A Comparison of Shinto and Native American Religious Practices

Patrick McKinley

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5/5/15

Professor Donabed

The term “religion” and what it means has been something

discussed throughout history. What constitutes “religion” and

what components exclude or include different “religions” or

trains of thought. In order to not get bogged down in a debate on

what constitutes a religion the definition of religion will be

viewed as “a way of viewing the world with a notion of sacred

reality made manifest in human experience in such a way as to

produce long-lasting ways of thinking, feeling, and acting with

respect to ordering and understanding existence.”1 There are

hundreds, if not thousands of documented religions throughout the

world. The “main” religions of the world are the most well-known;

Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism etc. there are also many

more indigenous religions throughout the world that are lesser

known entities. The one thing that all religions have in common

is sacred elements and rituals that hold great meaning to

followers of each religion.

1 Cunningham, Lawrence. The Sacred Quest: An Invitation to the Study of Religion. New York: Macmillan; 1991 21.

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Sacred is a generic term that regards all elements of a

religion that its followers view as vitally important to the

tenets of the religion. The Sacred has many different

manifestations depending on the religion and most religions have

more than one element that can be considered sacred. There are

scared places, sacred texts, sacred people, and sacred places

plus many more. There is no specific requirement of definition of

sacred, it depends on the religion and what each religion views

as sacred. A generic description of sacred can be anything

“specially distinctive or ‘set apart’ from everything else in the

world…”2 To further narrow down and specify sacred elements of

religion it is necessary to focus on two religions to show the

similarities and difference of sacred elements between the two.

The two religions that will be focused on are Japanese Shintoism

and Native American religions indigenous to North America. These

two belief systems were chosen due to one of them (Shinto) being

a more mainstream and popular religion and the other (Native

American Religion) being lesser known and of an indigenous

nature. These two religions were also chosen because they share

2 Ibid, 27.

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some interesting similarities in regards to some of their beliefs

and sacred elements that will be discussed further in the coming

paragraphs.

Shintoism is the main religious practice in modern day Japan

and has been for quite some time. Shinto is believed to have

originated around 500 BC.3 Unlike most modern and large religions

in the world there is no specific person or deity credited with

the founding or creation of Shinto. Many scholars believe that it

is an adaptation of ancient Chinese religion. This opinion comes

from the fact that there is no specific moral code in Shinto but

the majority of followers adhere to the Confucian moral code as a

way to live a good life.4 Along with the lack of a moral code in

Shinto there is also no religious law. Shinto is viewed as a

highly individualistic religion with a focus on individual

worship rather than a religion with strict laws and policies that

must be adhered to. Due to this fact there is only a loosely

organized system of priesthood in the Shinto religion. Followers

in Shinto believe that the Japanese islands were created by a 3 "Shinto, an Ancient Japanese Religion." SHINTO. July 13, 2013. Accessed March 16, 2015.4 Ibid.

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divine kami couple.5 The kami are the sacred beings in Shinto.

Their presence is represented by white sand at shrines.6 They are

not gods and very few kami have names, they are believed to be

abstract beings that manifest themselves through nature in the

physical world.7 The most important kami in Shinto is the Sun

Goddess.8 Kami can also be present in humans believed to

demonstrate superior traits. During World War Two the Japanese

Emperor was considered to be a manifestation of kami.9 These

manifestations are believed to sustain and protect the

worshippers of Shinto.10 A life giving and creative force is

carried inside the kami, this force is called musubi and is the

force that gives life through the kami.11

In Shinto a great emphasis is placed on both the individual

person and the larger community.12 Shrines in the households of

families are commonplace and regular worship with the local 5 Ibid.6 Yamada, N. Alice. "Shinto:The Way of the Gods." Trincoll Journal. Accessed May 2, 2015.7 Boyd, James W., and Ron G. Williams. "JAPANESE SHINTŌ: AN INTERPRETATION OF A PRIESTLY PERSPECTIVE." Philosophy East & West 55, no. 1 (January 2005): 33. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed March 16, 2015) 35.8 "Shinto." Japan-Guide. May 31, 2008. Accessed April 30, 2015.9 James Boyd and Ron G. Williams, 35. 10 “Shinto, an Ancient Japanese Religion.”11 James Boyd and Ron G. Williams, 34. 12 Ibid, 44.

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Shinto community is also prevalent throughout Japan. A shrine is

a sacred space for worship of the kami, the entrance to every

shrine is marked by a tori to show where a sacred space begins.13

Followers of Shinto have a desire for peace, this desire was

warped and twisted by Emperor Hirohito during World War Two but

was later restored after the war ended. This desire for peace

stems from the four main affirmations of Shinto; tradition and

family, love of nature, physical cleanliness, and Matsuri. Matsuri

is the worship and honoring of the kami.14 Another central element

of Shinto is the participation in ritual, there are many rituals

in Shinto, and some of them are simple and performed daily. One

of these daily rituals is the meticulously organizing the

household shrine to the kami.15

The third affirmation of Shinto, physical cleanliness, is

what drives many rituals in the religion. Purification rituals

are performed to restore order between nature, humans and the

kami.16 The act of purifying the body takes place daily and

13 "Shinto Shrine Guide - Iconography, Objects, Superstitions in Japanese Shintoism." Accessed May 2, 2015.14 “Shinto an Ancient Japanese Religion´15 James Boyd and Ron G. Williams, 47. 16 Kwok, Natalie. "Shinto: Practices, Rituals and Ceremonies." Accessed May 2,2015.

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rituals ranger anywhere from simply cleansing the body with water

each morning to larger rituals that take place only at certain

times during the year. One of these larger rituals is the Misogi.

The Misogi is performed on the 11th of every month at the Tsubaki

Grand Shrine. In this ceremony participants take part in

strenuous physical exercise and then douse themselves under a

cold waterfall. The ceremony is ended by all participants

drinking from a ceremonial bottle of Sake.17 The Misogi ritual

does not have to be undertaken at the Tsubaki Grand Shrine, Misogi

is a general term for any ritual that involves washing oneself in

a natural body of water. The washing in a natural body of water

helps wash away all impurities from the material world.18 More

simpler and common purification rituals in Shinto include washing

the body with water and salt before participation in other

rituals in order to ensure the body is pure enough to interact

with the kami.19 One of the smaller purification rituals is called

Shubatsu, this act involves sprinkling salt on priests,

worshippers attending the service and the round in to cleanse it.17 James Boyd and Ron G. Williams, 48. 18 "Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America." Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America. Accessed May 2,19 "Harae-Purification Rites." BBC News. September 16, 2009. Accessed April 30, 2015.

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The most well-known use of Shubatsu is in Sumo wrestling, where

the wrestlers sprinkle salt inside the ring the match will take

place.20 Another tool used in purifying rituals in Shinto is a

wand called the Ounusa or Haraigushi. This wand is a wooden stick

with intricate designs carved in the wood and has either strips

of paper or flax on the end. The wand is waved over ritualistic

offerings to the kami in order to purify them before they are

offered.21

The largest purification ritual in Shinto is called the

Oharae takes place just twice a year. Oharae translates to “Great

Purification,” this ritual is held at the end of June and the end

of December.22 The Oharae is performed with the participation of a

large amount of people. A shrine constructs a large ring that

stands in the forefront of the ritual; this ring is commonly

constructed of a type of reed called chinowa.23 Unlike other ways

of purifying the body this ritual does not involve salt or water,

instead participants pass thorugh the ring under guidance of a

20 Natalie Kwok. 21 “Harae Purification Rites” 22 Natalie Kwok. 23 "Japanese Traditions: Nagoshi No Oharae." Examiner.com. July 7, 2012. Accessed May 2, 2015.

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chief priest, or guuji. The passing through the ring removes any

defilement that may have attached to the person throughout the

past six months. The ritual is ended by the guuji blessing each

participant with a prayer of protection that protects attendees

from disease or tragedy until the next Oharae.24 One of the main

elements that have been prevalent throughout these rituals is

some form of nature. Whether it is the waterfall or natural water

source in the misogi or the flax strands on a haraigushi nature

plays a large role in Shinto.

The love of nature is one of the four main affirmations of

Shinto and perhaps the most important behind family and

tradition. Aspects of nature permeate every facet of Shinto, as

mentioned above many purification rituals are about balancing

humans with nature. In addition to purification rituals there are

other rituals that aim to acknowledge “The Great Nature” that

usually take form of sacrificing food to the kami.25 Many streams,

rivers, mountains, and even some rocks have sacred meaning in

Shinto, as it is believed they are natural shrines to, or created

24 Ibid. 25 James Boyd and Ron G. Williams, 46.

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by the kami.26 One of the most well-known mountains in the world

is Mt. Fuji. At the top of the mountain is a Shinto shrine

dedicated to the kami Sengen-Sama and is considered to be the

holiest mountain in Japan. Thousands of believers in Shinto make

the pilgrimage to the top of Mt. Fuji to worship the shrine.27

Shinto beliefs state that musubi and the kami are intertwined

with everything, therefore nature must be respected because these

forces that shape nature also shape humanity itself. Shintoism is

the mainstream religion of Japan but it shares many commonalities

with some Native American religious practices especially in

regards to purification and human interaction with nature.

It is impossible to group all Native American religious

practices into one generic group. The diversity of tribes

throughout North America makes such a generalization

irresponsible. What is possible is to talk about general beliefs

that Native Americans had while using specific tribal examples to

demonstrate these beliefs. Many tribes view time to be in a

cyclical fashion rather than linear, unlike most modern

26 ”Shinto, and Ancient Japanese Religion”27 "Mt. Fuji." Sacred Destinations. Accessed May 2, 2015.

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conceptions of time Native Americans view young children and the

elders to be closer together than their age suggests as time

continues in a circular motion.28 Native American beliefs

usually focus on nature and interaction with nature. Most natural

events are generally explained through terms of religion.29 There

is also a great emphasis placed on animals. Animals are found in

nearly every aspect of Native American religious practices. Many

tribes believe that animals helped with the creation of the world

and humanity itself and for this reason should be treated with

reverence and respect. The Pueblo creation myth states that

animals assisted the Creator in helping humans climb from the

underworld to the sunlight of the world that they exist in

today.30 Animals continue to help humans in the stories of many

other tribes as well. The Pawnee believe that animals are the

guardians of humans and will offer guidance when a human in need

asks for assistance from the animal world.31 Oral tradition is

another staple of most Native American tribes. Many, if not all,

28 Brown, Joseph Epes, and Emily Cousins. Teaching Spirits: Understanding Native American Religious Traditions. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press, 2001. 9.29 "Native American Religion." Indians.org. Accessed May 2, 2015.30 Joseph Epes Brown and Emily Cousins, 94.31 Ibid, 95.

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Native American tribes passed along their mythic stories orally

carrying on a tradition of storytelling. Eventually as the years

progressed the old stories were transcribed in order to preserve

the stories for years to come.32

Native Americans view many different aspects of the world

and their beliefs to be sacred. There are sacred places, stories,

rituals and even sacred objects. In Native American beliefs land

can be sacred for many reasons including there being a religious

ceremony previously performed on the land or the belief that a

spiritual being dwells on the land.33 The relationship that

Native American’s have with land is deeply embedded in their

traditional beliefs.34 Land is nearly as important to some Native

American tribes as life itself. Its importance to the Shoshone

tribe in Nevada is “To us when your land is gone, you are walking

towards a slow spiritual death. We have come to the point that

death is better than living without your spirituality.35 This

32 "Native American Religion." Tribal Directory. Accessed May 2, 2015.33 HARJO, SUZAN SHOWN. "PROTECTING SACRED PLACES." Expedition 55, no. 3 (Winter2013 2013): 12-17. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed February 11, 2015) 15. 34 Joseph Epes Brown and Emily Cousins, 23. 35 Ibid.

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quote shows the closeness that a lot of Native American tribes

have to the land they live on and used to survive off of. A

tribes land is viewed as part of the tribe itself, not just an

area that is lived on. The presence of the different spirits that

help bring life and prosperity to the land are all inter

connected in one system, and Native Americans believe this

connectivity gives the land a life of its own. Some tribes, like

the Apache also believe the land has a moral power. The Apache

use very long and descriptive sentences to name places that have

stories behind them. The long names evoke the memories and

pictures of the place in a person’s mind and with that comes the

moral lesson or story that the place is associated with.36 In

Wyoming there is a natural formation of rocks that is called the

Bighorn Medicine Wheel. The Crow tribe believe that the wheel was

created by a boy named Burnt Face who created it on a vision

quest after severely burning his face. Ever since then the wheel

has been used as a place for Crow teens to go on vision quests

and retrace the steps of Burnt Face. The medicine wheel is also a

place where Native Americans go to offer thanks to the Creator

36 Ibid, 26.

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and to recite prayers of healing.37 Just as important as land is

to Native Americans are the rituals of all the various tribes and

what the rituals are supposed to signify or commemorate.

Native American tradition is focused heavily on rituals.

There are dances and ceremonies for preparing for war or the next

harvest. Many of these rituals are meant to please or ask the

greater powers for good fortune in whatever endeavor the ritual

is being performed for. These rituals are aimed at bringing

together time, physics, language, art and other key aspects of

Native American life all together in one medium.38 Each tribe has

their own unique rituals that they perform to honor their

respective gods. Most rituals in Native American beliefs have

three stages, the first stage is purification, the second is

expansion and the final stage is when the participant creates a

union with “all that is,” the Native American way of saying the

earth and the world.39 The purification stage is necessary

because in many Native American tribes only pure beings can

interact with ritual materials. In the Oglala Sioux tribe an 37 "Bighorn Medicine Wheel, Wyoming." Sacred Destinations. Accessed May 2, 2015.38 Joseph Epes Brown and Emily Cousins, 107. 39 Ibid, 112.

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impure person is prohibited from even laying eyes on the

ceremonial sacred pipe.40 The purification process of cleansing

the soul gives a being the right to view and hold the pipe. The

expansion element of a ritual is so the participant can view the

world beyond oneself, the participant begins to view himself in

terms of the universe opening up his mind to other ideas. The

Plains tribe ritual tobacco pipe ceremony demonstrates these

phases through the use of a pipe. The pipe’s shape is a

manifestation of the human body and the cleaning of the pipe

using sage before smoking is purifying the human spirit as well.

The expansion ritual is undertaken by the leader of the ceremony

taking a pinch of tobacco and pointing it in each of the

directions of space and by sprinkling some in the air for the

winged creatures of the world. Doing this signifies the

acknowledgment of the greater world and the Great Mystery. The

filled pipe represents the universe working as one and when the

participant in the ceremony smokes the pipe it is putting the

whole universe in union with one another, as represented by the

40 Brown, Joseph Epes. The Sacred Pipe. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1953, 8.

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smoke rising into air.41 This type of ritual is meant to show the

interconnection between the people of the Plains Tribe and the

rest of the universe, the ritual is ended with the leader of the

ceremony saying Mitakuye Oyasin, which translates to “we are all

related.”42 One ritual that can be found in multiple tribes that

is newer in comparison to some other traditions is the sweat

lodge ritual.

The Native American sweat lodge ceremony is one of the most

prominent Native American traditions today. Its creation is

believed to be associated with the arrival of European colonial

powers to North America. The ritual was created from the belief

that Native American’s needed to be re-purified after interacting

with the western cultures.43 A similar ritual was used in the

Lakota tribe for praying and healing purposes and was later

adopted for purification rituals by other tribes.44 The size and

shape of a sweat lodge varies depending on tribe and number of

41 Joseph Epes Brown and Emily Cousins, 111-113. 42 Ibid, 113. 43Hardison, Barefoot Bob. "The Native American Sweatlodge, A Spiritual Tradition." The Native American Sweatlodge, A Spiritual Tradition. Accessed March 16, 2015. 44 "The Sacred Native American Sweat Lodge Ceremony." Shinzen.org. Accessed May 3, 2015

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participants in the ceremony but all lodges consist of a pit in

the center for the heated stones as well benches organized in a

circle for the participants to sit during the ceremony.45 In

Native American culture the act of sweating is generally

considered to be ideal to spiritual cleanliness as sweating is

seen as an act of self-purification.46 In order to enter the

lodge all participants must shed any material belongings such as

jewelry. The only items that are allowed in the sweat lodge are

natural keepsakes such as flowers or feathers. Upon entering the

lodge everyone is considered equal and there are no titles as the

participants undertake the ritual as one.47 In addition to

equality in the lodge there is also confidentiality, anything

confessed during the ceremony is not to be repeated in the

outside world.48 The ceremony is generally begun by the passing

around of a sacred pipe. There are four rounds to a sweat lodge

ceremony; the first is Acknowledgement of the spirits, the second

is recognition of said spirits, the third is knowledge of

individual prayer and meditation and the final phase centers on

45 Ibid.46 “The Native American Sweat Lodge, a Spiritual Tradition.” 47 Ibid. 48 “The Sacred Native American Sweat Lodge Ceremony”.

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spiritual growth.49 These rounds are aimed at realizing the

greater powers and reflecting on past deeds and sweating them out

to purify the soul. After each round a brief time period to go

outside of the sweat lodge to cool off and reflect is permitted

in order to recover and be ready for the next round of sweating

and meditating. The sweat lodge is viewed as a sacred place to

learn, pray, heal, and purify the body and soul.50 Native

American traditions are built on ritual and reverence for nature,

much like Shintoism; there are some distinct and interesting

similarities between the two practices.

Native American religious beliefs and Japanese Shintoism

both share a common love for the natural world. In Shinto the

second main affirmation is the love of nature, while there are no

specific listings or affirmations of love of nature in Native

American religions it is clear through their beliefs and

practices that nature is very dear to the tribes. This similarity

is perhaps due to the similarity in how the divine is viewed

between these two belief structures, in both Native American

49 “The Native American Sweat Lodge, a Spiritual Tradition”. 50 Ibid.

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beliefs and Shintoism the divine is everywhere and is in both

nature and human beings. This belief leads to the feeling that

nature is one and the same as humanity albeit in a different

form, and mistreating nature is mistreating humanity. Both

religions also place great emphasis on remaining pure, and

purifying the body, mind and soul. Purification rituals take many

forms in both practices; there are smaller purification rituals

performed as part of a larger activity, such as the cleaning of

the pipe by the Plains tribe of sprinkling of salt by Shinto

believers. There are also larger rites of purification, the

Oharae ritual performed only twice a year in Shinto, and the

sweat lodge ceremony in Native American beliefs which has no set

timetable but is seen as a larger performance. Another striking

similarity between these two religions that are geographically a

world away is the forms of their deities. These are not

monotheistic religions that worship only one divine being but

each one has many different beings viewed as divine. Each also

has one being that it is viewed as more important than some of

the others; the Sun Goddess kami and the Great Mystery are both

the most important deity to each religion but are by no means the

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only one. The other deities have roles in nature in both

religions as well, with some kami being responsible for water or

wind just like in Native American religions where different gods

are prayed to for different things such as there may be one god

for a good harvest and another for good weather.

Both Japanese Shinto and Native American beliefs share a

love of nature and have similar concepts of the divine. What is

interesting about this connection is the vast difference between

the two practices. While both religions are old, Shinto can be

considered and ancient religion, perhaps some Native American

beliefs are ancient as well but due to the unknown nature of the

Americas before western discovery, knowledge of these beliefs is

much newer. The current state of each religion also is a major

difference between the two; practitioners of Native American

beliefs are shrinking due to the lessening of tribal life in the

United States but Shinto remains the largest religion in Japan by

a wide margin. The final glaring difference between Shintoism and

Native American religion is the solidarity of each religion.

While Shinto does have different types and spin offs of it most

general practices remain the same. The same cannot be said of 20

Native American religions, while most tribes have similar belief

structures no two tribes are alike and they all have their own

rituals. The most interesting facet between these two religions

is that shared similarities between purification, divine

structure, and love of nature despite the vast differences in

geography, time period, and current popularity.

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Bibliography

"Bighorn Medicine Wheel, Wyoming." Sacred Destinations. Accessed May 2, 2015.

Boyd, James W., and Ron G. Williams. "JAPANESE SHINTŌ: AN INTERPRETATION

OF A PRIESTLY PERSPECTIVE." Philosophy East & West 55, no. 1 (January

2005): 33. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed March 16, 2015).

Brown, Joseph Epes. The Sacred Pipe. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press,

1953.

Brown, Joseph Epes, and Emily Cousins. Teaching Spirits: Understanding Native

American Religious   Traditions. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Cunningham, Lawrence. The Sacred Quest: An Invitation to the Study of Religion. New

York: Macmillan ;1991.

Harae-Purification Rites." BBC News. September 16, 2009. AccessedApril 30, 2015.

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(Winter2013 2013): 12-17. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost(accessed February 11, 2015).

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22

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