starting a textual conversation – albeit isolated and in domestic solitude – advocating female emancipation and encouraging women to defend themselves and to raise their status. Fonte identified the primary expression of male tyranny, the exclusion of women in education, and demanded equality; Marinella insisted on women’s right to liberty of thought and expression, while Tarabotti urged women to acquire self-determination and spoke about free will. They all recognised that the two factors that could alter the position of women were education and economic emancipation; their voices made possible the eighteenth-century extensions and transformations of the controversy about women in Italy.


Nicholas Rowe & the Literary Marketplace

Organizer / Chair: Claudine van Hensbergen, Marcus Walsh

Caines, Michael: Measuring theatrical success: Rowe’s The Biter (1704)

What constituted a success in the theatrical marketplace of eighteenth-century England? In the eyes of some theatre historians, only a play’s gaining the status of a stock piece will do; others more leniently seem to believe that multiple performances of a single play in a single season could meet the author’s and the company’s expectations. Nicholas Rowe’s career as a dramatist spans a particularly unsettled period for the London stage, yet it may be argued that his only outright failure was his only comedy: The Biter (1704). Or, more accurately, and in contradiction of the title page of the only lifetime edition, this play was Rowe’s only farce – an intriguing choice from the perspective of a young writer who had already established himself as a prominent tragedian. Set in Croydon, The Biter makes use of a conventionally comic, scenario set in the marriage market; perhaps the most notable character in it, however, is the merchant Sir Timothy Tallapoy, the self-proclaimed “Mandarin of this Neighbourhood” who will not have anything to do with “Westminster, Westchester, West-Smithfield, or the West-Indies”. In this respect, the Sinophile Sir Timothy is both an enthusiastic consumer of commodities from the Far East and a proponent of this imported culture, whose singular obsession serves as the means by which he may be hoodwinked. The Biter


thus figures a rejection of immoderate mercantilism designed to capitalize on a growing awareness of the taste for chinoiserie in England, while also providing a comic foil to the emphasis on moderation and native virtues in Rowe’s serious dramas, such as The Fair Penitent and The Royal Convert. A flop it might have been, but The Biter cannot be entirely discounted as a comment on its author, his era or the theatrical marketplace.

McTague, John: ‘What shall we see tonight? There’s Tamerlane, Tamerlane, Tamerlane or

Tamerlane.’

Any editor of Rowe’s early tragedy Tamerlane (1702) is confronted with a curious stage history, one that ties it belligerently to celebrations of William III’s birthday and his landing at Torbay in 1688 on November 4 and 5 respectively, on or around which dates the play was performed every year but one from 1716 to 1778, and more sporadically thereafter. The play was always political, of course (despite Rowe’s lukewarm denials in his preface), using the story of Tamerlane and Bajazet to speak about William’s European wars of the 1690s, Louis XIV, and the nature of the revolution settlement. This stage history, and the plays political valences loom large and can overshadow the other things the play does, which things it is also the editor’s task to consider, of course. But in this paper I want to take the opportunity to head off the stage history at the pass, as it were, and confront it head on. In doing so I hope to speak about popularity and the theatre market, and what happens to competition and literary value when a play turns into an occasion, as Tamerlane: a Tragedy may be said to do. Is Tamerlane popular in the eighteenth century, or simply a 'fixture'? I also want to speak about how the way in which this play grew to be ‘marketed’ – i.e. as a play it is very difficult not to see in early November - might have flattened its more interesting features. Finally, I will consider how the frequent simultaneity of this play’s performance history – some Novembers saw four of London’s companies staging Tamerlane on the same nights – might affect our understanding of its reception.

van Hensbergen, Claudine: The contrasting reception histories of Rowe’s late plays

The success of Rowe’s Tragedy of Jane Shore (1714) is well established: the play remained in the theatrical repertoire all through the eighteenth-century and became a starring vehicle for actresses including Sarah Siddons and Mary Ann Yates, just as it had been in its infancy for Anne Oldfield. The performance and print history of The Tragedy of the Lady Jane Gray (1715) has received less attention, with the play appearing to have been revived only occasionally, such as on the year of the Jacobite uprising of ‘the Forty-five’. Our ability to measure the reception history of the latter play is further complicated by the survival of John Banks’s earlier play, The Innocent Usurper, or the Death of the Lady Jane Gray (1694), with which Rowe’s tragedy may have been confused on occasion. This paper will explore the contrasting print and performance histories of Rowe’s final two plays, considering their contrasting literary and dramatic afterlives. In doing so, it will address wider questions about measuring success in the marketplace, and reflect on how closely correlated print and performance reception histories may be: if a play is successful in print, does that guarantee success in the bookselling marketplace, and vice versa, or are the histories of print and performance more separate than we often assume?


S083 (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M1-09: Bergen: Van Der Goot Building) Éditer le Théâtre : l'exemple de Destouches Organisatrice/Président: Marie-Emmanuelle Plagnol, Dunkley, John: Editer à l’intention du lecteur Editer une pièce ancienne n’est pas qu’un travail érudit qui offre des satisfactions intellectuels à celui ou à celle qui l’entreprend, mais un travail qui vise à mettre entre les mains d’un lecteur (et éventuellement entre celles des professionnels du théâtre) un texte capable d’être pleinement compris dans son contexte d’origine et dans son évolution tant interne qu’externe. L’éditeur doit transmettre son texte à un public identifiable sans le trahir en trop simplifiant les données, mais aussi sans s’enliser une érudition gratuite, voire rebutante. J’examinerai les deux éditions de L’Irrésolu (1713) que j’ai préparées à la lumière de ces constatations.

Galleron, Ioana: Editer Destouches: les possibilités de la TEI L'édition électronique a longtemps été vue comme une menace pour l'édition papier, et comme un risque d'appauvrissement. Avec la pénétration croissante des nouvelles technologies, il s'avère toutefois qu'il n'en est rien, et que le livre, en tant qu'objet physique, a de l'avenir. Cependant, il apparaît en même temps que les versions dématérialisée démultiplient les possibilités de recherche. A partir du cas concret de l'édition de Destouches, il s'agira de montrer la complémentarité entre les contenus proposés par les éditions papier et électroniques, et de poser la question des compétences et du fonctionnement des équipes engagées dans cette double aventure éditoriale.

Plagnol, Marie-Emmanuelle: Destouches et la question comique Si Destouches reste attaché au terme générique de « comédie » pour la plupart de ses pièces, quelles que soient leurs particularités esthétiques et les scènes (publiques ou privées) auxquelles il les destine, il procède à une réflexion théorique sur le comique et ses limites, tout en gardant les grands principes classiques du comique de caractère, de situation et de langage, ainsi que la plupart des procédés identifiables par le public.

Ramond, Catherine: Destouches et Molière: la comédie de caractère Dans le cadre de la nouvelle édition critique du théâtre complet de Destouches, il s'agira de s'interroger ici sur les liens qui unissent cet auteur de la comédie nouvelle au grand aîné, Molière, auquel il se réfère si souvent, et notamment à ses débuts, dans les grandes comédies de caractère qui suivent le modèle classique.

S084 (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M1-16: Heidelberg: Van Der Goot Building)

German-Language Anthologies in the Long 18th Century

Organizer / Chair: Sean Williams, Nora Ramtke

De Doncker, Jules: Collecting criminal stereotypes: on the importance of the cause célèbre for the

popular interpretation of law and society.

The paper focuses on the most important eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century German counterparts to the French receuils des causes célèbres and more specifically, on the significance of these popular literary-historical collections for the creation and dissemination of ‘criminal types’ and of ideas about law and society. The publication of the first of François Gayot de Pitaval’s twenty-five volume Causes célèbres et intéressantes in 1734 marked the start of a literary tradition that focused on collecting and editing remarkable legal cases in order to respond to the great public demand for true entertainment and


reality-based instruction. The collection achieved an immense international success, and English, German and Dutch writers soon published their own translations and adaptations of Gayot de Pitaval’s work. With regard to German culture, the rewriting of the Causes célèbres by lesser-known translators (Gottfried Kiesewetter) as well as famous authors (Friedrich Schiller, Willibald Alexis) and legal scholars (Julius Eduard Hitzig) attests to the huge popularity of the genre with various social groups. This popularity made the collections of causes célèbres effective vehicles for disseminating stereotypes about criminal behavior, which influenced the way readers interpreted the law and society. With regard to French culture, Sarah Maza and Nathalie Zemon Davis have emphasized that cause célèbre-authors edited the cases in such a way as to create social stereotypes “that peopled the collective imagination of French men and women at the end of the Old Regime” (Sarah Maza). The paper will compare and contrast different German case collections. By focusing on the cases and criminal types that each collection includes, it will explore how each subsequent collection offers a different image of society and seeks to influence public opinion in different ways. It will trace how later collections attempt to shape a more human view of the criminal and manifest a greater distrust of the law.

McGillen, Petra: Into the Reading Labyrinth: Poetics of Immersion in Tieck’s Minnelieder Anthology

Scholars and anthologists alike have been grappling with the question of what distinguishes an anthology from a mere accumulation of texts and turns it into a “work” in its own right. For Ludwig Tieck and other Romantic practitioners of the genre, the answer was provocatively clear-cut: whether an anthology functioned as a work hinged on the mode in which it was read. Analyzing Tieck’s 1803 anthology Minnelieder aus dem Schwäbischen Zeitalter as a sample case, my paper inquires into the assumed nexus between modes of reading and the question of the work. Tieck, as I will argue, developed a “poetics of reading” in the preface to Minnelieder that attempted to determine the way in which his readers would engage with the individual poems presented in the anthology. The cornerstone of this reading poetics was the category of “Wirkung” (aesthetic effectiveness, impact): the reader was advised to read the poems slowly, attentively, and repeatedly, to relish the musicality of the poetic language, and to look for connections between the different poems. When read in this way, Tieck claimed, the poems would not only induce strong emotional responses in the reader but also reinforce one another in this effect, adding up to an aesthetic entity that was more than just a multitude of single texts. This idea of “Wirkung,” as my paper will demonstrate, determined Tieck’s editorial work, his stylistic interventions, and the way in which he organized the anthology. The basis for his project was Bodmer’s edition of the Codex Manesse from 1758–59, which he saw as in need of improvement. Because the collection was difficult to read, confusing in its organization, and of interest only to a small scholarly audience, it had remained “fast ohne Wirkung.” Tieck’s anthology, by contrast, was designed for maximum aesthetic effectiveness and an immersive mode of reading: He clustered poems with similar tonal and musical qualities together so that the reader, moving from poem to poem, would discover hidden similarities, participate in a stimulating process of repetition and variation, and get drawn ever more deeply into a “lovely” and “labyrinthian” play of “questions and answers.” Tieck’s translations from middle-high German to modern German supported this immersive mode of reading further insofar as they highlighted the acoustic qualities of the poetic language while also providing some resistance to easy, inattentive reading—for example, Tieck decided not to modernize outdated words if they were intuitively accessible, which slowed the reading process down. Ultimately, his anthology provided a counter-project to the voracious and consumptive mode of reading fostered by the novel, another important medium of the day, yet without giving up on aesthetic qualities or popular appeal. Tieck’s editorial work has traditionally been seen as projecting the ideals of Romantic aesthetics onto medieval German literature. My paper reveals, however, that something else is at stake: Tieck’s Minnelieder anthology emerges as an intervention in the contemporary debate about proper reading


that the novel brought in its wake. It represents an attempt to make a work (and its creator) stand out through increased “Wirkung” in the literary noise and “flood of books” around 1800.

Leyh, Valérie: "Dir soll ich diese Blumen weihen; / Nimm sie als Pfand der Freundschaft hin!" The

anthology "Elisens und Sophiens Gedichte" and the Cult of Friendship during the late 18th century

With her writing against Cagliostro and her active role in the Enlightenment’s debate about Crypto-Catholicism, the author Elisa von der Recke (1754–1833) from Courland generated international attention in the second half of the 18th century. Besides this important contribution she also wrote autobiographical texts as well as religious songs and poems that have not yet been adequately examined. Some of these poems were published in the collection "Elisens und Sophiens Gedichte" that was edited in 1790 by Johann Ludwig Schwarz. This anthology arises from very specific circumstances. Elisa von der Recke, who had many friendships with the greatest personalities of her time, also cultivated intensive contact with women, in particular with Sophie Becker, a pastor’s daughter who came also from Courland. Both women undertook a journey to Germany between 1784 and 1786, where they met Gleim and the circle of friends in Halberstadt. After this journey, Sophie Becker married Johann Ludwig Schwarz but died already in 1789. In this same year, Sophie’s husband had initiated a collection that should include poems from both women but came out posthumously and was eventually dedicated to Gleim. The anthology is striking because it is devoted to poems of two women writers. A detailed look at the collection reveals, however, the very heterogeneous structure of this anthology, which also includes poems from the male-dominated circle of friends in Halberstadt and closes with an "inner anthology" of poems of grief. In my oral presentation, I will examine this anthology and analyse it for the first time against the background of the literary Cult of Friendship, taking gender-specific aspects into consideration. This will lead me to also consider the aspect of male editorship of "feminine texts", the relation to Elisa’s poems and religious songs and, in particular, the complex structure of the collection.

S086 (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M2-12: Shanghai: Van Der Goot Building)

Contextualizing Eighteenth-Century Anti-Imperialism

Organizer / Chair: Hanco Jürgens

Curley, Thomas: Samuel Johnson and the Problem of America, "I am willing to love all mankind,

except an American": Probing the Morality of Trade and Commerce in Eighteenth Century Empire

Samuel Johnson's lifetime circumscribed the most momentous political and economic event in eighteenth-century English history, the rise and fall of the British empire in America. His notorious hostility towards America rested on an admixture of insular nationalism and cosmopolitan humanitarianism, which fueled his hatred of imperialism and racism. Few other major British authors wrote more, or more passionately, about America than he did. His controversial pamphlet, Taxation No Tyranny, defended imperial Great Britain and yet conveys an underlying ambivalence consistent with his lifelong moral principles. Home always came first to Johnson. His Dictionary definition of land as "Nation; people" is a revealing conflation of soil and subjects. The homeland was a self-sufficient entity for survival and civilization and had precedence over extra-territorial concerns of trade and distant empire. Philosophically consistent, he granted fundamental legal priority to natives anywhere on earth as the first occupants of the land. This conviction made him a fierce advocate of the two principal victims of American imperialism: native tribes deprived of an ancestral homeland and black slaves deprived of a home in both Africa and America. In standing up for the mother country against American rebels in Taxation No Tyranny, did Johnson contradict his anti-imperialism? Not really. Colonists had deprived original occupants of their land with criminal injustice and now contemplated taking away America from Britain, the successor to ownership of the land by right of prescription. Far better had imperialism never corrupted the New or the Old World. But since history


cannot be reversed, nor the wrongs of European usurpation effaced, England had at least a prescriptive right to British America and might as well keep what it had come to own by right of its long possession and expensive protection of the place.

Grundy, Geoffrey: William Robertson and Raynal on War and Empire.

The following paper will offer a comparison of the treatment of the themes of war, conquest and commercial empire in l’abbé Raynal’s L’Histoire philosophique et politique des établissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes, (1770) and William Robertson’s The History of America (1777) The two great works of Enlightened historiography closely parallel in scope, ambition and subject matter, yet the relationship between the two texts remain largely unexplored. This is due, in part, to the problematic nature of both texts; Deux Indes was a multi-authored work written in contrasting and often contradictory registers, while America was a torso of a larger, uncompleted work. The paper will argue that for the Scottish historian, Raynal’s treatment of empire was unsatisfactory. Deux Indes offered a critical, at times scorching, denunciation of the entire imperial project . Robertson, as a representative of the clerical and university based moderate Enlightenment, sought to provide a counter-narrative that critically but positively engaged with the project of liberal, cosmopolitan empire. For the Presbyterian minister, the discovery of America was a Providential event that promised to bring the world’s peoples together into a single enlightened commercial order. Robertson employed a Calvinist historical irony to suggest that the calamities of sixteenth-century conquest could nonetheless serve a larger Providential design. The essay will conclude by suggesting that if our scope of enlightened authors is widened to include Robertson, then the sharp juxtaposition presented by recent scholarship of a radically anti-imperialist high Enlightenment and the liberal imperialism might be in need of revision.

Moore, Fabienne: Un commerce des Indes désenchanté :"La Tribu indienne, ou Edouard et Stellina"

de Lucien Bonaparte (1799).

En 1799, Lucien Bonaparte (1775-1840) publie un surprenant roman exotique, "La Tribu indienne, ou Edouard et Stellina". Bonaparte ayant nommé son frère cadet ministre de l’intérieur en décembre 1799, ce dernier brûla tous les exemplaires de son ouvrage. Seules deux copies ont survécu, servant de base à une édition moderne en 2006. Cette fiction coloniale, situé dans l’archipel indien (les îles de Java et Ceylan), met en scène "le commerce des Indes" à travers l’histoire d’un jeune Anglais envoyé à Java par son père négociant: "En échange des denrées d’Europe dont votre vaisseau est chargé, vous m’enverrez des pierreries, des épiceries, des bois odoriférants, des racines et des herbes médicinales, du poivre et de l’indigo." Mais l’apologie du commerce colonial se trouve peu à peu minée de l’intérieur par un contre-discours critique qui s’achève en fin de livre par cette exclamation : "Heureux les pays sauvages inconnus aux nations policées de l’Europe, et qui ne possèdent rien qui puisse attirer ses avides spéculateurs !" Ma présentation analyse la tension entre une représentation littéraire favorable aux pratiques commerciales colonialistes et le rejet critique de l’exploitation des ressources et des personnes qu’elles impliquent. J’étudie l’ambivalence de ce texte postrévolutionnaire d’une part au miroir de l’ "Histoire des Deux Indes" de Raynal (cité plusieurs fois dans les notes du roman) et d’autre part entre les mains de lecteurs tels que Bernardin de Saint-Pierre et Chateaubriand, eux-mêmes auteurs de fictions coloniales ambiguës.


"Empire of Imagination" Montesquieu on John Law and the Financial Crisis of 1720

Organizer / Chair: Matthijs Lok

Kra, Pauline: The Role of China in Montesquieu's "Esprit des lois"


Montesquieu's ideas on China have been the subject of much study and controversy. The purpose of this paper is to suggest that, as discussed in twenty-two books of the "Esprit des lois," China serves to illustrate Montesquieu's fundamental principles and to elucidate his method. References to the empire appear frequently in the concluding chapters of books or at the end of sequences of arguments to show how relations between various factors can be reversed by special circumstances. China is an exception and a paradox. Montesquieu's insistence on the fact that the Chinese Empire is a despotic regime aims to convey that his definitions of types of government are theoretical and that in reality they encompass a variety of forms determined by particular circumstances. China also plays an important role in the development of Montesquieu's theory of climate demonstrating how relations between physical and moral causes can be reversed. Thus the example of Tartar conquerors who are governed despotically in the North inverts the relationship between climate and political freedom. Wise Chinese policies, such as the creation of feudatory states and constructive treatment of conquered nations, are described as the counterpart of destructive practices. The analysis of the interaction between the distinct elements of the 'esprit general' is offset and confirmed by their extreme fusion in Chinese rites. Chinese overpopulation and birth control are the turning point in the book on propagation. The importance of China for the opening of trade routes to Asia is recognized in the context of the history of commerce. The discussion of the expansion of European foreign trade concludes with a comparison to the vast extent of Chinese internal trade. In the penultimate chapter of the book on the composition of laws China is invoked once again to confront theory with experience and legislative uniformity with diversity.

Mosher, Michael: "Empires of Imagination" Political Economy in Montesquieu

As Paul Stewart and Catherine Volpilhac-Auger observe in the new Voltaire Foundation edition of Montesquieu’s Lettres persanes, after 1970 religion and politics dominated studies of the novel many of which focus upon the allegorical role of the serial or harem letters and the tragic revolution that concludes the book. Largely missing from these post 1970 considerations are the themes of economy, trade, commerce, and especially finance, which also run through Montesquieu’s epistolary novel. Perhaps in this era of “globalization,” the time is ripe. The sense of foreboding in the Letters suggests a less happy outcome than is the usual interpretation of Montesquieu’s views on “doux commerce,” More particularly, the novel is a massive indictment of the first French efforts to establish a banking system. The Scottish financier John Law’s “project” for reforming French finance met with disaster, which Montesquieu links with both the political catastrophe of the harem revolution and the personal tragedy of Usbek. The unravelling of financial order in France and political revolution in Ispahan are parallel and convergent events. What precisely were Montesquieu’s economic views and how did they relate to the great debates that unfolded in the eighteenth century? Thanks to the Istvan Hont’s Jealousy of Trade (Harvard University Press 2005) we have a much better picture of what was happening. Hume, Adam Smith, and Rousseau were all central figures, but the argument about Montesquieu needs filling in. Hont also argues, as I do, for relevance. It is uncharacteristic of the Cambridge School, but nevertheless for Hont, “the globalization debate of the late twentieth and twenty-first century lacks conceptual novelty” compared to what was occurring in the eighteenth century. The impasse of that century has still not been resolved in our own.

Dos Santos, Antonio: Montesquieu : De l'esprit du commerce à la tolérance

Les conflits religieux et politiques ont été de plus en plus aggravées en Europe du dix-huitième siècle et le grand poids de l'argument était la répression politique e religieuse violente. Nous pouvons trouver chez Montesquieu, dans L’Esprit des Lois, un autre interpretation sur cet sujet-là:


l'intolérance religieuse entrave la production agricole, stérilise le sol, redre plus difficile les échanges entre les royaumes, l’empêche le dialogue entre des personnes différentes. en d'autres termes, la tolérance pourrait aider à la circulation des richesses et devrait donc être inclus dans le débat sur le terrain de la nécessité. en ce sens, nous sommes intéressés par les effets de matière d'un problème à la fois politique et religieuse, et la question que nous proposons est: quelle est la place de la dimension économique dans la théorie de Montesquieu sur la tolérance?


Virility in Distress: Defective Male Bodies in the Eighteenth Century

Organizer / Chair: Noelle Dückmann Gallagher

Penrose, Mel: Farinelli’s Androgyny and Sexual Ambiguity in José Somoza’s 'El capón' and Gérard

Corbiau’s 'Farinelli'

The Italian castrato opera singer, Carlo Broschi, better known as Farinelli, was a cultural sensation throughout eighteenth-century Europe. In 1737 the Spanish Queen Elisabetta Farnese convinced him to move to Madrid to become private singer for the royal couple in order to cure the Spanish king, Felipe V, of his depression. Farinelli became an even bigger sensation at the court of Felipe’s successor, Fernando VI. So great was his figure and fame in Spain that the Romantic writer, José Somoza, wrote a short historical novel about him entitled 'El capón' half a century after his death. Drawing on Plato’s notions of androgynous souls in Republic, Lisa Rado’s theoretical arguments on modern androgyny, and Mónica Bolufer’s cultural studies of the reiterations of psychic hermaphroditism in eighteenth-century Spain, this paper interrogates the complex configurations of Farinelli as an unsexual, androgynous court maneuverer in Somoza’s novel and as a sexually ambiguous, vengeful singer in the film 'Farinelli' by Gérard Corbiau. It also seeks to examine the trade in the European art and culture market of the most famous castrato of all time. Informed as well by Richard Cleminson’s and Francisco Vázquez García’s historical research on intersexuality in Spain, I argue that Farinelli has been interpreted in these two works as a larger than life castrato whose persona occupied the gendered and sexual nether space between the biological and psychic hermaphrodite.

Gladfelder, Hal: 'Strange Monsters': Castrati and the Erotic Imaginary in Eighteenth-Century

London

The once celebrated but long-since lost voices of the great castrato opera stars of the eighteenth century have often been characterized as ‘unnatural’, and the castrati themselves, as a result of their surgical alteration, regarded as embodiments of absence or lack. Marked by what Roland Barthes called ‘the wound of deficiency’, castrati could be seen as ‘strange monsters’ or ‘singers without sex’—abject figures of failed masculinity. Yet for Casanova and other eighteenth-century observers, the body and voice of the castrato could both elicit and gratify desire. According to the author of Eunuchism Display’d (1707/18), ‘lewd Women’ understood that the castrato ‘can only too well satisfy the Desires of the Flesh, Sensuality, Impurity, & Debauchery’. Sexually as well as musically, for such authors, castration empowered and enhanced, rather than impaired. In this paper I explore the


paradoxical place of the castrato in the musical and erotic imaginary of eighteenth-century London: on the one hand emasculated, alien and grotesque; on the other hand ‘manly’ (Charles Burney), ‘majestic’ (Richard Steele), and desired. Enlarging on recent work by Roger Freitas and Martha Feldman, among others, I move away from an emphasis on castrati as objects of satirical representation—figures of otherness, effeminacy, or the corrupting power of luxury—to focus instead on their active role as musical and dramatic subjects, whose presence on the London stage challenged or complicated dominant models of masculinity and male sexuality. Through close readings of key moments in the careers of Nicolini, Pacchierotti, and Senesino I show that far from being ‘singers without sex’, the star castrati helped to reshape contemporary understandings of masculine identity itself.

de Vries, Marleen: Bald and beautiful: how and why the bald man enters the 18th century

Being bald was not fashionable in the eighteenth century. Baldness was associated with diseases such as syphilis and typhoid. Whoever could afford it was wearing a wig and soon the wig became an important status symbol. In the Netherlands the century therefore is known as ‘the age of wigs’ (pruikentijd). But during the century several persons had themselves portrayed without a wig. Almost always they turn out to be philosophers, artists or writers. Why these intellectuals felt the need to present themselves the way they did? What kind of statement did they want to make? Were they promoting new ideals of masculinity? And: how trendsetting were they? My contribution focusses on an interdisciplinary approach of the matter, combining theories about men and masculinities with Greenblatt’s theory about self fashioning and with Pierre Bourdieu’s thoughts about distinction and taste.

Dückmann Gallagher, Noelle: Pox, Prowess, and Potency: Venereal Disease and Male Sexuality

In 1725, Bernard Mandeville complained that venereal disease was becoming so common “that a hale, robust Constitution is esteem’d a Mark of Ungentility; and a healthy young Fellow is look’d upon with the same View, as if he had spent his Life in a Cottage.” While Mandeville’s claims about the “popularity” of the pox seem bizarre today, he was only one of many Restoration and early-eighteenth-century commentators to remark on the fashion for venereal infections among aristocratic and gentry men. Some such remarks, like Mandeville’s, were critical of the “fashionable distemper” and feared its effects on the masculine prowess of the nation; but many other writers—most notably John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester—enthusiastically championed venereal disease as proof of a libertine life well lived. In this paper, I explore the portrayal of the sexually-diseased male body in literature and visual art from the Restoration and early eighteenth century. I argue that venereal disease was not only dismissed as a commonplace male complaint among upper-class adolescents and adults, but that it was frequently championed as a badge of male prowess among aristocrats, gentlemen, and serving military or naval officers. Ultimately, I argue that the disease operated alongside many conventional gauges of masculine authority-- markers like wealth, class status, physical strength, military ability, and sexual prowess. Seen in this light, venereal disease provided one means of reconsidering—either for the purposes of defence or for the purposes of interrogation—the criteria by which Restoration and early-eighteenth-century society appraised and apportioned male power.

S089 (16:00 - 17:30, Room: M3-06: Luxemburg: Van Der Goot Building)


Modelling Femininity: Styles and Subversions

Organizer / Chair: Claudette Baar-de Weerd

Guezmir, Asma: De l’héroïsme selon Mme Roland ou l’art de déplaire

Alors que, comme Rousseau, Mme Roland n’a cessé de prôner « l’unité du moi personnel », elle se trouve quasi systématiquement inscrite dans le paradigme de la dualité sexuelle que ce soit pour dénoncer une incongruité ou pour constater une supériorité. Existe-t-il aujourd’hui d’autres approches possibles de son œuvre ? Nous entendons confronter ses écrits épistolaires intimes aux codes esthétiques en vigueur de la lettre, non pas à la recherche d’une cohérence, mais afin de dégager les principes fondateurs de son écriture. D’abord, qu’est-ce qui, dans le style de Madame Roland, permet de fixer une norme et de constater à partir de là un écart ? S’agit-il d’ailleurs de canon purement esthétique ou de normes sociales et éthiques ? en quoi sa féminité, son rôle de bonne mère, de tendre épouse et de salonnière issue de la petite bourgeoisie ne la prédisposeraient-ils pas, selon ses détracteurs, à cette « gaieté ironique » si caractéristique de son style ? Quelles règles du « bon goût » empêcheraient la citoyenne Roland, l’égérie girondine et l’incorruptible républicaine, de transposer le parler populaire, le trivial et une certaine « énergie virile » dans ses écrits ? Sont-ce ses « audaces esthétiques » qui ont fait d’elle l’incarnation du « mauvais goût » ? Serait-ce d’ailleurs de ce point de vue qu’elle aurait « trahi » Rousseau dont elle se rapprocherait beaucoup plus dans sa sensibilité préromantique ? Au cœur de la Révolution, au moment même où Madame Roland esquisse un autoportrait représentatif d’un nouveau type du héros civique (« postféministe » ?), tout semble montrer qu’elle n’a pas pu éviter d’être jugée au nom des valeurs de l’Ancien régime dont la femme, dans tous ses états, était, d’une façon ou d’une autre, le pilier.

Ylivuori, Soile: Politeness as camp: subjectivity, femininity, and freedom in eighteenth-century

England

Eighteenth-century politeness has often been examined as a disciplinary regime that aims at regulating people’s conduct and manners. Especially women’s role in the polite society has generally been seen as strictly limited by the norms of polite femininity. However, women could also use politeness as a means of individuality and freedom in different ways, and skillful utilisation of politeness could provide women respective freedom and control over their own lives. My paper examines parodic uses of politeness as one such practice of freedom; my argument is that women used politeness in self-conscious and ironic ways to question and challenge the gendered conduct expectations the politeness regime set to them. This deliberate parodic role-playing is reminiscent of camp, when defined loosely as a postmodern practice based on self-acknowledged theatricality. Indeed, politeness shares many features with camp: both build on aestheticism, theatricality, and privileging exterior appearances over internal substance. Through the case-studies of Fanny Burney, Elizabeth Montagu, and Catherine Talbot, I will show that women of the polite society engaged in self-conscious parodic performances of polite feminine roles with the goal of questioning the naturalising rhetoric of politeness discourse. This is not to say that politeness was always parodic. Instead, I want to suggest that politeness was based on such features as theatricality and the aesthetics of the exterior, central in camp, which enabled the occasional parodic citations of politeness. Parody is, as Judith Butler argues, a powerful strategy of subversive repetition of normative social roles. Accordingly, consciously ironic enactments of polite feminine roles denaturalise normative representations of women; they have the potential of revealing that not only are parodic roles fictive fabrications, but the polite feminine models they are constructed on are no more natural or essential, and that the ‘self’ of the polite subject is always a construction.

de Halleux, Chanel: "À tous les penseurs, salut (1773) : positionnement idéologique et stratégies discursives chez Fanny de Beauharnais".


Publié en 1773, À tous les penseurs, salut est un texte emblématique de la production de la comtesse de Beauharnais (1737-1813) et une contribution originale à la « querelle des femmes », lors de laquelle s’affrontent détracteurs et défenseurs de la cause féminine. Notre analyse portera sur les stratégies discursives déployées dans cet ouvrage qui, sous la forme d’une harangue polémique, entend permettre aux femmes d’acquérir une légitimité dans le mouvement des Lumières. Par un jeu structurel sur les constructions antithétiques et l’usage de l’ironie antiphrastique, la comtesse dénonce les dérives d’un siècle qui exclut les personnes du « beau sexe » de manière abusive.


Textual Pantheons: Constructing, Commemorating and Canonizing the National Hero

Organizer / Chair: Jessica Goodman, Wijnand Mijnhardt

Goodman, Jessica: ‘Philosophe courageux, bienfaisant législateur’: Commemorating Mirabeau on

the Parisian Stage

The death of Honoré de Mirabeau, revolutionary politician and author, in April 1791, was the impetus for a while range of commemorative activities, not least among which was the creation of the Panthéon, the temple to the ‘grands hommes’ of late eighteenth-century France. The artistic output inspired by his death included three commemorative plays, two of which were performed in Paris just days after his decease. Onstage commemoration was widespread in the late eighteenth century: Voltaire’s bust had been crowned at the Comédie-Française in 1778, whilst Rousseau’s death was marked in the Parisian theatres with plays celebrating his life. However, Mirabeau’s death marks the moment at which this form of theatrical memory comes together with the official commemoration of France’s heroes in a national monument. As such, it provides a revealing case study for how the commemorative play relates to broader contemporary practices for constructing and remembering the great men of the past. This paper uses the case study of these Mirabeau plays to explore the commemorative play as a form at the end of the eighteenth century: what purpose does it serve, who were its authors, audiences and protagonists, how effective was it as a vehicle for creating and conveying the image of a deceased hero, and how does it relate to other forms of literary and non-literary commemoration? It analyses in more detail how these particular plays – all of which take the form of dialogues of the dead – construct their hero with relation to ‘official’ narratives, for example those provided in éloges and suggested by the company Mirabeau kept in the Panthéon. Finally, it considers the extent to which in fact, this literary form of commemoration might serve less to fashion the image of its dead protagonists, than to shape that of its still-living authors.

Vecchiato, Daniele: ‘Der Schutzengel Teutschlands und Europens’: The Cult of Gustavus Adolphus of

Sweden in late Eighteenth-Century Germany

The commemoration of the Thirty Years’ War played a central role in the culture of late Eighteenth-Century Germany, both in public discourse and in literature. The attention of historians, writers and commentators was especially drawn by the figures of Wallenstein, generally portrayed as an ‘evil’ military strategist, and of Gustavus Adolphus, the ‘good’ King of Sweden who intervened in the War to liberate Protestant Germany from Habsburg oppression. This paper will focus on the myth of Gustavus Adolphus as a German national hero who could have created a unified Protestant Reich, had he not been killed in the battle of Lützen. The first aim will be to show how historiographical and literary texts on the Swedish king contributed to the creation of a modern nationalist ideology in late eighteenth-century Germany both through the rhetorical association of past glories with present needs, and through the use of popular biblical tropes such as the covenant between God and the chosen people, religious war, sacrifice, etc. Secondly, I will analyse Gustav Adolph, König in


Schweden (1790), a hybrid literary-pamphletistic work by the historian Niklas Vogt. I will focus on the Ninth Canto, in which King Gustav dreams of the Tribunal of History, where great men of the past are judged for their qualities and their faults. Commemoration acquires here a didactic aim: through the example of great governors and the condemnation of evil ones, Gustav (and the German readers) are taught about the qualities of a good politician – a subject that was particularly charged in Germany following the explosion of the French Revolution.

Van Deinsen, Lieke: The Echoes of the Agrippinian Swan: The Invention of a National Poet in the

Dutch War of the Poets

Although the French invasion of the Dutch Republic in 1672 had already underscored the Republic’s waning political power in the late seventeenth century, it became painfully obvious in the decades following this annus horribilis that the Dutch nation had also lost its leading roles in the fields of European economics and culture. This sense of cultural decline was especially noticeable in the increasing influence of French authors and publishers on the Dutch literary market, which was an eyesore to a large group of Dutch poets. The perceived Frenchification of Dutch cultural life resulted in a series of polemics that have been labeled as the War of the Poets (or the ‘Poëtenstrijd’), which might be interpreted as the Dutch equivalent of the French Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes or the English Battle of the Books. In addition to venting various personal animosities, the participants in these polemics also addressed a more ideologically pertinent topic: the status of Joost van den Vondel as the foremost representative of the Dutch vernacular literary tradition. This paper will analyze the ways in which the War of the Poets led to the creation of an image of Vondel as an authorial ‘genius’ that could be abstracted from his works to become the centerpiece of discussions about the nation’s literary heritage and facilitate the conception of the first Dutch ‘national’ poet.


Transformations in the French Trade With South Asia (1750S-1780S)

Organizer / Chair: Malick W. Ghachem

Gottmann, Felicia: Indian superiority acknowledged? French discourses on global trade and

production

This paper will investigate the role of India in the discourse of French political economy up to the 1760s, focussing in particular on cotton textiles. Indian printed and painted cottons had first begun trickling into Europe on-board Portuguese vessels in the sixteenth century and, one hundred years later, had become a steady stream supplied by the Dutch and English and, after 1664, also the French East India Companies. These textiles were unlike anything the Europeans themselves were able to produce at the time: their brilliant colours and often intricate designs resisted both sunlight and washing, the unmatchable lightness of their weave made them agreeable to wear, and their relative cheapness and wide range of qualities made them an increasingly appealing choice to all social classes for both clothing and furnishing. Their popularity was such that several European countries began to enact protective legislation, France the first amongst them, banning the import of any kind of chintz or calico in 1686. Nevertheless these fabrics never lost their appeal with the French public. Smuggling and illicit usage were ubiquitous, so much so that, after an acrimonious public debate the French state conceded defeat and lifted the ban in 1759. This debate will form the paper’s focal point: an analysis of how the various actors and interest groups involved in this dispute depicted and dealt with Asian technical superiority and issues of European rivalry in production and trade permits


us valuable insights into the crucial role of India at a time of intense economic competition between emerging imperial nation states.

Smith, Blake: Capricious Subjects: Consumer Desire and Oriental Despotism in Late-Eighteenth

Century Debates over Indo-French Trade

The customer is king in modern consumer societies, but in eighteenth-century France, customers were more likely to be imagined as female than male, and were described in language usually applied to 'Oriental despots' rather than legimate monarchs. Consumers of South Asian imports came under particular scrutiny. Their desire for foreign novelties was often characterized as caprice: irrational, unpredictable whim. In Enlightenment studies of psychology, women and despots were paradigms of capriciousness. Women were presumed to be more physically and emotionally sensitive than men; they could not resist the influence of the strong sensations produced by this season's hat. But the powerful affect of one moment would quickly give way to another, in a circuit of liability that explained the fashion cycle. Despots, raised in the feminizing atmosphere of harems, were equally inconstant. Vizirs rose and fell in favor as suddenly as Paris styles. Montesquieu saw despotic states according as a continual political 'revolution', in which constant change never spurred real progress. For him, Raynal, and many others, the disturbed psychology of Oriental despotism was in part responsible for the relative backwardness of Asian economies. Intervening in debates about the legitimacy of trade between France and the Subcontinent, André Morellet (1727-1819) challenged such stereotypes about female consumers and Asian economies, while promoting caprice from a species of unreason to the motor of commercial activity. His writings throughout the second half of the eighteenth century highlight the conflict between understandings of economic agency structured by a gendered, Orientalizing imaginary, and a new, liberal conception of consumer desire.

Cross, Elizabeth: A Tale of Two East India Companies: Political Economy, Industry, and France’s

Indies Trade after 1783

France’s victory in the American Revolutionary war left her ministers eager to regain lost ground in the East Indian trade, to which end, a new Compagnie des Indes was formed in April 1785. However, the formation of this Company was not only contested by private merchants, but also within the ministry itself, as the creation and form of the new Company and its commerce on the British-dominated subcontinent laid bare several key questions about France’s global and imperial position relative to its rival. The Company’s planned agreement with the British East India Company to buy directly from them in Bengal incensed those who felt that the new Company’s subordination to the British would ruin France’s reputation in the eyes of Indian princes and allies, thereby prejudicing French military interests in Asia in the long term. Others protested on the grounds that the planned agreement rendered the Indies trade, already considered unequal and disadvantageous for the French, significantly worse, because of Britain’s now explicit intermediary role in the trade, which resulted in new conflicts about whether France could seek to replace the pernicious effects of the Asian luxury trade either through industrialization at home or a reciprocal commercial treaty with Britain, as was eventually accomplished in the form of the Eden-Rayneval agreement in 1786. This paper will demonstrate how debates about the Company’s formation, structure, powers, and privileges illuminate the political economic ideas in play in French efforts to negotiate her imperial and economic relationship with Britain in the last years of the Old Regime.



Global Perspectives On the Enlightenment: Transnational Mediations


Hsiao, Chihyin: Chinese Porcelain for Some London Merchants: Their Business and Family Life in the

Eighteenth Century

Predominately regarded as art collectors’ items, Chinese export porcelain has received limited attention from researchers of English social history. Only in the last decade have historians begun to recognize the potential of Chinese export porcelain as a social indicator and its significant impact on English material culture. In response to this novel approach, my research aims to contextualize a specific type of Chinese export porcelain commissioned by emerging London merchants and further investigate how Chinese porcelain are used as objects for social events such as company banquets, tea parties and drinking games in the eighteenth century. Large numbers of Chinese porcelain suggest business achievements and family alliances are two of the most celebrated genres. The subject matters reflect a thriving mercantile life when London became the entrepôt of Europe and the destination of world luxury. They record personal history as well as signifying merchants’ sense of self and a shared culture of belonging. I, therefore, propose to treat these porcelains as the early example of customized singular commodity. Principally, I will argue that Chinese export porcelain is an alternative material for London merchants who desired to own artifacts of greater refinement but not necessarily of opulence. Subsequently various ceramic productions are compared and discussed within this socio-economic setting.

Kairova, Tetyana: Le texte épistolaire dans l’émergence d’un nouvel esprit à travers l’ Europe des

Lumières

Comme les gens, à travers l’Europe, les formes et les idées circulent … (Martine de Rougemont) Dans sa communication, le Docteur ès lettres, maître de conférences au Département de Langues romanes de l’Université d’Etat de la région de la Mer Noire Petro Moghyla (Mykolaïv, Ukraine) présente les textes épistolaires comme un phénomène majeur et brillant de la vie dans l’Europe du XVIIIe siècle. en analysant sous l’angle linguistique et anthropologique la correspondance internationale, les tendances et les particularités de la communication à distance de la société européenne de l’époque, l’auteur examine la nature, les traits caractéristiques, les avantages et le fonctionnement du type de texte épistolaire tel que la lettre dans la vie des Européens, et s’efforce de pénétrer le mécanisme des contacts intellectuels à distance qui contribue à la propagation des nouvelles idées des Lumières en Europe et dans le monde. Plusieurs pays européens sont évoqués dans le récit : la France, la Russie, la Pologne et d’autres, ainsi que les ombres du grand et brillant Voltaire, de l’Impératrice russe Catherine II, de ses diplomates et de ses sujets, de Jean Potocki, aristocrate polonais, né en Ukraine, formé en France et en Suisse et ayant vécu au confluent des cultures européennes Ils surgissent devant nos yeux, entourés d’autres Européens, pour illustrer les réflexions de l’auteur sur l’influence des différentes cultures entre elles et le rôle des textes épistolaires dans l’émergence en Europe d’un nouvel esprit des Lumières. Cette correspondance, marquée par la connaissance des civilisations anciennes et modernes, permet d’observer la circulation de l’information dans l’espace et dans le temps en synchronie et diachronie et de dégager une image stéréoscopique du monde se reflétant dans son microcosme et faisant de ces textes épistolaires des carrefours de civilisations, ce qui nous permet de les considérer comme des objets de culture.


Shapchenko, Julia: Polish artistic communities in Russian Empire in the end of XVIII - the 1st half of

XIX centuries

In the beginning – the 1st half of XIX century the community of Polish men in Saint Petersbourg was quite large and had an influence over Russian culture. The Polish art communities scaled step by step mostly because the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts drew many young people keen on arts. In the 1st tertial of XIX century the Academy became Alma Mater for many Poles, who studied there( I.Tylinsky, F.Slyuzhinsky, X.Kanev and others). After graduation from the Academy some of them painted members of the Russian royal family or devotional pictures while others declared for historical painting (J.Sukhodolsky, Kamiński, T.Gorki, L.Strashinsky). At the same time many mature artists of Russian Western provinces moved in St. Petersburg looking for a job. Though ome of them became gainfully employed, while others had to shorten their stay, such as C. Rusetsky with no patronage and money to spare. Many of the most independent Polish artists looked "to the West rather than to the East" preferred internship and work in Vienna, Munich and Paris. Among them were mature painters J.Kossak, P.Michael, H.Rodakovsky, A.Grotter, J.Matejko. Thanks largely to such famous Polish masters as R.Zhukovsky and I.Schedrovsky Russian genre enriched with scenes of Russian pot culture. Schedrovsky created albums of lithographs called "Here we are" and "Gold may be easily told ". Being a good cartoonist Zhukovsky collaborated with some popular magazines such as "Illustration", "Spark", "Splinter" and “Pantheon”. C.Yasevitch gained a reputation of book illustration and icon restoration master. Besides that he taught in the Academy of Arts supporting poor students. The most widely known both in Russia and Poland was a freelance artist and engraver A.Orlovsky, who depicted people of all social classes, from courtiers to peasants. Orlovsky one of the 1st painters created a lithographed series of nations living throughout Russian Empire.


Opening Markets, Opening Language

Organizer / Chair: Michael McKeon

Bour, Isabelle: The language of commerce in Mary Wollstonecraft’s œuvre

In the wake of James Thompson’s Models of Value: Eighteenth-Century Political Economy and the Novel (1996) and Deidre Shauna Lynch’s The Economy of Character: Novels, Market Culture, and the Business of Inner Meaning (1998), this paper proposes to analyse the language of commerce and finance in Mary Wollstonecraft’s œuvre. Even when, as in A Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution and in the Letters from Sweden, she expatiates on the deleterious effects of commerce and the accumulation of wealth, she is metaphorising social relations. I will show how her critique of modern commercial society inflects her conception of gender relations in the Vindication of the Rights of Woman and in her fiction.

Sorensen, Janet: Open Seas: Maritime Language and Britain's Strange Vernacular

Britain’s maritime expansion introduced nautical jargon through accounts of sea voyages, literary representations of shipboard life, battles, and shipwrecks, and the huge numbers of tars themselves circulating within the population. In this paper I consider the transfer of nautical language to land, and the work this transfer did in making a place for global maritime experience within a British national symbolic economy. My texts include Tobias Smollett’s Roderick Random, Frances Burney’s Evelina, and the popular songs depicting sailors and maritime life that appeared in the 18th century. All feature the metaphorical transfer of nautical argot—Smollett’s Tom Bowling, for instance,


describes gaudy clothing as “gingerbread-work” (the painted carvings ornamenting ships), while Burney’s sea captain refers to Madame Duval as, like a ship, “weather-proof”, and a song portrays a sailor “scudding” along in life. These representations coincided with the emergence of what we might call “institutions of the vernacular,” such as dictionaries of common English and print collections of proverbs. Yet rather than simply adding nautical jargon to the vernacular, these transfers of nautical language depict it as the odd language of sailors alien to Britain. The comic opacity of their language makes it strangely alluring, and it is the movement back and forth between estrangement and familiarization that informs the transfer—and uneasy vernacularization—of maritime language in eighteenth-century Britain.

McKeon, Michael: The Enlightenment Language of Circulation and Exchange

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, opening markets inspired contemporaries to perceive the relations between disparate phenomena through the metaphorical and metonymic expansion of commercial circulation and exchange. In England, Anthony Ascham thought commerce created a new kind of community: “Instead of Community therefore we now have commerce, which Commercium is nothing else but Communio mercium,” the public sharing of merchandise (1649). The Anglo-Dutch trade wars of the mid-seventeenth century led English patriots to accuse the United Provinces of disrupting this community. John Dryden was one of many who associated, with William Harvey’s recent discovery that the little world of the human body was sustained by circulation, the sustenance afforded the great world by commercial exchange. But Dutch greed made this impossible: “Trade which like bloud should circularly flow, / Stopp’d in their Channels, found its freedom lost …” (1667). For Andrew Marvell, the problem with Amsterdam was that it sponsored excessive freedom, of both trade and religion--Amsterdam, “That bank of conscience, where not one so strange / Opinion but finds credit, and exchange” (c. 1653). Yet little more than a generation later, Joseph Addison thought London had become “a kind of Emporium for the whole Earth,” and that its Royal Exchange had united “those wealthy Societies of Men that are divided from one another by Seas and Oceans …” (1711). This paper will explore some of the ways commercial circulation and exchange inflected language with a power that, rooted in the literal experience of trade, assumed great rhetorical force beyond it.


Rethinking Enlightened Europe

Organizer / Chair: Matthijs Lok, Darrin Mc Mahon

Lok, Matthijs: The legacy of Enlightened Europe? François Guizot on European Civilisation and

Empire

This paper will examine the legacy of the enlightened conception of European civilization in the early nineteenth century. To what extent did this notion disappear after 1813 as a result of the Napoleonic wars and the rise of romantic nationalism? To answer this question I will examine the works of the French author François Guizot and his conception of European civilization and Empire.

Spector, Céline: L’« esprit » de l’Europe : liberté, commerce et empire dans L’Esprit des lois de

Montesquieu

L’Esprit des lois propose une vision cohérente et originale de l’Europe. L’Europe ne se définit pas seulement par ses propriétés géographiques et climatiques, mais surtout par ses caractéristiques


politiques. Face au « despotisme oriental », l’Europe apparaît comme le terreau de la modération et de la liberté politique ; son « esprit de liberté » s’oppose au « génie de servitude » asiatique. Faut-il dénoncer dès lors les prémisses d’un « orientalisme » suspect, qui projette sur l’Orient le désir d’hégémonie de l’Occident ? Doit-on déplorer la construction d’une Asie mythique vouée à mettre en valeur la supériorité européenne – quitte à faire de l’Europe elle-même l’artefact issu de ce désir de domination ? La question se pose d’autant plus vigoureusement que tout en condamnant l’esclavage et la conquête, Montesquieu loue l’invention, dans l’Europe moderne, d’une nouvelle figure de la colonisation commerçante. Les « lois fondamentales de l’Europe » qu’il énonce semblent bel et bien naturaliser l’hégémonie européenne et justifier les asymétries économiques en faveur des métropoles. De là à intenter le procès de celui qui fut aussi à l’origine de la théorie des « stades de développement » cernant l’avènement, à partir des sociétés nomades, « sauvages » et « barbares », des sociétés « policées», il n’y a qu’un pas : L’Esprit des lois n’a-t-il pas inventé un grand récit de civilisation dont l’Europe est le lieu d’élection privilégié ?

Stuurman, Siep: Europe’s Oceanic Empires And The Limits Of Natural Equality

At the present time it is generally acknowledged by Enlightenment scholars that a powerful critique of colonialism and empire emerged in the second half of the eighteenth century. The European conquest, plunder and exploitation of the Americas, and, though far less complete, of parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania, was criticized both on principled grounds (natural liberty and equality, Christian notions of equality before and from God) and on pragmatic and political grounds (lack of reliable worldwide communications, fear of a de-civilizing feedback on Europe). The critical current of thought arose in the 1770s, probably stimulated by the Seven Years War, the first European war with global ramifications. My paper seeks to investigate the nature and the limits of the new notions of global equality subtending the critique of empire. My main object is the Histoire des deux Indes, that great bestseller of the 1770s and 80s, produced by Raynal and Diderot. Of late, the Histoire has been read as a philosophical text illuminated by historical examples (Jonathan Israel) or as the first attempt to write a history of the new Oceanic world system without however giving agency or voice to the non-European “victims” of European expansion (J. G. A. Pocock), or again as a sentimental appeal to the conscience of its European readers (Festa, Agnani). I will discuss and balance these various readings of Raynal/Diderot, concluding that it is a liminal text and that a close reading vitiates both Israel’s celebratory account and Pocock’s overly dismissive denial of its subversive momentum beyond Eurocentrism. The conflicting interpretations of the Haitian Revolution will clinch my argument.

Ohji, Kenta: L’esclavage des Modernes, l’ultime contradiction de l’histoire européenne selon

Raynal/Diderot.

Dans l’Histoire des deux Indes, le problème de l’esclavage des Africains occupe une place singulière, précisément parce qu’il remet radicalement en question la réalité du procès de « civilisation » tel que Raynal/Diderot le souhaitent voir se poursuivre à travers l’expansion européenne dans le monde : selon eux, c’est l’essor du commerce international qui a déclenché ce procès vertueux dans l’Europe de la fin du Moyen-Âge, entraînant la pacification des relations internationales, la consolidation des États souverains, et par-dessus tout, l’affranchissement civil et politique des peuples. Aux yeux de Raynal/Diderot, l’esclavage des Africains incarne ainsi la conséquence paradoxale de l’expansion coloniale et commerciale des nations européennes dans le monde aux temps modernes : aussi, Diderot en 1780 souligne-t-il la marche contradictoire de l’histoire, prenant nettement ses distances par rapport à la vision progressiste et linéaire de la « civilisation » de l’Europe, telle que Roberson et Millar l’esquissaient dans leurs œuvres majeures. Cela ne conduit pas pour autant les auteurs de l’Histoire des deux Indes à renoncer à leur idéal de la « civilisation » tel qu’ils l’ont conçu d’après l’expérience historique des Européens, même si l’appel à l’insurrection des esclaves semble afficher


la volonté d’une rupture immédiate avec le déroulement de cette l’histoire moderne. Car leur préférence en pratique va plutôt du côté du projet, proposé aux Européens, d’un affranchissement graduel des esclaves sur vingt ans des travaux payés. Dans ce choix, Raynal/Diderot se montrent fidèles aux réquisits de l’action politique de « civilisation » : afin de constituer un sujet collectif libre en politique, il faut commencer par en aménager les conditions économiques et former les mœurs du peuple en partant de la situation donnée, tout en s’inscrivant dans une durée longue de l’histoire ; et il ne faut surtout pas renoncer à l’exigence de l’action politique hic et nunc, précisément parce que la marche de l’histoire restera contradictoire, sans finalité.

E313 (11:00 – 12:30, Room: M1-17: Tokyo: Van Der Goot Building) Jacobitism and Union in Early Eighteenth-Century Scotland * Panel of the Eighteenth-Century Scottish Studies Society Chair: Ned C. Landsman Bowie, Karin: ‘The Sense of the Nation’: Public Opinion in Pre-Union Scotland In 1706-7, opponents of incorporating union argued that the Scottish parliament should consult its constituents and adhere to “the sense of the nation” on the question of Anglo-Scottish union. This paper will unpick the meaning of “sense” and “nation” in the Scottish context, indicate the roots of this early modern form of public opinion and consider how campaigners sought to demonstrate extra-parliamentary public opinion. It will close by considering how the concept of “the sense of the nation” contributed to the continuing cogency of Scottish national opinion after 1707. Szechi, Daniel: The Scots Jacobites and the ‘Privileges of Scotland’, 1702–1708 This paper will analyze the sustained attempt by the Scots Jacobites to recover the commercial exemptions and concessions granted to Scots merchants by the kings of France in the Middle Ages. These “Privileges of Scotland” had established Scots merchants in a favored position within the French market and continued to operate until the latter half of the seventeenth century, at which point Louis XIV suspended them in retaliation for Scots participation on the English side in the second Anglo-Dutch war. Scots politicians, however, preserved the memory of these commercial privileges, and as Scotland descended into economic depression and famine in the 1690s, interest in recovering them revived at the Country party end of the spectrum of Scots politics. Of all the political groups associated with the Country party, the Jacobites were the best situated to petition the French for such a restoration of the Privileges. They duly took up the issue in their secret negotiations with France in 1702-8. Their principal objective was to persuade the French to invade Scotland and restore the Jacobite King James “VIII” (the Old Pretender), but as negotiations for the Union with England assumed an increasing and vital significance, the Scots Jacobites pressed harder for commercial concessions for Scotland that they could offer as an alternative to the economic advantages that would follow an incorporating union with England. This paper will analyze the course and development of these negotiations between the Scots Jacobites and France with a view to gaining an insight into both the Jacobite understanding of Scotland’s economic situation and their take on the best way to extricate Scotland from its economic depression and achieve a lasting prosperity. It will illuminate a lost alternative to the union with England that may have held just as golden a promise of future prosperity.


E314 (14:00 – 15:30, Room: M1-17: Tokyo: Van Der Goot Building) Markets and the Aesthetic in Scotland * Panel of the Eighteenth-Century Scottish Studies Society Chair: John Cairns Szecsenyi, Endre: The Aesthetic and Social Nature of Laughter in Francis Hutcheson Laughter was an eminent moral philosophical and anthropological issue in the era of Francis Hutcheson, and its primary context was of enthusiasm and religious toleration, and of moral criticism. Hutcheson’s Reflections upon Laughter (1725), however, can also be fruitfully interpreted from the angle of his aesthetic thought elaborated in his Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725) and Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions and Affections (1728), especially if the scope of “aesthetic” is not confined to the categories of beauty and harmony, or comedy and wit. Hutcheson seems to consider the topic of laughter as a new type of experience, as a new class of “innocent pleasures” associated with, and inspired by, Joseph Addison’s “pleasures of the imagination” (1712). While Addisonian beauty, greatness (sublimity), and novelty can be experienced in solitude, laughter is genuinely social and sociable. Hutcheson’s “sense of ridiculous,” one of our internal senses, by means of which laughter becomes possible, belongs to the tradition of (social) taste dating from at least Baltasar Gracián, and to that of the Roman Stoic sensus communis (from Marcus Aurelius to Shaftesbury), and not to that of epistemological or even artistic “imagination.” Modern aesthetic experience has several roots, one of which is undoubtedly the Italian, Spanish, French discourse of je ne sais quoi, which, though it also gains its paradigmatic examples from interpersonal relationships (love, friendship), expresses a kind of secret attraction, enchantment, charm. Addison’s aesthetic experience owes much to this conception. Laughter as aesthetic experience in Hutcheson’s essays, however, is an expansion of the Addisonian “aesthetic.” Here openness, sociability, eventually toleration can be felt and interiorized in the pleasure of laughter. This kind of “aesthetic” experience is not a rudimentary step toward morality but rather an inevitable frame and precondition of morality.

Brown, Michael: The Aesthetics of Political Economy The origins of political economy have rarely been connected to a concern for the beautification of the world. However the Scottish Enlightenment corpus on political economy has numerous writers who reflected on both economics and aesthetics in their work. This paper proposes that the two fields of intellectual enquiry were intimately related and that the process of reading them as a shared enterprise sheds surprising light on the conclusions drawn in the field of political economy (successful economic solutions were to be aesthetically pleasing) and on the literary presentation of economic writings (which evince an aesthetic concern for system and form). The paper will concentrate on Francis Hutcheson and Dugald Stewart, case studies which bookend the Scottish Enlightenment movement.

Craig, Cairns: Plant Nurseries, Botanic Gardens and the Aesthetics of Nature From the time of Philip Miller’s influence at the Chelsea Physic Garden in the 1720s, Scots gardeners in London played a key role in the introduction of new plants into British horticulture. Many of them, like Thomas Blaikie (1758–1838), went from gardening apprentices to international “plant hunters” before establishing careers as garden designers—in Blaikie’s case in and around Paris in the 1780s. Garden design was shaped by the introduction of new plants and the major nursery for the propagation and sale of those new plants was the Lee and Kennedy Vineyard nursery in Hammersmith. James Lee, originally from Jedburgh, became an internationally recognized botanist as a result of popularization of the Linnaean system in his Introduction to Botany of 1760. It was to compete with the international collections of the Vineyard Nursery that the Earl of Bute established


the gardens at Kew that would later become the center for British botanic collections. The evolution of the botanic garden and of garden design in the late eighteenth century would lead to the development of a style that the most influential Scottish writer on gardens in the nineteenth century, John Claudius Loudon, would designate the “gardenesque”—the presentation together of plants which had no natural affinity. This gardening revolution between the 1720s and 1790s is reflected in the role of gardens in the development of eighteenth century aesthetic theory in Scotland, from Francis Hutcheson’s An Inquiry Concerning Beauty, Order, Harmony, Design to Archibald Alison’s Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste. E315 (16:00 – 17:30, Room: M1-17: Tokyo: Van Der Goot Building) Women and Patronage in Scotland * Panel of the Eighteenth-Century Scottish Studies Society Chair: Cairns Craig Godard Desmarest, Clarisse: Female Architectural Patrons in Late Seventeenth- and Early Eighteenth-Century Scotland: Their Significant Contribution to House Design and Building Operations Several Scottish noblewomen, including Duchess Anne of Hamilton (1632-1716), proved distinguished examples of political involvement in the local and national scene in the years surrounding the Act of Union of 1707. Since Scottish aristocrats spent more time in London after the union of the Crowns in 1603 and the union of Parliaments in 1707, noblewomen were often left to manage the family estates in Scotland. Although day-to-day matters were dealt with by estate factors, women had a say in the contracts that were signed with local artisans and architects. Taking the example of several ladies in the circle of Sir William Bruce (c.1630-1710), the leading Scottish architect of the Restoration period, and Alexander Edward (1651-1708), an Episcopalian minister turned architect after 1690, this paper will analyze these women’s devotion to securing their family estates and their commitment to architectural projects, despite the vicissitudes of their husbands’ political careers. In the early years of the eighteenth century, Lady Nairne (1669-1747) commented on Bruce’s designs for the House of Nairne and after the 1715 rebellion she took it upon herself to campaign in favor of her Jacobite husband and protect the Strathord estate, situated north of Perth. Her friend Lady Panmure (1668-1731) was also involved in building works, at Panmure House and Brechin Castle in Angus. After her husband was exiled on the continent in the wake of the battle of Sheriffmuir, she remained at Panmure and obtained a lease from the Forfeited Estate Commissioners and then from the York Buildings Company. Since the landed estate was the ultimate source of power, the paper will analyze the dedication these women had to preserve their family seat, how they supervised building projects, and the extent to which they were instrumental in the choice of plans.

Carr, Rosalind: Female Patronage: Gender, Class and Enlightenment Cultures It is well established that Enlightenment in Scotland was a primarily male, homosocial enterprise. This paper seeks to create a more nuanced picture through a study of women’s roles as patrons of Enlightenment enterprises. Katharine Glover and Mark Towsey have both explored women’s roles as readers of, and commentators on, Enlightenment texts. This paper will examine female patronage of cultural and economic manifestations of the Scottish Enlightenment. In particular, I will explore women’s roles as patrons of agricultural improvement, with a case study of Jane Maxwell, Duchess of Gordon’s relationship with Lord Kames. I will also assess women’s impact as patrons of urbane culture, focusing on elite women’s positions as governesses of Edinburgh’s assembly and female patronage of the emergent theatre.


These two forms of female patronage in Scotland during the second half of the eighteenth century provide a useful context for an analysis of the influence of class and locality in determining women’s engagement with the Scottish Enlightenment improvement project. I will argue that aristocratic women such as the Duchess of Gordon engaged with the Enlightenment within the same framework as other practices of landed female public involvement such as political patronage and military recruitment. Here aristocratic women’s rural location and familial position as major landowners was crucial. In comparison to this, the urbane world of mid- to late-century Edinburgh provided new avenues for female engagement. At first glance this might look like an opening up of the public world to a broader social spectrum of women, particularly the middling sorts. Yet, whilst this might be true of participation (e.g. attendance at theatre and balls), female patrons of the spaces of urbane culture were predominantly drawn from the aristocracy and gentry. This suggests that for women at least, the Enlightenment did not disrupt social hierarchies.

Rendall, Jane: Patronage and Philanthropy: Susan Carnegie of Montrose (1744–1821) Susan Carnegie of Montrose (1744-1821) has received some recognition as an outstanding philanthropist through the biography published by A. A. Cormack in 1966. From a family with extensive estates around Montrose, in 1769 she married George Carnegie, a former Jacobite and Gothenburg merchant; the couple settled at Charleton House, Montrose. Susan Carnegie founded the Montrose Lunatic Asylum in 1781 and engaged with issues of local poverty throughout her life, through both individual relief and public interventions. In 1803 she published an Address to the Inhabitants of the Town and Parish of Montrose, urging greater generosity by the heritors and further action by the kirk session; George Dempster MP described it as “une production mâle.” In 1808 she established the Montrose Female Friendly Society, and in 1814 the Montrose Savings Bank. This paper seeks to reposition her in the context of recent work on women’s philanthropy and public life. Well-read in the works of the Scottish Enlightenment, she welcomed the outbreak of the French Revolution, and subsequently closely followed national debates on poverty and its causes. Her paternalistic benevolence focused on the small town of Montrose and the surrounding area. Undeterred by her gender or her marital status, her social position allowed her to exercise extensive patronage, to work closely with leading men in the town, and to become a locally authoritative figure. In Borderline Citizens (2009), Kathryn Gleadle examined the extent to which the local community and parish offered elite women such opportunities for public action through philanthropy in England. There are many similar examples of the philanthropy of early nineteenth-century aristocratic and gentry women in the New Statistical Account of Scotland (1834-45); Susan Carnegie’s career offers an outstanding and early micro-history of such possibilities in Scotland.

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