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Review

A literature review on trace metals and organic compoundsof anthropogenic origin in the Wider Caribbean Region

Adolfo Fernandez, Asha Singh, Rudolf Jaffe *

Southeast Environmental Research Center, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th St, Bldg OE 148, Miami, FL, USA

Abstract

About 30 studies from the published literature were reviewed to determine the pollution status regarding heavy metals and organiccompounds of the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR). The literature revealed that most studies were performed in the South and CentralAmerican Caribbean Region with sparse reports on the small island states. Collectively, the most frequently analyzed heavy metals werePb, Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Mn and Cr while DDT and its metabolites were the most frequently reported organic pollutants. The sampleswhich were analyzed vary in terms of sampling schemes, parameters and analytical techniques, as well as differences in data reportingpresentation (i.e. dry weight versus wet weight, sediment fraction analyzed, or % lipids). These differences make meaningful comparisonsof the available data very difficult. Furthermore, there is limited data available for most of these contaminants from the majority ofnations in the WCR. Therefore, any attempt to create a regional scale assessment from contaminants data available in the open literatureis limited by the scarcity of available information.� 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Wider Caribbean Region; Marine; Pollution; Heavy metals; Organic pollutants

1. Introduction

1.1. General aspects of pollution in the WCR

The coastal marine environment of the Wider CaribbeanRegion (WCR) consists of fragile ecosystems that are con-sidered hotspots in marine biodiversity (Brooks and Smith,2001). These ecosystems provide the region with servicesthat are critical for economic support and developmentof the local population. Among the major sources ofincome in this region is tourism and travel thus, makingit one of the most tourism dependent regions of the world(World Travel and Tourism Council, 2003). These pres-sures have resulted in the Caribbean Region exhibitingsome signs of environmental stress (Richards and Bohn-sack, 1990) and long-term ecological research and manage-

ment has been advocated as an urgently needed activity toassess the potential long-term negative impact of humandisturbances on the goods (e.g. fisheries) and services(e.g. ecotourism) these ecosystems provide (Rivera-Mon-roy et al., 2004; Singh, 2005). Within this framework, eco-logical effects by toxic chemicals (trace metals and organicpollutants) are a critical issue. During the past two decades,marine pollution has become an important issue in theCaribbean (GESAMP, 2001; UNEP, 1994). The CaribbeanEnvironment Programme (CEP) of the United NationsEnvironment Programme (UNEP) has highlighted suchproblem and has reported the existing and potential envi-ronmental threats to the region (UNEP, 1999). In addition,many studies have been published which dealt with marinepollution in the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) withsome focusing on specific types of pollution. A numberof these studies have focused on pollutants such as petro-leum hydrocarbons (Atwood et al., 1987, 1988; Botelloet al., 1997), nutrients (Siung-Chang, 1997; Rawlinset al., 1998), and sewage (Siung-Chang, 1997). However,

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there is the absence of a comprehensive assessment and fewdatasets are available on the occurrence and distribution ofheavy metals, such as lead and mercury, and organic pollu-tants such as organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs) in the WCR. Therefore, the goal of this paper isto review the available literature in an effort to assesswhether any conclusion or regional assessment can bedrawn regarding the level of pollution by trace metal andanthropogenic organic compounds in the WCR.

The WCR in this paper is the geographic region definedin Article 2 of the Convention for the Protection andDevelopment of the Marine Environment of the WiderCaribbean Region (Cartagena Convention), excluding theUnited States (Fig. 1). This region includes several inde-pendent and dependent Island States in the CaribbeanSea, as well as mainland territories of South and CentralAmerica. This region covers an area of 4.3 · 106 km2, withan estimated 40% of its human population residing within2 km of the coast (UNEP/CEP, 2001).

Of particular importance in assessing the magnitude ofthe pollution in the marine environment is the medium orenvironmental matrix in which contaminants are detected.In the WCR, surface water (Mansingh and Wilson, 1995;Rajkumar and Persad, 1994; Rajkumar et al., 1995) sedi-ments (Alonso et al., 2000; Bernard, 1995; Gonzalez andRamirez, 1995; Gonzalez and Torres, 1990; Greenawayand Rankine-Jones, 1992; Guzman and Garcia, 2002; Guz-man and Jimenez, 1992; Hall and Chang-Yen, 1986; Jaffeet al., 2002; Mansingh and Wilson, 1995; Rajkumar andPersad, 1994; Sbriz et al., 1998) and living organisms includ-ing mangroves, various species of fish, bivalves, echino-derms and corals (Alonso et al., 2000; Bastidas andGarcia, 1999; Gold-Bouchott, 1993; Gonzalez et al., 1999;Gonzalez and Ramirez, 1995; Guzman and Garcia, 2002;Guzman and Jimenez, 1992; Jaffe et al., 1992, 1995, 1998;Laboy-Nieves and Conde, 2001; Sbriz et al., 1998) wereused in the analyses for various heavy metals and organiccompounds. The observed low level usage of surface water(10%) as a medium for analysis of contaminants is probablydue to the intrinsically low residence time and consequentlylow concentrations of these contaminants in water and tothe high temporal and seasonal variations of aquatic pollu-tant concentrations. In contrast, analyses of sediments wereused in the majority of the studies as pollutant archives. It isknown that most organochlorine pesticides have low aque-ous solubility and tend to adsorb to marine sediments andcolloidal solids (Jaffe, 1991; Rawlins et al., 1998). The useof living organisms as biomonitors of pollution whichincluded a wide variety of organisms such as corals, seaurchins, echinoderms, fish, mussels and other bivalve spe-cies were used in many of the studies. Bivalves are the moresuitable among the various types of organisms for this typeof study because of their sedentary nature, ability to biocon-centrate pollutants and their widespread distribution overlarge geographic areas (Jaffe et al., 1995, 1998; NOAA,1995; Sericano et al., 1990, 1995; Singh et al., 1992).

The temporal and spatial coverage of sample collectionare also critical in evaluating the potential magnitude ofmarine pollution. Single sampling events conducted in local-ized regions provide only a snapshot view of pollution in thatarea. In contrast, long-term monitoring studies that consistof multiple sampling events collected from a wide geo-graphic area are a more effective means of assessing marinepollution. Furthermore, sampling over a wide geographicarea can allow for distinguishing between localized ‘hot-spots’ situated near point sources and more widespreadanthropogenic contamination as well as providing impor-tant information on the transport and dispersal of pollutantsfrom both point and non-point sources. Long-term studiesthat are conducted over several years are also helpful indetermining rates of input of contaminants versus theirtransport and degradation and may better indicate whichareas are susceptible to significant environmental stressors.

The probable effects of trace metal contamination insediments, which were conducted in some studies, wereevaluated against guideline values developed by NOAAto interpret the effects of contaminants on biological end-points. The guidelines values are the threshold effects level(TEL) and a probable effects level (PEL). The TEL repre-sents the upper range limit of contamination for whichno effects have been observed in the majority of toxicitystudies performed on that contaminant. Below this level,pollutants are not considered a significant hazard to aqua-tic organisms. The PEL represents the lower limit of a pol-lutant concentration, which is usually associated withadverse biological effects to aquatic organisms. Above thislevel, pollutants concentrations can potentially be associ-ated with adverse biological effects (NOAA, 1999).

1.2. Sources of heavy metals and organic pollutants in the

WCR

The main pollution sources which were identified for theWCR include sewage inputs, mineral extraction, pesticideusage in the agricultural sector, hydrocarbon extractionand transportation and waste from the industrial sector.Mineral extraction is primarily in the form of bauxite min-ing but other small scale metallurgical activities also exist.In 1999, it was estimated that bauxite producing countries(Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Guyana and Suri-name) in the WCR account for over 29.3% of the world’sbauxite production (UNEP, 1999). There are also signifi-cant exports of nickel from Dominican Republic and Mex-ico and copper from Cuba and Dominican Republic. Theextraction of mineral deposits in the WCR has resulted inpollutants such as lead, copper and zinc reaching the mar-ine environment. In Cuba, for example, nickel mining andmetallurgical activities have resulted in elevated concentra-tions of nickel, iron, cobalt, and manganese in sedimentdeposits (Gonzalez and Ramirez, 1995).

Agricultural activities are another source of pollution inthe WCR. Many countries have relatively vibrant agricul-tural sectors and in 1999 it was estimated that over 25%

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of the total GDP is derived from agriculture for all thecountries in this region. However, poor land managementpractices and the increased lost of agricultural lands toother economic activities have led to increased pesticideusage (Singh, 2005). Pesticides are also used to control vec-tor borne diseases on livestock and in some householdapplications (UNEP, 2002). It is estimated that as muchas 90% of pesticide applications in the WCR do not meettheir intended target and a high proportion is believed tobe entering the marine environment via surface and drain-age runoff, erosion, misapplication and atmospheric trans-port (UNEP, 1994). Many banned chlorinated pesticidessuch as DDT, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, andtoxaphene were found to still been used in the late 1990s(Alegria et al., 2000). This is evident from some studiessuch as Gold-Bouchott (1993), Jaffe et al. (1995, 1998),Mansingh and Wilson (1995), Sbriz et al. (1998) and Jaffeet al. (2002) which have all reported the presence of thesepollutants in the marine environment of the WCR.

Another type of common organic pollutant are the poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which have been used exten-sively in the WCR since the 1930s. PCBs reach the marineenvironment via dry and wet deposition, sewage sludgeused as fertilizer, and leaching from landfills (UNEP,2002). PCBs are extremely persistent in the environmentespecially those with half-lives of more than six years andare found in aerobic soils and sediments. They are alsoknown to be carcinogenic and have shown evidence ofendocrine disruption in laboratory tests (UNEP, 2002).Jaffe et al. (1995), Mansingh and Wilson (1995), Sbrizet al. (1998) and Jaffe et al. (2002) in their studies havereported the presence of PCB in the WCR.

Hydrocarbon presence in the WCR is one of the mostsignificant threats to marine life according to UNEP(1999). Among those causing pollution are land basedand maritime activities as well as petroleum and gas extrac-tions. The WCR, especially the Caribbean Sea, is one of theprincipal waterways in the world harbouring in excess of50,000 ship calls per year (ACS, 2002), and is classified ashaving one of the most intensive maritime traffic in theworld (UNEP, 2005). It is estimated that over 5 millionbarrels of oil and its by products are transported everydayin this region (Botello et al., 1997). This high transporta-tion rate coupled with refining and extraction make themarine environment extremely susceptible to hydrocarbonpollution. In terms of direct pollution, it is estimated thatapproximately seven million barrels of oil are dischargedannually in the WCR from tank washing (Botello et al.,1997). The UNEP estimated that in excess of 50% of thepollution in the WCR is caused by ballasting and emptyingof bilges (UNEP, 1994). As a result of these activities, oilslicks in coastal waters and along beaches in the Caribbeanwere reported, as a frequent occurrence for example, inJamaica (Wade et al., 1987) and Curacao (Buth and Ras,1992). High levels of dispersed/dissolved petroleum hydro-carbons (DDPH) were recorded at various cruise stationsin the South Eastern part of the Caribbean Sea (Persad

and Rajkumar, 1995), and in other areas of the sea (Har-vey, 1987). In addition, elevated levels of DDPH includingpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were observedthroughout the WCR (Atwood et al., 1987; Botello et al.,1997). PAHs such as napthalenes, phenanthrenes, and cry-senes are toxic compounds which bioconcentrate in inverte-brates in the aquatic environment. These compounds areknown to cause adverse effects on tropical ecosystems suchas mangrove forests and coral reefs (Botello et al., 1997;Gold-Bouchott et al., 1995). Other sources of PAHs inthe environment result primarily from fossil fuel combus-tion and emissions associated with the burning of charcoal,wood, oil and other biomass as well as motor vehicle emis-sions and urban runoff (UNEP, 2002). The use of petro-leum products and paints in the shipping industries havealso contributed to pollution in the marine environment(Laboy-Nieves and Conde, 2001). A variety of studies con-ducted by Botello et al. (1991), Singh et al. (1992), Corbin(1993) and Jaffe et al. (1995, 1998, 2002) have reported thepresence of PAHs in the WCR marine environment.

2. Results and discussion

To facilitate comparison of the data obtained from var-ious studies, the WCR was divided into four subregions. (a)South America: Colombia, Suriname, Venezuela, Trinidadand Tobago, Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao. (b) Central

America: Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mex-ico, Nicaragua and Panama. (c) North Caribbean: Baha-mas, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti,Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Anguilla, Turks and Caicos, US Vir-gin Islands and British Virgin Islands. (d) Eastern Carib-

bean: St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda,Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Martinique,Montserrat, St. Barthelemy, St. Lucia, St. Martin/St. Mar-teen, Barbados and St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

A total of 29 studies are cited for this paper, three ofthese conducted analysis of water samples, 15 conducted

Table 1Number of studies reported in the open literature for selected contam-inants by country

Country Metals Organochlorinepesticides

PCBs PAHs

Aruba NA * * NABelize NA * * NAColombia 1 * * NACosta Rica 2 * * NACuba 3 * * NADominican Republic 1 1 1 NAGuadeloupe 1 NA NA NAHonduras NA * * NAJamaica 2 2,* 1,* 1Mexico 2 1,* * NAPanama 2 * * NATrinidad and

Tobago3 * * NA

Venezuela 5 2,* 2,* 2

* Indicates at least 1 MWI sampling station located in that country.

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Table 2Concentrations of trace elements and heavy metals detected in the WCR

Country Media Concentrations reported Source

South American Region

Colombia Fish: Mugil incilis Hg DL-166 (lg/kg dw) Alonso et al. (2000)Fish: Eugerres plumier Hg DL-852 (lg/kg dw)Sediment Hg 20–10,293 (lg/kg dw)

Venezuela Coral: Porites

astreoides

Al 1.44–846.49, Fe nd–369.31, Cu 3.33–89.57, Zn 0.83–42.45, Cr 0.16–23.9, Pb0.029–4.74 (lg/g dw)

Bastidas and Garcia(1999)

Venezuela Echinoderm:Holothuria mexicana

Al 0.0–711.7, Cu 47.5–3043.2, Mn 0.0–40.5, Ni 0.0–224.5, Pb 49.4–1334.7, Zn17.5–2165 (ppm dw)

Laboy-Nieves and Conde(2001)

Echinoderm:Isostichopus

badionotus

Al 20.8–543.1, Cu 59.0–3854.0, Mn 0.0–46.8, Ni 0.0–219.8, Pb 73.7–2018.6, Zn14.6–4472.5 (ppm dw)

Venezuela Bivalve: Isognomon

alatus

Cd 0.33–0.91, Cr 0.46–1.2, Cu 14–49, Ni 11–18, Pb 0.4–0.71, Zn 0.25–2.1(lg/g dw)

Jaffe et al. (1998)

Venezuela Bivalve: Tivela

mactroidea

Cd 2.2–3.3, Cr 1.6–4.6, Cu 58.9–152, Ni 12.0–30.7, Pb 2.0–3.1, Zn 226–266(lg/g dw) Ba

Jaffe et al. (1995) andAlfonso et al. (2005)

Trinidad andTobago

Sediments Fe 12.39–15,716, Cu 0.06–15.95, Cd 0.04–2.12, Pb 0.30–20.91, Zn 0.10–39.29(lg/g dw)

Rajkumar and Persad(1994)

Seawater Fe 0.96–1703, Cu 0.50–14.27, Cd 0.06–1.13, Pb 0.50–6.94, Zn 0.50–92.23(lg/L)

Trinidad andTobago

Seawater Fe 16.01–114.27, Cu 1.5, Ni 2.33–2.88, Zn 5.9–29.66, Mn 4.6–57.8 (ppb) Rajkumar et al. (1995)

Trinidad andTobago

Sediments Fe 1.08–29.45, Cu 120–421, Cr 3.08–42.82, Mn 5.70–32.28, Ni 2.35–30.49, Pbnd–4.90, Cd 1.88–67.90 (ppm dw)

Hall and Chang-Yen(1986)

Central American Region

Costa Rica Coral: Siderastrea

siderea

Al 313.0, V 44.7, Cr 7.3, Mn 7.3, Fe 113.2, Ni 91.6, Cu 2.0, Zn 10.2, Cd 7.5, Pb31.0 (mean, ppm dw)

Guzman and Jimenez(1992)

Sediments Al 9261.1, V 153.7, Cr 19.1, Mn 303.8, Fe 4868.6, Ni 100.5, Cu 8.7, Zn 19.6, Cd5.9, Pb 28.6 (mean, ppm dw)

Costa Rica Coral: Siderastrea

siderea

Hg 15.2 (mean, ppm dw) Guzman and Garcia(2002)

Sediments Hg 85.9 (mean, ppm dw)

Mexico Oyster: Crasostrea

virginica

Cd 3.8–4.4, Cu 284–380, Fe 725–1128, Mn 36–44, Pb 7.5–12.4, Zn 426–759(mean, mg/kg dw)

Vasquez et al. (1993)

Mexico Coral: Montastraea

annularis

Pb 12–85 (nmol Pb/mol Ca) Medina-Elizalde et al.(2002)

Panama Coral: Siderastrea

siderea

Al 250.7, V 41.8, Cr 9.9, Mn 6.9, Fe 70.8, Ni 93.7, Cu 3.8,Zn 8.9, Cd 7.6, Pb 32.3(mean, ppm dw)

Guzman and Jimenez(1992)

Sediments Al 4094.6, V 66.0, Cr 9.2, Mn 171.0, Fe 1705.6, Ni 93.1, Cu 4.1, Zn 15.8, Cd 7.0,Pb 33.2 (mean, ppm dw)

Panama Coral: Siderastrea

siderea

Hg 21.4 (mean, ppm dw) Guzman and Garcia(2002)

Sediments Hg 62.0 (mean, ppm dw)

Northern Caribbean Region

Cuba Sediment (<63 lm) Cr 22–339, Cu 18–716, Hg 0.64–76, Mn 79–251, Ni 11–112, Pb 44–903, Zn72–3736 (lg/g dw)

Gonzalez and Torres(1990)

Cuba Sea urchin:Echinometra lucunter

Al 1.2–39, Cr 3.6–8.3, Cu 0.58–2.9, Fe 49–129, Mn BDL–0.90, Ni BDL–3.0, Zn163–412 (lg/g dw)

Gonzalez et al. (1999)

Cuba Rhizophora mangle

leavesFe 24–342, Ni BDL–23.6, Mn 82–297, Zn 2.2–4.7 (lg/g dw) Gonzalez and Ramirez

(1995)Sediments Pb 4.6–9.6, Cu 4.1–28, Zn 7.9–129, Co 7.7–327, Fe 0.64–22.66%, Mn 125–2957,

Ni 69–4764 (lg/g)

DominicanRepublic

Bivalves Al 3.80–2240, Cd 0.04–2.57, Cr 1.66–10.7, Cu 3.08–866, Fe 50.9–3400, Hg0.29–7.02, Ni 1.25–7.92, Pb 0.09–1.49, Zn 22.9–4380 (lg/g dw)

Sbriz et al. (1998)

Sediments Al 276–33,000, Cd 0.028–0.435, Cr 8.88–186, Cu 1.01–111, Fe 230–48,700, Hg0.096–0.565, Ni 1.71–124, Pb 0.42–81.8, Zn 2.34–244 (lg/g dw)

(continued on next page)

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analysis of sediment samples, and 13 conducted analysis ofboth living organisms and nearby sediment samples. Thereview shows that less than 50% of the countries in theWCR feature easily accessible, open literature and otherpublished reports which contain data on the presence ofheavy metals and organic pollutants. The number of stud-ies reported in this review in these countries and territoriesare presented in Table 1.

2.1. Trace metals

A total of 14 trace elements from environmental sampleswere reported for each subregion. These include aluminum(Al), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), cobalt(Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb),manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), vanadium(V), and zinc (Zn). The most frequently analyzed trace met-als were Pb, Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Mn, and Cr all of whichwere surveyed in 10 (32%) of the studies reviewed. Table 2provides a summary of concentration ranges of trace ele-ments detected in a variety of environmental samples col-lected from the WCR.

Several of the studies reviewed conducted analyses ofsamples collected from areas which are known to beimpacted by direct inputs of contaminants (point sources)such as industrial areas, harbours and river outflows. How-ever, other studies investigated areas of non-point sourceinputs of contaminants for potential impacts. The resultsof these studies suggest that although concentrationsdetected are generally higher in those areas closest toanthropogenic activities, remote areas are also beingimpacted by these activities. This was suggested in a studyconducted along the Caribbean coasts of Costa Rica andPanama (Guzman and Jimenez, 1992). In this study 23coral reef sites were surveyed and high concentrations ofAl, Fe and Mn were detected in both coral skeletons andreef sediments thus indicating that long distance transportof metal pollutants was occurring. Another survey thatsuggests evidence of long-range transport of heavy metalswas conducted along the Venezuelan coast near the outfallof the Tuy River using bivalves (Jaffe et al., 1995). Thisstudy revealed elevated concentrations of Cd, Ni and Cuin the sampled organisms at stations near the river outfallas well as those stations several miles from the outfall.The evidence of long-range transport of metals furtherdemonstrate the potential impacts of these contaminant

on large geographic area both in terms of water qualityand ecological effects. The same locations were re-investi-gated about 10 years later (Alfonso et al., 2005) and tracemetal concentrations in Tivela mactroidea namely Ba, Cd,Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sr, Ti, V and Zn were reported. In thisstudy it was found that Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Ti, Sr werehigh and it was concluded that the Tuy River plume con-tinues to be an influencing factor in pollution over a widecoastal area. In addition, the occurrence of Cr in the sam-pled organisms was higher that the legal limit stipulated bythe FAO (5 lg/g dry wt.). Overall, concentrations of manytrace metals were reported at similar levels in the earlierstudy (Jaffe et al., 1995), thus suggesting that the state ofthe Tuy River as a major point source of pollutants tothe Central Venezuelan coast had shown no significantimprovement over the last decade.

Another study conducted in Morrocoy National Park(MNP), in Venezuela compared metal concentrations incoral specimens (Bastidas et al., 1999). This study revealedhigher concentrations of Al, Fe, Cu, and Zn in samples clo-ser to river discharge points, although, Fe and Cr concen-trations were lower at the sites in closer proximity to theriver outfall. A comparison of the data presented by Basti-das et al. (1999) on metal content of coral specimens inMNP in Venezuela and the data provided by Guzmanand Jimenez (1992) and by Guzman and Garcia (2002) onmetal content in the coral reefs of Costa Rica and Panamarevealed higher average concentrations of Al and Fe in sam-ples from Costa Rica than those from Panama. However,concentrations of Fe, Cu and Hg were higher in Panamawith an insignificant difference in Fe concentrationsbetween both countries. The average concentrations of Al,Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, and Hg were lower in the MNP than thosereported for Costa Rica and Panama. Jaffe et al. (1992) usedvarious species of ocotocorals in Venezuela and also founda high level of Zn. However, it should be noted that differentspecies were analyzed and this may contribute to some ofthe observed differences in anomalies.

In terms of PEL and TEL comparisons (Fig. 2), tracemetals reported for Cuba exceeded the PEL values in 6of the 7 reported elements and 4 elements for Guadeloupe.This was followed by Panama and Dominican Republicwith three elements above the PEL values, while this valuewas exceeded for one element for Jamaica and Colombia.

Among the countries where heavy metal studies wereavailable, Cuba reported the highest levels of Pb, Cu, Cr

Table 2 (continued)

Country Media Concentrations reported Source

Jamaica Sediments (<63 lm) Al 0.10–6.49%, Fe 0.12–3.67%, As 0.84–10.3, Sb 0.15–1.20, V 7.8–105, Cr 16.6–53.1, Mn 33–649, Co 0.75–13.0 (ppm)

Greenaway and Rankine-Jones (1992)

Jamaica Sediments V 6.6–112, Cr 5.0–48.0, Co 0.68–16.1, Ni 3.7–23.9, Cu 3.5–73.8, Zn 7.9–70.0, As1.4–7.03, Cd nd–10.0, Pb 6.4–31.1, Hg 0.05–0.30 (mg/kg dw)

Jaffe et al. (2002)

Eastern Caribbean Region

Guadelupe Sediments Pb 1.7–235.7, Zn 19–664.3, Cu 9.3–187.2, Cd <0.3 to 0.6 (lg/g dw) Bernard (1995)

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Fig. 2. The PEL and TEL comparison for (a) Hg, (b) Cd, (c) Cr, (d) Zn, (e) Ni, (f) Cu, (g) Pb.

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and Zn in sediments. These high levels were recorded inHavana, a populated/industrial area (Gonzalez and Torres,1990) and Ni in Levisa Bay, a nickel mining area (Gonzalezand Ramirez, 1995), while Guadeloupe reported the high-est levels of Cd in a populated, agricultural and industrialarea (Bernard, 1995). For the Dominican Republic, thereported second highest values of Cr and Ni in sedimentswere from a broad study of its coastal areas (Sbriz et al.,1998). In contrast, Costa Rica reported low values for allthe elements investigated except Hg where it was rankedhighest (Guzman and Garcia, 2002; Guzman and Jimenez,1992; Fig. 2). The presence of these metals in above guide-line values is likely to have negative consequences on thesurrounding habitats, thus highlighting the threat thesepollutants pose on near-shore marine resources if sourcesare not identified or properly managed.

2.2. Organochlorine pesticides and PCBs

Six studies report on the presence of organic pollutantsin the WCR. Table 3 provides a summary of the concentra-tions detected in the WCR for such pollutants. Of impor-tance is the International Mussel Watch (IMW) program

which was initiated to establish a regional database of con-centrations of organic pollutants distributed along thecoasts of some countries in the WCR using bivalves (Seri-cano et al., 1995). This study is one of the most extensive interms of geographic coverage for this region. Concentra-tions of selected organic contaminants detected IMW sta-tions are provided in Table 4.

Over 90% of the available data on organic pollutants inthe WCR (including those from the MWI program sites),are from surveys conducted in the Central and SouthAmerican Subregions with the exception of two studiesconducted in Jamaica (Jaffe et al., 2002; Mansingh andWilson, 1995), and from MWI stations in Jamaica, Trini-dad and Tobago, and Aruba (Sericano et al., 1990). Themost frequently reported organic pollutants in the WCRwas DDT and its metabolites, DDE and DDD, a and c-chlordanes, aldrin, dieldrin, and PCBs. The ubiquitouspresence of these compounds suggests the existence oflong-range transport for these compounds within theWCR. A study of chlorinated pesticides in air samplesfrom two locations in Belize detected concentrations oftotal DDTs, dieldrin, and total chlordanes, which wereconsistently higher than those detected in air samples from

Table 3Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs detected in the WCR

Country Media Concentrations reported Source

South American Region

Venezuela Tree oyster:Isognomon alatus

c-Chlordane <0.22 to <0.74, a-chlordane: <0.13 to <0.45, trans-nonachlor <0.12 – <0.40,cis-nonachlor <0.21 to <0.72, oxychlordane <0.25 to <0.83, o-p 0DDE <0.12 – <0.40,p-p 0DDE <0.44 to <1.5, o-p0DDD <0.13 to <0.43, p-p 0DDD <0.32 to <1.1, o-p0DDT<0.18 to <0.61, p-p 0DDT 0.52–2.2, total PCBs 0.60–12 (ng/g dw)

Jaffe et al. (1998)

Venezuela Bivalve: Tivela

mactroidea

Total hexachlorocyclohexanes ND–0.5, a- and c-chlordanes ND–0.2, cis- and trans-nonachlor ND–0.4, dieldrin ND–0.7, heptachlor ND–0.6, endrin ND–trace, total DDTs0.9–2.3, total PCBs 4.8–63 (ng/g dw)

Jaffe et al. (1995)

Central American Subregion

Mexico Bivalve:Crassostrea

virginica

Lindane 0.45–0.066, DDD 1.28–1.85, endrin ND–56.7, aldrin 5.26–6.56, Aroclor 12541.65–2.0 (ng/g dw)

Gold-Bouchot(1993)

Bivalve: Rangia

cuneata

Lindane 1.21, DDD 16.8, endrin ND, aldrin ND, Aroclor 1254 3.96 (ng/g dw)

Bivalve:Brachidontes

recurvus

Lindane 1.25, DDD 4.09, endrin ND, aldrin ND, Aroclor 1254 3.96 (ng/g dw)

Sediments Lindane ND–0.57, DDD ND–0.55, DDE ND–17.67, aldrin ND–9.02, HCB ND–0.32,Aroclor 1260 ND–12.99, Aroclor 1254 ND–258.6 (ng/g dw)

Northern Caribbean Region

DominicanRepublic

Bivalves Total chlordanes 0.51–7.47, total DDTs BDL–30.9, total PCBs 11.3–82.3 (ng/g dw) Sbriz et al. (1998)Sediments Total chlordanes BDL–7.47, Total DDTs 0.21–12.5, Total PCBs 0.46–41.9 (ng/g dw)

Jamaica Sediments a-Endosulfan 0.003–1.0, b-endosulfan 0.006–0.76, endosulfan sulfate BDL, p-p 0DDT0.03–0.04, dieldrin 0.001, aldrin 0.002–36.7, endrin 0.006, lindane 0.003–0.77, HCB 1.01,diazinon 0.002–0.007 (ng/g)

Mansingh andWilson (1995)

Seawater a-Endosulfan 0.118–5.56, b-endosulfan 0.01–15.7, endosulfan sulfate 0.0003, p-p-DDT7.02, dieldrin 0.014–3.75, aldrin BDL, endrin 0.012–0.9, lindane BDL, HCB BDL,diazanon 0.0003–0.1 (ng/L)

Jamaica Sediments Total chlordanes 0.4–0.92, Total DDTs 1.45–23, dieldrin 0.24–6.13, total PCBs 0.76–73(lg/kg dw)

Jaffe et al. (2002)

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sites in the Great Lakes Region of North America (Alegriaet al., 2000). The presence of these compounds at both aninland station near major agricultural developments as wellas a coastal station, which is relatively isolated from agri-culture, indicate that aerial transport may contribute sig-nificantly to the widespread distribution of thesecompounds and suggest the continued use in this regionof pesticides that have been banned in the United Statesdecades ago.

Hydrophobic organic pollutants such as pesticides andPAHs have the tendency to accumulate in organic rich, fineparticles of sediments (Jaffe, 1991), particularly in areas ofhigh anthropogenic impact, such as urban environments.As such, sediments of Montego Bay, Jamaica, were foundto contain a variety of organics derived from sewage, fossilfuels, industry as well as agriculture (Jaffe et al., 2002). Itwas suggested that these compounds released into thecoastal zone by direct inputs from harbour operations, dis-charge by gullies, water treatment plants and through riv-erine transport. As such, they have the potential to betransported further to more remote locations by ocean cur-rents, thus exerting a potentially negative impact on theecological resources.

In studies where tissue samples were collected togetherwith sediment samples, the data indicated as expected, thatmost organisms tend to bio-accumulate these contaminants(Jaffe, 1991). For example, in the Dominican Republic, theaverage ratios of total DDT, PCB and chlordane concen-trations in bivalve tissues to sediment samples from thesame location were 20 (2–20), 7 (1–10) and 15 (2–45),respectively (Sbriz et al., 1998). This is in accordance withthe finding of NOAA’s Status and Trends Mussel WatchProgram (Sericano et al., 1990), which reported higher con-centrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons in bivalve sampleswith respect to the concentrations detected in sediments forthe same location. In those cases where IMW samples werecollected from areas where other studies were conducted onbivalve tissues, such as in Venezuela (Jaffe et al., 1995,1998) the values reported for total DDTs, total chlordanes,and total PCBs are similar with the values reported fromIMW stations.

2.3. Petroleum hydrocarbons and PAHs

Data published showed that DDPH levels exceeded1.0 lg/L, and in many samples near Yucatan and in theGulf of Mexico values exceeded 10 lg/L (Atwood et al.,1988). These values exceed by more than an order of mag-nitude of the concentration considered to be significant(0.1 lg/L) based on data collected in the 1970s from theMarine Pollution Monitoring Program for Petroleum(MAPMOPP) as stated by Atwood et al. (1988). Subse-quent studies conducted in the WCR for DDPHs revealedsimilar findings: Rajkumar and Persad (1994) reportedconcentrations ranging from 0.11 to 1.55 lg/L in seawaterand 0.46 to 21.33 lg/g (dry wt.) in sediments in near-shoreareas of Tobago. Rajkumar et al. (1995) reported DDPHconcentrations ranging from 0.11 to 0.78 lg/L in seawatersamples collected from the South-Eastern Caribbean in thearea between Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Marti-nique. Corbin (1993) reported average DDPH concentra-tions of 1.7 lg/L in coastal bay stations and 17.7 lg/L inopen ocean stations around St. Lucia.

The concentrations of total PAHs in bivalve samples col-lected for the IMW program (NOAA, 1995) ranged from 28to 13,800 ng/g (dry wt.), and were suggested to be derivedfrom both petroleum and combustion sources. In otherstudies on PAHs in bivalves from the WCR, Jaffe et al.(1995) reported total PAH concentrations ranging from1.9 to 29 lg/g in Tivela mactroida, collected near the TuyRiver outfall in Venezuela, with molecular distributionsindicating both fossil fuel and combustion derived sources.In contrast, total PAH concentrations in the flat tree oyster(Isognomon alatus) from MNP in Venezuela, were found tohave lower values than those sampled near the Tuy River.The PAH distribution indicated the presence of fossil fuelproducts such as fuels and oils used by local boat owners(Jaffe et al., 1998). PAH concentrations in sediments fromMontego Bay, Jamaica, ranged from 0.76 to 73 lg/kg, sug-gesting significant anthropogenic impact on the sedimentquality. In addition to using bivalves, sediments, and seawa-ter for analysis of these pollutants, other species of animalwere used as shown in Table 5.

Table 4Concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and PCBs detected at MWI sites in the WCR (ng/g dw)

Country # of stations Total BHCs Total chlordane Total DDTs Total PCBs

Belize 1 ND ND 59.87 NDCosta Rica 1 0.36 1.26 14.63 6.5Honduras 1 0.43 0.46 7.08 3.2Mexico 4 ND–13.43 ND–14.08 14.47–166.3 ND–103.7Panama 2 0.43–1.22 2.28–6.21 4.59–24.73 7.3–12.5Colombia 2 ND–0.86 ND–2.78 2.21–7.48 ND–8.3Venezuela 3 ND–0.46 ND–1.25 0.84–3.9 ND–76.4Cuba 1 ND–1.08 ND–4.08 2.01–2.46 ND–11.5Jamaica 2 ND–3.43 ND–7.87 5.45–24.02 ND–36.1Aruba 1 0.53 6.54 12.83 441.6Trinidad and Tobago 2 ND–0.95 ND–2.39 0.47–6.73 ND–13.8From NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 95

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3. Conclusions

From this review it is evident that there is a urgent needof generating standard environmental quality data regard-ing trace metals and organic pollutants in most of theWCR. As presently existing data on environmental samplesvary in terms of sampling schemes, determined parameters,environmental matrices analyzed and analytical techniquesutilized, as well as differences in the formats of data report-ing, the existing dataset makes meaningful comparisons ofthe available data very difficult. Furthermore, there is lim-ited or no data available for many of these contaminantsfrom the majority of nations in the WCR. Although theexisting data provides clear evidence of coastal pollutionin many areas of the WCR, any attempt to create a regionalscale assessment of these contaminants is not possible giventhe scarcity of available data.

However, the available data do indicate that low con-centrations of both trace metals and organic pollutantscan be found in most parts of this region including loca-tions that are significantly remote from obvious pollutionsources, thus indicating long-range transport of these con-taminants and that the potential for environmental effectsexists. Elevated concentrations of most pollutants areobserved in the vicinity of harbours, ports, industrial areas,semi-enclosed bays, and outfalls of major rivers, especiallythose which are sourced from agricultural lands. In someinstances pollutant levels were above TEL and/or PELstandards, suggesting the existence of environmentallydamaging ecotoxicological scenarios.

The scarcity of data, especially for the small island statesreiterates the imminent need for such studies throughoutthis region. There is a noted lack of data available on theoccurrence of organochlorine pesticides throughout theWCR. Such studies are important considering the contin-ued application of these compounds and their potentialpersistence and negative impacts on the environment. Dataon the concentrations of PAHs are also lacking despite thepresence of a variety of petroleum extraction operations,processing facilities and an established shipping network.

It is evident, that many locations exceeded the PEL valuesfor a number of trace metals which may indicate potentialecotoxicological consequences on the biota of this region.Therefore, further studies should be initiated to determinethe extent to which this is occurring.

Overall, this review reflect the presence of a variety ofpollutants in the WCR and therefore sound environmentalpolices must be instituted towards a more comprehensivelong-term data collection program, encompassing theentire geographic area of the WCR. If this need is notaddress, it will be difficult to scientifically assess the stateof the marine environment in this region. This informationis essential for sound and effective coastal resources man-agement and environmental decision making. In addition,the region is a hotspot for marine biodiversity and its econ-omies are mainly driven by coastal tourism and fisheries,hence the integrity of the marine environment is para-mount to its sustainable future.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank C. Sheppard for his editorial assis-tance. A.S. thanks SERC for financial support. This isSERC contribution No. 364.

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