A Study of Older Australians’ Volunteering and Quality of Life: Empirical Evidence and Policy...

This is the published version Taghian, Mehdi, D'Souza, Clare and Polonsky, Michael 2012, A study of older Australians’ volunteering and quality of life : empirical evidence and policy implications, Journal of nonprofit and public sector marketing, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 101-122. Available from Deakin Research Online http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30045825 Reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright owner Copyright: 2012, Taylor & Francis

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A Study of Older Australians’Volunteering and Quality of Life:Empirical Evidence and PolicyImplicationsMehdi Taghian a , Clare D'Souza b & Michael Polonsky ca Deakin Graduate School of Business, Deakin University, Victoria,Australiab School of Business, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australiac School of Management and Marketing, Deakin University, Victoria,Australia

Available online: 29 May 2012

To cite this article: Mehdi Taghian, Clare D'Souza & Michael Polonsky (2012): A Study of OlderAustralians’ Volunteering and Quality of Life: Empirical Evidence and Policy Implications, Journal ofNonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 24:2, 101-122

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Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 24:101–122, 2012Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1049-5142 print/1540-6997 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10495142.2012.679161

A Study of Older Australians’ Volunteeringand Quality of Life: Empirical Evidence

and Policy Implications

MEHDI TAGHIANDeakin Graduate School of Business, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia

CLARE D’SOUZASchool of Business, La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia

MICHAEL POLONSKYSchool of Management and Marketing, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia

Older Australians are confronted by dramatic changes in theirphysical, social, financial, and psychological well-being. Thereare social costs to these changes related to their productivityand increased costs associated with caring for older Australians.Greater community engagement through voluntary work practicemay minimize these costs, as well as positively influence volun-teers’ subjective quality of life (QOL). This study investigates themotivations for older Australians to engage in formal voluntarywork. It seeks to identify whether the motivational factors to vol-unteer are associated with individuals’ subjective QOL. The resultsindicate a positive relationship between older people’s motivationsto volunteer and their subjective QOL. This association is strength-ened by respondents’ community orientation, positive perceptionof voluntary work, positive personal attitudes toward volunteering,and their self-esteem. The role of policy makers in motivating largerparticipation by the older groups is discussed.

KEYWORDS voluntarism, volunteering, quality of life, well-being,expectancy theory of motivation, government policy, work forcestrategy

Address correspondence to Mehdi Taghian, Deakin Graduate School of Business, Facultyof Business and Law, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125,Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

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102 M. Taghian et al.

INTRODUCTION

Participation in voluntary work is a deep-rooted human activity. It can rangefrom co-operation in neighborhood and community activities to formallyworking with charities and assisting others in need. Engaging in volun-tary work and a willingness to help others is a social orientation. Socialvoluntary transactions are a part of human desire to contribute to society(Meier & Stutzer, 2004). This contribution can be made in both informaland formal ways. Informal voluntary work is provided by volunteers to thecommunity, relatives, and associates in the form of social and personal care.Formal voluntary work is provided by volunteers to the nonprofit sector.This formal voluntary work is essential as nonprofits increasingly contributeto the implementation of governmental social policies (van Slykea, 2002).Unlike for-profits, nonprofits usually rely on volunteer workers for theirservice delivery and in some instances even the management of the non-profit organization (Handy, Mook, & Quarter, 2008). As such, nonprofitshave recognized the importance of volunteers’ contributions and haveformal functional organizational structures that specifically manage theirvolunteer workforce (Leonard, Onyx, & Hayward-Brown, 2004). Researchhas identified that the effectiveness of these management processes (andthus volunteer experiences) can be improved by better understanding theintrinsic and extrinsic motivations of volunteers (i.e., why do they donatetheir time and effort; Antoni, 2009; Kirchgässner, 2010; Briggs, Peterson, &Gregory, 2010).

Effective nonprofit organizations develop activities that focus onenhancing the factors that motivate individual volunteers, thereby ensur-ing that individuals continue to supply their critical input of “free labor”(Esmond, 2004; Stukas, Worth, Clary, & Snyder, 2009). Thus, it is importantthat nonprofit organizations design work experiences that target or lever-age volunteer’s motivation for volunteering. These motivations are variedand can include the volunteers’ desire to contribute back to society (Burns,Reid, Toncar, Fawcett, & Anderson, 2006), a desire to learn new skills, socialincision, as well as other factors (Clary & Snyder, 1999). Participating as avolunteer however, also affects the volunteer’s quality of life (QOL; Brigset al., 2009). Thus, understanding volunteers and effective volunteer man-agement is critical for the successful delivery of nonprofit-based servicesacross a range of areas (such as, sports, arts, environmental, social support,health, etc.).

This study aims to contribute to the literature on formal voluntary workparticipation and volunteer’s subjective assessment of their QOL, focusingon the older volunteer community as formal voluntary work, across all ages,is important for nonprofit organizations. While there are organizational costsassociated with managing these volunteers; they (especially older volun-teers) bring a vast array of valuable experiences to nonprofit organizations,

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Older Australians’ Volunteering and Quality of Life 103

leveraging skills developed from their previous paid employment. Thoseparticipating in formal voluntary work receive numerous intrinsic and extrin-sic benefits, from these experiences. The implications of this study arediscussed and examine government’s role in facilitating volunteer participa-tion, which are important given the benefits from volunteering may provideimproved general health, longevity, and happiness of the older population,as well as extending the productivity of the national workforce.

Volunteering

Formal volunteering has been defined as “long-term, planned, pro-socialbehaviours that benefit strangers and occur within an organizational setting”(Penner, 2002, p. 448), which has no financial benefit to the volunteer (Clary& Snyder, 1999; Pedicini, 2009). As such, it is characterized as being a socialinvestment to society or the community in which the volunteers work (Lodi-Smith & Roberts, 2007).

Volunteering often has a significant social impact and often has a posi-tive impact on volunteers that can influence their QOL (Briggs et al., 2010).Marx suggested, “It is not the consciousness of men that determines theirexistence, but, on the contrary, their social existence that determines theirconsciousness” (1978, p. 4). Therefore, it may be possible to influence thelife experiences of volunteers and the transformation of older Australians’social consciousness by providing a more dynamic social engagementframework for volunteering and by facilitating the “giving” opportunities.

This research focuses on older Australian volunteers (i.e., over 41 yearsold). The term “older people” is a concept that depends on the purposefor which it is used (Gill, 2006), and many definitions have been applied.We propose that this age group (41 and older) represents a populationthat is the last of the Baby Boomers and has reached maturity in theirpersonal and professional development. They have already retired or arebeginning to think about their retirement. The study follows the frameworkpreviously developed by Briggs et al. (2010), which assumed that volun-tary work is undertaken for the benefits volunteers perceive it offers anddraws on expectancy theory of motivation applied to a volunteering con-text. Briggs, Peterson, and Gregory’s (2010) model suggests that engagingin voluntary work, directly and/or indirectly, contributes to an individual’ssubjective QOL. Therefore, voluntary work undertaken by older Australianscould lead to an improved perception of their QOL, which, in turn,potentially, increases real improvements to older volunteers’ longevity andproductivity. Moreover, increased volunteering may consequently reducethe negative social costs associated with caring for the older citizens—inaddition to assisting the nonprofits they work to better serve their targetedconstituencies (i.e., nonprofits use the older voluntary workforce to achieveorganization’s social mission).

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Aging of the Australian Population

The number of older Australians will continue to increase over the nextseveral decades. This is complemented by falling fertility rates, increasinglife expectancy, and Baby Boomers reaching retirement age. For exam-ple, in Australia the over-65 age group will increase to 7.2 million by 2051(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010). The median age of the Australian pop-ulation has already increased by 4.8 years over the last two decades, from32.1 years in 1990 to 36.9 in 2010. An aging Australian community facesa number of societal challenges including increased health costs, changesin housing demands and a shortage of full-time skilled labor (AustralianBureau of Statistics, 2010; Brennan, Eagle, & Rice, 2010). These issues arecauses for concern requiring potential government intervention and marketsolutions.

In 1998, just over half (54%) of all older Australians had a disability(Pedicini, 2009). About 25% of older women and 16% of older men had aprofound or severe restriction in their mobility, causing difficulties with dailytasks such as bathing, dressing, eating, getting out of a chair or bed, walking,using public transport, or communicating with others. While participating asa volunteer cannot eliminate the problems associated with aging, it maybe able to delay the occurrence of it (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008;Laverie & McDonald, 2007; Thoits & Hewitt, 2001).

The benefits associated with people volunteering their time and skillscan be viewed in terms of:

1. Society’s gains from community social interaction. Through theircontribution, volunteers help to build social networks with thosebeing helped as well as with other volunteers, thereby generat-ing broader shared values and improve social cohesion (Randle &Dolnicar, 2009).

2. Nonprofits gain from nonpaid work offered by the volunteers (i.e.,providing services at lower costs). The 1999–2000 estimated value ofAustralian volunteers to nonprofit institutions was AU$8.9 billion, or1.4% of the GDP (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2008).

3. As identified previously, volunteers also personally benefit from theirsocial engagement, which may include, among other things, improve-ment in their longevity, physical and mental health, self-esteem,belongingness, and their overall QOL (Australian Bureau of Statistics,2008; Briggs et al., 2010; Dolnicar & Randle, 2007). As a result, vol-unteering is seen as both a public and an economic good. Thismeans that governments should have a role in providing citizens withthe best possible volunteering infrastructure. In effect, the govern-ment’s intervention may contribute to a higher QOL for volunteersand improve their overall social well-being, ultimately benefiting thewider society.

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Motivation to Volunteer

The motivation to engage in voluntary work is a complex phenomenon(Bussell & Forbes, 2002). Briggs et al. (2010) suggest that it may be afundamental human need to give benefits back to society without an expec-tation of financial benefits. Consequently, all adults, and older people inparticular, may experience this need to a greater extent, as they have feweropportunities to make ongoing contributions to society (Stephan, 1991).In fact, the desire to contribute is sometimes so strong that volunteersfrequently spend their own resources and undertake additional training tobecome eligible to volunteer (Volunteering Australia, 2010). How volunteersrespond to society’s needs depends on how they think about volunteering,and their motivation towards social engagement and participation. Theseviews also depend on how volunteers interact with their respective soci-eties, as well as volunteers’ financial, physical, and mental well-being, andthe social infrastructure provided to assist with volunteering by local, state,and federal governments (Pedicini, 2009).

Research undertaken in the area of volunteering has shown mixed rea-sons as to why people undertake volunteering. For instance, Warburton’s(1997) found that altruistic and egoistic reasons are important motivationaldrivers for older people to volunteer. Other researchers have identified arange of motives for volunteering, such as a desire to assisting or meet-ing people (Baum et al., 1999), personal characteristics and influences ofthe external environment (Dolnicar & Randle, 2007), community orienta-tion to help others (i.e., altruism), individual’s attitude and their perceptionabout voluntary work and the desire to feel useful and needed (Shye, 2010),personal growth and work skills (Vellekoop-Baldock, 1990). Kwantes andBoglarsky (2004) take the view that both personality characteristics (Costa,McCrae, & Holland, 1984; Gottfredson, Jones, & Holland, 1993) and people’svalues (Fonne & Myhre, 1996; Haase, 1979) have an effect on volunteering,that is, different types of individuals may have different sets of motivesfor becoming volunteers (Bussell & Forbes, 2002; Australian Government,Department of Family and Community Services, 2005). However, whileat the individual level personal motivations vary, Esmond (2001) suggeststhat there is substantial commonality across volunteers in regards to theirmotivational factors.

The most frequently reported reasons for volunteering include commu-nity orientation to help others (i.e., altruism) and the individual’s attitudeand their perception about voluntary work and the desire to feel useful andneeded (Shye, 2010). Companionship and friendship are also suggested aspossible motives, though they are less frequently stated reasons in someresearch (Anderson & Moore, 1978).

Engaging in voluntary work is inspired, in part, by cultural values thatgenerate and elevate the altruistic qualities in people (Anderson & Moore,

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1978; Rehberg, 2005). For example, the recent disasters associated withfloods across Australia resulted in a groundswell of volunteers to assist.The increased volume of volunteers has, in some instances, created organi-zational problems, as new arrangements had to be established to deal withthe management of the large volunteer workforce (Barsky, Trainer, Torres,& Aguirre, 2007; Jensen, 2011). Thus, nonprofits do need to ensure that theycan adequately manage the people who choose to volunteer and in timesof excess supply organizations might even be able to us motivations of vol-unteers to select those best suited to work with the organization on specifictasks. Unfortunately in times of excess organizational demand organizationsmay have less flexibility in who they accept as volunteers (i.e., they needvolunteers to deliver services).

Quality of Life

The QOL of country’s citizens is often defined in terms of their subjec-tive assessment of well-being. This assessment is important for politicaland social decision-makers, as people’s subjective assessment of their QOLmay translate into how effective they believe their government has been(i.e., declines in QOL might be associated with poor management of publicresources). QOL is especially important for older citizens (41 and older)—a group that is growing in size within most industrialized countries—asthese older citizens are facing different life pressures than younger citi-zens (Brennan, Eagle, & Rice, 2010; Cattan, Hagg, & Hardill, 2011). Oldercommunity members are experiencing increased life spans, which meanspeople need to support themselves in retirement for longer period of time.This increases demands on government services and support for oldercommunity members. Ensuring that the QOL of older people does notdecline (or this decline is limited) is important, and volunteering may pro-vide an alternative mechanism for enabling older people to make valuablesocietal contribution, without remaining in the paid workforce.

While the broad domain of QOL is the same for all people, older mem-bers of the community have been found to focus on different needs thanyounger community members (Netuveli & Blane, 2008). Older communitymembers are focused more on social contacts; dependency; and physical,mental, and emotional health, as well as adequate financial resources tosupport themselves, especially given their extended life span.

Several attempts have been made to define and measure QOL; how-ever, there is no general agreement on one unified definition (Felce &Perry, 1995). Objective QOL refers to an assessment of measurable indi-cators related to one’s well-being (such as educational achievement, incomelevel, occupation, etc.). Alternatively, subjective QOL is the psychologicalview of QOL, where an individual makes a self-assessment by evaluatingrelevant aspects of life that represent the extent of satisfaction with their

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OutcomeMotivation

Motivationto volunteer

Community orientation

Perception ofvoluntary work

Positive attitude

Self esteem

Quality of life

Mental and emotionalwell-being

Family relationship

Physical well-being

Financial well-being

FIGURE 1 Model of motivation to volunteer and quality of life.

various dimensions of well-being (Lawton, Winter, Kleban, & Ruckdeschel1999; Lee & Sirgy, 2004; Peterson & Ekici, 2007). Subjective QOL has beendefined as a sense or perception of well-being that is based on the extentan individual is satisfied with the areas of life important to that individual(Ferrans & Powers, 1985). In this article, QOL is considered to be a multi-dimensional subjective measure reflected by the individual’s perception oftheir well-being. It is a construct that incorporates the individuals’ perceptionof their: (a) financial well-being, (b) physical well-being, (c) family rela-tionships, and (d) mental and emotional well-being (Felce & Perry, 1995).It covers the individuals’ overall assessment of how satisfied they are withlife as they experience and perceive it, given the characteristics, attitudes,expectations, sensitivities, and the value system (culture, religion) that formthe individuals’ dominant personality.

The Model of Motivation to Volunteer and QOL

In order to explore the anticipated relationships between the motivationsfor mature Australians to participate in voluntary work and their associatedsubjective QOL, a model was constructed (Figure 1). The key objective ofthis study is to seek to test these relationships.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Although, as stated previously, there are mixed reasons why people under-take volunteering, personal motivations have been found to be an importantfactor. Hence, this study uses expectancy theory to examine how motivationto engage in voluntary work brings about positive individual outcomes(American Marketing Association, 2010). Expectancy theory is generallyaccepted in the literature for explaining work motivations. It states that

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people contribute in order to gain some psychological outcomes or pay-offs (Anderson & Moore, 1978; Steers, Mowday, & Shapiro, 2004; Friedman,Cox, & Mather, 2008), whether in paid or voluntary work. The motivationto participate, the expected benefits, and the extent to which expectationsare realized all result in the continuation of the workers (voluntary andpaid) participation in the future, which may also depend on the nature andextent of the satisfaction experienced (Meurs & Perrewe, 2011). While vol-unteers assist organizations, it is suggested that volunteers are those whobenefit most from the helping relationship, which results from the act ofparticipation (Edwards, 2005).

According to expectancy theory, people devote time and energy to thetype of work that will provide them with higher levels of outcome (Seo,Bartunek, & Barrett, 2010). This expectation also motivates them to devotemore effort and energy to the task indicating that valence judgments aredeterminants of effort (Vroom, 1964, as cited in Seo et al., 2010). Valencejudgment refers to the subjective assessment of the extent of the desirabilityof the expected or anticipated rewards or outcomes that can be experi-enced from the voluntary work participation. Expectancy theory suggeststhat individuals’ achievement of their expectations will result in positiveoutcomes, which, in the context of this study, includes motivating them tovolunteer and have improvements in their QOL. In relation to older volun-teers (41 years old and older), the benefits, as well as expected outcomeswould, in part, include living longer, reduced health problems, feeling hap-pier, more personal satisfaction, better self-esteem, and an improved senseof belonging to the community (Volunteering Australia, 2010).

Research Questions

In the literature, a variety of types of formal and informal voluntary workhave been documented. This study focuses on the decision of individu-als to formally volunteer with recognized nonprofit organizations with theassumption that they, either consciously or subconsciously, choose to doso with the expectation of some benefits that will contribute to their sub-jective QOL. We have excluded informal volunteering, such as assistancegiven to neighbors, friends and relatives outside the household (Borgonovi,2008; Choi, Burr, Jeffrey, Mutchler, & Caro, 2007) and corporate volun-teering, which employees of an organization are required, encouraged, orallowed to engage in during paid work hours (Laczniak & Murphy, 2006).This exclusion is aimed to provide focus for the study on the older peoplewho personally volunteer for work in nonprofit organizations.

The motivations for engaging in voluntary work, as depicted inFigure 1, include four dimensions of personal characteristics (communityorientation, perceptions of voluntary work, personal positive attitudes, andself-esteem) and subjective four dimensions of subjective QOL, including thefinancial, physical, family relationship, and mental and emotional aspects of

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well-being. While financial well-being may not be considered as resultingfrom or being influenced by voluntary work participation, it is, nevertheless,part of an individual’s subjective QOL and contributes to comfort and lowerlevels of anxiety and uncertainty.

From the previous review of the literature surrounding voluntary workparticipation and QOL, within an expectancy theory perspective of motiva-tion (resulting in the conceptual model in Figure 1), the following researchquestions emerge:

RQ1: Is it possible to establish a construct and measure volunteers’ moti-vation to engage in voluntary work? There is no evidence in theliterature that this has been done. The personal characteristics thatare considered in the model (Figure 1) and reflect the individual’sattitudinal make-up are expected to be the key impetus for matureAustralians to participate in voluntary work, as indicated previouslyin the Motivation to Volunteer section.

RQ2: Is it possible to establish a construct quantifying subjective QOL?The measurement of subjective QOL using those well-being dimen-sions (as indicated previously in the QOL section), which havebeen taken from the literature, included the conceptual model(Figure 1) have not been empirically measured in relation to olderAustralian volunteers.

RQ3: Ultimately, as depicted in the model (Figure 1), the objective of thisstudy is to identify whether the motivation to volunteer is associ-ated with the subjective QOL. This is an important relationshipthat would provide evidence of interaction between motivationand QOL and the individual’s subjective QOL influencing theindividual’s social attitudes, as has been proposed in the literature.

METHOD

The first stage of the research involved a qualitative study with the assistanceof two nonprofit volunteer recruiting agencies. This stage of the research wasundertaken primarily to better understand the issues related to motivationsto volunteer and the areas considered relevant to mature people’s subjectiveQOL. In this stage, two structured focus groups of six participants each,over the age of 41, was conducted (one male group and one female group).The protocol for the focus groups was designed to collect information onvolunteer’s motivations to participate as volunteers along with the factorsthat they considered as important in assessing their subjective QOL. Thefindings were found to be consistent with the volunteering motivations andmeasures of subjective QOL assessments reported in the literature. To ensurebetter understanding of the issues raised by focus group participants, twoin-depth interviews were conducted with volunteers not involved in thefocus groups (one male and one female) in order to further probe the issuesidentified. The in-depth interviews confirmed the items contributing to the

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components of subjective QOL and well-being within the model (Figure 1).The information gathered in the focus group discussions and verified

by the in-depth interviews was then used in drafting a survey question-naire. In developing the survey we sought to draw on the existing scalesavailable in the volunteering and related literature (Henrich & Herschbach,2000; Rahtz & Szykman, 2008). The final instrument included items (i.e.,statements) related to individuals’ attitude formation about motivations toparticipate in voluntary work, their general attitudes about social contri-butions, the types of voluntary work they engage in, and aspects of theirsubjective assessments of their life conditions as identified by their expec-tations of their QOL (see Table 1 for items). The research instrument wasconstructed using interval scales with the response format (7-point Likert-type scale) ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Theresearch instrument also collected demographic information for describingthe sample (see Table 2).

TABLE 1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis—Motivation to Volunteer

Construct Loading t value

Motivation to volunteer (α = .88, CR = .86, AVE = .55)Community orientation (α = .82, CR = .87, AVE = .57)

Important to serve as a volunteer .71 5.0Important to form close ties with others .86 5.0Concerned about the welfare of my community .50 7.7Important to take an active role in the civic affairs of the community .29 6.4Important to attend town hall to voice concerns about the issues

affecting the community.40 2.3

Perception of voluntary work (α = .92, CR = .86, AVE = .56)Engaging in voluntary work is:

Beneficial .71 5.6Safe .64 5.6Favorable .88 11.8Positive .86 11.5Superior .59 7.8Excellent .91 12.0Useful .86 11.5Desirable .80 10.7

Positive attitude (α = .91, CR = .83, AVE = .55)In a stressful situation I usually:

Try to look at the bright side of things .66 8.9Focus on the positive aspects of the problem .89 10.5Look for the good in what happened .82 14.8Try to make the best of the situation .79 14.8

Self-esteem (α = .80, CR = .75, AVE = .43)During the past month:

I was pleased with my personal life .76 7.2I was feeling relaxed and free of tension .83 7.5I enjoyed the things I do .88 7.7I did as much work as others in similar jobs .55 7.7

Note. α = Cronbach’s alpha; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted.

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TABLE 2 Sample Demographic Information

Demographic information n %

GenderFemale 107 56.9Male 81 43.1

Age groups41–55 64 34.056–65 50 26.665+ 74 39.4

Marital statusSingle 20 10.6Married 117 62.2Divorced 27 14.4Never married 9 4.8Widow/widower 15 8.0

The research instrument was pretested using six volunteers from one ofthe participating organizations. Based on the pretest, only minor amend-ments were made in wording of some items and the sequencing ofquestions. The data were collected using a direct mailing to all mem-bers of the two nonprofit recruitment organizations that assist with therecruiting, training, and placement of volunteers in Melbourne, Australia.The two organizations’ societal activities involve staffing specializes in freetransportation services for the frail and elderly in their operating regions. Thequestionnaires were distributed with the organizations’ monthly newslet-ters requesting members to participate. The survey was also placed on theorganization’s websites used to recruit new volunteers.

A total of 273 usable, completed questionnaires were received.However, only the questionnaires that met the sample criteria for this studywere examined, which included people currently volunteering who werealso over 41 years old. This resulted in a usable sample of 188 for dataanalysis or 68.9% of all surveys received.

The data were analyzed using both descriptive measures andconfirmatory factor analysis to validate the scales. All constructs weretested separately for internal consistency-reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) andpredictive validity (Tables 1, 3, and 4). Correlations between the constructsused in the model are also not greater than .60 for any pairs of constructs,suggests that these have discriminant validity (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson,& Tatham, 2010).

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling (AMOS) was used to model the data and testthe relationships. According to Hair et al. (2010), both AMOS and Liseral

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TABLE 3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis—Subjective Quality of Life

Quality of life (α = .90, CR = .87, AVE = .52) Loading t value

Financial well-being (α = .87, CR = .82, AVE = .53)Over the last 12 months

I did not worry about the future financial uncertainty .86 16.5I have been enjoying financial comfort and security .95 16.5I have not worried about the quality of my living environment .76 12.4I have felt satisfied with the usual comforts I have in my life .65 9.9

Physical well-being (α = .71, CR = .74, AVE = .43)Over the last 12 months

I have been easily able to climb one flight of stairs .98 7.6I have been able to lift and carry groceries .82 7.8My memory has been very good .51 5.8My physical well-being has been satisfactory .54 5.8

Family relationships (α = .88, CR = .83, AVE = .54)Over the last 12 months

I enjoyed the company of my family members .83 9.4I enjoyed the support of my family members .95 10.1I have characterized my family situation as happy .90 12.1I had good relationship with my extended family .63 12.1

Mental and emotional well-being (α = .88, CR = .90, AVE =.64)Over the last 12 months (α = .87, CR = .82, AVE = .52)

I have worked my regular hours .54 8.2I have been in firm control of my behavior .92 19.8I have been in firm control of my thoughts .98 22.3I have been in firm control of my emotions .90 22.3

Note. α = Cronbach’s alpha; CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted.

TABLE 4 Descriptive Statistics for Latent Variables in Motivation to Volunteerand Quality of Life Model

Construct Grand M M SD Cronbach’s α

Motivation to volunteerCommunity interaction 4.8 22.6 4.8 .74Perception of voluntary work 6.2 49.8 7.0 .92Positive attitude 5.3 21.1 4.9 .88Self-esteem 5.2 20.6 5.1 .83

Quality of lifeFinancial well-being 5.2 20.8 5.9 .88Physical well-being 5.7 22.8 5.1 .80Family relationships 5.9 23.5 5.1 .91Mental and emotional

well-being5.6 22.3 5.4 .88

are equally applicable to undertake SEM. Other researchers have found thatmodels do not significantly vary based on package used (Byrne, 2001). Theindividual measurement models forming the structural model were estimatedprior to integrating them in the model (Figure 1). Motivation to volunteer andQOL are reflective constructs, which means that the measure is caused by,and therefore reflects variation in, the underlying latent factor. In this context

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the direction of causality is from construct to measure (Jarvis, Mackenzie, &Podsakoff, 2003)

The fit of the model for all constructs was acceptable (see Tables 1and 3). The results of the model estimates are presented in Tables 1, 3,4, and 5. Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics and Table 5 presentsthe correlations between the components of the model (Figure 1). The fitstatistics for the structural model are presented in Table 6.

The results satisfied the research questions indicating that motivationto volunteer (RQ1) and subjective QOL (RQ2) can be measured using thevariables used in forming the constructs. Moreover, the two constructs ofmotivation to volunteer and subjective QOL are also strongly associated(RQ3) as detailed next.

Table 6 lists the estimates of association of motivation to volunteerwith its key contributing factors. Community orientation (.20, p < .05), theindividual’s perception of voluntary work (.25, p < .05), positive attitude(.38, p < .05), and self-esteem (.78, p < .01) all positively associate withthe motivation construct. Self-esteem appears to be the highest contribu-tor to the formation of the motivation to volunteer. The QOL constructis strongly reflected in physical well-being (.93, p < .01), family relation-ships (.62, p < .01), and mental and emotional well-being (.83, p < .01).The contribution of financial well-being appears to be the weakest amongthe factors used (.36, p < .01). The association between the motivation tovolunteer and QOL is estimated to be strong at (.92, p < .05). This levelof association indicates that there is a direct relationship between the twoconstructs.

DISCUSSION

This article set out to examine the motivations for volunteering amongstolder Australians and the impact of these motivations on volunteers subjec-tive QOL. On the basis of this study, the authors propose that the betterunderstanding of volunteering is contingent of two interrelated issues: (a)individual characteristics that contribute to the formation of motivation tovolunteer and (b) circumstances that contribute to an individual’s perceivedassessment of well-being that in combination characterize one’s subjectiveQOL The results of this study provide some evidence that there are substan-tial benefits to the individual’s subjective QOL from volunteering, as well asthe benefits that accrue to the volunteering organizations and indirect ben-efits to society (the latter two were not assessed in this study). People aremotivated to volunteer because they are community-oriented, have generalpositive attitudes about volunteering, and enjoy higher levels of self-esteem.These characteristics may have been accumulated, established, strengthened,and enjoyed, potentially, over a long period of time.

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TAB

LE5

Corr

elat

ion

Bet

wee

nth

eCom

ponen

tsofM

otiv

atio

nto

Volu

nte

eran

dQ

ual

ityofLi

feM

odel

Const

ruct

Com

munity

orien

tatio

nPer

ceptio

nof

volu

nta

ryw

ork

Posi

tive

attit

ude

Self-e

stee

mFi

nan

cial

wel

l-bei

ng

Phys

ical

wel

l-bei

ng

Fam

ilyre

latio

nsh

ips

Motiv

atio

nto

volu

nte

erCom

munity

orien

tatio

nPer

ceptio

nofvo

lunta

ryw

ork

.29∗∗

Posi

tive

attit

ude

.49∗∗

.32∗∗

Self-e

stee

m.1

5∗.2

6∗∗.3

3∗∗

Qual

ityoflif

eFi

nan

cial

wel

l-bei

ng

.11

.13

.23∗∗

.58∗∗

Phys

ical

wel

l-bei

ng

.01

−.08

.24∗∗

.41∗∗

.40∗∗

Fam

ilyre

latio

nsh

ips

.23∗∗

.25∗∗

.33∗∗

.51∗∗

.34∗∗

.19∗∗

Men

talan

dem

otio

nal

wel

l-bei

ng

.17∗

.15∗

.35∗∗

.60∗∗

.52∗∗

.56∗∗

.52∗∗

∗ Sig

nifi

cantat

the

.05

leve

l;∗∗

Sign

ifica

ntat

the

.01

leve

l.

114

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TABLE 6 Estimates of Associations for Motivation to Volunteer and Quality of Life Model

Models Standardized estimate

Motivation to volunteerMotivation→ Community orientation .20∗

Motivation→ Perception of voluntary work .25∗

Motivation→ Positive attitude .38∗

Motivation→ Self-esteem .78∗∗

Quality of lifeQuality of life→ Financial well-being .36∗∗

Quality of life→ Physical well-being .93∗∗

Quality of life→ Family relationships .62∗∗

Quality of life→ Mental and emotional well-being .83∗∗

Motivation to volunteer→ Quality of life .92∗

Note. The fit statistics indicate an acceptable model (Figure 1; χ 2 = 15.63, df = 13, p > .05, CMIN/df =1.4, RMR = 0.03, GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.94, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03).∗Significant at the .05 level; ∗∗Significant at the .01 level.

Australian policy makers are increasingly concerned with the issue ofvolunteering as an important component of the national workforce designstrategy (Dolnicar & Randle, 2007). A substantial part of this strategy includesassisting organizations that are involved in the recruitment and trainingof volunteers as well as removing any potential disincentives/barriers thatmight exist for volunteers and nonvolunteers, for example, having to person-ally incur transportation costs and insurance. However, the results suggestthat it may be valuable for nonprofits and government to highlight the per-sonal benefits associated with volunteering. Nonprofit organizations couldeven modify the design of volunteering opportunities to ensure that the spe-cific benefits being sought by individuals are being achieved and enablingmore targeted volunteering placements based on volunteers’ expectationsand circumstances.

The Australian government has placed volunteering as a core contrib-utor to the long- term work force strategy. The strategy incorporates sup-porting productive human resources to volunteer. Volunteers are presentlyconsidered as being “in-kind support” within the broader workforce whocontributes across all levels of input, output, outcomes, and impacts (ProBono Australia, 2010; Volunteering Australia, 2010). It might be time thatthe importance and classification of their role was reclassified and revalued.Governmental initiatives have already been implemented to better facilitatevolunteers, by (a) promoting infrastructure targeted at improved training andmanagement of volunteers and (b) removing the negatives or disincentiveassociated with volunteering. These initiatives include the following issuesand areas as reported by Volunteering Australia (2010):

● Overall stronger government support for the not-for-profit organiza-tions. This support, in terms of additional funding, can assist nonprofits

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to increase their effectiveness in training and maintaining the volun-teers and achieve better retention of volunteers over time. They wouldalso be able to attract more qualified volunteers consequent to betterorganizational focus and capability on management.

● Information gathering on various aspects of volunteering through theAustralian Bureau of Statistics (enabling an appropriate evaluation ofthis critical resource).

● Gift deductibility tax concessions, for organizations that support otherorganizations through the provision of services including state volun-teer centers and local resource centers that engage volunteers in thedelivery of services. This initiative would provide additional cost sav-ing incentives and may result in expanded functions that ultimatelycan benefit the employment of volunteers.

● Background check on volunteers to be portable between organizationsto control the “grey nomads,” those who volunteer to multiple organi-zations, for police checks and working-with-children checks (reducingcosts on individuals and organizations).

● Training for the not-for-profit management and board of directors ingovernance and related issues (ensuring volunteers are more effec-tively leveraged as well as used to maximized experiences andmotivations).

● Review of out-of-pocket expenses associated with volunteering withthe intention of finding means of reimbursing the. These costs, in part,include fuel, telephone calls, computer/Internet access, stationery,and transport (all of which recognize the economic contribution ofvolunteers as well as reducing barriers to participating).

● Using voluntary participation as opportunities for apprenticeships inpromoting the skill necessary in line with the current and future work-force challenges arising from growing demand and increasing supplyconstraints. This would ensure volunteer’s knowledge is transferred toothers within nonprofits).

● Allowing for the Equal Opportunity Act to be extended to also covervolunteers. This would prevent the negativity associated with volun-teers’ feelings of being outside the national consideration in regards tothe application of the Act.

Limitations and Further Research

The results of this study need to be regarded cautiously considering somelimitations in the study. These include the sampling method used, the sampleage characteristics, and the geographical coverage.

The sample for this study was volunteers from two volunteer recruit-ing and managing organizations in Melbourne, Australia. The questionnairewas distributed through the organizations’ monthly newsletters. No follow-up and reminder method was used to prompt wider responses. The totalresponse of 188 did not allow for more detailed analysis of results based onage groups that participated in the study. This may impose some limitations

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on the variations of the responses received. The results relate to a limitedgeographical area in Melbourne and may not necessarily be indicative of theAustralian population in general.

This study used volunteers over the age of 41 as respondents. Futureresearch needs to be undertaken in an Australia-wide study of the generaladult population, to identify if the relationships exist across age groups orthe types of volunteers (regular volunteers, occasional volunteers) as well aswith nonvolunteers. Such extended results will enable us to determine thegeneralizability of the model across different cohorts. Additional researchalso needs to look at how volunteering impacts on objective measures ofQOL, although these would need to be at the personal level, rather than asocietal level (as many objective measures are societal, literacy levels, infantmortality, etc.).

CONCLUSIONS

Within the literature there are a number of different types of volunteering.This study has excluded informal volunteering (Borgonovi, 2008) and cor-porate participation as volunteers (Laczniak & Murphy, 2006). We focusedon individuals’ decisions to volunteer, which are either conscious orunconscious and can be based in expectations by the individual or theorganization. We used expectancy theory as a basis of the research, whichsuggests that individuals’ achievement of their expectations will result inpositive outcomes (i.e., the volunteer’s QOL).

The trend of the aging of the Australian population, as in other indus-trialized countries, is expected to continue (Volunteering Australia, 2010;Brennan et al., 2010). Medical advances addressing conditions that wereuntreatable only a few short years ago will continue, which will increasepeople’s life-span, which in turn creates more opportunities for maturecommunity members to engage in volunteering. The federal government,however, is seeking to increase the retirement age to maintain humanresource skills within the workforce. Any such move may benefit the econ-omy by increasing the skill base as well possibly as improving peoplesperceived QOL (assuming people want to continue working in a paidcapacity). Encouragement of people of all ages, and specifically mature-ageAustralians, to engage in volunteering is an important factor driving the questfor civil society where the needs of the disadvantaged are being met as wellas ensuring those retired are healthier and happier citizens. Future research,therefore, should also examine health-related issues associated with volun-teering and track individuals over time to see whether the issues change asvolunteering behavior changes.

It has been suggested that there are substantive reasons for policy mak-ers to facilitate volunteering as well as to be supportive of volunteering(Meijs, 2004; Haski-Leventhal, Mejis, & Hustinx, 2010). First, as clearly

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identified by this research, volunteering improves QOL (Thoits & Hewitt,2001). Second, volunteering increases the affordability of services andimproves the quality in services (Brudney, 1990). Thus, volunteering isencouraged by governments as it helps to reduce costs. Third, volunteer-ing sustains social capital and social cohesion, and may even embracesocially disadvantaged groups (Gay, 1998), which may assist with build-ing up their self-esteem. Last but not least, volunteering forms a nexuswith democratic processes allowing for the contribution of citizens in localgovernance (Berger, Foster, & Meinhard, 2005; Lowndes & Wilson, 2001;Taylor, 2006). Thus, volunteering draws the attention of policy makers tothe critical importance to society of the involvement and participation ofvolunteers.

This research suggests that understanding and facilitating volunteer-ing is an important theoretical, practical, and policy issue. Focusing on theolder segments of the community is important, as these people would havemore discretionary time at their disposal to volunteer. There are more directbenefits to them in participating, as well as to policy makers, from the out-come of improvements in older citizens’ subjective QOL and assumedlyalso their objective QOL, on which subjective assessments of QOL aremade.

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