A Human Occupation Cave During the Bronze Age: Archaeological and Palynological Applications of a...

A HUMAN OCCUPATION CAVE DURING THE BRONZE AGE:ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND PALYNOLOGICAL

APPLICATIONS OF A CASE STUDY IN SARDINIA(WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN)*

C. BUOSI,1 P. PITTAU,1† G. PAGLIETTI,2 G. G. SCANU,1 M. SERRA,3 M. UCCHESU4 andG. TANDA2

1Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Via Trentino 51, I-09127 Cagliari, Italy2Dipartimento di Storia, Beni culturali e Territorio, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, P.zza Arsenale 1,

I-09100 Cagliari, Italy3Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Antichità, Università di Roma ‘La Sapienza’, Via dei Volsci, 122, I-00185 Roma, Italy

4Centro Conservazione Biodiversità (CCB), Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente (DISVA),Università degli Studi di Cagliari, V. le S. Ignazio da Laconi 11–13, I-09123 Cagliari, Italy

Investigation of a prehistoric settlement in the south-western Sardinia area attests to humanoccupation by the Nuragic civilization in a cave during the Early and Middle Bronze Age. Anoccasional human presence is recorded from the Early Bronze Age and a continued onerelating to rural (cultivation, storage) and domestic (ceramic, metallurgy) activities is docu-mented in the Middle Bronze Age. These distinct settlement phases have been radiocarbon-dated and palynologically recognized. In addition, pollen analysis suggests that a degradedforest was present during the Middle Bronze Age in south Sardinia prior to central Sardinia,which is probably related to a hot climate and a regime of low annual precipitation. The datareveal a climate-induced deforestation phase that is likely to be emphasized by anthropogenicpressure.

KEYWORDS: HUMAN ACTIVITY, PALYNOLOGY, NURAGIC CIVILIZATION, BRONZE AGE,PAST VEGETATION, SARDINIA, ITALY, WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN

INTRODUCTION

The use of archaeobotanical micro-remains (pollen grains) and macro-remains (seeds andfruits) enables us to better understand past vegetation from an archaeological context withrespect to climatic indications, as well as ancient diets, agriculture practices, domestication,the cultivation of plants (e.g., Mercuri 2008; Mariotti Lippi et al. 2009; Mercuri et al. 2010;Sadori et al. 2010, 2011; Fyfe 2012; Morales et al. 2013) and the development of vegetationinduced by human activity, stressing the role of anthropogenic indicator species (Mercuriet al. 2013).

Pollen investigation in cave sediments is less practised given particular difficulties with respectto aspects of pollen and spore taphonomy (see Coles et al. 1989; Hunt and Rushworth 2005),especially when employed in an archaeological enquiry in an attempt to reconstruct prehistoricenvironments. Nevertheless, several papers demonstrate that this kind of study may be successfulin depicting local palaeovegetation and palaeoecology (e.g., Carrión et al. 1999; Navarro

*Received 11 December 2013; accepted 17 June 2014†Corresponding author: email [email protected]© 2014 University of Oxford

Archaeometry 57, Suppl. 1 (2015) 212–231 doi: 10.1111/arcm.12132

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et al. 2001), and for investigating human influence and activities during cave occupation(Leroi-Gourhan 1965).

In Sardinia, environmental archaeology studies are documented in a small body of literature,with many of them still in progress. However, those that do exist are extremely useful forunderstanding the interaction between ancient communities and the plant resources of theterritory (e.g., Sadori et al. 1989; Marinval and Cassien 2001; Bakels 2002; Tanda et al. 2012; DiRita and Melis 2013; Orrù et al. 2013). Palynological applications in archaeological contexts inSardinia are still rare, and involve: interpretations of Early Neolithic (sixth millennium bc)coastal open-air sites (Lugliè et al. 2012; Pittau et al. 2012); palaeovegetation reconstructionfrom some Bronze Age sites (López et al. 2005); and the interpretation of burning rituals with thevegetation reconstruction of a cremation area in the Roman Imperial Age (third century ad; Buosiet al. 2013).

The discovery of an archaeological site in the Monte Meana cave (south-west Sardinia, Italy;Fig. 1) provided an opportunity to increase the palynological and archaeobotanical knowledge ofSardinia during the Bronze Age, when the Nuragic culture was in its full expression.

Figure 1 A map of south-west Sardinia (Italy), the location of the Monte Meana cave and the development of thewaterways and wetlands.

A human occupation cave during the Bronze Age 213

© 2014 University of Oxford, Archaeometry 57, Suppl. 1 (2015) 21 2–231

The Nuragic civilization emerged and developed on the island between the Bronze Age(second millennium bc) and the Iron Age (10th to 7th centuries bc). The Nuragic period is namedafter the approximately 7000 megalithic towers called nuraghi, which are the symbolic monu-ments of Sardinia that defined the most accomplished civilization of the western Mediterranean(Lilliu 1982). The Nuragic economy was based on agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing andmetallurgy, but commercial trading with the eastern and western Mediterranean and NorthernEurope has been described (Ling et al. 2014).

The main objectives of this study are as follows:• To infer, by means of palynology, use of the Monte Meana cave over several centuries ofhuman occupation, both in terms of the type of activity practised and how long the occupationlasted.• To implement the palynological and archaeobotanical documentation of Sardinia during theBronze Age (second millennium bc) with reference to past vegetation and probable climateindicators.To achieve these goals, the study has been applied to different layers of archaeological soil,sediments accumulated inside the cave, and craft areas.

THE STUDY AREA AND THE NATURAL SETTING

The study area is a karstic cave that opens on the western side of the carbonatic–dolomitic massifof Monte Meana, which is located on the south-western side of Sardinia (39°2′28″N, 8°42′31″E,236 m a.s.l.; Fig. 1). From an administrative perspective, the surveyed area belongs to themunicipality of Santadi (Sulcis Iglesiente).

From a geological point of view, the area represents the autochthonous Palaeozoic basement ofthe island (Fig. 2), and is hosted by Cambrian limestones, dolomites and Ordovician clasticmetasediment ore deposits consisting of blend, galena, calcopirite, silver–lead copper, iron,fluorite and barite (Boni et al. 2009). Sardinia has been an important centre for both copperexploitation and argentiferous metals, which were probably worked from the Copper Ageonwards and thereafter by the Nuragics (Bronze Age). The main copper ore exploited by theNuragics was at Funtana Raminosa, which was more than 100 km away from the investigatedsite, although several minor copper ores occurring within 10 km of the area (the Monte Tamaraand Sa Marchesa–Nuxis mines) also suggest an economic interest at that time (Bartoloni 2009)(Fig. 2). Some of the most characteristic landscape features of the area are represented by a verywell-developed cave system, canyons, sinkholes and various karst microforms. These led to thecreation of an underground river net that gave rise to the various sources distributed in theterritory (De Waele and Frau 2001) and feeds a superficial meandering river network that flowsin the alluvial plain, extending to the west up to the inside of the lagoon system and the Gulf ofPalmas (Fig. 1). The Riu Murrecci flows at the foot of Monte Meana and across a fluvial valley,and an alluvial plain is disseminated by numerous nuraghi.

Climatically, the area belongs to the Mediterranean pluviseasonal bioclimate, withthermotypes ranging between the upper thermo- and the upper mesomediterranean, and theombrotypes between the upper dry and the upper sub-humid (Angiolini et al. 2005).

The relief vegetation consists of an association of typically Mediterranean shrubs, which are4–5 m in height, and a forest with Quercus ilex and Quercus suber. The degradation of thesecommunities after cuts or fire allowed Erica arborea, Arbutus unedo, Calicotome villosa andCistus monspeliensis to develop. The shrub layer of the forest is represented by Smilax aspera,

C. Buosi et al.214


Rubus ulmifolius and Ruscus aculeatus, while the herbaceous vegetation includes several taxasuch as Cyclamen, Primulaceae, Digitalis purpurea, a considerable number of species of orchid,Asteraceae, Ranunculus, Anemone, Crocus and Viola. The thermophilous vegetation is domi-nated by species of Juniperus turbinata, Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis and Euphorbiadendroides. The most representative taxa of the garrigue are Lavandula stoechas, Helichrysumitalicum and several species of Cistus. The growth of Nerium oleander and Rubus ulmifoliusalong the river canals and in the alluvial plain has led to the development of riparian forests withAlnus glutinosa and Salix purpurea (Bacchetta 2006).

Figure 2 A sketch map of south-west Sardinia (Italy) with the main geological features and location of the main mines:1, Post-Hercynian covers; 2, Hercynian batolite; 3, Palaeozoic basement; 4, overthrusts; 5, argentiferous-lead mine; 6,copper mine; 7, tin mine.



THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING: THE SITE

Many of the karst caves of the Sulcis Iglesiente massifs have been inhabited by human beings inthe past (Atzeni 2005). The Monte Meana cave is known for the 1970s find of three Neolithicfemale figurines in bone (Atzeni 1975; Paglietti 2008), and is one of the caves located along theRiu Murrecci valley that opens on the south-western side of the massif at 168 m a.s.l. In the past,this area was a meeting point for tribes living along the coast and those coming from inland, andarchaeological data show the presence of a stable community from the Early Neolithic (sixthmillennium bc). In the 1960s, the cave was subjected to alabaster quarrying, with the use ofexplosive mining that destroyed part of its access and several archaeological strata. Today, theentrance is characterized by a large aperture that was probably smaller in antiquity. The exploredpart consists of two great halls of 198 m2 (Hall 1) and 264 m2 (Hall 2) in size, respectively(Fig. 3). Recently (from 2008 to 2012), two excavation areas (sectors A and B) were opened upin Hall 1 by the Department of History, Cultural Heritage and Territory of the University ofCagliari, under the direction of Professor G. Tanda. Sector A, an area of 52 m2, is located on thesouthern side and includes the remains of two hearths: one for domestic purposes and the otherdedicated to metallurgic activity (Fig. 3). Sector B is an area of 25 m2 where a small cave, herecalled a ‘grottino’, has been found beneath 1.50 m of boulders accumulated by cultivationactivity (Fig. 3, ‘Sector B’). The abundant ceramic material and the 14C data (Table 1) enablesectors A and B to be ascribed to the Early–Middle Bronze Age (2000–1600 cal bc).

Figure 3 The inside of the cave and the archaeological area.

C. Buosi et al.216


The hearth area (sector A, Fig. 3)

A domestic hearth, which was 50 cm in diameter (Fig. 3, ‘Map of hearth’), was found at a depthof 1 m. It was protected by stones from cave fallings and covered by S.U.s 1 and 2 (Fig. 3,‘Section’). The lowest layer is constituted of cemented ashes (S.U. 8) covered by S.U. 4, yieldingnumerous complete vases (bowls, jars, pots), animal bones (Prolagus, ovicaprine, cow), terres-trial gastropods, lithic and bone instruments, and charred plant remains in a 1 m2 area (Fig. 3,‘Map of hearth’). The radiocarbon-datings of S.U. 4 and S.U. 8 bear out the view that this hearthhad been frequented during the S. Iroxi local cultural phase in the Early Bronze Age (Tables 1 and2). Moreover, an area of metallurgical activity (Fig. 3, ‘Smelting furnace’), with ashes and severalslags of 2–5 cm in size, was found within 2 m of the domestic hearth (S.U. 27). The 14C dating(Table 1) suggests that the later occupation of this area is referable to the Middle Bronze Age(MBA), in the Sa Turricula local cultural phase.

The grottino cave and its stratigraphic succession (sector B, Figs 3 and 4)

The bottom morphology and the actual depth of the grottino are unknown, since excavationstopped after 1 m for safety reasons. The explored deposit consists of four layers (each one was0.10–0.30 m thick) that are currently recognized up to a total of 0.80 m; below this lies 1.20 mof unexplored deposit (Fig. 4). From the top to the bottom, the archaeological layer of S.U. 22 isa carbonaceous, dark brown deposit yielding fragments of pottery, burnt bones (Prolagus, porkand birds) and sea urchin shells (Paracentrotus lividus), as well as molluscs, obsidian instru-ments, large amounts of carbonized seeds (Fig. 5) and some centimetric slags (Fig. 6). The layersbelow S.U. 22 (S.U.s 25, 26 and 28) have not returned any archaeological remains. The 14Cdatation performed on a carbonized seed found in S.U. 22 situate this occupation in the MiddleBronze Age, during the local cultural phase of Sa Turricula, which is contemporary with thesmelting furnace station (S.U. 27) of sector A. The simultaneous presence of shards, bones,charcoal, seeds and slags in the grottino allows us to conjecture that this site was used as adumping place. The highest archaeological layer (S.U. 22) of the section is covered by a sandydeposit that was accumulated during quarry cultivation in modern times (Fig. 4).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Slags recovered in S.U. 22 (sample 2042) and S.U. 27 (sample 2023) have been analysed byEDXRF using an Assing Lithos 3000 energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer.

Table 1 The 14C data of the Monte Meana cave (Sardinia). OxCal v4.1.7 Bronk Ramsey (2009); r:5; atmosphericdata from Reimer et al. (2013)

Stratigraphicunit

Definition Local phase Laboratorycode

Material 14C dates(BP)

δ13C (‰) Calibrated age (BC)

68.20% 95.40%

S.U. 22 The grottino Sa Turricula LTL6006A Seed 3466 ± 45 −24.4 ± 0.1 1879–1696 1914–1641S.U. 27 Smelt.

furnaceSa Turricula LTL6007A Charcoal 3463 ± 50 −24.6 ± 0.2 1880–1730 1920–1660

S.U. 4 Heart S. Iroxi LTL4198A Charcoal 3547 ± 45 −25.5 ± 0.5 1951–1777 2017–1751S.U. 8 Heart S. Iroxi LTL4199A Charcoal 3555 ± 50 −18.8 ± 0.5 1973–1778 2026–1743



For the palynological analysis, sediment samples were collected from sectors A and B(Fig. 3 and Table 2). Fifteen grams of cemented ash were processed from the oldest hearth(S.U. 8; sample 3886), while seven samples from the grottino section, each comprising 25 gof sediment, were collected from four stratigraphic units: S.U. 28 (samples 3872, 3873 and3874), S.U. 26 (samples 3875 and 3876), S.U. 25 (sample 3877) and S.U. 22 (sample 3878)(Fig. 4).

The samples were treated according to standard procedures: at a weight of 15 g of dry-sieved(2 mm meshes) sediment, a known amount of Lycopodium spores was added in order to estimatethe pollen concentrations. Then, each sample was processed with 10% and 30% HCl (threetimes), HF and KOH, and was subjected to heavy liquid separation (Moore et al. 1991). Theresidue was then ultra-filtered. The pollen and spore content of each sample was analysed usingthe Leitz Dialux 20 optical microscope.

Following Erdtman’s classification system (1986), the identification of the grains was based onthe pollen identification keys of Faegri and Iversen (1989) and Moore et al. (1991), and wasconducted with the help of Reille’s (1995, 1998, 1999) spore atlases and the reference collectionof the Sardinia pollen flora housed at the Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences of theUniversity of Cagliari. The botanical nomenclature adopted follows Pignatti (1982).

Table 2 A summary of the stratigraphic units of the Monte Meana cave (Sardinia)

Radiocarbondatation

Local phase Stratigraphicunit

Definition Thickness (m)/Dimension

Palynologysamples

Composition Interpretation

1914–16412σ cal bc

Sa Turricula S.U. 22 Thegrottino

0.20–0.30 3878 Little fragments ofpottery, muchcharcoal,carbonizedseeds, obsidianfragments,animal bones,molluscs, seaurchins, smallcopper slags

Dump?

1920–16602σ cal bc

Sa Turricula S.U. 27 Hearth(workingstation)

0.5–0.10 – Copper slags Metallurgystation

2017–17512σ cal bc

S. Iroxi S.U. 4 Hearth 0.10–0.20 – Many fragments ofpottery, animalbones (Prolagus,ovicaprine,cow), terrestrialgastropods, lithicand boneinstruments andcharred plantremains

Domesticarea

2026–17432σ cal bc

S. Iroxi S.U. 8 Hearth 0.5–0.10 3886 Cemented ashesand charredplant remains

Domesticarea

C. Buosi et al21 .8


The absolute pollen frequency (APF) was calculated as the number of pollen grains countedon the slide (np) for the number of added Lycopodium spores (18 583) (nt), divided by thenumber of Lycopodium spores counted on the slide (nm) for the weight of the dry sedimentprocessed (pp):

APF np nt nm pp= ×( ) ×( ).

The pollen grains were clustered into NAP (non-arboreal pollen grains) and AP (arboreal andshrub pollen grains) components. The AP component includes arboreal and shrub plants such asCistus and Ericaceae. Fabaceae were included in the NAP component, as explained in theAppendix.

TAPHONOMIC NOTES

Pollen in caves can originate from different sources and have three principal modes of dispersaland transport—air, water and animal—and their representation can vary in relation to thesurrounding vegetation, animal community and human activity (Coles et al. 1989). Moreover,the cave topography and geomorphology, such as the direction of the opening, the depth, theconfiguration (e.g., the presence of tunnels and rooms) and the microclimate, can have an effecton the composition of the pollen assemblages originating from airborne pollen transport (Coles

Figure 4 The stratigraphic sequence of the grottino.



et al. 1989; Davis 1990; Navarro et al. 2001). The accumulation is primarily influenced by theamount of pollen input, rather than the result of the post-depositional alteration. The depositionis not uniform: the highest concentration occurs near the aperture in a sac-like cave and the lowestup to null in the deepest area of the cave and in the ‘dark zone’ (Coles et al. 1989). In general,pollen grains herein could be traced to about 10 m from the entrance, with their concentrationsfalling with increasing distance into the cave.

The pollen spectra reveal a balance between airborne pollen and grains transported byanimals and man when caught in coats and feet (Leroi-Gourhan 1965). This passive transport

Figure 5 The archaeological remains of S.U. 22: (a) pottery; (b) obsidian; (c) copper slags; (d) Cardium echinatum; (e)skull of Prolagus sardus; (f) Paracentrotus lividus; (g) charred seeds/fruits of Hordeum vulgare, Pisum sativum and Ficuscarica.

C. Buosi et al220 .


directly reflects the vegetation through which the vector last travelled. In addition, pollen canbe transported actively by humans for domestic purposes, and on bedding or food materialsbrought into a cave by animals using it as a den. Pollen and spores can also be transported intocaves by water streams, fissures and faults in the rock. In the case of water transport by stream,the pollen content reflects the composition of the hydrological catchment area, and takes thevalue of the amount of airborne pollen that is representative of the local vegetation surroundingthe cave entrance and the slope immediately above it, which is estimated to be about 100–200 m away (Coles et al. 1989).

Finally, investigations in caves indicate that the dominant mode of pollen deposition isairborne, while water and animal borne transport are responsible for additional inputs intospecific locations, governed by the geomorphology of the cave and the areas of animal andhuman use or occupation under special conditions (Coles et al. 1989; Hunt and Rushworth2005).

(a)

(b)

Slags

2023,2042

Current (μA)

150

Voltage (kV)

25

Count time (s)

600

Distance (mm)

~10

Collimator (mm)

2

inte

nsity

(a.

u.)

Metallurgical hearth, slag 2023

“Grottino”, slag 2042

Cu–Kα

Cu–Kα

Zn–Kα

As–Kα

Y–Kα

Zn–Kα

As–Kα

Y–Kα

Fe–Kα

Fe–Kα

Ca–Kα

Ca–Kα

S–Kα

S–Kα

3.5 × 105

3 × 105

2.5 × 105

2 × 105

1.5 × 105

1 × 105

5 × 104

1.2 × 104 1.6 × 104 2 × 104

0

4000 8000

energy (eV)

Figure 6 (a) The X-ray fluorescence spectra of two copper smelting slags from the metallurgical hearth (2023) and thegrottino (2042). (b) Setting the parameters of the instrument.



RESULTS

Preliminary analysis of the slags

Two metallic slags, one from the metallurgical hearth (sample 2023) and a second from thegrottino (sample 2042), were preliminarily analysed using visual and chemical methods. Macro-scopic observations allowed us to verify high specific gravity, the presence of metallic drops ofcopper, charcoal fragments and the remains of mineral charge; the structure is porous andpartially glassy, and the colours vary from green to blue, indicating a reduction in cupric minerals(Giardino 2010). Five major elements (Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn and As) and two trace elements (S and Y)were analysed by EDXRF (Figs 6 (a) and 6 (b)), and revealed strong intensity fluorescence peaksof Cu, indicating the smelting activity of copper minerals and a concentration of the correspond-ing chemical element (De Francesco et al. 2006).

Pollen analysis Pollen grains in a good state of preservation were found to be abundant in onlyone sample (3878; S.U. 22), but were scarce in samples 3872 (S.U. 28), 3875, 3876 (S.U. 26) and3886 (S.U. 8). Samples 3873, 3874 (S.U. 28) and 3877 (S.U. 25) were barren. A greater pollenabundance was found in sample 3878, and was estimated to be 3370 pollen per gram of drysediment. In the remaining positive samples, the pollen abundance yielded, on average, 275pollen per gram of sediment. However, the very low pollen concentrations of samples 3872, 3875,3876 and 3886 (275 pollen per gram of sediment, on average) indicate that the pollen analysis isnot statistically significant for environmental interpretation and reconstruction purposes. Accord-ingly, we only considered the data coming from S.U. 22 (sample 3878) for the palaeovegetationand palaeoclimate explanations based on pollen assemblages.

In total, 13 families were identified in the assemblages (Table 3):• S.U. 28 (sample 3872). This is the bottom of the stratigraphic section. The NAP dominate theassemblage (70%), with a great abundance of Poaceae pollen grains (43%) and Caryophyllaceae(15%). The AP (arboreal and shrub pollen) are mainly represented by Quercus (12%; Table 3 andFig. 7).• S.U. 26. The two sediment samples (3875 and 3876) reveal quite different pollen content.Sample 3875 shows a high frequency of AP belonging to Juniperus (51%), followed by a NAPwith 35% of Poaceae (Table 3 and Fig. 7). In contrast, in sample 3876, the NAP is dominant overthe AP (90% versus 10%, respectively), and the herbaceous vegetation is mainly represented byPoaceae (72%; Table 3 and Fig. 7).• S.U. 22 (sample 3878). The assemblage shows a high frequency of the following pollen types:Ericaceae (31%), with Arbutus and Erica at 22% and 9%, respectively; Liliaceae (31%), withAsphodelus (17%) and Allium (14%); and Quercus (14%). Selaginellaceae spores and Poaceaepollen grains were found in smaller amounts. In the minority, however, were the Cyperaceae,Juniperus, Caryophyllaceae, Myrtus and Pinus pollen types (Fig. 7). The pollen diagram (Fig. 7)reveals that the assemblages are slightly dominated by NAP percentages, reaching 54% of thetaxa.• S.U. 8 (sample 3886). This layer returned low pollen concentrations (397 pollen per gram ofsediment). It is characterized by a high frequency of NAP (92%), mainly Poaceae (48%) andLiliaceae (28%), whereas the arboreal vegetation is primarily represented by Quercus (8%;Table 3). Minute charcoal pieces have been observed in the ashes, but their small size made itdifficult to be certain of their identification and plant origin. Their abundance is estimated to be220 931 pieces per gram of dry sediment.

C. Buosi et al.222


Tabl

e3

Pol

len

taxa

from

the

stra

tigr

aphi

cse

ctio

nof

the

Mon

teM

eana

cave

(Sar

dini

a)

Sam

ple

3872

3873

3874

3875

3876

3877

3878

3886

Stra

tigr

aphi

cun

itS.

U.2

8S.

U.2

8S.

U.2

8S.

U.2

6S.

U.2

6S.

U.2

5S.

U.2

2S.

U.8

Lyco

podi

um16

85

520

312

81

186

78C

opro

philo

usfu

ngi

XX

Con

cent

ricy

stes

XX

Abs

olut

epo

llen

freq

uenc

y(A

PF

)23

5.97

––

189.

1928

0.68

–33

70.2

539

7.07

n%

n%

n%

n%

n%

All

ium

spp.

13.

12–

––

–2

6.90

–72

14.2

3–

–A

rbut

ussp

p.11

322

.33

Asp

hode

lus

spp.

––

––

––

––

–89

17.5

9–

–A

ster

acea

e–

––

––

–1

3.45

–8

1.58

14.

00C

aryo

phyl

lace

ae5

15.6

2–

––

–2

6.90

–16

3.16

312

.00

Cis

tus

spp.

13.

12–

––

––

––

––

––

Cyp

erac

eae

(Car

exsp

p.,S

cirp

ussp

p.)

13.

12–

––

––

––

183.

56–

–E

rica

spp.

––

––

––

––

–45

8.89

––

Faba

ceae

13.

12–

–1

3.23

––

–4

0.79

––

Juni

peru

ssp

p.2

6.25

––

1651

.61

––

–8

1.58

28.

00L

iliac

eae

––

––

––

––

––

–7

28.0

0M

yrtu

ssp

p.–

––

––

––

––

142.

77–

–P

inus

spp.

39.

37–

–1

3.23

13.

45–

40.

79–

–Po

acea

e14

43.7

5–

–11

35.4

821

72.4

1–

407.

9012

48.0

0Q

uerc

ussp

p.4

12.5

0–

–2

6.45

26.

90–

7514

.82

––

Tota

lpo

llen

grai

nsre

cogn

ized

3210

0–

–31

100

2910

0–

506

100

2510

0

Sela

gine

llace

ae2

6.25

––

––

––

–56

11.0

6–

–

Arb

orea

lpo

llen

grai

ns10

29.4

1–

–19

61.2

93

10.3

5–

259

46.0

82

8.00

Non

-arb

orea

lpo

llen

grai

ns24

70.5

9–

–12

38.7

126

89.6

5–

303

53.9

223

92.0

0



Figu

re7

Pol

len

spec

tra

from

the

stra

tigr

aphi

cse

ctio

nof

the

Mon

teM

eana

cave

(Sar

dini

a).

C. Buosi et al.224


In summary, in the pollen record, different ecological groups have been distinguished:• Wetland herbs (plants growing in aquatic and wet environments): belonging to this group areCarex and Scirpus (Cyperaceae), as well as Selaginellaceae.• Common plants from the Mediterranean bush: belonging to this group are Cistus, Arbutus,Erica, Juniperus and Myrtus.• Plants of the Mediterranean forest, only represented here by Pinus and Quercus.• Upland herbs, including probable anthropogenic plants: Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae,Fabaceae, Liliaceae (Allium and Asphodelus) and Poaceae.

Other palynomorphs Concentricystes was found in S.U. 26 (sample 3875) and S.U. 22 (sample3878; Table 3). These probable algae remain present with a bilaterally symmetrical cell, withfingerprint-like concentric to spiral striations on opposite faces. They are 20–30 μm in size.

Fungal remains that are attributable to Sordariaceae were found in S.U. 26 (samples 3875 and3876; Table 3).

DISCUSSION

Palynological interpretation

The interpretation of the results will take several aspects into consideration:• The older stratigraphic units of the grottino section (S.U.s 26 and 28) and S.U. 8, which is thedomestic hearth that was radiometrically dated to EBA, have a similar pollen assemblagecomposition that is mainly represented by herb pollen types that are palynologically correlatedand probably referable to a coeval interval (EBA). The overrepresentation of the Juniperus pollenin S.U. 26 (sample 3875) may be attributed to local aspects, such as the use of this plant foranimal care or general utility purposes.• The results have shown different compositions between the EBA and MBA (S.U. 22) pollenassemblages; the grass pollen dominating the EBA-aged assemblages are enriched with pollenoriginating from shrubs of the Mediterranean forest. In the MBA assemblage, these shrubsinclude Erica, Arbutus, Myrtus and Cistus, which are still noted resources of a rural society. Thepresence of the coprophilous fungi in the older layers points to the presence of animals in the caveduring the EBA. This fungal remnant is often reported as being common in archaeological siteswith domestic cattle, since these ascospores are considered to be indicative of herbivore dung,decaying plant materials and/or burning (Willemsen et al. 1996; Graf and Chmura 2006; vanGeel and Aptroot 2006).• The EBA layers (S.U.s 26 and 28) have not returned seeds or fruit, and cultivated cereal pollengrains are not recognized therein. The MBA layers, meanwhile, have returned cereals, seeds(wheat and barley) and fruits (Myrtus, Cistus, Arbutus and Vicia; Tanda et al. 2012 and work inprogress), which fits in with the pollen content described above; the interpretation of these datafavours occupation by a human family.

Given what was discussed in the taphonomy section, it is possible to conjecture about theorigins of the pollen deposits and an occupation scenario based on: the flowering time of theplants producing the pollen returned from several cave layers; the concurrent presence of pollenand seeds in the MBA deposit; and the presence of non-pollen palynomorphs.

It is likely that a portion of the deposited pollen has been passively transported by airflow,water and animals. For the EBA pollen assemblages, the flowering season is spring–summer. Thecave is open to the south-west, towards the fluvial valley and the coastal plain, suggesting the



presence of a surrounding open area that was a source of pasture for animals. The presence of ahearth and coprophilous fungi in the sediments probably suggests temporary occupation byhumans during the EBA in the spring and summer seasons. The cave was likely to have been usedas a shelter for animals and as a place of recovery for Nuragic shepherds.

During the MBA, occupation was more stable and probably continuous: pollen grains andseeds were present that belong to plants flowering over the course of the entire year. In particular,Arbutus blooms in autumn–winter, but the presence of a smelting furnace also attests to a notedeconomic activity. The animals probably did not stay in the cave (no coprophilous fungi werefound) with humans. In terms of the origin of the pollen deposit of the MBA assemblage, activetransport by human activity is suggested for several plants, such as Arbutus, Erica, Myrtus,Pistacia, Cistus and Asphodelus. These plants, in fact, were important resources in a family’seconomy in the Nuragic and still are in present-day rural society.

Arbutus unedo is still used for food today, as well as for therapeutic purposes due to itsastringent, diuretic, sedative and antibiotic properties (Atzei et al. 1991, 2004; Foddis andMaxia 2006). The wood is clear and soft and can be used to make tools with which to treatfood. It is also an excellent fuel, and during combustion it is very valuable as firewood. It isalso one of the first plants to regenerate after a fire. Meanwhile, an excellent honey is producedfrom the flowers of Erica, its branches were used to package scope, and its coal was soughtout by locksmiths because it can generate a great deal of heat. The plant also provides a veryhard wood that is durable, lightweight and extremely resistant to heat, which makes briar roota suitable material for construction. The absorption of the solid silicon from the ground alsomakes the strain fire retardant. Myrtus, Cistus and Pistacia lentiscus had several uses. Pistaciaoil was part of the diet of the proto-Sardinian pre-Nuragic society (Atzei et al. 2004) andwas also used for lighting. Fruits of Pistacia and Myrtus, and aerial branches of Erica arboreaand Myrtus, were traditionally used to produce colours for dyes: red and black pigmentsfrom Myrtus; and yellow, orange, green, light brown and pink from Erica. Furthermore, in thepast, shepherds produced an aromatic liqueur from Myrtus, and the tradition still carrieson today.

Finally, the stem of Asphodelus was used to create fine handmade baskets, and had long beenused for making bread and cheese (Atzei et al. 2004).

The mixture of evergreen sclerophyllous trees, as well as a lowland deciduous oak forest withthe presence of conifer formations with pine, cypress and Juniperus, is seen in many coastalzones of the western Mediterranean basin. The herbaceous dominance reported in the cave is alsoconsistent with human occupation and use of the land, and probably with strong climaticseasonality. The high presence of Selaginellaceae spores in S.U. 22 of the grottino sediment isprobably related to the easy availability of moist conditions and water in the cave after precipi-tation events. In fact, these plants adhere to the substrate (they do not typically rise to more than2 cm) and occupy moist habitats on soil or rocks in humid and shadowy sites (Daoud-Bouattouret al. 2010). The presence of temporary stagnant and clean waters in the cave is argued byConcentricystes (van Geel and Grenfell 1996).

Climatically, simulation models have demonstrated that it is difficult to include climate changein a unique scheme for the western Mediterranean, as the model is patchy. It appears that duringthe middle of the Late Holocene (2000 bc onwards), the precipitation regime decreased in thewestern Mediterranean basin, even if in the Italian peninsula pollen data from areas that are closeby are often very different due to the peculiar atmospheric conditions of the western basin(Roberts et al. 2011). Sardinia, with its location between the African Craton and SouthernEurope, is subject to the hot climatic pressure from the Sahara and the westerly Atlantic cyclonic

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fronts, revealing unstable seasonal precipitation regimes and temperatures. Palynological datarecorded in the present study appear to be coherent with a regime of low annual precipitation andthe development of a herbaceous and shrubby open prairie.

Comparisons with other Sardinian and Mediterranean sites

Palynological investigations carried out at 10 archaeological sites, including in the areas ofOrroli, Nurri and Escalaplano (NU, central Sardinia), with a chronology between the end of theMBA and the Late Bronze Age (LBA) and the Roman period (López et al. 2005), revealed achange from a dense forested landscape at the base level, which corresponded to the MBA, to amuch more degraded forest in the LBA. This is the consequence of anthropic activities; forexample, deforestation and burning for the cultivation of cereal crops, and the development ofgrazing areas. The degraded landscape is reflected in the increase of Ericaceae pollen grains, thepresence of nitrophilous plants, and the consequent reduction of the arboreal-shrub pollencomponent, such as Quercus, Juniperus, Olea and Pinus. The content of macro-remains (seedsand fruits) from Nuragic sites in central Sardinia (Borore, NU) revealed a phase with denseforests in the EBA (4400–3900 bp) and MBA (3900–3400 bp), and a deforestation phase in theLBA (3300–2900 bp), with the development of degraded vegetation and grazing activities and thespread of open clover areas, featuring the clover-like plants of Lotus, Trifolium and Melilotus(Bakels 2002).

Given the type of data collected in this investigation, caution in terms of interpreting thereconstruction of past vegetation is advisable. Hypothetically, however, the comparison of datafrom central Sardinia (MBA and LBA) with that of the present study concerning the south-westof the country (EBA and MBA) reveals a difference in the extent of the degree of forestation forthe two areas in the MBA. This would suggest a difference in the seasonal precipitation andtemperature for south and central Sardinia that is also noticeable in the present day.

In Italy, the Bronze Age, which is archaeologically dated to c.4400–3000 years bp, is amongthe most problematic examples of a fairly synchronous cultural change that is probably drivenby a climatic change coinciding with a crisis of aridity (Mercuri and Sadori 2012). The‘Mediterranization’ of the landscape (Sadori et al. 2011) can be seen to have been initiatedprimarily by mid-Holocene climate change regimes (c.6000 years bp), and subsequently byhuman-induced land cover conversion. The interaction between dryness and human activity hasled to the expansion of environments with xeric shrublands and deforested areas (Jalut et al.2009; Mercuri et al. 2010). Several lakes in central Italy have experienced a significant decline ofwoody cover, determined by a drying climate recorded at about 4000 bp: Lago di Mezzano(Sadori et al. 2004), Lago dell’Accesa (Drescher-Schneider et al. 2007; Magny et al. 2007;Colombaroli et al. 2008) and Lago di Vico (Magri and Sadori 1999). Water shortages probablyobliged Bronze Age populations to settle along lake shores in pile dwellings. Livelihood activitiesand environmental exploitation are visible in pollen diagrams from around 3600 years ago.Accordingly, cereal and pulse cultivation, olive diffusion, forest clearance, fire and grazingactivities can be connected to more unequivocal man-made actions and the economy of thehuman populations that settled in central Italy. During the Bronze Age, including in Salento(south Italy; Di Rita and Magri 2009), the vegetation was characterized by a moderate degrada-tion in the forest cover associated with an increase of herbs and Mediterranean shrubs. This wasprobably due to a progressive increase in human activities, but also to a transition from Quercionilicis to Oleo-Ceratonion communities that could be induced by even slight precipitation ortemperature changes.



As in other areas of the Mediterranean Basin, where aridification and land degradation betweenthe Neolithic and Bronze Age have been attested (Carroll et al. 2012; Kouli 2012), the MonteMeana pollen assemblage shows a human-disturbed environment with Pinus, Quercus, Juniperusand Ericaceae.

CONCLUSIONS

Palynological analyses have been able to reveal additional information about the use of thestudied Monte Meana cave, also providing new data that is valuable when it comes to improvingour knowledge of the vegetation in Sardinia in the past. It is possible to hypothesize that thestudied site was used occasionally during the EBA, as evidenced by the pollen content and theabsence of fruits and seeds, as a shelter for animals (as documented by the presence ofcoprophilous fungi) and as a place of recovery for shepherds. In the MBA, the overall dataindicate a continued human presence related to rural (cultivation, storage) and domestic (ceramic,metallurgy) activities. The vegetation around the studied cave was not very different from that ofthe present day. In the EBA and MBA, the data bears out the presence of an open area around thesite that included overgrazing habitats and shady glades and shrublands. The degree of humanpressure in the area, which was high in the MBA, is related to the presence of plants that aresensitive to nitric soil (Asphodelus) and Arbutus, Erica and Cistus shrubs growing on hilly areaswith degraded soils. These and other plants, such as Myrtus and Pistacia, were importantresources in the family economy. The limited presence of pollen grains that are representative ofarboreal plants could suggest degradation in the forest in Sardinia that is probably climate-induced and emphasized by anthropogenic land use, as seen in other Italian and Mediterraneancoeval sites.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to the city of Santadi for the grant, logistical assistance and hospitality that wereceived. We would especially like to thank A. Pilloni and R. Cani, the president and adminis-trator of Cantina Santadi respectively, for funding the research. A particular word of thanks alsogoes to Remo Forresu, the curator of the Archaeological Museum of Santadi, for his hospitality.We are likewise grateful to Matteo Piras for the 3-D drawing. We offer sincere thanks to LauraSadori, for her precious comments, and to the anonymous reviewers who suggested very usefulcorrections. We acknowledge the Sardinia Regional Government for its financial support (P.O.R.Sardegna F.S.E. Operational Programme of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, European SocialFund 2007–2013—Axis IV Human Resources, Objective l.3, Line of Activity l.3.1 ‘Avviso dichiamata per il finanziamento di Assegni di Ricerca’).

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APPENDIX

This appendix contains notes that exclusively concern the pollen morphology of the studiedassemblages.

The Carex pollen grain is pyriform, with a surface that is densely granular. The apertures (1–4pores) are poorly defined and can be sunken, elongate, elliptical or ovoidal, with a looselygranular or fragmented surface. The pollen grains are 25 × 40 μm in size. The Scirpus pollengrain is obovoid (roughly conical) to sub-spheroidal, and small to large (20 × 40 μm), with ascabrate–perforate surface and 3–6 apertures that are poorly defined. The Arbutus pollen grainspresent a psilate exine, and compared to other genera (Erica) have tetrads that are comparativelylarger (35–50 μm). The Erica pollen grains are commonly found in tetrahedral tetrads, and havea diameter of 25–28 μm. Their surface is uneven and rugged, and a primary apocolpial exinesculpture coarsely rugulates. Among the Liliaceae, the observed pollen grains are monocolpatewith a microreticolate exine and a sub-circular (Asphodelus) or prolate shape with a semi-tectate,rugulate perforate exine (Allium). Fungal spores are brown, ellipsoidal or elongated, one-celledand 30 × 10 μm in size.

The pollen types prolate, 3-zonocolporate and medium-sized (30 × 40 μm) with a differentsuperficial sexine texture are attributed to herbaceous Fabaceae and exclude Cytisus, Calycotomeand Genista as the parent plant because of the rounded shape of their pollen type.



A Human Occupation Cave During the Bronze Age: Archaeological and Palynological Applications of a...

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