தொடரியல் (Syntax)
131
1 bjhlhpay; Kidth; r. nuhBre;jpud; பணிநிறை பபரசிரிய bkhHpapay; Jiw, jkpH;gy;fiyf;fHfk;
Transcript of தொடரியல் (Syntax)
1
bjhlhpay;
Kidth; r. nuhBre;jpud;
பணிநிறை பபரசிரியர்
bkhHpapay; Jiw, jkpH;gy;fiyf;fHfk;
2
bghUslf;fk;
I. bjhlhpay;
gFjp 1:mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;L mog;gilapy; bjhlhpay;
1.1. bkhHpapaypd; Fwpf;Bfhs;
1.2. bkhHpapd; goepiy mikg;g[
1.3. mikg;g[bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
1.4. mz;ik cWg;gha;t[
1.4.1. gjpyPL Kiw (substitutability)
1.4.2. cWg;g[ tFg;g[
1.4.3. mz;ik cWg;g[fshfg; gphpg;gjd; mstPL
mfg;gw;whR
mfkhWghL (internal diversity)
Rje;jpuj; jd;ik
1.4.4. gy; mz;ik cWg;g[fs;
1.4.5. bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[fs;
1.4.6. fl;Lkhd xUBghd;ik
1.4.7. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpd; khjphpfs;
1.4.8. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpd; tiuaiw vy;iy my;yJ rpf;fy;fs;
1.5. bjhluikg;g[r; rl;lfk;
1.5.1.bjhlhpay; tifg;ghL
1.5.2. cs;tifg;ghL
1.5.3. brhw;brhUfy; tpjpfs;
1.5.4. bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpd; tiuaiw vy;iy
1.5.4.1. ‘mlA;fp nU’ vd;w tpjpfspd; FiwghL
1.5.4.2. thf;fpaA;fSf;fpilBa cs;s cwt[ bjhlh;ghd rpf;fy;
1.5.4.3. bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[ Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
1.5.4.4. bghUs; kaf;fk; Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
1.5.4.5. Nhpiz Ma;tpd; rpf;fy;
1.5.4.6. kWjut[ bray;ghl;Lr; rpf;fy;
1.5.4.7. eilapay; BtWghL Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
1.5.4.8. cld;ghl;il btspg;gLj;Jtjpy; rpf;fy;
gFjp 2: epiyBgWbgw;w bjhlhpay; Bfhl;ghL
2.1. mikg;g[bkhHpapaypUe;J bjhlhpay; mikg;g[fs;
2.1.1. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; nyf;F
2.1.1. K}d;W epiwt[fs;
2.1.2. mwpjpwDk; bray; jpwDk;
2.1.3. Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk;
2.1.4.mf mikg;g[k; g[w mikg;g[k;
2.1.5. Syntactic Structure-ny; khw;Wtpjpfs;
2.2. Aspects khjphp
2.2.1. bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
2.2.4. bjh-tot[fspd; cUthf;fk;
2.2.5. bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr; rhay;fs;
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2.2.6. bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs;
2.2.7. nyf;fz khw;wA;fs;
gFjp 3:tphpt[gLj;jg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghLk; mjd; bjhlh;r;rpa[k;
3.1. Kd;Diu
3.2. mf mikg;ig BkYk; MHg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd thjA;fs;
3.4. khw;Wtpjpfs; Vw;gLj;Jk; bghUz;ik khw;wk;
3.5.khw;Wg; bgauhf;fj;ijf; ifahs khw;WKiw
3.6. X-ghh; bjhlhpaypd; mwpKfk;
3.7. mikg;igj; jf;fitf;Fk; fl;Lg;ghL
3.8. tphpt[gLj;jg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;od; totk;
3.9. RtL Bfhl;ghl;oypUe;J tsh;r;rp
3.10. gpw tsh;r;rpfs;
gFjp 4:khw;wA;fSk; fl;Lg;ghLfSk;
4.1. khw;wA;fs;
4.2.1. Vty; khw;wk;
4.2.2. tpidbar;r cl;gLj;jy;
4.2.3. brag;ghl;L khw;wk;
4.2.4.bgabur;rj;bjhlh; khw;wk;
4.2.5. khw;Wg; bgauhf;fk;
4.2.6. jw;Rl;lhf;fk;
4.3. tphpthf;fg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghL mog;gilapyhd khw;wA;fs;
4.3.1. bgbjh-efh;t[
4.4. khw;wA;fspy; fl;Lg;ghLfs;
4.4.1. fyitg; bgah;j;bjhlh;f; fl;Lg;ghL
4.4.1.1. bgabur;rj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL
4.4.1.2. epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL
thf;fpa vGtha;f; fl;Lg;ghL
WH-jPt[f;fl;Lg;ghL
v-Bky;-v fl;Lg;ghL
4.5. ePf;fy;
4.6. nWg;ghd;fs;
4.7. Btw;Wik
JizE]y;fs;
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இயல்/gFjp 1
mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;L mog;gilapy; bjhlhpay;
1.1. bkhHpapaypd; Fwpf;Bfhs;
kdpj bkhHpia cs;Siw bra;a[k; xGA;FKiwfs; my;yJ bfhs;iffis Ma[k;
mwptpay; mog;gilapyhd Ma;t[ bkhHpapayhFk;. bkhHpapay; mwptpaypd; bghJ bewpKiw
(fl;Lg;gl;l cw;WBehf;fy;, fUJBfhs; cUthf;fy;, bghJikahf;fk;, mDkhdpj;jy;, TLjy;
cw;WBehf;fyhy; ghpBrhjid bra;jy; kw;Wk; cWjp bra;jy;, fUJBfhis khw;Wjy; my;yJ
js;Sjy;) MFk;. bkhHpapaYf;F nuz;L Kjd;ikahd Fwpf;Bfhs;fs; nUf;fpd;wd:
bkhHpapd; nay;ig Ma;e;J bkhHpf; Bfhl;ghl;il epWt[jy; kw;Wk; epWtg;gl;l Bfhl;ghl;ilg;
gad;gLj;jp bkhHpia tpsf;Fjy;. bkhHpapayhh; bkhHpapd; vy;yh Behf;fpYk; bkhHpia Ma[k;
eguhthh;. gy bkhHpfs; mwpe;jth; gd;bkhHp mwpe;jtuhthh; (polyglot). xU bkhHpapayhh;
gd;bkhHp mwpe;jtuhf nUf;fj; Bjitapy;iy kw;Wk; gd;bkhHp mwpe;jth; bkhHpapayhuhf
nUf;fj; Bjitapy;iy.
1.2. bkhHpapd; goepiy mikg;g[
bkhHp fUj;Jg;ghpkhw;wj;jpw;Fk; btspg;ghl;ow;Fk; Btz;o kdpjdhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
cr;rhpf;fg;gl;l xypfspd; nLFwpj;jd;ikahd xGA;FKiwahFk;. bkhHpf;F xypfs;, brhw;fs;,
thf;fpaA;fs; kw;Wk; bghUz;ik vd;gd nUf;fpd;wJ. kdpj bkhHpapd; xypfisa[k;
brhw;fisa[k; thf;fpaA;fisa[k; bghz;ikfisa[k; tpsf;f bkhHpia rpy BtWgl;l Mdhy;
Clhl;lk; bra;a[k; Ma;t[ epiyfshf epWt[tJ gaDs;sjhf mika[k;. bkhHpapayhh;
xypadpay;, cUgdpay;, brhy;ypay;, bjhlhpay;, bghUz;ikapay; vd;w Ma;t[ epiyfis
epWtpa[s;sdh;.
1. Bgr;brhypfis xypj;jy;, flj;jy; kw;Wk; bgWjy; vd;gdtw;iw Ma;tJ xypapayhFk;.
2. Bgr;brhypfspd; myFfis mirfshft[k; gpw bghpa myFfshft[k; xGA;FgLj;Jtij
Ma;tJ xypadpayhFk;. xU bkhHpapd; xypadpay; mk;bkhHpapy; epfGk; xypfspd;
xGA;FKiwfs; kw;Wk; mikg;bghGA;Ffs; ntw;wpd; th;zidahFk;. vt;thW xypfs;
vy;yhk; xUA;fpize;J xypad;fshff; fUjg;gLfpd;wd, xypad;fs; vt;thwhd thpirf;
fpukj;jpy; te;J cUgd;fshfBth brhw;fshfBth cUthf;fk; bgWfpd;wd vd;gij
xypadpay; tpthpf;fpd;wJ.
3. brhw;fis Ma;tJ cUgdpayhFk;. vt;tifapyhd xypadpay; bjlh;r;rpfs; cUg[fshf
cUg;gLj;jk; bgWfpd;wd, cUg[fs; vt;thW cUgd;fshf; FGkg; gLfpd;wd, cUgd;fs;
vt;thpir fpukj;jpy; te;J brhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gij vy;yhk; cUgdpay;
tpthpf;fpd;wJ.
4. vt;thW brhw;fs; vy;yhk; nize;J bjhlh;fshft[k; bgUe;bjhlh;fshft[k;
thf;fpaA;fshft[k; cUthf;fk; bgWfpd;wd vd;gij bjhlhpay; tpthpf;fpd;wJ.
5. bghUz;ikapay; vy;yh Behf;fpYk; bghUz;ikia Ma;tijf; Fwpf;Bfhshff;
bfhz;Ls;sJ. vt;thW cUgd;fspd; bghUs;fs; nize;J brhw;fspd; bghUs;fs;
bgwg;gLfpd;wd, brhw;fspd; bghUs; vy;yhk; nize;J bjhlh;fspd; bghUs;
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fpilf;fpd;wJ, bjhlh;fspd; bghUs; vy;yhk; nize;J thf;fpaA;fspd; bghUs;
fpilf;fpd;wJ vd;gijg; bghUz;ikapay; tpthpf;fpd;wJ.
6. vGj;jpay; Bgr;ir vGj;jhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;tjpy; cs;s vy;yh kug[fisa[k;
Ma;fpd;wJ.
7. brhy;ypay; (lexicology) brhy; myFfs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; Brh;JtUif cwt[fis
Ma;fpd;wJ.
nyf;fzk; vd;w brhy; cUgdpaiya[k; bjhlhpaiya[k; Fwpg;gpl rpyBtisfspy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ rpy bkhHpapayhh; bkhHpapd; bkhj;jj;ija[k; Fwpg;gpl nijg;
gad;gLj;Jth;.
1.3. mikg;g[bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghLfisg; gpd;tUkhW gl;oayplyhk;.
1. bkhHp rKjhag; gHf;ftHf;fk;. bkhHpapaypd; Mjhug;bghUs; (subject matter)
tHf;fA;fspd; kw;Wk; mikg;bghGA;Ffspd; bkhj;jf; FGkj;ijg; gw;wp gog;gjhFk;.
2. mwptpay; fz;Lgpog;g[r; bray;Kiw (discovery procedure) vjph;ghh;f;fpw Bjitf;F vw;g
Ma;t[k; tpsf;fKk; mikaBtz;Lk;.
3. bkhHp mjd; xGA;FKiwfshYk; (systems) cs;xGA;FKiwfshYk; (subsystems)
tpsf;fg;glBtz;Lk;. cyfg;bghJ nyf;fzkpy;iy.
4. bkhHp fUj;Jg; ghpkhw;wj;jpw;fhf xU Tl;lk; kdpj ndk; gad;gLj;;Jf;fpw
cr;rhpf;fg;gLfpd;w xypfspd; nLFwp (arbitrary) xGA;FKiw.
5. naw;ifahy; ciuf;fg;gl;lJ vd;w bghUspy; ‘naw;if bkhHp’ ny;iy. mg;go
vd;why; vy;ByhUk; xBu bkhHpiag; BgrBtz;Lk;. xt;bthU bkhHpapd; nay;g[k; tot[k;
mjd; rKjhaj; BjitfSf;F Vw;g gHf;fg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. gpd;tUtd
mikg;g[bkhHpapayhuhy; Twg;gl;l rpy bghJthd Tw;WshFk;:
m. xt;bthU bkhHpa[k; mijg; gad;gLj;JgtUf;F BghJkhdjhf nUf;fpd;wJ.
M. xt;bthU bkhHpa[k; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w rK}fj;jpw;Fk; ey;yjha; cs;sJ.
n. ve;j bkhHpa[k; gpw bkhHpiatpl mHfhdjy;y.
6. bkhHpiag;gw;wpa Tw;WfSk; tpsf;fA;fSk; g[wthakhd (objective) brhw;fshy; Twg;gl
Btz;Lk;. kdtHprhh; btw;Wr;brhw;fs; ny;yhkhy; totA;fSk; totk;rhh; cghaA;fSk;
kl;Lk;jhd; fUj;jpy; bfhs;sg;glBtz;Lk;.
7. mikg;g[fSk; bghUz;ikia milahsA;fhl;Lk;. Mdhy; mikg;igf;
fz;Lgpog;gjw;F bghUs; gad;glhJ. bghUz;ik tpsf;fg;glBtz;Lk; Mdhy;
bghUs; Ma;tpy; fUtpahafg; gad;Lj;jg;glf;TlhJ. mikg;g[fs; xd;wh
BtWgl;litah vd;W mwpag; bghUz;ikiag; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
8. mA;FkpA;Fkha;j; bjhpe;bjLf;fg;gl;l Tw;Wfspd; bjhFjpjhd; tphpjut[ (corpus)
bghJikahf;fk; bra;tjw;fhf tphpjut[ khjphpahfg; gad;gLj;jg;glBtz;Lk;. bkhHpia
Ma;tjw;fhfg; gapw;rp bgw;wth;jhd; bkhHpapayhh;. tptuiz bra;a[k; bkhHpiag;
BgRgtuhf mth; nUf;fj;Bjitapy;iy. bkhHp BgRk; jftyhspapd; cjtpahy; mth;
bjhpahj bkhHpia Ma naYk;.
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9. bkhHpapd; Ma;t[ kpfr;rpwpa myfhd xypadpy; (jftyhsp bkhHpapayhUf;Fj; bjhpahj
bkhHpiag; BgRifapy; TLjy; btspgilahfj; bjhpfpw myF) bjhlA;fp kpfg;bghpa
myfhd thf;fpak; tiur; bra;ag;gLk;.
10. Btw;Wepiy kw;Wk; Jizepiyf; bfhs;iffs; g[S]k;gPlyoad; bkhHpapaypy; kpf
Kf;fpakhdit. Btw;Wepiy tUifapd; BghJ bghUz;ikapy; khWghL nUf;Fk;.
Jizepiy tUifapd; (complementary distribution) BghJ xU myfpd; cWg;gpdh;fs;
vjph;ghh;fpwgo khw;bwhypad;fs;; (allophones) khw;WUg[fs;; (allmorphs) vd;gdBghy
tpdpBahfpf;fg;gl;oUf;Fk;.
mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; (structural linguistics) bkhHpayFfis nuz;Ltifapyhd cwt[fshy;
bjhlh;g[gLj;jp Ma;t[ bra;fpd;wJ. KjyhtJ, bkhHpayFfs; xd;iw xd;W bjhlh;e;J bjhlh;e;J
tUtjhy; bgwg;gLk; cwt[. nJBt bjhlh; Kiw cwt[ my;yJ cWg;gikt[ cwt[ (syntagmatic
relation) vd;W Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. kw;bwhd;W, Xh; cWg;g[f;Fg; gjpyhf mBj nlj;jpy; tUk;
myFfSf;fpilBa cs;s cwt[. nJ mLf;F Kiw cwt[ (paradigmatic relation) vdg;gLk;.
nt;thW bkhHp myFfs; bjhlh;e;J te;Jk; xd;iw xd;W gjpyPL bra;Jk; nU tpjkhd
cwt[fis btspg;gLj;jp mtw;wpd; tUif mikg;ig xU mikg;bghGA;fhf
mikj;Jf;bfhs;fpd;wd. ve;j bkhHpayifa[k; Bkw;brhd;d fplf;if epiy cwthYk; brA;Fj;J
epiy cwthYk; eph;zapf;fyhk;. nJ tiuglj;jpy; xU g[s;spapd; nUg;gplj;ij x-mr;ira[k; y-
mr;;ira[k; bfhz;L eph;zapg;gij xf;Fk;.
cWg;gikt[ cwt[
mLf;F f l k;
Kiw cwt[ f l y;
f l d;
cWg;gikt[ cwt[
mLf;F ghy; MBuhf;fpaj;jpw;F ey;yJ
Kiw cwt[ Bjd; MBuhf;fpaj;jpw;F ey;yJ
gHk; MBuhf;fpaj;jpw;F ey;yJ
bgah;fs;, tpidfs;, bgauilfs; kw;Wk; tpidailfs; vd;w brhy;tFg;g[fs; mf;Ffis
cUthf;Ffpd;wJ. ne;j brhy;tFg;g[fs; xU thf;fpaj;ij cUthf;f Btz;o xd;W Brh;f;fg;gLk;
tHp mtw;wpd; cWg;gikt[ cwthFk;.
7
mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; mog;gilapy; xypadpay;, cUgdpay;, kw;Wk; bjhlhpay; epiyfspy;
Tw;Wfspd; bkhHpapay; Ma;it gpd;tUkhW tiu glj;jpy; fhl;lyhk;:
bjhlhpay; cl;TW
cUbghypadpay; thptothf;fk;
cUgdpay; cl;TW
xypadpay; thptothf;fk;
xypadpay; cl;TW
Kf;fpaj; jut[
1.4. mz;ik cWg;gha;t[
jphpg[fshYk; Mf;fj;jhYk; cUthf;fg;gl;l brhw;fshy; Md fl;LkhdA;fis
thpirg;gLj;jpg; bghpa fl;LkhdA;fshf Mf;Fk; bfhs;iffisj; bjhlhpay; vdyhk;.
cUgdpaYf;Fk; bjhlhpaYf;Fk; nilapy; cs;s BtWghL vg;BghJk; bjspthf nUg;gjpy;iy.
thf;fpa tiffs;
(brhy; tFg;g[fspd; bjhlh;r;rpfs;)
brhw;fs ; gjpyPL brhy; tFg;g[fs;
cUgd; gjpyPL cUgdpay; tFg;g[fs;
Btw;Wepiy
cUg[
xypad;fs; gjpyPL xypad; tFg;g[fs;
Btw;Wepiy
xypfs;
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rpy bkhHpfspy; ne;j BtWghL bjspthft[k; rpytw;wpy; bjsptw;Wk; nUf;Fk;. bjhlhpay;
Ma;t[f;F mog;gilahf miktJ mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;thFk;. nt;tha;t[ xUthf;fpaj;jpy;
beUA;fpa cwtpy; tUk; brhw;fs; mz;ikg;gl;LtUk; vd;w vjph;ghh;gpd; mog;gilapy;
mike;jJ vdyhk;. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpd; Behf;fk; xt;bthU Tw;iwa[k; kw;Wk; xt;bthU
cWg;iga[k; TLjyhd RBal;irj; bjhlh;r;rpfshf Ma;tJjhd;. xU fl;L cUgdpay;
epiyapy; cUgd;fshft[k; bjhlhpay; epiyapy; brhw;fshft[k; bghUs; jUk; rpW myFfshfg;
gphpf;fg;gl;L tpisa[k; cWg;g[fs; nWjp cWg;g[fs; vdg;gLk;. mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;tpd;
bray;ghL vt;tpjkhd Tw;Wfs; tUfpd;wd vd;gij tpsf;Ftjy;y. nf;Tw;Wfs; jug;gl;l gpd;
mtw;wpd; cWg;g[fs; ahit vd tpthpg;gJjhd;. thf;fpaA;fspy; goepiy mikg;g[
nUf;fpd;wJ. mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;t[ thf;fpaA;fspy; vt;thW myFfs; goepiyapy;
mikfpd;wd, mjhtJ vt;thW xt;bthU fPH;epiy cWg;g[fSk; cah;epiy cWg;g[fspd;
ghfkhf mikfpd;wJ vd;gijf; fz;lwpa cjt[fpd;wJ. ne;jr; bray;Kiwfs; g[S]k; |gPy;lhy;
bjhlA;fg;gl;L igf;fhy; Kd;Bdw;wg;gl;L bty;!;rhy; Kiwahf mikf;fg;gl;lJ.
nJ thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; brhw;fSf;fpilBa brhy;yj;jf;f cwt[ cz;L vd;gija[k;
mz;ikg;gl;l brhw;fs; mz;ikg;glhj brhw;fisf; fhl;oYk; TLjy; cwit btspg;gLj;Jk;
vd;w vjph;ghh;gpd; Bky; mike;jjhFk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ij vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;
mA;Bf trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; jd; kfd; tPl;ow;Fr; brd;wpUf;fpwhh;.
brhw;fisf; Fwpg;gplj; jf;f tpjj;jpy; FGkk; bra;jy; fl;Lkhdk; my;yJ fl;L vdg;gLk;. ehk;
ghh;j;j vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; KGf;TWk; fl;LkhdkhFk;. bghpafl;Lkhdj;jpy; mlA;Fk; brhy;Byh
fl;LkhdBkh mjd; cWg;ghFk;. mA;Bf trpf;Fk;, tajhd kdpjh; vd;gd mA;Bf trpf;Fk;
tajhd kdpjh; vd;w fl;Lkhdj;jpd; cWg;g[fshFk;. tajhd, kdpjh; vd;gd tajhd kdpjh;
vd;w fl;Lkhdj;jpd; cWg;g[fshFk;. xUfl;Lkhdj;ij cUthf;Fk; nU cWg;g[fspy; xd;W
mz;ik cWg;ghFk;.
1.4.1. gjpyPL Kiw (substitutability)
mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;tpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ghpBrhjid gjpyPL KiwahFk;. gjpyPl;L
Kiwjhd; xU thf;fpaj;ijBah bjhliuBah mz;ik cWg;g[fshfg; gFj;jhaj;
Jizg[hpfpd;wJ.
uh$htpd; kfDila tPL
bjdhypuhkDila tPL
mtDila tPL
Bkw;fz;l bjhlh;fspy; uh$htpd; kfDila, bjdhypuhkDila vd;gd bkhj;jj; bjhlh;fspd;
mjhtJ fl;LkhdA;fspd; cWg;g[fshFk; vd;w cz;ik uh$htpd; kfDila,
bjdhypuhkDila vd;gtw;iw mtDila vd;w xU brhy;yhy; gjpyPL bra;ayhk; vd;w
rhj;jpaj;jhy; cWjpg;gLk;. bjdhypuhkdDila tPL vd;gJ cWg;g[. bjdhypuhkDila
vd;gjd; mz;ik cWg;g[fs; bjdhyp, uhkDila vd;gdty;y, bjhdhypuhkd;, cila
vd;gd. vdBt uhkDila vd;gJ ne;j thf;fpaj;jpd; cWg;gy;y. fl;Lkhd mikg;bghGA;F
kw;Wk; cWg;g[ tFg;g[ (constituent class) fUj;JU mog;gilapy; jhd; mz;ik cWg;g[
tiuaWf;fg;gLk;.
9
1.4.2. cWg;g[ tFg;g[
TLjy; mst[ xd;iwbahd;W gjpyPL bra;fpw Kiwiaf; fhl;Lfpd;w xBu fl;Lkhd
mikg;bghGA;fpy; tUfpw cWg;g[fspd; VjhtJ tFg;g[ cWg;g[ tFg;g[ vdg;gLk;. gpd;tUk;
thf;fpaA;fis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
v.fh.
mA;Bf trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; vd; je;ij
mth; vd; je;ij
ehd; mA;Bf trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjiug; ghh;j;Bjd;
mA;Bf trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; vd;gJk; mth; vd;gJk; xBu cWg;g[ tFg;gpy; mlA;Fgit.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis Ma;Bthk;. cWg;g[ tFg;g[k; fl;Lkhd mikg;bghGA;Fk; cs;Szh;t[
mog;gilapyhd mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;t[f;F kpf cfe;jJ. cWg;g[ tFg;gpd; mA;fA;fs;
gy;BtWgl;l ePsA;fspy; gy; BtWgl;l mf mikg;gpy; tUk;. nJjhd; cWg;g[ tFg;ig
gaDs;sjhf;Ffpd;wJ. nJ ePz;l thf;fpaA;fis fl;Lkhd mikg;bghGA;fhy; tpsf;f
mDkjpf;fpd;wJ. rpwpa thf;fpaA;fis tpsf;fg; gads;sjha; mikfpd;wJ.
xU bkhHp cWg;g[ tFg;g[fspd; vspa mikg;igg;bghGA;iff; bfhz;ouhky;
JiztFg;g[fs;, Jiz Jiz tFg;g[fs; vd mikg;bghGA;iff; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. mLj;jLj;J
tUfpd;w xt;bthU Jiz gFg;g[k; (subdivision) nWjptiu bray;gLk;. nt;thW ekf;F
tFg;g[fspd; goepiya[k; JiztFg;g[fspd; gy epiyfSk; fpilf;Fk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis
vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
ehd; mtiug; ghh;j;Bjd;
*ehd; me;j kdpjiug; BghBdd;
*ehd; me;j kdpjiu te;Bjd;
ehk; nA;F nUtifg;gl;l tpidtFg;g[fisg; ghh;f;fpBwhk;: brag;gL bghUs; Fd;wpa tpid,
brag;gLbghUs; Fd;wh tpid. xU bkhHpa[Wg;g[ tFg;g[ xGA;FKiiaf; bfhz;oUf;fpwJ vd;W
TWtjijtpl tFg;g[fs;, cs;tFg;g[fs; vd xGA;FKiwiaf; bfhz;Ls;sJ vdf; Twyhk;.
nt;thwhf ekf;F tFg;g[fspd; goepiya[k; cs;tFg;g[fspd; goepiya[k; nUf;fpd;wd.
1.4.3. mz;ik cWg;g[fshfg; gphpg;gjd; mstPL
mz;ik cWg;g[fshfg; gphpg;gjd; mstPLfshf mfg;gw;whR, mfkhWghL,
Rje;jpuj;jd;ik vd;gdtw;iwf; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
mfg;gw;whR
xU bjhh;r;rp ve;j mst[f;F xU myfhfr; bray;gLfpd;wJ vd;gij mfg;gw;whR
(internal cohesion) vdyhk;. xt;bthU bjhlh;r;rpa[k; mjd; tphpt[fspd; gFjpfshf Mag;gl
Btz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
10
khtl;l Ml;rpah; me;jf; fl;olj;ijj; jpwe;J itj;jhh;
jhBkhjud; mijr; bra;jhh;
ne;j nU thf;fpaA;fspYk; tUif rYif (privilege of occurrence) xd;whFk;. xU fl;od;
cWg;gfspy; xd;W tUk; nlj;jpByBa tUk; toit mf;fl;L je;jhy; me;jf; fl;L cs;tl;lf;
fl;L vdg;gLk;.
v.fh.
khtl;l Ml;rpah;
xU fl;od; ve;j cWg;g[f;Fk; KGj;bjhlh; tUk; nlj;jpy; tUif rYif ny;yhtpl;lhy; mJ
btsptl;lf; fl;L vdg;gLk;.
gy cWg;g[fs; Brh;e;j xU fl;L tUk; nlA;fspy; mjd; cWg;g[fSk; tuf;TLkhdhy;
mJ Tl;Lepiy cs;tl;lf;fl;L (endocentric construction) vdg;gLk;.
xU bghpa mHfhd kyh; g{j;jJ
xU bghpa kyh; g{j;jJ
Kyh; g{j;jJ
njpypUe;J khWgl;L tUtJ btsptl;Lf;fl;L vdg;gLk;.
mtd; Btfkhf Xodhd;
*mtd; Btfkhf
mfkhWghL (internal diversity)
njd; go xt;bthU mz;ik cWg;g[k; TLjy; mf khWghL mikg;g[s;s gjpyPL
myFfshy; gjpyPL bra;ag;gLk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf me;j miwapy; vd;gij me;j miw, ny;
vdg; gFf;fyhk;. Vbdd;why; me;j miw kpf TLjy; mfkhWghL cs;s gjpyPLbra;a
naYk; bjhlh;r;rpfspd; tFg;igr; (mjhtJ bgah;j;bjhliur;) rhh;e;jJ.
Rje;jpuj; jd;ik
mz;ik cWg;g[fs; mtw;wpd; tUif Kiwapy; xd;Wf;bfhd;W Rje;jpuj;jd;ik
cilajha; nUf;fBtz;Lk;. mjhtJ mz;ik cWg;g[fs; gy R{Hy;fspy; kw;Wk; fl;Lfspy; gy
mikg;g[fspy; tUk;. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; me;j miw vd;gjd; Rje;jpuj;jd;ikahd
tUifia btspg;gLj;Jk;.
me;j miwapy; btspr;rk; ny;iy
mts; me;j miwiar; Rj;jk; bra;jhs;
me;j miw mtd; cilaJ
1.4.4. gy; mz;ik cWg;g[fs;
11
bkhHpapay; mikg;g[fs; bghJthf Nhpizahdit (binary). mjhtJ nU TWfshfg;
ghpf;fj;jfit. Mdhy; xU cWg;gpy; K}d;W bjhlh;r;rpfs; nUe;jhy; (mnc) mtw;iw mn/c
my;yJ m/nc vd;W Ma;tjw;Fj; jFe;j fhuzA;fs; ny;yhjpUe;jhy; mit K}d;whfg;
gphpf;fg;glBtz;Lk;. mJ BghyBt ehd;F cWg;g[fs; cs;s fl;il nuz;lhf my;yJ
K}d;whf Ma naytpy;iy vd;why; ehd;fhf Mag;glBtz;Lk;. xU fl;il cUthf;Fk;
nuz;ow;FBkw;gl;l mz;ik cWg;g[fs; gy; mz;ik cWg;g[fs; (multiple ICs) vdg;gLk;.
gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; uhkDk; fpU&;zDk; uhija[k; vd;w bjhlh; xBu Beuj;jpy; K}d;whfg;
gphpf;fg;gl;L Mag;glBtz;Lk;.
v.fh.
uhkDk; fpU&;zDk; uhija[k;
nJBghyBt BruBrhH ghz;oah; te;jdh; vd;w thf;fpaj;ija[k; gpd;tUkhWjhd; gphpj;jha
naYk;.
Bru BrhH ghz;oah; te;jdh;
Bru, BrhH, ghz;oah; vd;w K}d;WBk xU epiyapy; te;J vGthahfr; bray;gLfpd;wd.
nUikg; gFg;gha;t[ bra;a nayhJ. nJBghy; if fhy; Kfk; fGtpdhd; vd;gjpYk; if,
fhy;, Kfk; vd;gdit xBuepiyapy; te;J brag;gLbghUshfr; bray;gLtjhy; mtw;iwa[k;
K}d;whfg; gFf;f Btz;LBkad;wp nuz;lhfg; gFf;fyhfhJ.
1.4.5. bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[fs;
cWg;g[fs; xd;iwbahd;W bjhlh;e;J tUtjhy;jhd; mz;ik cWg;g[fs; vdg; bgah;
bgw;wd. Mdhy; rpy R{Hy;fspy; mz;ikg;gl naYk; cWg;g[fs; mz;ikg;glhJ tUk;.
mjhtJ vg;bghGJk; xU bkhHpf;Tiw nuz;L myFfshfg; gFf;f nayhJ. Vbdw;why;
gpzzg;g[s;s TWfs; bjhlh;r;rpahy; gphpf;fgl;oUf;Fk;. nj;bjhliu bjhluh mz;ik
cWg;g[fs; vd;gh;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
mtUf;F mtida[k; mtisa[k; gw;wpj; bjhpahJ
mtUf;F midg;gw;wpa[k; mtisg;gw;wpa[k; bjhpahJ
Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; bjhpahJ vd;gJ mtidg; gw;wp, mtisg; gw;wp vd;w nuz;ow;Fk;
bghJthdjhf (mz;ikg;gl;ljhf) mika[k;. ne;j cz;ikia mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;tpy;
fhl;l nayhJ. MA;fpyj;jpy; tUk; gpd;tUtd Bghd;w tpdhthf;fpaA;fs; bjhluh mz;ik
cWg;g[f;fSf;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfshf mika[k;. MA;fpyj;jpy; xU tif tpdh thf;fpaA;fs;
Jiz tpidia vGtha;f;F Kd;dh; efh;j;Jtjhy; bgwg;gLk;.
He is a boy
Is he a boy?
12
is vd;w Jiz tpidiaj; bjhlh;e;J jhd; a boy vd;w epug;gp tuBtz;Lk;. Mdhy;
tpdhthf;faj;jpy; ne;j mz;ikj; jd;ik ny;yhJ Bgha; tpLfpd;wJ.
1.4.6. fl;Lkhd xUBghd;ik
xBu jdpkA;fshy; Md Mdhy; BtWgl;l fl;Lkhd mikg;bghGA;Fs;s kw;Wk;
BtWgl;l mz;ik cWg;g[ mikg;g[fs; cs;s nuz;L my;yJ mjw;F Bkw;gl;l
fl;LkhdA;fspd; cwt[/bjhlh;g[ fl;Lkhd xUBghd;ik (constructional homonymy) vd
miHf;fg;gLk;. fPH;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;L fl;Lkhd xUBghd;ikia tpsf;Fk;.
giHa tPl;Lr; rhkhd;
giHa tPl;Lr; rhkhd;
giHa vd;gJ tPl;ow;Bfh tPl;L rhkhDf;Bfh milahf te;J bghUs; kaf;fk; jUfpd;wJ. nJ
BghyBt mHfhd rpWkpapd; bghk;ik gpd;tUk; gFg;gha;tpy; je;Js;sJ Bghy; bghUs; kaf;fk;
fhl;Lk;.
mHfhd rpWkpapd; bghk;ikfs;;
mHfhd rpWkpapd; bghk;ikfs;
fl;L xUBghd;ik my;yJ kaf;fk; tifg;ghLfspd; braw;ghL BtWghl;lhByh goepiy
mikg;g[ BtWghl;lhByh (mjhtJ milg;g[f; Fwpaply; BtWghl;lhByh) my;yJ
nuz;odhYBkh Vw;glyhk;. fPH;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;L nijj; bjspt[gLj;Jk;.
mtd; igad;
mtd; xU igad; mtDila igad;
1.4.7. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpd; khjphpfs;
mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ bjhlhpay;, cUgdpay;, xypadpay; vd;w vy;yh epiyfspYk;
bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpy; gy khjphpfs; cs;sd.
1. milahsg;gLj;jhjg; bgl;og;glk;
vd; tPl;Lf; Fg; gf;fj; ny; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
vd; tPl;ow; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
vd; tPl;ow;Fg;
13
vd; tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;
vd; tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy;
vd;tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk;
vd; tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh;
vd; tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
2. milg;g[f;Fwpg; glk;
vd; tPl;ow; Fg; gf;fj; ny; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
3. fpisg;glk;
thf;fpag; gFj;jha;itg; gpd;tUkhW goepiy mikg;gpy; mz;ik cWg;g[fs;
fl;Lf;fis xd;Wf;Fs; xd;whf miktijg; gpd;tUkhW fpisg;glj;jpy; fhl;lyhlk;.
thf;fpak;
vd;tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
vd; tPl;ow;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh; bghpa ftpqh;
vd; tPl;Lf;Fg; gf;fj;jpy; trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh;
vd; tPl;Lf;Fg; gf;fj; ny;
vd; tPl;Lf;Fg; gf;fj;
vd; tPl;Lf; Fg;
vd; tPl;Lf;
4. milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;l glk;
nWjp epiyapy; tUk; mz;ik cWg;g[fisr; brhy;tifg;ghl;ow;fhft[k; mtw;why;
tpisa[k;; fl;Lfisj; bjhlh;fshff; bfhz;Lk; Fwpg;gPL bra;jhy; gpd;tUkhW
milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;l glk; tpisa[k;.
14
thf;fpak;
bgah;j; bjhlh; bgah;j;bjlh;
bgabur;rj; bjhlh; bgah;j; bjhlh; bgauil bgah;
Btw;Wikj; bjhlh; bgabur;rk; bgauil bgah; bghpa ftpqh;
gpd;DUg[j; bjhlh; Btw;Wik cUg[ trpf;Fk; tajhd kdpjh;
Btw;Wikj; bjhlh; gpd;DUg[ ny;
bgah;j; bjhlh; Btw;Wik cUg[ gf;fk;
mil bgah; cf;F
vd; tPL
1.4.8. mz;ik cWg;gha;tpd; tiuaiw vy;iy my;yJ rpf;fy;fs;
gpd;tUk; bra;jpfs; mz;ik cwg;gha;tpd; tiuaiw vy;iyia btspg;gLj;Jtd.
1. Kjypy; xU thf;fpaj;ij/bjhliu mz;ik cWg;g[fshf gFg;gJ mt;thf;fpa myFfis
bjhpe;Jbfhs;Sjy;/tifg;gLj;jy; vd;w Kaw;rpf;F Kd;dBu mjhtJ mz;ik cWg;g[fis
vGtha;, brag;gLbghUs;, bgah;j;bjhlh; vd milahsg;gLj;Jtjw;F Kd;dBu bra;ag;gl
Btz;Lk;. nJ mikg;g[bkhHpapay; Ma;tpd; Kf;fpa mwptpay; ghh;itahFk;. Mdhy;
cz;ikr; bray;ghl;oy; mz;ik cWg;g[ gFg;gha;t[ myFfspd; nyf;fz epiyiaj; jGtpBa
bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, vy;yhf; FHe;ijfSk; kiyapy; Vwpd vd;w thf;fpaj;jpd;
mikg;g[ uhkd; Btiy bra;fpwhd; vd;w khjphpiaj; jGtpj;jhd; Mag;gLfpd;wJ vd;W
Bjhd;wpdhYk;, nuz;Lk; kug[ tifg;ghLfshd vGtaha;, gadpiy vd;w tifg;ghl;ilf;
bfhz;Ljhd; Mag;gLfpd;wJ.
2. cWg;g[fs; bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[fshf tuyhk; vd;W ghh;j;Bjhk;. (ghf;f bjhluh
mz;ik cWg;g[fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk;.) mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[fspd;
cwit tpsf;f nayhJ.
3.mz;ik cWg;gha;tpy; thf;fpaj;jpy; ny;yhj Mdhy; R{Hyhy; bgwf;Toa myFfisf;
fhl;l nayhJ.
(eP) ehd; tUk; tiuf; fhj;jpU
15
eP vd;gijg; g[hpe;J bfhs;s naYk; Mdhy; mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;tpy; fhl;l nayhJ.
4.bra;tpid thf;fpak;-brag;ghl;L tpidthf;fpak;, cWjpthf;fpak;-vjph;kiw thf;fpak;,
bra;jpthf;fpak;-tpdhthf;fpak; ntw;wpw;F nilBa cs;s cwt[fis mz;ik cWg;g[ Ma;t[
fhl;lhJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf gpd;tUk; thf;fpa nizfSf;fpilBa cs;s cwt[fis mz;ik
cWg;gha;t[ fhl;lhJ.
uhkd; ghk;igf; bfhd;whd; : ghk;g[ uhkdhy; bfhy;yg;gl;lJ
mtd; nij bra;thd; : mtd; nijr; bra;akhl;lhd;
mtd; gof;fpwhd; : mtd; vd;w bra;fpwhd;
5.thf;fpaA;fis mz;ik cWg;g[fshfg; gFg;gJ kl;Lk; thf;fpaikg;igg; gw;wp rhpahd
tpsf;fj;ijj; jUtjpy;iy. m{dhy; kug[ mog;gilapyhd mZFKiwapy; nt;thW mz;ik
cWg;g[fshfg; gphpg;gJ kpft[k; mog;gilahdJ. mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ vGtha;, gadpiy,
brag;gLbghUs; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; brhw;fspd; bray;ghl;oid tpsf;fhJ.
6. thf;fpaA;fspy; brhw;fs; eilapay;, ftdf;Ftpg;g[ vd;w epiyfspy; nlkhw;wk; bgWk;.
nj;jifa BtWghLfis mz;ik cWg;gha;thy; tpsf;f nayhJ.
mts; khA;fha; jpd;whs;.
khA;fha; mts; jpd;whs;.
BkYk; thf;fpaj;jpy; tpidailfs; tpidf;F mz;ikg;gl;Lk; thf;fpa KjypYk; tuyhk;.
Bew;W fhiyapy; mtd; kJiuf;Fr; brd;whd;.
mtd; kJiuf;F Bew;W fhiyapy; brd;whd;
mts; tPl;il Behf;fp bkJthf ele;jhd;.
bkJthf mts; tPl;il Behf;fp ele;jhs;
7. bghJthf mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ brhw;fspd; Ma;tpw;Fg;gpd; jhd; cUgd;fspd; gFg;gha;itr;
bra;a Btz;Lk; vd vjph;ghh;g;Bghk;. Mdhy; brhw;fspd; gFg;gha;tpw;F Kd;dBu xl;Lfis
gFg;gha;t[ bra;a Btz;oa R{Hy;fs; gy tUk;. vLj;Jfhl;lhf me;j tajhd kdpjiu vd;w
fl;il gFg;ifapy;, me;j tajhd kdpjh;, I vd;W Kjypy; gFj;j gpd;dh; jhd; me;j tajhd,
kdpjh; vd;W gFg;glBtz;Lk;.
9. vt;tpj nyf;fz mwpt[k; nd;wp ehk; mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ bra;jhy; mJ ek;ik mjpf Juk;
bfhz;L bry;yhJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; gpd;tUk; MA;fpyj;bjhluf;Fg; Fiwe;jJ K}d;W
bghUs;Bfhz;ikfs; tUk;.
Beuk; gwf;fpwJ
Time files Beug; g{r;rpfs;
g{r;rpfspd; Beuj;ijf; fzf;fpL
Mdhy; mz;ik cWg;gha;t[ xBu gFg;gha;itj;jhd; mDkjpf;Fk;;: Time | flies.
16
1.5. bjhluikg;g[r; rl;lfk;
mz;ika[Wg;g[ gFg;gha;t[ gFepiy mog;gilapyhdJ. mog;gil bkhHpayFfisf;
fhz;gjw;fhf mwptpay; fz;Lg;gpog;g[r; bray;Kiw (discovery procedure) bray;ghl;lhy;
cUthdJ. thf;fpaA;fis nuz;L mz;ik cWg;g[fshft[k; xt;bthU mz;ik cWg;iga[k;
BkYk; rpW cWg;g[fshft[k; gFg;gJ ne;jf; Bfhl;ghl;od; bfhs;ifahFk;. rpy bkhHpapayhh;
thf;fpaj;ijg; bghpa myfhff; bfhz;L BkypUe;J fPH;Behf;fp Ma;thh;fs;. rpyh; fPHpUe;J
Bky;Behf;fp Ma;thh;fs;. mz;ik cWg;g[ milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;lhy; kugpyf;fzg; gFj;Jf;
Fwpj;jy; BghyBt mika[k;. mjhtJ thf;fpaj;ij nyf;fz tifg;ghLfshfg;g gFj;jy;
epfGk;. kug[ mog;gilapyhd thf;fpag; gFg;gha;t[k; gFj;Jf;Fwpj;jYk; bjhlh; mikg;g[
nyf;fzk; vdg;glyhk;. nt;tpyf;fzk; gpd;tUk; Bfs;tpfSf;F gpd;tUk; Bfs;tpfSf;F tpil
jUfpd;wJ:
1. xU thf;fpaj;jpd; cWg;g[fs; ahit
2. mit vt;thW xGA;F gLj;jg;gl;Ls;;sd
kugpyf;fzA;fs; thf;fpaA;fisa[k; bjhlh;fisa[k; brhw;fisa[k; tpsf;f gpd;tUk; Tw;Wfis
jUfpd;wd.
1. xU thf;fpaj;jpy; bgah;j;bjhlUk; (moun phrase) tpidj; bjhlUk; (verb phrase)
mlA;Fk;.
2. xU bgah;j;bjhlhpy; xU bgah; kl;LBkh milbfhsp mil (determiner) + bgah;
vd;gBjh tUk;
3. xU tpidj; bjlhpy; bgah; kl;LBkh tpid kl;LBkh bgah; + Jiz tpid
vd;gBjh Btw;Wikj; bjhlh; + tpid vd;gBjh tUk;.
4. gpd;DUg[j; bjhlhpy; Btw;Wikj; bjhlUk; gpd;DUg[k; tUk;.
5. Btw;Wikj; bjhlhpy; bgah;j; bjhlUk; Btw;Wik cUg[k; tUk;.
jpl;ltl;lkw;w rpf;fdky;yhj nk;khjphpahd tpsf;ff; TWfs; jUtjw;Fg; gjpyhfr; rpy kug[
kw;Wk; FwpaPL mog;gilapy; xU FG Mf;f tpjpfs; (generation rules) my;yJ tphpj;bjGtpjpfs;
(rewriting rules) juyhk;. nk;khjphpahd tpjpfisj; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; (phrase structure rules)
vdyhk;. bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; gpd;tUtJBghy; bghJ tpjpj; jpl;lj;ijf; (rule schema)
bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
m M
mjhtJ ‘m’ vd;w FwpaPl;il (symbol) ‘M’ vd;w FwpaPlhf tphpj;bjGjyhk;. tphpj;bjGJk;
bray;ghl;ilj; bjhlA;fp itg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;Jk; FwpaPl;ilj; bjhlf;ff; FwpaPL (initial symbol)
vdyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf
th bgbjh+ tpbjh
vd;w tphpj;bjGJ tpjpapy; th (thf;fpak;) vd;gJ bjhlf;ff; FwpaPL. Bkw;brhd; tpjp xU
thf;fpaj;jpy; bgah;j;bjhlUk; tpidj; bjhlUk; tUk; vd;W bjhptpf;fpd;wJ. ‘+’ vd;w FwpaPL
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gpizg;igf; (concatenation) Fwpg;gplg; gad;gLfpd;wJ. bgbjh, tpbjh vd;w g[yf;Fwpg;g[fis
(labels) tphpj;Jiuf;fBth tphpj;bjGjBth bra;ayhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf,
bgbjh mm + bg
vd;w tpjp bgbjh fZit tphpj;bjGJfpd;wJ. (milbfhsp milapy; (mm) me;j, ne;j, vd;,
cd;, mtdJ, mtsJ, mjd;, mtw;wpd; vd;gd mlA;Fk;.) fZ vd;gJ xU fpisg;glj;jpy;
xd;Bwh mjw;F Bkw;gl;l fpisfBsh btsptUk; nlkhFk;. jkpHpy; tpbjh vd;gijg;
gpd;tUkhW tphpj;J vGjyhk;.
tpbjh gpcbjh + bgbjh + tp + Jtp
gpd;DUg[j; bjhliug; gpd;tUkhW tphpj;J vGjyhk;.
gpcbjh Btbjh + gpc
Btw;Wikj; bjhlh; gpd;tUkhW tphpa[k;.
Btbjh bgbjh + Btc
nJ tiuj; je;j tpjpfisg; gpd;tUkhW fpisg; glkhfj; juyhk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh
mm bg gpcbjh Btbjh tp Jtp
Btbjh gpc bgbjh Btc
bgbjh Btc bgm bg
mm bg
ehk; Kd;dh; Twpago vt;thW cUgd;fs; vy;yhk; Brh;e;J brhw;fshft[k; brhw;fbsy;yhk;
Brh;e;J bjhlh;fshft[k; bjhlh;fs; vy;yhk; Brh;e;J thf;fpaA;fshft[k; cUthf;fk; bgWfpd;wd
vd;Wk; vt;thW thf;fpaA;fs; bjhlh;fshft[k; bjhlh;fs; brhw;fshft[k; brhw;fs;
cUgd;fshft[k; Mag;gLfpd;wd vd;Wk; fhl;l gy tHpfs; nUf;fpd;wd vd;W ghh;j;Bjhk;.
kl;Lkd;wp mit vt;thW bgl;o tifg; glj;jhYk; (g[yf;Fwpg;g[fSld; my;yJ g[yf;Fwpg;g[
ny;yhky;) milg;g[f;Fwpg;g[fshYk; (g[yf;Fwpg;g[ld; my;yJ g[yf;Fwpg;g[ ny;yhky;)
fpisg;glj;jhYk; vt;thW btspg;gLj;jg; gl;oUf;fpd;wJ vd;W ghh;j;Bjhk;. tphpj;bjhGJ tpjpfs;
Bkw;brhd;d bra;jpfis BtWtHpapy; btspg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfSf;Fg; gpw btspg;ghl;L totA;fisf; fhl;oYk; TLjy; mDTyk;
cz;L. Kjyhtjhfg; g[yf;Fwpg;g[fs; tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfSf;Fs;BsBa mike;Js;sd.
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nuz;lhtjhf xt;bthU tpjpjisa[k; (bjhlf;f tpjp jtph;j;J) Vw;fdBt Twg;gl;l
tpjpia/tpjpfis nlk;bgah;f;fBth ePl;lBth tphpj;bjGjBth bra;aj;jf;f tz;zk; thpir
Kiwg;go mLf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf gpd;tUk; tpjpfis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
1.th bgbjh + tpbjh
2.tpbjh gpcbjh + Btbjh + tp
3.gpcbjh Btbjh + gpc
4.Btbjh bgbjh + Btc
5.bgbjh mm + bg
Kjy; tpjpapy; nuz;lhtJ, K}d;whtJ, ehd;fhtJ Ie;jhtJ vd xd;wd; gpd; xd;whf tpjpfisg;
gad;gLj;jpdhy; KiwBa gpd;tUkhW tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfs; fpilf;Fk;.
th bgbjh+ tpbjh
th bgbjh + gpcbjh + Btbjh + tp
th bgbjh+ Btbjh + gpc + Btbjh + tp
th bgbjh+ bgbjh + Btc + gpc + bg.bjh + Btc + tp
th mm + bg + mm + bg + Btc+ gpc + mm + bg + Btc + tp
vdBt tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfs; gpw tot btspg;ghl;iltpl rf;jp tha;e;jit.
tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfisf; xU fpisg;glkhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;. xU fpisg;glj;jpy;
xd;Bwh mjw;FBkByh fpisfs; tuyhk; my;yJ fpisfspd;wp tuyhk;. fpisapy; fpistpLk;
nlj;jpy; tUk; xt;bthU g[s;spa[k; fpistpLk; fZ vdg;gLk;. fpistpLk; fZ
xt;bthUd;Wf;Fk; g[yf;Fwpg;g[ jug;gl;oUf;Fk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, fpistpLk; fZthd bgbjh
vd;gij gpd;tUkhW btspg;gLj;jyhk;.
bgbjh
mm bg
me;j kdpjh;
fpistplhj fZf;fSk; cz;L.
bgbjh
bg
uhkd;
xU bjhlUf;F Bky; tUk; my;yJ mj;bjhliu mjpfhuk; bra;a[k; g[yf;Fwpg;g[ bra;ag;gl;l
fZ nWjpa[wh fZ (non-terminal node) vdg;gLk;. mf;fZit BkYk; tphpj;bjGjyhk;.
bgbjh, tpbjh, Btbjh, gpcbjh vd;gd nWjpa[whf;fZf;fs; MFk;. (bly;lh) FwpaPL jtpu
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xd;Wkpy;yhj fZ nWjpf;fZ vdg;gLk;. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;L ne;jf; fiyr;brhy;iyj;
bjspt[bra;a[k;.
th (bjhlf;ff; FwpaPL)
bgbjh (nWjpa[wh fZ) tpbjh (nWjpa[wh fZ)
gpcbjh Btbjh tp Jtp
mm bgm bg
Btbjh gpc bgbjh Btc
bgbjh Btc mm bg
bgm bg
bgbjh, tpbjh, gpcbjh, Btbjh, vd;gd nWjpa[whf;fZf;fshFk;. bly;lh moapy; tUk;
mm, bgm, gpc, Btc, tp, Jtp vd;gd nWjpf; fZf;fshFk;. ne;j bly;lhf;fs;
mfuhjpr;brhw;fshy; nlk; bgah;f;fg;gLk;.
mm bgm bg mm bgm bg Btc tp
me;j ey;y kdpjh; xU caukhd igad; Ig; ghh;j;jhh;
bjhlh;r;rpahd nWjpf; Bfhitfs; xU thf;fpaj;jpd; nWjp cWg;g[fshf mika[k;.
tifg;g[yf;Fwpg;g[ nUtifg;gLk;:
1. fl;lhag; g[yf;Fwpg;g[
3. tpUg;g[g; g[yf;Fwpg;g[
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, MA;fpy bkhHpapy; bgah;j;bjhlhpy; mm vz;zf;Toa xUikg;g bgah;Kd;
fl;lahkha; tUk;. Mdhy; bgauil tpUg;ghfj;jhd; tUk;. tpUg;g[g; g[yf;Fwpg;g[fis
milg;g[f; Fwpf;Fs; je;J ne;j Btwghl;ilf; fhl;lyhk;.
1. mm (bgm) bg
the old man
2. mm (vz;m) (bgm) bg
me;j nuz;L ey;y igad;fs;
tifg;ghLfisj; bjhpt[ bra;tjpy; kPir milg;g[f;Fwpfs; tpUg;g[fisa[k; bjhpt[isa[k; fhl;lg;
gad;gLk;.
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naw;bgah;
bgbjh khw;Wg;bgah;
mm + bg
bgbjh
tpbjh gpcbjh + tp
bgbjh + tp
tp
xU ftpqd;
uhkd; xU tpLjpapd; Kd; epw;fpwhd;
fpU&;zidg; ghh;j;jhd;
ghLfpwhd;
Bkw;fz;l fUj;Jr;rhay;fisg; gad;gLj;jp jkpH; nyf;fzj;jpd; xU gFjpf;F bjhluikg;g[
tpjpfs; cUthf;fyhk;.
th bgbjh + tpbjh
tpbjh bgbjh + (gpcbjh) + tp + Jtp
gpcbjh Btbjh + gpc
Btbjh bgbjh + Btc
bgbjh mm + (bgm) + bg
bg igad;, ghk;g[, kdpjh;, kuk;, Bki$
Jtp tpL, Ko, nU, Btz;L, Bgh
tp bfhy;, btl;L, ghh;, it, th, Bgh
bgm tajhd, nsikahd, ndpikahd
gpc gf;fj;jpy;, Bky;, fPH;, moapy;
Btc I, My;, F, ny;
Bkw;brhd;d bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; (phrase structure grammar) gpd;tUk; jkpH; thf;fpaA;fis
cUthf;Fk;.
mm bg mm bg Btc tp Jtp
me;jg; igad; xU ghk;g[ If; bfhd;W tpl;lhd;
mm bgm bg bg Btc tp Jtp
me;j tajhd kdpjh; kuk; I btl;lg; Bghdhh;
mm bgm bg mm bg Btc gpc tp
me;j mHfhd bgz; jd; tPL I Behf;fp ele;jhs;
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Mdhy; Bkw;brhd;d tpjpfs; gpd;tUk; bghUsw;w thf;fpaA;fisa[k; cUthf;Fk;.
*Bki$ me;jg; bgz;iz kuj;jpw;F mUfpy; BghdJ
*kuk; me;jg; bgz;zpw;foapy; bfhd;wJ
*Bki$ me;j tajhd kdpjiu te;jJ
*me;j ndpikahd ghk;ig itj;jhd;
Bkw;brhd;d bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfisr; R{Hy; fl;Lz;l (constext senstive) tpjpfshfkhw;wpdhy;
Kd;dh; ghh;j;j thf;fpaA;fspd; cUthf;fj;ijj; jilbra;J rpf;fiyj; jPh;f;fyhk;.
1.5.1.bjhlhpay; tifg;ghL
xU bkhHpapy; mjd; nyf;fzk; ghjpf;fhky; xd;iwbahd;W nlk; bgah;f;Fk; xU
Tl;lk; brhw;fBsh brhw;bjhlh;r;rpfBsh xU bjhlhpay; tifg;ghl;ilr; rhUk;. mJ
Vw;g[likiag; (acceptability) ghjpf;fyhk;.
me;jr; rpWkp kuj;ijg; ghh;j;jhs;
*kuk; me;jr; rpWkpiag; ghh;j;jJ
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, jiyg;ghf tUk; brhy;, bgah;r;brhy; cs;s xU brhw;fspd; bjhlh;r;rpia
(bgbjh) ve;j thf;fpaj;jpYk; xd;iwbahd;W nlk;bgah;f;fyhk;.
xU nsikahd bgz; xU tajhd kdpjiur; re;jpj;jhs;
xU tajhd kdpjh; xU nsikahd bgz;izr; re;jpj;jhh;
me;j caukhd thypgd; me;jf; Fs;skhd bgz;iz tpUk;g[fpwhd;
me;jf; Fs;skhd bgz; me;j caukhd thypgid tpUk;g[fpwhs;
xU tifg;ghL jdpr;brhw;fisf; bfhz;oUe;jhy; (bgah;, tpid, Jiztpid, bgauil,
tpidail, gpd;DUg[), mJ xU brhy; tifg;ghL vdg;gLk;. xU tifg;ghL brhw;fspd;
bjhlh;r;rpfiaf; bfhz;oUe;jhy; (xU Tl;lk; brhw;fisf; bfhzoUe;jhy;) mJ xU bjhlh;
tifg;ghL vdg;gLk;.
v.fh.
bgah;j;bjhlh; (bgbjh) – tajhd kdpjh;
tpidj;bjhlh; (tpbjh) – kuj;ij btl;lg; Bghdhh;
gpd;DUg[j;bjhlh; (gpcbjh) – Bjhl;lj;jpw;F mUfpy;
bgauilj;bjhlh; (bgmbjh – kpf ey;y, buk;g ePskhd
1.5.2. cs;tifg;ghL
xU brhy; tifg;ghl;il cs;tifg;ghL bra;ayhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, bgah;r;
brhw;fis vz;zf;Toait (countable). vz;zyhfhjit (uncountable), naw;bgah; (propernouns),
gjyPl;Lg;bgah;; (pronouns), bghJg;bgah; (common noun) vd;W cs;tifg;ghL bra;ayhk;.
cs;;tifg;ghL kugpy; ‘+’Fwp gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, igad; vd;w brhy;
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+vz;zf;ToaJ, +bghJ vd;W milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;L cs;tifg;ghL bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
Bjh;e;bjL vd;w tpid +brag;gLbghUs; Fd;whik vd;W milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;L cs;
tifg;ghL bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ.
brhy; tifg;ghL cs;tifg;ghL
igaid bg +vz;zf;ToaJ
Bjh;e;bjL tp +bghJ
el tp +brag;gLbghUs; Fd;whik
Nhpizahd tifapy; gLk; cs;tifg;ghl;L bgah;r;;brhw;fspd; vy;yh cs;shh;e;j
gz;g[f;TWfisf; (inherent) fhl;lg; BghJkhdjy;y. vz;zf;ToaJk; vz;zKoahjJk; vd;w
BtWghL mUtKk; gUika[k; kw;Wk; tpyA;fpdKk; tpyA;fy;yh ndKk; vd;w BtWghLfisf;
fle;J bry;fpd;wJ. vdBt ehk; BtWghLfisf; fle;j tifg;ghL bra;aBtz;Lk;. kl;Lkd;wp
gyghpkhz cs;tifg;ghl;ilg; gad;gLj;j Btz;Lk;.
bg
+bghJ +bghJ
-tpyA;fpdk; +tpyA;fpdk; -vz;zf;ToaJ + vz;zf;ToaJ
-mUtk; + mUtk; -tpyA;fpdk; +tpyA;fpdk;
-kdpjtpdk; +kdpjtpdk;
gz;g[f;TWfisg; gpd;tUkhw btspg;gLj;jyhk;.
+bg +/-bghJ
+bghJ +/-vz;zf;ToaJ
-bghJ +/-tpyA;fpdk;
+tpyA;fpdk; +/-kdpjtpdk;
+kdpjtpdk; +/-vz;zf;ToaJ
-vz;zf;ToaJ +/-mUtk;
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, uhkd; vd;gij -bghJ, +tpyA;fpdk;, +kdpjtpdk; vd;;w gz;g[f;TWfshy;
milahsg;gLj;jyhk;. Bki$ vd;gij +bghJ, -tpyA;fpdk; vd;w gz;g[f;TWfshy;
milahsg;gLj;jyhk;. ne;jg; gz;g[f;TWfs; tpidfspd; cs;tFg;g[fs; vt;thW
bgah;r;brhw;fispd; Bjh;t[fisf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wd vd;gjijf; fhl;lj; Bjitg;gLk;.
me;j kdpjh; me;j Bkiriag;g ghh;j;jhh;.
*me;j Bkir me;j kdpjiug; ghh;j;jJ.
ghh; vd;w tpd +kdpjtpdk; vd;W milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;l bgah;r;brhy;iy Btz;Lk;.
1.5.3. brhw;brhUfy; tpjpfs;
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bgah;r;brhw;fis mtw;wpd; kug[g; gz;g[f;TWfSf;fhfr; rpwg;gpj;jhy; bjhlhpay;
R{Hiyf; Fwpg;gpl Koa[k;. njd; bghUs; vd;dbtd;why; tifg;ghLfs; cs;tifg;ghL
bra;ag;gLtBjhL mit ve;j bjhlhpay; R{Hypy; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk; vd;gJk;
Twg;glBtz;Lk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, it vd;w tpid gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; je;Js;sJ Bghy;
vGtha; jtph;j;J xU gpd;DUg[j;bjhliua[k; xU bgah;j;bjhliua[k; Btz;Lk; vd;gijf;
fhl;lBtz;Lk;.
mtd; bgl;of;Fs; gzj;ij itj;jhd;
bfhy; vd;w tpid gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; je;Js;sJ Bghy; vGtha; jtph;j;J xU
Btw;;Wikjbjhliu kl;Lk; Btz;Lk;
mtd; me;jg; ghk;igf; bfhd;whd;
nitr; brhw;brhUfy; tpjpfs; vdg;gLk;. mjhtJ fPBH je;Js;sJ Bghy; cs;tifg;ghl;Lr;
rl;lfk; juBtz;Lk;.
it tp + g[cbjh ----
+nlk;
mjhtJ, it vd;w tpidia tpbjh-ny; (=[ ] ) gpcbjh-Ia[k; bgbjh-Ia[k; cldoahfj;
bjhlh;e;J tUk; ‘---‘ vd;w nlj;jpy; brhUf Btz;Lk; (=+).
jhkjp tp, - [bgbjh ---] vd;why; jhkjp vd;w tpidia tpbjh-ny; (=[ ] ) bgbjh-Ij;
cldoahfj; bjhlh;e;J tUk; ‘---‘ vd;w nlj;jpy; brhUf nayhJ (= -)
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;ij tifg;ghL, cs;tifg;ghL, cs;tifg;ghl;Lr; rl;lfk;
ntw;iwf; Fwpg;gpLtjd; thapyhf Bkk;gLj;;jyhk;. xU brhy; vA;F tuyhk; my;yJ vt;tplj;jpy;
brhUfg;glyhk; vd;w R{Hiyf; fhl;oj; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfisr; R{Hy; fl;Lz;litfshf
(context sensitive) khw;wyhk;.
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfis gpdtuk; tpjpahy; kWjuthf (recursive) khw;wyhk;.
bgbjh mm + (bghm) + bg + (th)
Bkw;brhd;d tpjpahy; gy bgabur;rj; bjhlh;fisg; bgbjh-ny; Brh;f;fyhk; my;yJ
nizf;fyhk;.
nth; jhd; ---- tiliar; rhg;gpl;l vypiaj; Juj;jpa g{idiaj; Juj;jpa ehia ---
moj;jth;.
tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfisg; gad;gLj;j cUthd bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; vt;tst[ EZf;fkhf
tifg;gLj;jg; gl;lhYk; mitfs; kl;Lk; cs;s nyf;fzk; bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk;
vd;Wjhd; Twg;gLk;.
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1.5.4. bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpd; tiuaiw vy;iy
gpd;tUk; bra;jpfs; bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpd; vy;iyia my;yJ FiwghLfis
tpsf;Fk;.
1.5.4.1.‘mlA;fp nU’ vd;w tpjpfspd; FiwghL
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; (kpftphpthdJ Tl) xU bkhHpapd; vy;yh tifa thf;fpaA;fisa[k;
fzpf;fhJ. xU bkhHpapd; vy;yh mikg;g[fisa[k; ‘mlA;fp nU’ vd;w Tw;why; kl;Lk;
bjspthf btspg;gLj;j nayhJ. Vbdw;why; ‘mlA;fp nU’ xUtif cwit kl;Lk;jhd;
btspg;gLj;Jk;. kdpj bkhHpapy;; cs;s thf;fpaA;fspy; BtW tifahd cwt[fs; cz;L.
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;ij tphpt[gLj;jt[k; ePl;lt[k; Kad;w Kaw;rpfs; bkhHpapd;
mikg;igg;gw;wp g[jpa bra;jpfis my;yJ tpsf;fA;fisj; jutpy;iy vd;w rhk;!;fp TWthh;.
1.5.4.2. thf;fpaA;fSf;fpilBa cs;s cwt[ bjhlh;ghd rpf;fy;
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; thf;fpa tiffSf;F nilapy; cs;s cwt[fisa[k;
thf;fpaA;fspd; my;yJ vr;rj;bjhlh;fspd; ghfA;fSf;F nilBa cs;s cwt[fisa[k;
btspg;gLj;jj; jtwptpl;lJ. nt;tif nyf;fzk; vt;thW thf;fpaA;fs; bjhlh;fshy; MdJ,
bjhlh;fs; brhw;fshy; MdJ, brhw;fs; cUgd;fshy; MdJ vd;W fhl;oaBjad;wp Tw;W
thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (v.fh. mtd; Bew;W te;jhd;) tpdhthf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (v.fh. mtd; vg;bghGJ
te;jhd;), bra;tpid thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (uhkd; ghidia cilj;jhd;) brag;ghl;Ltpid
thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (ghid uhkdhy; cilf;fg;gl;lJ), bjhpepiy thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (uhij czt[
rikj;jhs;) vjph;kiw thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (uhij czt[ rikf;ftpy;iy), Vty; thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk;
(fl;Liu vGJ) Vtypyh thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; (eP fl;Liu vGjpdha;) cs;s cwt[fisf;
fhl;ltpy;iy. bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk;. bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; fPBH je;Js;s jdp, fyit
kw;Wk; Tl;L thf;fpaA;fs; vt;thW xd;wpw;bfhd;W cwt[ bfhz;Ls;sd vd;gijf; fhl;ltpy;iy.
uhij rhg;gpl;lhs;. gpd;dh; J]A;fpdhs;
uhij rhg;gpl;Ltpl;Lj; J]A;fpdhs;
uhij ghodhs;. uhij Modhs;
uhij gho Modhs;
uhzp niyapy; rhg;gpl;lhs;. mijf; Fg;igj;bjhl;loapy; Bghl;lhs;.
uhzp jhd; rhg;gpl;l niyia Fg;igj;bjhl;oapy; Bghl;lhs;
jkpH; bkhHpiag; gad;gLj;JgtUf;F uhkd; ghidia cilj;jhd; vd;gJk; gid
uhkdhy; cilf;fg;gl;lJ vd;gJk; vt;thBwh bjhlh;g[s;sit vd;gJ bjhpa[k;. Mdhy;
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; nt;tpuz;ila[k; cwtw;w (bjhlh;gpy;yhj) thf;fpaA;fshff;
fUJfpd;wJ (vLj;Jf;bfhs;fpd;wJ).
1.5.4.3. bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[ Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; xU bjhlhpd; cWg;g[fis bjhlh;r;rpahd myFfshfj;jhd;
fUj naYk;. Mdhy; MA;fpyk; Bghd;w bkhHpfspy; tpdhthf;;fpaA;spy; Jiz tpid
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vGtha;f;F Kd;dh; itf;fg; bgWfpd;wJ. Mdhy; Jiztpid tpidBahL jhd; beUA;fpa
bjhlh;g[s;sJ vd;gJ btspg;gil. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; nijj; bjspt[ gLj;Jk;.
The old man lives near the river.
Does the old man live near the river?
He is coming.
Is he coming?
MA;fpyj;jpy; ‘be’ tpida[k; ‘ing’ vd;gJk; beUA;fpa bjhlh;g[ cs;sit. Mdhy ; mz;ik
cWg;g[ mog;gilapyhd bjhlhpay; nyf;fzj;jpy; nit gphpf;fg;gl;LtpLk;.
v.fh.
The old man is still working. (is---ing)
They are eating. (are---ing)
ehk; is/are vd;gij vLj;Jtpl;lhy; -ing vd;gJ Bgha;tpLk;.
The old man still works.
ne;jj; bjhluh mz;ik cWg;g[fspd; cwitj; bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; fle;J bry;Yk;
fpisfis mDkjpf;fhky; fhl;l nayhJ. fpisfs; fle;J bry;yBth fle;J bry;yhkByh
nUf;fyhk; vd;W Twpdhy; mijj; bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpy; fhl;l nayhJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, gpd;tUk; btspg;ghl;ila[k; tpjpfisa[k; vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
th Jtp + bgbjh + tpbjh
th
bgbjh tpbjh
mm bg Jtp tp bgbjh
mm bg
The hunter has kill-ed the bird
|
tpjp gpd;tUkhW tuyhk;.
th bgbjh + Jtp--ed + tp + bgbjh
MA;fpyk; gad;gLj;JBthUf;F took vd;gJk; off vd;gJk; bjhlh;g[s;sit vdj;bjhpa[k;. ne;j
cwit ehk; fhl;Ltjha; nUe;jhy; ehk; fpisfisf; fle;J bry;tjhff; fhl;lBtz;Lk;.
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th
bgbjh tpbjh
bg tp bgbjh nbrh
mm bg
Raja took his hat off
nt;thf;fpaj;ij gpd;tUkhWk; Twyhk;.
Raja took off his hat.
ehk; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fs; bjhlh;g[s;sit vd;W fhl;lBtz;Lk;.
Raja took off his hat.
Raja took his hat off.
ts;sp KUfid eP xU Kl;lhs; vd;W jpl;odhs; vDk; BghJ KUfid, jpl;odhs; vd;gdtw;iw
bjhluhj mz;ik cWg;g[fshff; fUjBtz;Lk;. KUfid vd;gjw;Fk; jpl;odhs; vd;gjw;Fk;
cs;s bjhlh;igf; fhl;Ltjha; nUe;jhy; ehk; mtw;wpd; cwt[ fpisfisj; jhz;or;
bry;tjhff; fhl;lBtz;Lk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh
bg Btbjh epfpbjh tp
bgbjh Btc th epfp
bg bgbjh bgbjh
bg mm bg
uh$h KUfd; I eP xU Kl;lhs; vd;W jpl;odhs;
1.5.4.4. bghUs; kaf;fk; Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
mikg;g[j; bjhlhpay; nyf;fzk; vy;yh naw;if bkhHpfspy; fhzg;gLk; bghUs;
kaf;fj;ij tpsf;fhJ. Kd;g[ Twpago nUtifg; bghUs; kaf;fk; cz;L: brhw;bghUs;
kaf;fk; (lexical ambiguity) kw;Wk; mikg;g[g; bghUs; kaf;fk; (structural ambiguity).
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vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf eP fy; vd;whd; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; fy ; vd;gJ ‘fw;Wf;bfhs;’ vd;w tpidg;
bghUSk; ‘gUg;bghUshd ghiwapd; rpW Jz;L totkhd ghfk;’ vd;w bgah;g; bghUisa[k;
jUk;.
ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;jgo xU mikg;g[ xd;Wf;F Bkw;gl;l bghUisj; jUkhdhy; mJ
mikg;g[ mog;gilapy; bghUs;kaf;fk; jUtJ vdyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf kpf tajhd
Mz;fSk; bgz;;fSk; vd;w bjhlh; ‘kpf tajhd Mz;fSk; (nsikahd) bgz;fSk;
vd;Wk; ‘kpf tajhd Mz;fSk; kpf tajhd bgz;fSk;’ vd;Wk; bghUs;glyhk;. ne;j
mikg;g[g; bghUs; kaf;fj;ij nuz;L fpisg;glj;jhy; fhl;lyhk;.
bgbjh
bgbjh bgbjh niz
bgmbjh bg niz bg
kpif bgm
kpf tajhd MzfSk; ck; bgz;fSk; ck;
bgbjh
bgmbjh bgbjh
kpif bgm bgbjh niz bgbjh niz
bg bg
kpf tajhd Mz;fSk; ck; bgz;fs; ck;
g[jpa cz;ikfis tpsf;f ehk; xt;bthU jlita[k; BtWgl;l tifapyhd cWg;g[fs; my;yJ
tifg;ghLfs; mikj;Jj; juBtz;o nUf;fpwJ. mikg;g[g; bghUs; kaf;fj;ijf; ifahs
rpf;fdkhd tHp bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpy; ny;iy.
1.5.4.5. Nhpiz Ma;tpd; rpf;fy;
vy;yh mikg;g[fSk; Nhpizahdjy;y. ehk; Nhpizf; bfhs;ifiaj; jhz;or; brd;W
gFg;gha;t[ bra;a Btz;o cs;sJ.
uhkd; ck; Bfhghyd; ck; fpU&;zd; ck;
mJ Bghy; btspg;gilahf tUk; Jiz tpidfs; tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; Jiz tpidia
tpidj; bjhlhpd; cWg;ghff; bfhs;shky; gpd;tUkhW gFg;gha;t[ bra;a Btz;o tUfpwJ.
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bgbjh + Jtp + tpbjh
MA;fpyj;jpy; Jiztpidia Mk;-ny;iy tpdhf;fspy; Kd;dplj;jpw;Ff; bfhz;L bry;y Btz;o
tUtjhy;, Jiztpidiaj; jdpahd cWg;ghf; fUJtJ gaDs;sjha; mika[k;.
Raja can solve the problem Can raja solve the problem
1.5.4.6. kWjut[ bray;ghl;Lr; rpf;fy;
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; vy;yh bkhHpfspYk; kWjut[ bray;ghl;il (recursive process)
tpsf;fj; jtwptpl;lJ. ehk; vy;iyBa ny;yhky; nizg;ghd;fisf; bfhz;L thf;fpaA;fis
nizj;Jf;bfhz;Bl Bghfyhk;.
jq;rht{h; khtl;lj;jpd; jiyefuha; nUf;fpw jq;rht{hpy; BrhH efhpy; fl;oaUf;fpw
jkpH;g;gy;fiyf; fHfj;jpy; Btiy ghh;fpw Kidth; gl;lk; thA;fpa Fs;skha; nUf;fpw
rpw;W]h;jpapy; jpdKk; tUfpw -----
1.5.4.7. eilapay; BtWghL Fwpj;j rpf;fy;
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzk; eilapay; BtWghLfis tpsf;f nayhJ. jkpH; Bghd;w
bkhHpfspy; bgah;j;bjhlhpd; braw;ghLfs; mit thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; nlj;ijr; rhh;e;jpUf;fhky;
Btw;Wik cUg[fisr; rhh;e;jpUg;gjhy; tpidf;F Kd;tUk; vy;yhj; bjhlh;fisa[k; nlk;khw;wp
mikf;f naYk;. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;L nijj; bjspt[ gLj;Jk;.
uh$h mof;fo CUf;Fg; Bghfpwhd;.
mof;fo uh$h CUf;Fg; Bghfpwhd;.
uh$h CUf;F mof;fo Bghfpwhd;.
CUf;F uh$h mof;fo Bghfpwhd;.
xt;bthU thf;fpaKk; xBu thf;fpaj;jpd; eilapay; BtWghL vd;gijf; fhl;lhkByBa
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; vGjBtz;o tUfpd;wJ.
1.5.4.8. cld;ghl;il btspg;gLj;Jtjpy; rpf;fy;
vz; cld;ghL, fhy cld;ghL, vGtha;f;Fk; tpidapy; tUk; Kw;W tpFjpf;Fk; cs;s
cld;ghL Bghd;w rhh;g[fis (dependencies) fhl;Ltjw;F bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzj;jpy; trjp
ny;iy.
ehd; mA;Bf jpdKd; BghfpBwd;. (vGtha;f;Fk; tpidapy; tUk; tpidKw;W tpFjpf;Fk;
cs;s cld;ghL)
xU tifg;ghl;oay; Bfhl;ghL (taxonomic theory) tFg;g[fis (tifg;ghLfis)
mikf;fyhk;. mtw;iw mikg;bghGA;F mog;gilapy; tpsf;fyhk;. tFg;g[fSf;F
bgahplyhk;. cl;gLj;Jk; goepiy mikg;igf; (hierarcy of inclusion) fhl;lyhk;. bjhluikg;g[
nyf;fzk; xU tifg;ghl;oay; nyf;fzk; (taxonomic grammar). Mdhy; nJ bkhHpayFfis
tFg;g[-cWg;gpdh; jtpu gpwtw;why; bjhlh;g[Lj;j nayhJ.
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இயல்/gFjp 2
epiyBgWbgw;w bjhlhpay; Bfhl;ghL
2.1. mikg;g[bkhHpapaypUe;J Syntactic Structures
rhk;!;fp 1957-ny; vGjpa Syntacic Structures nyf;fzf; Bfhl;ghl;oy; bgUk; g[ul;rpia
Vw;gLj;jpaJ. rhk;!;fp vt;thW bkhHpg; BgWbgwg;gLfpd;wJ, vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ,
njw;F mog;gilahf mika[k; cyfg;bghJ bfhs;iffs; ahit vd;w IBuhg;gpa jj;Jt nay;
kugpd; mog;giliag; gpd;gw;wpj;jhd; jd; Bfhl;ghl;il mikj;Js;shh;. rhk;!;fpapd;
fUJBfhs;fspd; Bth; J]z;ly;-gjpy;tpist[f; bfhs;ifia epuhfhpj;j fhh;Orpad; jj;Jtj;jpy;
fhzg;gLfpd;wJ mth; bkhHpapd; gad;ghl;oy; Mf;ff;bfhs;ifia Mjhpj;jhh;. 1959-ny;
rhk;!;fpapd; !;fpd;hpd; Verbal Behaviour (1957) vd;w fl;Liuapd; jpwdha;t[ btspaplg;gl;lJ.
mjpy; rhk;!;fp bkhHp Ma;t[f;Fj; J]z;ly;-gjpy;tpist[ mZFKiwia epuhfhpj;Jtpl;L
bkhHpapd; gad;ghl;oy; Mf;ff; bfhs;iff;F Btz;o thjpLfpd;whh; cstpay;rhh; bka;ikf;F
Mjut[jUfpwhh;. The logical Structure of Linguisitc theory (1955 1975-ny; btspaplg;gl;lJ) vd;w
E]ypy; mth; xU bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL xU egh; mtUf;F xU bkhHp bjhpa[k; vd;W TWifapy;
mtUf;F vd;d bjhpa[k; vd;gij cUg;gLj;jk; bra;aBtz;Lk; bkhHpapayhuhy;
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w bkhHpia my;y vd;W TWfpd;whh;. mth; xU bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
kdpj mwptpd; Behf;fpd; cstpay; khjphpahf nUf;fBtz;Lk; vd;W thjpLfpd;whh;.
Fwpg;gpl;lbkhHpfspy; thf;fpaA;fs; vt;thW tpjpfshYk; braw;ghLfshYk;
cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd vd;gijg;gw;wpa Ma;t[ bjhlhpayhFk;. xU bkhHpapd; bjhlhpay; Ma;t[
mjd; Behf;fk; fhuzkhf mk;bkhHpapd; thf;fpaA;fis tpistpf;Fk; nf;fzj;ij cUthf;Fk;
xUtpjkhd cghakhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. bghJthf, bkhHpapayhh; btw;wpfukhd
nyf;fzA;fspd; mog;gilahd cs;Siwa[k; jd;ikfisj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; rpf;fYld;
fUj;Jilatuha; nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;oy; ikaf; fUj;Jr;rhay; “bkhHpapay; kl;lk; (linguistic level)”
MFk;. xypadpay;, cUgdpay;, bjhlh; mikg;g[ vd;w xU bkhHpapay; kl;lk; nyf;fzA;fspd;
cUthf;fj;jpw;F Btz;o nUf;fr; bra;ag;gl;l tUzid cghaA;fspd; xU FGkkhFk; nJ
Tw;Wf;fis cUgg;gLj;jk; bra;aBtz;o xU Fwpg;gpl;l bray;Kiwiaf; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ.
nf;Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fs; nUf;Fk; kl;lA;fspd; FGkj;Jld; bghUe;Jk; nyf;fzj;jpd; totj;ij
fLikahft[k; Jy;ypakhft[k; cUthf;fpa[k; gpd;dh; naw;ifbkhHpfSf;F nt;totj;jpd; vspa
kw;Wk; btspg;gilahd nyf;fzA;fis cUthf;Ftjd; rhj;jpaj;ij Ma;e;Jk; ehk; xU
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; epiwitj; jPh;khdpf;fyhk;.
2.1.1. nyf;fzj;jpd; Rje;jpuk;
ehk; bkhHp vd;gij vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l ePsj;ijf; bfhz;l vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l jdpkA;fspd;;
FGkj;jhy; Mf;fg;gl;l thf;fpaA;fspd; (vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l my;yJ vy;iyf;Fl;glhj) xU FGkk;
MFk; vd;W fUjyhk;. vy;yh naw;if bkhHpfSk; mtw;wpd; Bgr;R my;yJ vGj;J totpy;
vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l xypad;fisa[k; (my;yJ mjd; beLA;fzf;fpy; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l
vGj;Jf;fisa[k;) kw;Wk; xt;bthU thf;fpaKk; nt;bthypad;fspd; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l bjhlh;rpahy;
30
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;atpaYtjha[k; nUg;gjhy; nt;th;j;jj;jpy; mit xt;bthd;Wk; bkhHpfshFk;.
nBjBghy; fzpjtpaypd; totkhf;fg;gl;l xGA;FKiwapd; thf;fpaA;fspd; FGj;ija[k;
bkhHpahff; fUjtpaYk;. xU bkhHpapd; bkhHpapay; Ma;tpd; mog;gil Behf;fk; mk;bkhHpapd;
thf;fpaA;fspd; nyf;fzj;jd;ikahd bjhlh;r;rpfis mk;bkhHpapd; thf;fpaA;fsy;yhj
tGtpyf;fzj;jd;ikahd bjhlh;r;rpfspypUe;J BtWglj;jyhk;. xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk;
mk;bkhHpapd; vy;yh nyf;fzj;jd;ikahd bjhlh;r;rpfis cUthf;Fk; kw;Wk;
tGtpyf;fzj;jd;ikahdtw;iw cUthf;fhJ. nyf;fzj;jpd; epiwitg; ghpBrhjpf;Fk; xU tHp
mJ cUthf;Fk; bjhlh;r;rpfs; cz;ikapBy nyf;fzj;jd;ikapdjh my;yth vd;gijj;
jPh;khdpg;gjhFk; mjhtJ jha;bkhHp BgRgtuhy; Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;ToaJ Bghd;wtw;;iwj;
jPh;khdpg;gjhFk;.
ehk; xypad;fspd; Fwpg;gpl;l bjhlh;r;rpfs; epr;rakhd thf;fpaA;fs; vd;Wk; gpw Fwpg;gpl;l
bjhlh;r;rpfs; epr;rakhf thf;fpaky;yhjit vd;W vLj;Jf;bfhs;syhk;. rpy bjspthd
Beh;t[fspd; Fwpg;gpl;l vz;zpf;if ve;jf; Fwpg;gpl;l nyf;fzj;jpw;Fk; epiwtpd; mstPl;il
jUk;.
ve;j mog;gilapy; nyf;fzj; bjhlh;r;rpfis tGthd nyf;fzj; bjhlh;r;rpfspypUe;J
gphpf;fyhk; vd;gJ Bfs;tp. Kjyhtjhf, nyf;fz thf;fpaA;fspd; xU FGkj;ij xU
bkhHpapayhuhy; mtuJ fs Ma;tpd;BghJ bgwg;gl;l Tw;Wfspd; ve;jf; Fwpg;gpl;l
bgUe;jut[lDk; milahsk; fhztpayhJ vd;gJ btspg;gilahFk;. xU bkhHpapd; ve;j
nyf;fzKk; nyf;fzf; Tw;Wfspd; (vy;iyf;Fl;glhj) xU FGkj;jpw;F cw;WBehf;fg;gl;l
vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l kw;Wk; aBjl;irahd bgUe;juit tUtiut[ bra;a[k;. nt;thW xU nyf;fzk;
bkhHpa[ld; jkJ vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l aBjl;irahd mDgtj;jpd; mog;gilapy; g[jpa
thf;fpaA;fspd; vy;iyaw;w vz;zpf;ifia cUthf;f my;yJ g[hpe;Jbfhs;s naYk; BgRgthpd;
elj;ijiag; gpujpgypf;Fk;.
nuz;lhtjhf, nyf;fzj;jd;ikahdJ vd;gij bghUz;ikapy; mh;j;jj;jpy;
“bghUz;ikj; jd;ikahdJ (meaningful)” my;yJ “Kf;fpaj;JtkhdJ (significant)” vd;gJld;
milahsk; fhztpayhJ. thf;fpaA;fs; (1)-ck; (2)-ck; xd;WBghy mh;j;jkw;wit, Mdhy;
ve;j MA;fpy bkhHp BgRgtUk; KjyhtJ kl;Lk;jhd; nyf;fzj;jd;ikahdJ vd;W
g[hpe;Jbfhs;th;.
(1) Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Furiously sleep ideas green colourless.
nJBghd;w vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; “nyf;fzj;jd;ik” vd;gjd; bghUz;ikapay; mog;gilapyhd
tpsf;ft[iuiaj; (definition) BjLtJ gadw;wJ vd;gij btspg;Lj;Jk;.
K}d;whtjhf, “MA;fpyj;jpy; nyf;fzj;jd;ikahdJ” vd;w fUj;Jr;rhaiy
“MA;fpyj;jpw;Fg; g[s;spapay;rhh; xj;jpUj;jypd; cah;e;j epuy;” vd;w fUj;Jr;rhaYld; ve;j
tHpapYk; milahsk; fhztpayhJ. thf;fpak; (1)-X (2)-X (my;yJ nt;thf;fpaA;fspd; ve;j
xU gFjpBah) MA;fpy fUj;jhlypy; epfHtpy;iy vd;W mDkhdpg;gJ Xust[f;Fr; rhpahFk;.
vdBt nyf;fzj;jd;ikf;F Btz;oa ve;j g[s;spapay; khjphpapYk; nt;thf;fpaA;fs; nBj
fhuzA;fshy; xd;WBghy MA;fpyj;jpypUe;J J]uj;jpYs;sd vd;W tpyf;fg;gLk;. nUg;gpDk;
thf;fpak; (1) mh;j;jkw;wJ vd;whYk; nyf;fztakhdJ Mdhy; (2) mg;goay;y.
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nyf;fzf; Tw;Wfis cUthf;FtjpYk; g[hpe;Jbfhs;tjpYk; xUthpd; jpwik g[s;spay;rhh;
xj;jpUj;jypd; fUj;Jr;rhay; mog ;gilapyhdJ my;y. nyf;fz thf;fpaA;fis “epfHtpaYk;”
my;yJ “rhj;jpakhdJ” vd;W TWk; gHf;fk; ne;j FHg;gj;jpw;Ff; fhuzkhFk;. bkhHpapd;
bghUz;ikapay; kw;Wk; g[s;spapay; Ma;t[fspd; Mh;tj;ija[k; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ija[k; kWf;ftpayhJ
vd;whYk; nyf;fzf; Tw;Wfspd; xU FGkj;ij jPh;khdpf;Fk; my;yJ gz;ghf;fk; bra;a[k;
rpf;fYf;F mit Beuoahd niaigf; bfhz;oUg;gjhfj; Bjhd;wtpy;iy. vdBt ehk;
nyf;fzk; bghUz;ikapypUe;J jd;dpr;irahdJ kw;Wk; Rje;jpukhdJ vd;Wk; rhjpak;rhh;
khjphpfs; (probablistic models) bjhlhpay; mikg;gpd; rpy mog;gilr; rpf;fYf;Ff; Fwpg;gpl;l
Ez;zwpitj; jutpy;iy vd;Wk; Kot[bra;a ce;jg;gLfpd;Bwhk;
2.1.2. xU bjhlf;fepiy bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
xU bkhHp kpff;TLjyhf cl;gLj;jg;gl;l xGA;FKiwahFk; xU FGk
nyf;fzj;jd;ikahd xypadpay; bjhlh;r;rpfis Beuoahfj; jUk; ve;j Kaw;rpa[k;
eilKiwg;go gadw;w xU fyitj;jd;ikahd nyf;fzj;jpw;Ff; bfhz;Lbry;Yk; vd;gJ kpf
btspg;gilahdjhFk;. nf;fhuzj;jhy; bkhHpapay; tUzid “cUg;gLj;jA;fspd; kl;lA;fspd;
(levels of representation)” xU xGA;FKiwapd; mog;gilapy; Kw;gLk;. Beuoahf thf;fpaA;fspd;
xypadpay; mikg;igf; TWtjw;Fg; gjpyhf bkhHpapayhh; cUgd;fis cah;kl;l jdpkA;fshf
epWt[th; thf;fpaA;fspd; cUgdpay; mikg;iga[k; cUgd;fspd; xypadpay; mikg;iga[k;
jdpj;jdpahff; TWth;. ne;j nU kl;lA;fspd; nize;j tUzid thf;fpaA;fspd; xypadpay;
mikg;gpd; Beuoahd tUzidiaf; fhl;oYk; kpft[k; vspjhdJ vd;gijf; fz;Lbfhs;syhk;.
ng;bghGJ ehk; thf;fpaA;fspd; cUgdpay; mikg;ig tUzid bra;a[k; gy tHpfisf;
fUj;jpy; bfhs;Bthk;. ehk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l bkhHpapd; nyf;fzj;jd;ikahd thf;fpaA;fis
mikf;Fk; cUgd;fspd; (my;yJ brhw;fspd;) vy;yhj; bjhlh;r;rpfisa[k; cUthf;f vt;tif
nyf;fzk; Bjit vd;;W Bfl;fyhk;.
xU nyf;fzk; epiwt[bra;aBtz;oa xU Bjit mJ vy;iyf;Fl;gl;ljha;
nUf;fBtz;Lk; vd;gjhFk;. vdBt xU nyf;fzk; vy;yh cUgd;fspd; (my;yJ brhw;fspd;)
bjhlh;r;rpfspd; gl;oay; my;y Vbdd;why; mit vy;iyf;Fl;glhj vz;zpf;ifapyhdit. xU
epiyapypUe;J mLj;j epiyf;Fr; bry;Yk; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l BtWgl;l vz;ifapyhd mf
epiyfisf; bfhz;l xU bghwp nUg;gjhf; bfhs;Bthk;. xU epiy bjhlf;f epiyahFk;
kw;bwhU epiy nWjp epiyahFk;. ng;bghwp Kjy; epiyapy; bjhlA;fp bjhlh;rpahd gy
epiyfisf; fle;J brd;W (xt;bthU khw;wj;jpw;Fk; xU brhy;iy cUthf;fp) nWjpiyia
miltjhff; bfhs;st[k;. ehk; nt;thW cUthf;fg;gl;l brhw;fspd; bjhlh;rpia xU thf;fpak;
vd;W TWBthk;. nt;tifapyhd bghwpahy; cUthf;fg;gl;l ve;j bkhHpiaa[k; ehk; Kw;Wepiy
bkhHp (finite state language) vd;W miHg;Bghk; ehk; ne;j bghwpia Kw;Wepiy nyf;fzk;
(finite stae grammar) miHf;fyhk;. Kw;Wepiy nyf;fzj;ij “epiyg; glj;jpd; (state diagram)
totj;jpy; tiuglkhf cUg;gLj;jtpaYk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf “the man comes” kw;Wk; “the men
come” vd;w nU thf;fpaA;fis kl ;Lk; cUthf;Fk; nyf;fzj;ij gpd;tUk; epiyg; glj;jhy;
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;atpaYk;:
32
THE
ehk; bfhf;fpfisr; Brh;j;J vy;iyaw;w vz;zpf;ifapyhd thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;Fk;gof;F
nt;tpyf;fzj;ij ePl;rp bra;ayhk;. nt;thW Bkw;brhd;d thf;fpaA;fSld; “the old man comes” ,
“the old men come” ... vd;w thf;fpaA;fisa[k; cs;slf;fpa MA;fpyj;jpd; Jizg;ghfj;jpd;
vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l nyf;fzj;ij (Kw;wpyf;fzj;ij) gpd;tUk; epiyg; glj;jhy; cUg;gLj;jk;
bra;ayhk;:
THE
ne;j epiyg; glj;jpy; ehk; nlJgf;fj;jpYs;s bjhlf;f epiyapypUe;J tyJ gf;fj;jpYs;s
nWjp epiyf;F tHpiaj; bjhlh;e;J mk;g[f;Fwpfspd; jpirapy; brd;W xU thf;fpaj;ij
cUthf;fyhk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l epiyia mile;jJk; mg;g[s;spapypUe;J ve;jg; ghijiaa[k;
Bjh;e;bjLj;J Kd;Bdwyhk;. nt;thW bkhHpfis cUthf;Fk; bghwpfs; fzpdp mog;gilapy;
“Kw;Wepiy khh;f;Bfht; braw;ghA;Ffs; (finite state Markov processes)” vd;W mwpag;gLk;.
bkhHpf;F nj;bjhlhf;ff; fUj;jhly; Bfhl;ghl;L khjphpia KGikbra;a ehk; xU epiyapypUe;J
kw;bwhU epiyf;F khWk; xt;bthU nlkhw;wj;jpw;Fk; epfGikiaj; (probability) jUfpd;Bwhk;.
bkhHpapd; nf;fUj;jhf;fk; kpff;TLjyhfr; rf;jptha;e;jJk; bghJthdJk; MFk;.
nijf; iff;bfhz;lhy; ehk; BgRgtiu fUjg;gl;l tifapd; xU bghwpahf; fhzyhk;.
thf;fpaj;ij cUthf;f, BgRgth; Kjy; epiyapy; bjhlA;fp thf;fpaj;jpd; Kjw;brhy;iy
cUthf;fptpl;L nuz;lhtJ brhy;ypd; bjhpitf; fl;Lg;gLj;Jk; nuz;lhk; epiyf;Fr; bry;th;
nt;thW Kd;BdWth;. mth; fle;J bry;Yk; xt;bthU epiya[k; Tw;wpy; ng;g[s;spapy; mLj;j
brhy;ypd; bjhpit tiuaiw bra;a[k; nyf;fzf; fl;Lg;ghl;il cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a[k;.
MA;fpyk; Bghd;w xU bkhHpf;F xU Kw;W epiy nyf;fzj;ij fl;likf;Fk; ve;j Kaw;rpa[k;
bjhlf;fj;jpByBa jilfisa[k; rpf;fy;fisa[k; vjphpLk;. MA;fpyk; Bghd;w bkhHpfs; Kw;Wepiy
bkhHpfsy;y. mjhtJ MA;fpyk; Bghd;w bkhHpfspd; nyf;fz thf;fpaA;fis kl;Lk;
cUthf;Fk; Bkw;fz;l tifapw;gLk; cghaj;ij fl;likg;gJ rhj;jpakpy;iy.
ehk; tpyf;fpitj;j nyf;fzj;jpd; fUj;jhf;fk; Kf;fpakhff; fUjj;jf;f Fiwe;j
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;il (minimal linguistic theory) Xust[f;F cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a[k;. Kw;Wepiy
33
nyf;fzk; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd fUtpfshy; vz;zpf;ifaw;w thf;fpaA;fis
cUthf;f naYk; vspa tif nyf;fzkhFk;. ehk; nk;khjphpahd bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
epiwtpy;yjJ vd;W fz;Lbfhz;Blhk; ehk; TLjy; rf;jptha;e;j nyf;fz tiff;Fk; TLjy;
mUt tot bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fk; Btz;o Bjl ce;jg;gLfpBwhk;. ng;gFjpapy; Twg;gl;l
“bkhHpapay; kl;l cUg;gLj;jj;jpd; (linguistic level of representation)” fUj;Jr;rhay; khw;wg;glt[k;
tphpthf;fg;glt[k; bra;ag;glBtz;Lk;.
2.1.3. bjhlhpay; mikg;g[
2.1.4. bjhlhpay; mikg;g[ tUzidapd; vy;iy
2.1.5. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; nyf;Ffs;
Kw;gFjpapy; bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd; nU khjphpfs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld: xU vspa
fUj;jhly; Bfhl;ghl;L khjphp kw;Wk; mz;ika[Wg;g[ Ma;tpd; totkhf;fg;gl;l khjphp. nit
nuz;Lk; epiwtw;wit vd;W fz;Lgpof;fg;gl;ld rhk;!;fp nf;FiwghLfis epth;j;jpbra;a[k;
bjhluikg;g[k; nyf;fz khw;wA;fSk; nize;j TLjy; jpwd;tha;e;j khjphpia Kd;Df;F
itf;fpd;whh;.
bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd; nt;thjj;jpd; ekJ mog;gilahd mf;fiw nyf;fzA;fspd;
epahaj;ijf; Fwpj;j gpur;ridahFk;. L vd;w bkhHpapd; xU nyf;fzk; Kf;fpakhf L vd;gjd;
Bfhl;ghlhFk;. ve;j mwptpay; Bfhl;ghLk; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd cw;WBehf;fypd;
mog;gilapy; mike;jJ mJ cw;WBehf;fg;gl;l elg;g[fis cwt[gLj;jt[k; Kw;Bfhs;rhh;
fl;likg;g[fspd; mog;gilapy; bghJthd rl;lA;fis fl;likj;J g[jpa elg;g[fis
Cfk;bra;at[k; tHpBjLk;. nJBghyBt xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk; Tw;Wfspd;
(cw;WBehf;fy;fspd;) vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l bgUe;jutpd; mog;gilapy; mika[k; kw;Wk; bkhHpapd;
Fwpg;gpl;l xypad;fs;, bjhlh;fs; Bghd;wtw;wpd; mog;gilapy; Twg;gl;l nyf;fz tpjpfisf;
(rl;lA;fis) bfhz;oUf;Fk;. nt;tpjpfs; bgUe;jutpd; thf;fpaA;fSf;fpilBa mikg;g[
cwt[fisa[k; bgUe;juitj; jhz;o (CfA;fs;) nyf;fzj;jhy; cUthf;fg;gl;l vz;zw;w
thf;fpaA;fisa[k; btspg;gLj;Jk;. ekJ gpur;rid xt;bthU bkhHpf;Fk; rhpahd nyf;fzj;ij
mjhtJ nk;bkhHpapd; rhpahd Bfhl;ghl;ilj; Bjh;e;bjLf;f mstPLfis cUthf;ft[k;
bjspthf;ft[k; bra;tjhFk;.
Kd;dh; nuz;L tif mstPLfs; Twg;gl;ld. bjspthf xt;bthU nyf;fzKk;
Fwpg;gpl;l epiwtpd; btspf; fl;Lg;ghLfis (external conditions of adequacy) epiwBtw;wBtz;Lk;
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf cUthf;fg;gl;l thf;fpaA;fs; jha;bkhHp BgRgtuhy;
Vw;Wf;bfhs;sg;glBtz;Lk;. nt;tifapyhd gy gpw btspf;fl;Lg;ghLfis ehk; fUjtpaYk;.
BkYk; nyf;fzA;fspd; kPJ bghJikapd; fl;Lg;ghl;il (conditions of generality) vGg;g[fpBwhk;
ehk; xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk; “xypad;” kw;Wk; “bjhlh;” vd;w riyr; brhw;fs; ve;j
Fwpg;gpl;l bkhHpapypUe;Jk; Rje;jpukhf tpsf;ft[iu bra;ag;gLk; bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd;
Fwpg;gpl;l Bfhl;ghl;od; go fl;likf;fg;glBtz;Lk; vd;W mtrpag;gLfpd;Bwhk;.
ehk; nJtiu gpd;tUk; Kf;fpaf; Bfs;tpia fUj;jpy; bfhs;stpy;iy: bghJikf;
Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fk; mjpypUe;J tUk; Fwpg;gpl;l nyf;fzA;fSf;Fk; nilBaa[s;s cwt[ vd;d?
mjhtJ nr;R{Hypy; “mjpypUe;J tUk;” vd;w fUj;Jr;rhaYf;F ehk; ve;j mh;j;jj;ijj;
34
jutpaYk;? nt;tplj;jpy; jhd; ekJ mZFKiw bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd; gy
Bfhl;ghLfspypUe;J Jy;ypakhd BtWgLk;.
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fk; Fwpg;gpl;l nyf;zA;fSf;Fk; nilapy; cs;s cwtpd; Bky;
vjph;ghh;fpw tYthd Bjit vd;wbtd;why; Bfhl;ghL Tw;Wfspd; bgUe;jutpypUe;J (corpus of
utterances) nyf;fzj;ij cUthf;f bray;Kiw rhh;e;j (practial) kw;Wk; naf;fty;yik rhh;e;j
(mechanical) bewpKiwfisj; (method) juBtz;Lk;. nk;khjphpahd Bfhl;ghL nyf;fzA;fSf;Ff;
fz;Lgpog;g[r; bray;Kiwiaj; (discovery procedure) jUk;.
rpwpJ tYtw;w Bjit vd;wbtd;why; Bfhl;ghL, xU bkhHpf;Fg; bgUe;jutpypUe;J
cUthf;fg;gl;l nyf;fzk; kpf ey;y nyf;fzkh ny;iyah vd;gijj; jPh;khdpf;fr;
bray;Kiw rhh;e;j kw;Wk; naf;fty;yik rhh;e;j bewpKiwiaj; juBtz;Lk;. xU nyf;fzk;
vt;thW cUthf;fg;gl;lJ vd;w Bfs;tpgw;wp ftiyg;glhj nk;khjphpahd Bfhl;ghL
nyf;fzA;fSf;Fj; jPh;khdr; bray;Kiwiaj; (decisive procedure) jUfpd;wJ vdyhk;.
kpf tYtw;w Bjit vd;wbtd;why; xU bgUe;jut[k; Kd;bkhHpag;gl;l nU
nyf;fzA;fSk; (G1 kw;Wk; G2) jug;gl;lhy; Bfhl;ghL bgUe;jut[ vLf;fg;gl;l bkhHpf;F vJ
ey;y nyf;fzk; vd;gijf; TwBtz;Lk;. nk;khjphpahd Bfhl;ghL nyf;fzA;fSf;F
kjpg;gPl;Lr; bray;Kiwiaj; (evaluative procedure) jUfpd;wJ vdyhk;.
Bfhl;ghL
tYthd Bjit Fiwe;j tYthd Bjit kpff;Fiwe;j tYthd Bjit
fz;Lgpor; bray;Kiw jPh;khdr; bray;Kiw kjpg;gPlLr; bray;Kiw
nf;Bfhl;ghLfisg; gpd;tUkhW tiuglkhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;:
bgUe;jut[ nyf;fzk;
nyf;fzk; Mkhk;
bgUe;jut[ ny;iy
nyf;fzk;-1 nyf;fzk;-1
nyf;fzk;-2
bgUe;jut[ nyf;fzk;-2
35
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL nyf;fzA;fSf;F eilKiw kjpg;gPl;L Kiwiaf; fhl;oYk;
TLjyhd xd;iwj; juBtzLk; vd;W Bfl;gJ epahakw;wjhFk; vd;w fz;Bzhl;lk;jhd;
vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ ehk; Kd;dh; tUzid bra;j Kd;W epiyfspYk; kpf
tYtw;wijj; iff;bfhs;fpd;Bwhk;. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; Kd;Bdw;wj;jpw;F Twg;gl;l
bgUk;ghyhd TLjy; mf;fiwa[s;s Kd;bkhHpt[fs; nk;K}d;W Bjitfspy; tYthdij Behpl
KaYfpd;wd vd;W rhk;!;fp bghUs;Bfhs; bra;fpwhh;. mjhtJ mit xU Ma;thsh;
cz;ikapy; jutpypUe;J Beuoahf bkhHpapd; nyf;fzj;ij fl;likf;fg; gad;gLj;Jk; Ma;tpd;
bra;Kiwfisf; Tw KaYfpd;wd.
2.1.5. rpy khw;Wtpjpfs;
“Some Trnasormatons in English” vd;w jiyg;gpy; rhk;!;fp MA;fpyj; bjhlhpaypd;
tUzidapy; khw;wpyf;fz mZFKiwiaf; ifahStjd; tpist[fis Ma;fpwhh;. ekJ
nyf;F tpj;J thf;fpaA;fis cs;Siw bra;a[k; nWjpf; Bfhh;itfs; bjhluikg;gpd; vspa
xGA;FKiwahy; Mf;fk; bra;a[k; gof;Fk; vspa khw;Wtpjpfshy; vy;yh thf;fpaA;fisa[k;
Mf;ftpaYk;; mog;giliaj; jUk; gof;Fk; tpj;J thf;fpaA;fis tiuaiw bra;tjhFk;:
tpj;Jthf;fpaA;fspy; fl;lha khw;WtpjpfSk; (obligatory transformations) tpj;jy;yh thf;fpaA;fspy;
tpUg;g[ khw;WtpjpfSk; (optional transformations) gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk;.
xU khw;wj;ij btspg;gilahff; Fwpg;gpl ehk; mJ gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; Bfhh;itapd;
Ma;ita[k; nf;Bfhh;itfspd;kPJ mJ Vw;gLj;Jk; mikg;g[ khw;wj;ija[k; tpsf;fBtz;Lk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf bray;ghl;L khw;Wtpjp bgbjh-Jtp-tp-bgbjh vd;w totj;jpYs;s Bfhh;itapy;
gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; njd;tpisthf nU bgah;j;bjhlh;fSk; xd;iwbahd;W nlk;bgah;f;fg;gLk;
nWjpg; bgah;j;bjhlhpd; Kd; by vd;gJ Brh;f;fg;gLk; Jtp-ny; be+en vd;gJ Brh;f;fg;gLk;.
m.tp. bgbjh1-Jtp-tp-bgbjh2
m.kh. bgbjh2-Jtp-bgbjh1
bgbjh2-Jtp-by-bgbjh1
bgbjh2-be+en-by-bgbjh1
(vLj;Jfhl;lhf Rama killed a snake vd;gJ The snake was killed by Ram vd;W khw;wg;gLk;.)
nU FGk khw;Wtpjpfs; Kd;bkhHpag;gl;Lfpd;wd:
1. m. gad;gLj;j naYk; tpUg;g[ kw;W tpjpfs; (Optional T-rules)
M. gad;gLj;jg;glBtz;oa fl;lha khw;Wtpjpfs; (Obligatory T-rules)
1.m. xU nWjp Bfhh;itapy; brad;ikbra;a[k; jdpepiy khw;wA;fs; (jdp-mo)
(singualrly translformations)
M.nuz;L my;yJ mjw;Ff; TLjyhd nWjp Bfhh;itfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; bghJ
khw;wA;fs; (nU-mofs;).
vy;yh bghJ khw;wA;fSk; tpUg;ghFk; rpy jdpepiy khw;wA;fs; tpUg;ghditahft[k;
rpy fl;lhakhditahft[k; nUf;Fk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf have+en+be+ing+V vd;gij
36
‘have+be+en+V+ing’ vdj; jpUk;gkhw;WtJ fl;lhakhFk;. brag;ghl;Ltpid thfpa khw;wk;
my;yJ tpdh thf;fpa khw;wk; tpUg;ghFk;. bghJ khw;wA;fs; nU tiffshff;
ghFgLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd: cl;gLj;jy; (embedding) kw;Wk; nizg;g[ (conjoining) kw;wA;fs;.
ne;j nuz;Lk; bkhHpapd; tpisthf;fr; braw;ghA;iff; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. xU thf;fpak;
kw;bwhU thf;fpaj;jpw;Fs; cs;slf;fg;glBth mjd; cWg;ghf khwBth bra;a[k; braw;ghA;F
cl;gL khw;wk; MFk;.
rl;lfk; cl;gLjy;
I know (that) Raja will arrive tomorrow jkpHpy; cl;gLk; thf;fpak; rl;lf thf;fpaj;jpw;F Kd;dh; tUk;.
cl;gLjy; rl;lfk;
uh$h tUthd; vd;W vdf;Fj; bjhpa[k;
nizg;g[ vd;gJ xBu tifiar;rhh;e;j nuz;L my;yJ mjw;F Bkw;gl;l cWg;g[fs;
and, but my;yJ or vd;gjhy; nizf;fg;gLk;.
vr;rj;bjhlh; nfp vr;rj;bjhlh;
He advanced and his enemy retreated.
jkpHpy; kw;Wk;, Mdhy; vd;w nizg;g[r; brhw;fSk; ck;, X vd;w Fiwr;brhw;fSk; nizf;fg;
gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wd.
v.fh.
vr;rj;bjhlh; nfp vr;rj;bjhlh;
mtd; Kd;Bdw-t[k; mtd; vjphpfs; gpd;thA;ft[k; bra;jdh;
(nfp=nizg;g[f;fpstp)
ve;j khw;w tpjpa[k; nuz;L ghfA;fisf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;: mikg;g[ tpsf;fk; (structural
description=SD) kw;Wk; mikg;g[ khw;wk; (structural change=SC).
Kd;dh; gpuBahfpf;fg;gl;l tpjpapd; btspaPl;oy; gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; bjhluikg;g[
tpjpfisg;Bghy; my;yhky; khw;W tpjpfs; mikg;g[tpsf;fj;jhy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;l Bfhh;itfspd;
Bky;jhd; gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; kw;Wk; mikg;g[khw;wk; khw;W tpjpfs; gpuBahfpf;fg;gl;l gpd;
mikg;g[ vt;thW nUf;Fk; vd;gjijf; Fwpg;gpLk;.
[mm+bg+0] + [fh+tpgh+have+en] +V+ [mm+bg+0]
(v.fh. The man may have have+en take the ball
vd;w mikg;g[ tpsf;fj;jpy; vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf brag;ghl;L khw;w tpjpiag; gpuBahfpf;f naYk;:
m.kh. bgbjh2 Jtp+be+en V by bgbjh1
37
The ball fh+may+have+en+been+take fh+may+have+be+en+take+en
fl;lha khw;W tpjpfs; Jtp-nd; cWg;g[fis thpirkhw;Wk;:
fh+may+have+en+been+take fh+may+have+be+en+take+en
cUbghypadpay; tpjpfs; Bfhh;itfis rhpahd xypad; totpy; khw;Wk;:
man+0 /mæn/ , fh+may /mei/, be+en /bi:n/, take+en /teikn/
(ftdpf;f: ve;j tpUg;g[ khw;wA;fSk; gad;gLj;jg;glhky; xU jdp tpj;Jf; Bfhh;itapypUe;j
cUthf;fg;gLk; ve;j thf;fpaKk; tpj;J thf;fpak; (kernal sentence) MFk;.)
Syntactic Structure-ny; jug;gl;Ls;s gpd;tUk; khw;wr; braw;ghA;Ffisf; Behf;ft[k;:
fl;lis khw;wk;:
m.tp. bgbjh1 tp Fiwr;brhy; bgbjh2
1 2 3 4
you put down the book
m.kh. 0 tp Fiwr;brhy; bgbjh2
put down the book (tpistJ xU fl;lis thf;fpakhFk;)
Fiwr;brhy; efh;t[ khw;wk;:
m.tp. bgbjh1 tp Fiwr;brhy; bgbjh2
1 2 3 4
put down the book
m.kh. bgbjh1 tp bgbjh2 Fiwr;brhy;
1 2 4 3
put down the book
jkpHpy; fl;lis khw;wj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;:
m.tp. bgbjh1 Btbjh tpm tp
1 2 3 4
eP g[j;jfj;ij fPBH it
38
m.tp. bgbjh1 Btbjh tpm tp
1 2 3 4
g[j;jfj;ij fPBH it
Syntactic Structures Fiwe;j vz;zpf;ifapyhd khw;wA;fisj; je;J gy Kf;fpakhd Bfs;tpfSf;F
tpil juhJ tpl;lhYk; mJ bkhHpapd; cz;ikfis ehw;gJfspYk; Ik;gJfspYk;
gpurpj;Jbgw;wpUe;j bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghLfspd; rl;lfj;jpw;Fs; Fwpg;gplj;jFe;j tpjj;jpy; tpsf;f
nayhJ vd;gijf; epU}gpj;jgoahy; mJ Bfhl;ghl;L bkhHpapaypd; tuyhw;wpy; xU Kf;fpa
tHpfhl;Lk; milahskhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ.
2.2. Aspects khjphp
2.2.1. bra;Kiw bjhlf;fA;fs;
2.2.1.1. bkhHp mwpjpwd; Bfhl;ghLfshf Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk;
bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL xU KGtJkhd xUgoj;jhd Bgr;Rr; rKjhaj;jpy; (homogenous
community) xU rPh;ikahd BgRgth;-Bfl;gtiug; gw;wp (ideal speaker-hearer) Mh;tk;
fhl;Lfpd;wJ mth; jkJ bkhHpiag; gw;wp ed;F mwpthh; kw;Wk; mth; bka;ahd bray;jpwdpy;
bkhHpapy; jkJ mwpitg; gad;gLj;Jifapy; epidthw;wy; vy;iyfs;, vz;zf;Fiyg;g[, ftdk;
kw;Wk; Mh;tk; ntw;wpd; khwA;fs;, kw;Wk; jtWfs; Bghd;w nyf;fz mog;gilapy;
Kf;fpaj;Jtkpy;yhj R{H;epiyfshy; ghjpf;fg;glkhl;lhh;. bkhHpr; bray;jpwid Mf;tjw;F ehk;
gy fhuzpfspd; BtWgl;l tiffspd; Clhl;lj;ijf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;sBtz;Lk; njpy; BgRgh;-
Bfl;gthpd; cs;SWk; mwpjpwk; xd;whFk;. njd;go bkhHpapd; Ma;t[ gpw fyitj;jd;ikahd
elg;g[fspd; mDgtKiw Ma;tpypUe;J BtWgl;ljy;y. vdBt ehk; mwpjpwd; (BgRgth;-
Bfl;ghpd; mth; bkhHpgw;wpa mwpt[) vd;gjw;Fk; bray;jpwd; (jplkhd R{H;epiyfspy; BgRgh;-
Bfl;thpd; bkhHpapd; bka;ikahd gad;ghL) vd;gjw;Fk; nilapy; mog;gilahd BtWghL
ghuhl;lBtz;Lk;.
xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk; rPh;ikahd BgRgth;-Bfl;gthpd; mfj;jpwdhFk; (intrinsic
competence). xU nyf;fzk; BkYk; kpf btspgilahf nUe;jhy; mjhtJ g[hpe;Jbfhs;Sk;
gog;gthpd; g[j;jpTh;ikiar; rhh;e;jpuhky; mth; gA;fspg;gpd; btspg;gilahd Ma;itj; je;jhy;
mij ehk; Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; vdyhk;. xU jFjpa[s;s nyf;fzk; vy;iyaw;w
vz;zpf;ifapyhd thf;fpaA;fs; xt;bthd;wpw;Fk; mit vt;thW rPh;ikahd BgRgth;-Bfl;gtuhy;
mwpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gijf; Fwpg;gpLk; xU mikg;g[ th;zidiaj; juBtz;Lk;. nJ
th;zid bkhHpapaypd; kug[r; rpf;fyhf nUe;jJ kw;Wk; kugpyf;fzA;fs; thf;fpaA;fspd;
mikg;g[ th;zidfisg; gw;wp tphpe;j jfty;fisj; je;jd. nUg;gpDk; mit vt;tst[
kjpg;g[s;sitfsha; nUe;jhYk; kugpyf;fzA;fs; mit Mh;tk;fhl;oa bkhHpapd;
mog;gilahd xGA;fhd jd;ikfspd; gytw;iw btspg;gLj;jhky; tpl;Ltpl;ld. kug[rhh; kw;wk;
mikg;gpayhh; nyf;fzA;fspd; tiuaiw vy;iyfs; bjspthf mwpag;glBtz;Lk;.
mk;khjphpahd nyf;fzA;fs; tpjptpyf;Ffspd; kw;Wk; xGA;fw;witfspd; KGikahd kw;Wk;
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btspg;ilahd gl;oaiyf; bfhz;oUe;jhYk; xGA;fhd kw;Wk; tpisthf;fKs;s bjhlhpay;
braw;ghA;Ffisg; gw;wp vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfisa[k; Fwpg;g[fisa[k; kl;LBk jUfpd;wd.
kug[ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fs; vy;yh bkhHpfspd; rpwg;gpay;g[fspy; xd;W mtw;wpd;
“cUthf;F” Behf;fhFk;. nt;thW bkhHpapd; Kf;fpakhd rpwg;gpay;g[ vd;wbtd;why; mJ
vy;iyaw;w gy vz;zA;fspd; btspghl;ow;Fk; gjpa R{Hy;fspd; tiuaiwaw;w gubgy;iyfspy;
bghUj;jkhf vjph;;;;;;;tpidbra;at[k; tHpfisj; jUk;. xU Fwpg;gpl;l bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk;,
bkhHpapd; tpisthf;f Behf;fpw;F nlkspf;Fk; kw;Wk; nyf;fzj;jpypUe;J ePf;fg;gl;l
cyfg;bghJthdjhf nUf;Fk; mfj;jd;ikahd xGA;Ffis btspapLk;
cyfg;bghJtpyf;fzj;jhy; gpw;Brh;f;if bra;ag;glBtz;Lk;. vdBt xU nyf;fzk;
tpjptpyf;Ffisa[k; xGA;fw;witfisa[k; tphpthf tpthjpf;f Btz;oaJ kpfr; rhpahdjhFk;.
cyfg;bghJ nyf;fzj;jhy; gpw;Brh;f;if bra;ag;gLk; BghJjhd; xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk;
BgRgth;-Bfl;gthpd; mwpjpwdpd; KG tpsf;fj;ija[k; jUk;.
rhk;!;fp Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; vd;gij thf;fpaA;fSf;F VjhtJ btspg;gilahd
kw;Wk; ey;tpsf;f tHpapy; mikg;g[ th;zidfisj; jUk; tpjpfspd; mikg;bghGA;fhFk; vd;W
fUJfpwhh;. xU bkhHpapd; xt;bthU BgRgtUk; mth; bkhHpapd; mwpit btspg;gLj;Jk; xU
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;ij ed;whff; fw;ft[k; mfepiyahf;fk; bra;at[k; bra;fpd;whh;.
bjhlh;r;rpahd jtwhd g[hpe;Jbfhs;ifia tpyf;f Btz;o, xU Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; vd;gij
xU BgRthpd; my;yJ Bfl;gthpd; khjphp my;y vd;gij typa[Wj;JtJ ed;ik gaf;Fk;. nJ
xU BgRgth;-Bfl;gtuhy; bkhHpapd; bka;ahd gad;ghl;ow;F Btz;o mog;giliaj; jUk;
bkhHpapd; mwpit kpfr; rhj;jpakhd eLepiyf; fiyr;brhw;fshy; gz;ghf;fk; bra;a
KaYfpd;wJ. ehk; xU nyf;fzk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l mikg;g[ th;zida[ld; xU thf;fpaj;ij
cUthf;Ftjhff; Twpdhy;, ehk; me;j nyf;fzk; thf;fpaj;jpw;F ne;j mikg;g[
th;zidiaj; jUtjhfg; bghUs;bfhs;fpd;Bwhk;. ehk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk;
mog;gilapy; xU thf;fpaj;jpw;F xU Fwpg;gpl;l Mf;fk; nUf;fpd;wJ vd;why; ehk;
mk;khjphpahd Mf;fj;ij cUthf;f vjhtJ bray;Kiw my;yJ jpwikahd tHpapy;
BgRgtBuh Bfl;gBuh vt;thW KaYth; vd;gJ gw;wp vija[k; TWtjpy;iy. ne;jf; Bfs;tpfs;
bkhHpg;gad;ghl;od; Bfhl;ghl;il mjhtJ bray;jpwidr; rhh;e;jjhFk;.
2.2.1.2. bray;jpwd; Bfhl;ghl;il Behf;fp
bray;jpwdpd; Ma;t[ cs;Siwa[k; mwpjpwdpd; g[hpe;Jbfhs;if MDkjpf;Fk;
vy;iytiujhd; bry;Yk; vd;w kug[g; ghh;itia Bfs;tpBfl;f ve;j fhuzKk; ny;iy. BkYk;
bray;jpwd; Fwpj;j Ma;t[fs; ne;j mDkhdj;jpw;F Mjut[ jUfpd;wJ. gpd;tUk;
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;:
1. m. I called up the man who wrote the book that you told me about.
M. quite a few of the students who you met come from New York are friends of mine.
n. John, Bill, Tom, and several of their friends visited us last night.
2. m. I called the man who wrote the book that you told me about up
M. the man who the boy who the students recognized pointed out is a friend of mine.
1-nd; fPH;tUk; thf;fpaA;fs; 2-nd; fPH; tUk; thf;fpaA;fisf; fhl;oYk; TLjy;
Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;Toad. TLjy; Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;Toa thf;fpaA;fs; kpf vspjpy;
g[hpe;Jbfhs;sf;Toait, Fiwe;j mst[ BfhzyhdJ, kw;Wk; VBjh xU mh;j;jj;jpy; TLjy;
40
naw;ifahdJ. Vw;Wf;bfhs;s nayhj thf;fpaA;fis xUth; tpyf;f KaYth; kw;Wk;
fUj;jhlypd; BghJ mij TLjy; Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;Toa khWgl;l xd;why; nlk;bgah;g;gh;.
“Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;ToaJ (acceptable)“ vd;wf; fUj;Jr;rhaiy “nyf;fzj;jd;ikahdJ”
vd;gJld; FHg;gpf;bfhs;sf; TlhJ. Vw;Wf;bfhs;sf;ToaJ bray;jpwd; Ma;itr; rhh;e;jJ
nyf;fzj;jd;dikahdJ vd;gJ mwpjpwd; Ma;itr; rhh;e;jJ.
Bkw;brhd;d thf;fpaA;fspy; gpd;tUk; BtWgl;l mikg;g[fspd; tiffis
BtWgLj;jyhk;:
m. bjhLj;jy; fl;Lfs; (nested constructions)
M. jd; cl;gilf; fl;Lfs; (self-embedded constructions)
n. gy;fpisf; fl;Lfs; (multiple-branching constructions)
N. nlJ fpisf; fl;Lfs; (left-branching construcitons)
c. tyJ fpisf; fl;Lfs; (right-branching constructions)
bray;jpwd; kPJ nt;thf;fpa mikg;gpd; Bkk;Bghf;fhd Behf;Ffspd;; tpist[ Mf;fKiw
nyf;fzj;jpd; bjhlf;fj;jpypUe;Bj Ma;tpd; jiyg;ghf mike;jJ Vw;Wf;bfhs;tijj;
jPh;khdpg;gjpy; mtw;wpd; gA;fspg;g[ Fwpj;j rpy MByhridahf mika[k; cw;WBehf;Ffs;
nUf;fpd;wd. RUf;fkhf, gpd;tUk; cw;WBehf;Ffs; rhj;jpakhdjhfj; bjhpfpd;wd:
1. jpUk;gj;jpUk;g epfGk; bjhLj;jy; Vw;Wf;bfhs;stpayhikf;Fg; gA;fspg;g[ bra;a[k;.
2. jd;dpay; cl;gil nd;Dk; TLjy; Vw;Wf;bfhs;stpayhikf;Fg; gA;fspg;g[ bra;a[k;;.
3. gy;fpisf; fl;Lf;Ffs; Vw;Wf;bfhs;stpayhikapy; Fiwthfg; gA;fspg;g[ bra;a[k;.
4. ePz;l kw;Wk; fyitj;jd;ikahd jdpkk; Vw;Wf;bfhs;tijf; Fiwf;Fk;.
5. nlJ fpisf;fl;L my;yJ tyJ fpisf; fl;L vd;gij kl;Lk; cl;gLj;Jk;
Vw;Wf;bfhs;stpayhikapd; bjspthd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfs; ny;iy.
2.2.1.3. Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd; mikg;ghf;fk;
rhk;!;fpapd; bfhs;ifg;go xU Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; vz;zpf;ifapwe;j mikg;g[fis
cUthf;fBtz;o kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; gad;gLj;j naYk; tpjpfspd; xU xGA;FkiwahFk;. ne;j
tpjpfspd; mikg;bghGA;if xU Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd; K}d;W Kf;fpa cl;TWfshf
Mayhk;: bjhlhpay; cl;TW, xypadpay; cl;TW kw;Wk; bghUz;ikapay; cl;TW.
bjhlhpay; cl;TW mUtj;jd;ikahd totg; bghUl;fspd; (abstract formal objects) xU
vy;iyaw;w FGkkhFk; xt;bthd;Wk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l thf;fpaj;jpd; xU bghUs;BfhSf;Fj;
Bjitahd vy;yhj; jffy;fisa[k; cs;slf;fp nUf;Fk;. nA;F “thf;fpak;” vd;gJ xypfspd;
Bfhh;itiaf; Fwpg;gplhky; tothf;fpfspd; Bfhh;itia Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ. xU nyf;fzj;jpd;
xypadpay; cl;TW bjhlhpay; tpjpfshy; Mf;fg;gl;l thf;fpaA;fspd; xyp toitj;
jPh;khdpf;fpd;wJ. mjhtJ, mJ bjhlhpay; cl;Twhy; Mf;fg;gl;l mikg;ig
xypaog;gilapy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l FwpaPl;Lld; bjhlh;g[ gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
bghUz;ikapay; cl;TW xU thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;Bfhisj; jPh;khdpf;fpd;wJ.
xypadpay; cl;TWk; bghUz;ikapay; cl;TWk; btspg;gLj;Jk; cl;TWfshFk; (interpretive
component). xt;bthd;Wk; tothf;fpfis fUj;jpw;bfhz;l bjhlhpay; cl;Twhy; jug;gLk;
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jftiy mtw;wpd; kug[hpikahd jd;ikfshft[k; jug;gl;l xU thf;fpaj;jpy;
mtw;wpw;fpilBaa[s;s cwt[fshft[k; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wd. njd; tpisthf xU nyf;fzj;jpy;
bjhlhpay; cl;TW xt;bthU thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; mjd; bghUz;ikapy; btspg;gLj;jj;ij
(bghUs;Bfhis) jPh;khdpf;Fk; xU mf mikg;iga[k; mjd; xypapay; btspg;gLj;jj;ij
jPh;khdpf;Fk; g[w mikg;iga[k; Fwpg;gplBtz;Lk;. ntw;wpy; KjyhtJ bghUz;ikapay;
cl;Twhy; btspg;gLj;jg;glBtz;Lk; nuz;lhtJ xypadpay; cl;Twhy;
btspg;gLj;jg;glBtz;Lk;.
g[w mikg;g[k; mf mikg;g[k; vg;BghJk; xd;whf nUf;fBtz;Lk; vd;W vz;ztpaYk;.
cz;ikapy;, jw;fhy mikg;g[ bkhHpapaypy; (tifg;ghl;L bkhHpapay; (taxonomic linguistics))
cUthd bjhlh;gpay; Bfhl;ghLfis ehk; mfmikg;g[k; g[w mikg;g[k; cz;ikapy;
xd;whdit vd;w mDkhdj;jpd; mog;gilapy; vGe;jitfshfg; gz;ghf;fk; bra;aBtz;Lk;.
khw;wpyf;fzj;jpy; mit bghJthf BtWgl;lit g[w mikg;g[ xU TLjy; bjhlf;ftifg;
bghUl;fspd; (objects) kPJ “nyf;fz khw;wA;fs; (grammatical transformations)” vd;w Fwpg;gpl;l
tot[rhh; brad;ikfspd; kPz;Lk; epfGk; gpuBahfj;jhy; jPh;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. nJ
cz;ikbad;why; bjhlhpay; cl;TW xt;bthU thf;fpaA;fSf;Fk; mf mikg;iga[k; g[w
mikg;iga[k; cUthf;fBtz;Lk; mtw;wpw;fpilBa bjhlh;g[ Vw;gLj;jBtz;Lk;. bka;ikahd
tothf;fpfspd; Bfhh;itapd; mz;ika[Wg;g[ Ma;t[ (gyg;gLj;jg;gl;l milg;g[f;Fwpaply;)
mfmikg;ig tpsf;f BghJkhdjhf nUe;jhYk; mfmikg;ig tpsf;fg; BghJkhdjy;y.
nA;F mf;fiwahf vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gLtJ mf mikg;g[k; mij cUthf;Fk; bjhlf;fepiyg;
bghUl;fSk; MFk;.
bjhlhpay; cl;Twpd; mog;gil, mjpff; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l (Kw;W) mog;gilf;
Bfhh;itfspd; FGkj;ij (set of basic strings) cUthf;Fk; tpjpfspd; xGA;FKiwahFk;
xt;bthd;Wk; mog;gil bjhlh; totk; (base phrase marker) vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;w
bjhlh;g[lila mikg;g[rhh; th;zidiaf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. nj;bjhlh; totA;fs; mf
mikg;g[fis cUthf;Fk; bjhlf;f myFfshFk;. rhk;!;fp mog;gilapd; tpjpfshy; ve;jg;
bghUz;ik kaf;fKk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy vd;W fUJfpd;whh;. xU bkhHpapd;
thf;fpaA;fspd; cs;Siwahf bjhlhpay; Twpd; mog;gilahy; cUthf;fg;gLk; mog;gilj;
bjhlh; totA;fspd; bjhlh;r;rp nUf;fpd;wJ. rhk;!;fp ne;j bjhlh;r;rpia mJ cs;Siw
bra;a[k; thf;fpaA;fspd; mog;gilahff; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whh;.
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd; bjhlhpay; TW mjd; mog;gila[ld; xU khw;W
Jizf;Tiwa[k; (transformational subcomponent) bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ. nJ xU thf;fpaj;ij
mjd; mog;gilapypUe;J mjd; g[w mikg;ig cUthf;FtJld; Mh;tk; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
mog;gil fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l xU FGk mog;gilj; bjhlh; totA;fis kl;Lk;
cUthf;Ftjhy; bgUk;ghyhd thf;fpaA;fs; cs;SWif mog;gilapy; mk;khjphpahd
bghUl;fispd; bjhlh;r;rpaiaf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. xU jdpepiy mog;gilj; bjhlh; toit
mog;gilahff; bfhz;l thf;fpaA;fSf;fpilapy; ehk; “tpj;J thf;fpaA;fs; (kernal sentences)”
vd;w bghUj;jkhd Jizf;FGkj;ij vy;iyg;gLj;j naYk;. nitfs; mtw;wpd;
cUthf;fypy; khw;Wf; fUtpapd; (transformational apparatus) Fiwe;jij cl;gLj;Jk; jdpepiy
tifapd; thf;fpaA;fshFk;. “tpj;J thf;fpaA;fs;” vd;w fUj;Jr;rhay; xU Kf;fpakhd
cs;Szh;t[ mog;gilapyhd Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ Mdhy; tpj;Jthf;fpaA;fs;
thf;fpaA;fspd; cUthf;fypByh bghUs;BfhspByh Fwpg;gplj;jf;f gA;fspg;g[ bra;ahjjd;
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fhuzkhf rhk;!;fp nijg;gw;wp nA;F TLjy; TwtpUk;g tpy;iy. ehk; tpj;Jthf;fpaA;fis
mtw;iw cs;Siw bra;a[k; mog;gil Bfhh;itfshff; fUjpf; FHk;gpf;bfhs;sf;TlhJ.
mog;gil Bfhh;itfSk; mog;gil bjhlh; totA;fSk; bkhHpg;gad;ghl;oy; jdpg;gl;l kw;Wk;
Kf;fpakhd gA;fspg;g[ bra;fpd;wd.
rhk;!;fpapd; Aspects khjphpiag; gpd;tUkhW RUf;fkhfj; juyhk;:
bghUz;ikapay;
mf mikg;g[ bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
khw;W tpjpfs;
g[w mikg;g[
xypadpay; tpjpfs;
xyptot[
2.2.1.4. nyf;fzA;fspd; epahak;
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd; bjhlhpay; Tiwg; gw;wp Ma;tjw;F Kd; epahak; (justification)
kw;Wk; epiwt[ (adequacy) Fwpj;J vz;ZtJ Kf;fpakhFk;. KjyhtJ vt;thW xUth; BgRgth;-
Bfl;gthpd; mwpjpwida[k; mtuJ bkhHpapd; mwpita[k; bgWtJ vd;w Bfs;tp tUfpd;wJ. nJ
Beuoahf cw;WBehf;fpw;FBtz;o jug;glBth ve;j tifapyhd tpjptUKiw bray;Kiwfshy;
(inductive procedures) jutpypUe;J vLf;fj;jf;fBjh my;y. bjspthf, bkhHpr; bray;jpwdpd;
bka;ahd jut[ cs;SW bkhHpaikg;igg; gw;wpa fUJBfhs;fspd; rhpahd jd;ikiaj;
jPh;khdpg;gjw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfisj; jUfpd;wJ. JujpU&;l trkhf bkhHp mikg;gpd;
cz;ikfisg; gw;wp ek;gj;jFe;j jftiyg; bgw epiwthd totkhf;fk;bra;aj;jf;f cj;jpfs;
ny;iy.
bjhlhpay; cl;TW
khw;wA;fs;
mf mikg;g[
g[w mikg;g[
bghUz;ik cl;TW
bghUz;ik vLj;;Jiug;g[
xypadpay; cl;TW
xyp vLj;Jiug;g[
43
xU nyf;fzj;ij xU bkhHpapd; Bfhl;ghlhff; fUjyhk; rPuhd jha;bkhHp BgRthpd;
cs;shh;e;j mwpjpwid rhpahf th;zid bra;a[k; vd;w mstpy; xU nyf;fzk; tUzid
epiwt[s;sjhFk;. nyf;fzj;jhy; thf;fpaA;fSf;Fj; jug;gLk; mikg;g[ tUzidfs;,
ey;tothf;f kw;Wk; gpwH;e;j vd;gjw;F nilapy; mJ bra;a[k; BtWghLfs; kw;Wk; gpw tUzid
epiwt[f;FBtz;o jha;bkhHpBgRghpd; bkhHp cs;Szt[ld; Kf;fpakhd Beh;t[fspd; fzprkhd
kw;Wk; Fwpg;gplj;jFe;j tFg;gpy; bghUe;jBtz;Lk;. bghpa mstpy; th;zid epiwit
mZFtJ mt;tst[ vspjpy;iy vd;whYk; nJ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; tpisthf;f
Kd;Bdw;wj;jpw;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jjhFk;. xU bkhHpiaf; fw;Wf;bfhz;l FHe;ij vt;thW
thf;fpaA;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd, gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd, g[hpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd
vd;gtw;iwj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; tpjpfspd; xGA;FKiwapd; mf cUg;gLj;jj;ij tsh;j;Jf;bfhs;Sk;.
jut[ mog;gilapy; FHe;ij xU nyf;fzj;ij (mjhtJ Kjd;ikahd bkhHpj; jutpd;
ey;cUthf;fg;gl;l thf;fpaA;fs; xU rpwpa khjphpahf nUf;Fk; bkhHpapd; Bfhl;ghl;il)
cUthf;Fk; bkhHpiaf; fw;gjw;Ff; FHe;ijf;F Kjd;ik bkhHpj; jutpypUe;J xU bghUj;jkhd
nyf;fzj;ij Mf;f tHpKiw nUf;fBtz;Lk;. bkhHp fw;wYf;F xU Kd;fl;Lg;ghlhf FHe;ij
Kjyhtjhf xU rhj;jpakhd kdpj bkhHpapd; nyf;fz totj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLk; bkhHpapay;
Bfhl;ghl;ila[k; nuz;lhtjhf Kjd;ik bkhHpj; jut[ld; niae;j bghUj;jkhd totj;jpd; xu
nyf;fzj;ij Bjh;e;bjLf;f xU eltof;ifKiwiaa[k; bfhz;oUf;fBtz;Lk;.
xUbkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL Kjd;ikahd bkhHpj;; jut[ mog;gilapy; xU th;zid
epiwt[s;s nyf;fzj;ijj; Bjh;e;bjLf;ifapy; btw;wpbgWk; msitg; bghWj;J mJ tpsf;f
epiwtpd; fl;Lg;ghl;il epiwt[bra;fpwJ vdyhk;. mjhtJ, ne;j mst[f;F jd;dplk; jug;gl;l
rhd;iwf; ifahs xU Fwpg;gpl;l tiff; Bfhl;ghl;il cUthf;f Btz;o FHe;ijapd;
cs;Siwa[k; Kd;kdepiyiar; rhh;e;j mDgt Kw;Bfhspd; mog;gilapy; xU jha;bkhHp
BgRgthpd; cs;Szh;t[f;F tpsf;fk; jUk;.
xU nyf;fzk; gy epiyfspy; epiwit va;jyhk;. nyf;fzk; Behf;fg;gl;l/
Mag;gl;l jut[it rhpahf btspg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ vd;why; mJ Fiwe;j epiyapy; epiwit
va;jpa[s;sJ vdyhk;. Behf;fg;gl;l thf;fpaA;fs; my;yJ Kd;jut[ (primary data) ntw;iw
fzpf;Fk; bkhHpapay; tpsf;fk; jut[ epiwt[ cs;sJ. mjhtJ Behf;fg;gl;l juitg;gw;wp
tpsf;fk; je;jhy; mt;tpyf;fzj;jpw;F jut[ epiwt[ (observational adequacy) nUf;fpwJ vd;W
bghUs;. njd;go xU nyf;fztpsf;fj;jhh; Mag;gl;l juit kPwpr; bry;y Btz;oa Bjit
ny;iy. xypad;fs;, mtw;wpd; tUif Kiw kw;Wk; epfH;btz; gw;wpa tpsf;fKk; cUgd;fs;
kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tUif Kiw gw;wpa tpsf;fKk; thf;fpaA;fspd; mikg;g[ Fwpj;;;j mz;ik
cWg;g[fs; mog;gilapyhd bjhlhpay; tpsf;fKk; jut[ epiwtpd; Bjitiag; g{h;jpbra;a[k;
vdyhk;.
xU tpsf;fk; xU rPhpa jha;bkhHp BgRBthhpd; mwpjpwid btspg;gilahff; fhl;o
cstpay; Behf;fpy; jutpd; Fzk; je;jhy; mJ tUzid epiwt[ (descriptive adequacy) cs;sJ
vd;W Twyhk;. tUzid epiwt[ vd;w cah;epiyia mila nyf;fz tpsf;fk; juita[k;
jhz;or; brd;W jha;bkhHp BgRghpd; bkhHp Fwpj;j cs;Szh;tpd; rhpahd fzpg;igj;
juBtz;Lk;. Behf;fg;gl;l jut[ cs;Siw mikg;gpd; rPuhd jd;ikfis btspg;gLj;Jk;
bghJikfis totikf;Fk; nyf;fztpayhh; khjphp kl;LBkahFk;. th;zid epiwt[s;s
nyf;fzk; nay;ghd BgRgthpd; bkhHprhh;e;j cs;Szh;tpd; rhpahd fzpg;igj;
juBtz;Lkhjyhy;, mJ Kjypy; Behf;fg;gl;l thf;fpak; rhpahdjh ny;iyah vd;gijj;
44
jPh;khdpf;f Btz;Lk;. jut[ epiwitg; g{h;jpbra;a[k; nyf;fzk; ne;j BtWghl;ilr;
bra;aBtz;lhk;. Vbdd;why; mjd; Behf;fk; Behf;fg;gl;l juit tpsf;FtJjhd;. thf;fpak;
rhpahdjh vd;w Bfs;tpia vGg;ghJ. vLj;Jfhl;lhf, gpd;tUk; thf;fpak; nyf;fz
mog;gilapy; rhpahdJ my;yJ jtwhdJ vd;gijj; jut[ epiwt[ cs;s nyf;fzk;
tpsf;fhJ.
taypy; gj;J gR Bka;fpd;wJ.
Bkw;brhd;d thf;fpak; cld;ghl;il kPWtjhy; nay;ghd BgRgtUf;F nJ nyf;fz
mog;gilapy; jtwhdJ vd;W bjhpa[k;. vdBt th;zid epiwt[s;s nyf;fzk; nij
tpsf;fyhfhJ. Mdhy; mJ gpd;tUk; thf;fpak; jutpy; ny;yhtpl;lhYk; mJ nyf;fz
mog;gilapy; rhpahdJ vd;w fhuzj;jhy; mij tpsf;fBtz;Lk;.
taypy; gj;J gRf;fs; Bka;fpd;wd.
jut[ vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l thf;fpaA;fisj;jhd; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. Mdhy; th;zid epiwit
Behf;fkhf; bfhz;l nyf;zk; xU bkhHpapd; rhj;jpakhd vy;yh nyf;fz thf;fpaA;fisa[k;
tpsf;fBtz;Lk;. xU bkhHpapd; thf;fpaA;fs; vz;zpylA;fhjJ vd;gij ehk; mwpBthk;.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fSf;F xBu mikg;g[ nUe;jhYk; mit jha;bkhHp BgRguhy; Btwhfg;
g[hpe;J bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd.
uhkdJ tUif
uhkdJ g[j;jfk;
th;zid epiwt[s;s nyf;fzk; nt;tpU bjhlh;fSf;Fk; nilBa cs;s BtWghl;il
fhl;lBtz;Lk;. tUif vd;gJ tU vd;w tpidapypUe;J bgwg;gLtJ, Mdhy; g[j;jfk; vd;gij
nt;thW tpidapypUe;J bgw nayhJ. uhkd; tUfpwhd; vd;W Twyhk; Mdhy;, *uhkd;
g[j;jfpf;fpwhd; vd;W Tw nayhJ. uhkdplk; g[j;jfk; nUf;fpwJ vd;W Twyhk; Mdhy;
uhkdplk; tUif nUf;fpwJ vd;W Tw nayhJ. uhkDf;Fk; tUiff;Fk; vGtha;
cwtpUf;fpd;wJ. mj;jifa cwt[ uhkDf;Fk; g[j;jfj;jpw;Fk; ny;iy. gpd;tUk;
thf;fpaA;fSf;F xBu mikg;g[ jUfpw nyf;fzk; jut[ epiwt[s;s nyf;fzkhFk;.
nJ uhkdpd; g[j;jfk;.
nJ rhk;!;fpapd; g[j;jfk;
nJ kzpthrfh; g[j;jfk;
Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; uhkd; g[j;jfj;jpw;F chpikahsh;. nuz;lhk; thf;fpaj;jy; rhk;!;fp
gilg;ghsp. K}d;whk; thf;fpaj;jpy; kzpthrfh; g[j;jfj;ijbtspapLgth;. xBu mikg;g[
nUg;gjha; fUjg;gLfpd;w thf;fpaA;fs; Btwhfg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. th;zid epiwt[s;s
nyf;fzk; ne;jg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;iff;Fg; gpd;dhy; nUf;Fk; mwpit btspg;gLj;j Btz;Lk;. fhh;
chpikahsUk; fhBuhl;oa[k; fhiu vdJ fhh; vd;Bw Fwpg;gpLfpd;wdh;. Bfl;gth; mij ‘vdf;F
chpikahd fhh;’ vd;Bwh ‘ehd; Xl;Lk; fhh;’ vd;Bwh R{Hiyf; bfhz;L g[hpe;J
bfhs;fpd;wdh;.
jha;bkhHp BgRgh; rpy thf;fpaA;Sf;F xd;wpw;F Bkw;gl;l bghUs;fs; nUf;fpd;wd
vd;gij mwpth;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf,
45
Bfl;l ghly;fis xyp gug;gpdhh;fs;
nJ ‘bjhpt[bra;j ghliy xyp gug;gpdhh;fs;’ vd;Wk; ‘Kd;dh; fhjhy; Bfl;l ghliy xyp
gug;gpdhh;fs;’ vd;Wk; nuz;L bghUs;jUtij rPhpa jha;bkhHp BgRgth; mwpthh;. th;zid
epiwit va;jpa nyf;fzA;fs; nj;jif rPhpa jha;bkhHp BgRghpd; mwpit rhpahf
tpsf;Ftjhy; mit btspg;gilahf epahag;gLj;jg;gl;lJ (externally justified) vdyhk;.
cl;gilahf epahag;gLj;jg;gl;l (internally justified) nyf;fzk; nd;Dk; cah;e;j
epiyahd tpsf;f epiwit va;jBtz;Lk;. vy;yh bkhHpfSf;Fk; bghJthd gz;g[f;TWfis
tpsf;fp gy nyf;fzA;fspypUe;J xU nyf;fzj;ijj; Bjh;e;jbjLg;gjw;F kjpg;gPl;Lr;
bray;Kiwfisj; (evaluation measures) je;J mBjrkak; nUf;fhj kw;Wk; nUf;f nayhj
jut[tiffis tUtJiuf;fpd;w Bfhl;ghL tpsf;f epiwt[ (evaluation adequacy) cs;sJ vd;W
Twyhk;. xU Bfhl;ghL bghJikj; jd;ika[ilajha; nUf;fBtz;Lk; Mdhy;
kpfg;bghJikahdjha; nUf;fyhfhJ. xU bkhHpapd; BtWgl;l nyf;fzA;fis xg;gpl;L
cyfg;bghJik mog;gilapy; ve;j nyf;fzj;ijj; Bjh;e;bjLg;gJ vd;w El;gk; (device) mjpy;
nUf;fBtz;Lk;. bkhHp cyfg;bghJikfisf; Fwpf;Bfhshf vLj;Jf;bfhz;l khw;wpyf;fz
Mf;fKiwf; Bfhl;ghL Bghd;w Bfhl;ghl;oy; tpsf;f epiwt[ cs;sJ. Bkw;brhd;d Fwpf;Bfhis
mile;j Bfhl;ghL kdpjbkhHpfspd; rhj;jpakhd BtWghl;L vy;iyfisa[k; fzpjk; my;yJ
fzpg;bghwp Bghd;wtw;wpy; Bjitg;gLk; braw;if bkhHpfspypUe;Jk; tpyA;fpdA;fspd;
fUj;Jg;ghpkhw;wk; Bghd;w gpw fUJg;ghpkhw;wA;fspy; nUe;Jk; BtWgLj;Jfpd;w naw;if
bkhHpfspd; gz;g[f;TWfisa[k; tUtJiuf;f naYk; Bfhl;ghlhFk;.
Bkw;brhd;d K}d;W epiwt[fisa[k; BtWgLj;j gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfisf; Twyhk;.
jkpH; vd;w brhy; nUf;fpd;wJ. kpjH; vd;w brhy; ny;iy. jkpH; vd;w brhy;iy kl;Lk;
cUthf;Fk; nyf;fzk; jut[ epiwt[ epiyia va;jptpl;lJ vdyhk;. kpjH; jkpH;r; brhy;yhf
ny;iy vd;whYk; jkpH; xypadpay; mog;gilapy; rhj;jpakhd brhy;yhFk;. th;zid epiwt[
epiyia va;jpa nyf;fzk; jkpH; vd;w brhy;iya[k; kpjH; vd;w brhy;iya[k; cUthf;Ftjw;fhd
bghJ tpjpiaj; jUtBjhL H;jk vd;gJ jkpH;r; brhy; my;y vd;gija[k; bjspt[gLj;j
Btz;Lk;. jkpHpy; brhy; bjhlf;fj;jpy; H; tuhJ vd;w tpjp H;jk vd;gjd; cUthf;fj;ijj;
jil bra;a[k;. tpsf;f epiwit va;jpa[s;s nyf;fzk; H;jk vd;w brhy; tuhjjw;fhd
xypadpay; mog;gilapyhd xU FGk tpjpfis kjpg;gPLbra;a kjpg;gPl;L mstPl;ilj;
juBtz;Lk;.
gpd; tUk; bjhlhpay; vLj;Jf;fhl;il vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;.
uhkd; jhd; goj;j ghlj;ijr; brhd;dhd;
uhkd; jhd; ghoa bra;jpiar; brhd;dhd;
jut[ epiwit va;jpa nyf;fzk; Bkw;brhd; nU thf;fpaA;fSf;Fk; xBu mikg;g[
tptuiziaj; jUk;.
bgbjh-bgbjh-bgv-Btbjh-tp
46
th;zid epiwit va;j, nyf;fzk; Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; bra;j vr;rj;ijj; bjhlh;e;J tUk;
Btw;Wikj;bjhlh; tpidapd; gA;Bfw;ghsh; Mjyhy; mt;btr;rj;bjhlh;; bgabur;rj; bjhlh;
vd;Wk; nuz;lhtJ thf;fpaj;jpy; bra;j vr;rj;ijj; bjhlh;e;J tUk; Btw;Wikj;bjhlh; epug;gp
Mifahy; mt;btr;rj;bjhlh; epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlh; vd;Wk; th;zid bra;ag;gl Btz;Lk;.
tpsf;f epiwit va;j bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL xU FGk nyf;fzA;fspd; tpsf;fA;fspypUe;J
rhpahdijj; Bjh;e;bjLf;ff; bfhs;if juBtz;Lk;.
2.2.1.5. tot kw;Wk; rhh;g[epiyaw;w cyfg; bghJikfs;
tpsf;f epiwit Fwpf;Bfhshff; bfhz;l bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd; Bfhl;ghL
bkhHpg;bghJikapd; tpsf;fj;ij cl;gLj;Jk; kw;Wk; ne;j cyfg;bghJikfspd; El;g mwpitf;
FHe;ijf;Fr; Rkj;Jk;. FHe;ij Fwpg;gpl;l Kd;djhf ed;F tpsf;fg;gl;l tifr;rhh;e;j xU
bkhHpapypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;w Kd;dDkhdj;Jld; juit mZFfpd;wJ mjd; rpf;fy;
vd;dbtd;why; mJ itf;fg;gLk; rKjhaj;jpd; rhj;jpakhd bkhHpfspy; vjpypUe;J vd;gijj;
jPh;khdpg;gjhFk;. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; Kf;fpar; bray;ghL xUgf;fk; bkhHpg;;
bghJikfspd; tpsf;fj;ij cUthf;FtJ bkhHpfspd; cz;ikahd BtWghl;lhy;
bgha;gpf;fg;gLtjpy;iy kw;Wk; kw;bwhUgf;fk; bkhHpfw;wypd; tpiuita[k; rPuhd jd;ikiaa[k;
kw;Wk; bkhHp fw;wypd; tpisbghUshf mika[k; Mf;fKiw nyf;fzA;fspd; Twj;jf;f
fyitj;jd;ik kw;Wk; gug;bgy;iy tpsf;fg; BghJkhd mst[ tsikahft[k; kw;Wk;
btspg;gilahft[k; nUf;Fk;.
bkhHpg;bghJikfspd; Ma;t[ xU naw;if bkhHpapd; ve;j Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd;
nay;g[fshFk;.
2.2.1.6. tUzid kw;Wk; tpsf;ff; Bfhl;ghLfisg;gw;wp TLjy; bra;jpfs;
ehk; bkhHpf;F “bkhHpg;BgW khjphp (acquisition model)” vd;gjd; fl;likg;ig fUj;jpy;
bfhs;Bthk;. bkhHpiaf; fw;ftpaYk; FHe;ij gpd;tUtdtw;iwf; bfhz;oUf;fBtz;Lk;:
1. cs;sPl;Lf; FwpaPLfis cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a[k; cj;jp
2. bkhHp mikg;gigg; gw;wp rhj;jpakhd fUJBfhs;fspd; tFg;gpd; rpy Muk;g
tiuaiw vy;iy
3. xt;bthU thf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; mk;khjphpahd xt;bthU fUJBfhSk; vij
cl;fPilbra;a[k; vd;gijj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; tHpKiw
4. (3)-My; mDkjpf;fg;gl;l kw;Wk; jug;gl;l Kjd;ikahd bkhHpj; jut[ld;
niag[ila fUJBfhs;fspy; xd;iwj; Bjh;e;bjLf;Fk; tHpKiw
ntw;wpw;Fg; bghUj;jkhf, tpsf;f epiwit nyf;fhff; bfhz;l bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd;
Bfhl;ghL gpd;tUtdtw;iwf; bfhz;oUf;fBtz;Lk;:
1. “rhj;jpakhd thf;fpaA;fs;” vd;w fUj;Jr; rhaiy tpsf;ft[iu bra;a[k; cyf;bghJ
xypapay; Bfhl;ghL
2. “mikg;g[ tUzid” vd;gjd; tpsf;ft[iu
3. “Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; vd;gjd; tpsf;ft[iu
47
4. xU nyf;fzk; jug;gLifapy;, xU thf;fpaj;jpd; mikg;g[ tUzidiaj;
jPh;khdpf;Fk; tHpKiw
5. khWgl;l Kd;bkhHpag;gl;l nyf;fzA;fis kjpg;gPL bra;a[k; xU tHp
nf;fl;Lg;ghLfis epiwt[bra;a[k; xU Bfhl;ghL gpd;tUk; tHpapy; bkhHp fw;wiy tpsf;f
KaYk;. KjyhtJ Kjd;ikahd bkhHpj; jut[ vd;gijf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;. nJ
thf;fpaA;fisg; gw;wp vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l mst[ jfty;fisf; bfhz;oUf;Fk; BkYk; fhy
tiuaiwg; bghWj;J mjd; gad; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;ljhft[k; juk; Fiwe;jjhft[k; nUf;Fk;. 1-
nypUe;J 4-tiua[s;s fl;Lg;ghLfis epiwt[bra;a[k; xU bkhHpg;BgW cghak; (language
acquisition device) bkhHp fw;gjw;F mDgt mog;gilapyhd Kjd;ikahd bkhHpj; juthfg;
gad;gLj;jtpaYk;. nt;tHpapy; xU bkhHpia Nl;oa FHe;ij mJ fw;Wf;bfhz;lijf; fhl;oYk;
TLjyhf mwpa[k;. bkhHp Fwpj;j mjd; mwpt[ mjd; mfepiyahf;fk; bra;ag;gl;l
nyf;fzj;jhy; jPh;khdpf;fg; gLtjhy; Kjd;ik bkhHpj; jutpy; jug;gl;lija[k; jhz;or;
bry;fpd;wJ.
bkhHpfw;wpypd; nt;tpsf;fj;ij, fl;Lg;ghLfs; 1-5-I epiwt[bra;a[k;; bkhHpapay;
Bfhl;ghl;lhy; tHpfhl;lg;gl;l bkhHpapayhh; vt;thW jug;gl;l Kjd;ik bkhHpj; jutpd;
mog;gilapy; xU bkhHpf;Ff; fl;likf;Fk; xU nyf;fzj;ij epahag;gLj;Jthh; vd;gjd;
tUzidahfg; bgah;g[iu bra;atpaYk;. bkhHp Nl;lj;jpw;F Kjd;ik bkhHpj;jut[ Bjitg;gLk;
BtWgl;l tHpfis BtWgLj;jBtz;Lk; vd;gjpy; ftdkhf nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
xU bkhHpia Nl;l xU FHe;ij jug;gl;l jut[ld; niag[ila xU fUJBfhis
mikf;fBtz;Lk; mJ Mw;wy;kpf;f nyf;fzA;fspypUe;J mjw;Fj; jug;gl;l jut[f;Fg;
bghUj;jkhff; Fwpg;gpl;l xd;iwj; Bjh;e;bjLf;fBtz;Lk;.
2.2.1.7. kjpg;gPl;Lr; braw;ghA;Ffs;
nyf;fzA;fspd; kpjpg;gPl;Lr; bray;Kiwapd; (evaluation procedure) kjpg;g[epiy
bghUk;ghYk; jtwhfg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;J. Kjyhtjhf nk;khjphpahd mst[ Kd;Dhpikj;
jug;gl;ljy;y vd;gijj; bjspthfg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;sBtz;Lk;. khwhf nk;khjphpahd msitf;
fUJk; ve;j Kd;bkhHpg[k; bkhHpapd; nay;g[gw;wpa mDgtf; fUJBfhs; MFk;. nJ Ke;ija
thjA;fspypUe;J bjspthFk;. ek;kplk; 1-5 fl;Lg;ghLfis epiwt[bra;a[k; xU tUzidf;
Bfhl;ghL nUg;gjhf itj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;. D vd;w Kjd;ikj; jut[ jug;gLifapy; kjpg;gPl;L
mstpd; BtWgl;l bjhpt[fs;, D khjphpahf mika[k; bkhHpapd; khw;Wf; fUJBfhs;fSf;F
BtWgl;l juepiyfisj; jUk; vdBt D mog;gilapy; xU bkhHpiaf; fw;Fk; xUth; vt;thW
D-ny; ny;yhj g[jpa thf;fpaA;fisg; bghUs;Bfhs; bra;ath; vd;gJ Fwpj;j Kw;wpYk; BtWgl;l
CfA;fSf;Ff; bfhz;Lbry;Yk;. njd; tpisthf kjpg;gPl;L mstpd; bjhpt[ xU mDgt
tp&ak; Fwpg;gpl;l Kd;bkhHpg[fs; rhpahfBth jtwhfBth nUf;fyhk;.
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;ijg; gw;wpa E]y;fspy; thjplg;gLk; kjpg;gPl;L mst[fspd;
tiffs; BtWgl;l nyf;fzf; Bfhl;ghLfis xg;gpl gad;gLj;jtpayhJ vd;gJ btspg;il.
nk;khjphpahd msthy; xU tFg;g[ Kd;bkhHpag;gl;l nyf;fzA;fspypUe;J xU nyf;fzj;ij
kw;bwhU tFg;gpypUe;J xU nyf;fzj;Jld; xg;gpLtJ KGtJk; mh;j;jkw;wJ. khwhf
nt;tifapyhd kjpg;gPl;L mst[ tpsf;f epiwit nyf;fhff; bfhz;l nyf;fzj;jpd; xU
Fwpg;gpl;l Bfhl;ghl;od; Kf;fpakhd gFjp MFk;. bkhHpapd; Bghl;oapLk;
48
Bfhl;ghLfSf;fpilapy; bjhpt[ mog;gilahd Bfs;tpahFk; tUzid kw;Wk; tpsf;f
epiwt[fspd; mog;gilapy; vt;tst[ naYBkh mt;tst[ Kot[bra;aBtz;Lk;. Mdhy; nJ
tpsf;f epiwitg; bgw Btz;oa Kaw;rpapy; kjpg;gPl;L mstpd; gad;ghl;oy; cl;gLk;
Bfs;tpay;y.
tpsf;f mst[ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; “Bjitahd” gFjpah vd;w thjk; KGtJk;
mh;j;jkw;wJ. bkhHpapayhh; epahag;gLj;jiyf; Fwpj;j ve;j mf;fiwa[kpd;wp xU tHpapByh
kw;bwhU tHpapByh tUzidfis totikj;Jld; jpUg;jpaile;jhy; kw;Wk; mth; Fwpg;gpl;l
bkhHpfisg; gw;wpa cz;ikfspd; Ma;tpypUe;J naw;if bkhHpapd; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f jd;ikfspd;
Ma;t[f;Fg; Bghf tpUk;ghtpl;lhy;, xU kjpg;gPl;L bray;Kiwapd; fl;likg;g[k; tpsf;f epiwt[ld;
cwt[gLj;Jk; bjhlh;g[ila fUjy;fSk; mtiu mf;fiwbfhs;sr; bra;ahJ.
nyf;fzA;fSf;F kjpg;gPl;L msit fl;likg;gjpy; Kf;fpakhd rpf;fy; xU bkhHpiag;
gw;wpa ve;jg; bghJikahf;fA;fs; Kf;fpakhditfs; vd;gijj; jPh;;khdpg;gjhFk; kjpg;gPl;L
mst[ ntw;;wpw;F Mjut[jUk;gof;F Bjh;e;bjLf;fg;gl Btz;Lk;.
RUf;fkhf; Twpdhy;, bkhHpapd; ve;jj; jw;fhyf; Bfhl;ghLk; kpff; tuk;g[f;Fl;gl;l
fsA;fisj; jhz;o tpsf;f epiwit va;j nayhJ vd;gJ bjspt[. mjhtJ, ehk; bkhHp
fw;wypd; cz;ikfis tpsf;f BghJkhd mst[ tskhd kw;Wk; tpsf;fkhd tot kw;Wk;
rhh;g[epiyaw;w bkhHp cyfg;bghJikfspd; xGA;FKiwiaj; jUtjpypUe;J kpFe;j
J]uj;jpypUf;fpd;Bwhk;.
2.2.1.8. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghLk; bkhHp fw;wYk;
Ke;ija tpthjA;fspy; bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;od; rpy Fwpg;gpl;l rpf;fy;fs; xU
fUJBfhs;rhh; bkhHp Nl;l cghaj;jpd; fl;likg;igg; gw;wpa Bfs;tpfshf totikf;fg;gl;ld.
cs;sPl;il mikf;Fk; Kjd;ikj; jftiyg; gw;wpa[k; mk;khjphpahd cghaj;jpd; btspaPlhf
nUf;Fk; nyf;fzj;ijg; gw;wpa[k; TLjy; jfty;fisg; bgwtpaYk; Bfhl;ghl;lhsUf;F ne;j
cs;sPL-btspaPL cwit xd;wpizf;ftpaYk; xU cghaj;jpd; cs;shh;e;j jd;ikfisj;
jPh;khdpf;Fk; rpf;fy; nUf;Fk;.
tuyhw;W mog;gilapy; mwpt[ Nl;lj;jpd; rpf;fYf;F nuz;L mZFKiwfis ehk;
BtWgLj;jtpaYk; njpy; bkhHp Nl;lj;jpd; rpf;fy; xU rpwg;ghd kw;Wk; Fwpg;ghf jftYs;s
Beh;thFk;. mDgtthjj;jhhpd; mZFKiw Nl;l cghaj;jpd; mikg;g[ rpy Fwpg;gpl;l
bjhlf;f “g[wr;braw;ghA;F naf;fEl;gA;fSf;F (peripheral processing mechanism)”
vy;iygl;Ls;sJ .
mwpt[ Nl;lj;jpd; rpf;fYf;F kw;bwhU BtWgl;l mZFKiw csr;braw;ghA;Ffs; gw;wpa
gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhhpd; Kotpd; rpwg;g[g;gz;ghFk;. gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhhpd; mZFKiw g[wr;
braw;ghA;F naf;fbewpfSf;F mg;ghy; Nl;lg;gl;l mwptpd; totj;ijj; jPh;khdpf;Fk; gytif
cs;shh;e;j fUj;Jf;fSk; bfhs;iffSk; nUf;fpd;wd vd;W bfhs;Sfpd;wJ. RUf;fkhf
gFj;jt[thjj;jhhpd; Kot[ mwpt[ Nl;lj;jpw;fhd braw;ghA;FSk; naf;fbewpfSk; kl;Lk;jhd;
cs;sj;jpd; cs;shh;e;j jd;ikia mikf;fpd;wJ vd;W fUJfpd;wJ.
49
mDgtthjj;jhhpd; kw;Wk; gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhhpd; fUj;Jf;fs; Jy;ypakhf
BtWglj;jg;glBtz;Lk; vd;W Bjitapy;iy. nUg;gpDk; mwpt[ Nl;lj;jpd; rpf;fYf;F nt;tpU
kpf BtWgl;l mZFKiwfisa[k; BtWgLj;JtJ tuyhw;W mog;gilapy; rhpahdJk; mDkhd
mog;gilapy; kjpg;g[s;sJk; MFk;. Fwpg;gpl;l mDgtthjj;jhhpd; kw;Wk; gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhhpd;
fUj;Jf;fisr; RUf;fkhf;ftpaYk; gpd;dh; mwpt[ Nl;lj;ijg; gw;wpa btspg;gilahd
fUJBfhs;fshf (Fwpg;ghf bkhHp Nl;l cghaj;jpd; cs;shh;e;j mikg;igg; gw;wp) Kd;itf;f
naYk;. khw;wpyf;fzj;jpd; rkPgfhyf; Bfhl;ghLfspy; Kd;bkhHpag;gl;l gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhpd;
khw;WKiwa[ld; Kuz;ghLila tifg;ghl;oayhd (taxonomic) jw;fhy bkhHpapayhhpd; jut[-
braw;ghA;F mZFKiwia mDgthjj;jhhpd; fUj;J vd;W tUzid bra;tJ jtwy;y.
tifg;ghl;L bkhHpapay; (taxonomic linguistics), bghJbkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL xU bgUe;jutpypUe;J
xU bkhHpapd; nyf;fzj;ij eph;zapg;gjw;fhd bray;Kiwfspd; bjhFjpia kl;Lk;jhd;
bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ vd;w mDkhdj;jpy; mDgtthjkhFk;.
Kd;dh; Xust[f;F tpsf;fg;gl;l tifr;rhh;e;j kw;Wk; gpd;tUk; gFjpfspYk; Mf;fKiw
nyf;fzj;jpd; gpw Ma;t[fspYk; tpsf;fkhff; TWg;gLk; bghJ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL
csmikg;g[fspd; kw;Wk; braw;ghA;Ffspd; nay;igg; bghWj;jtiuapy; TLjyhf
gFj;jwpt[thjj;jhhpd; thh;g;gpd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l fUJBfhshff; fUjg;glBtz;Lk;.
RUf;fkhf bkhHp fw;wypd; Ma;t[ Fwpj;j jw;Bghija R{Hy; bgUg;ghYk;
gpd;tUtjhFk;. ek;kplk; bkhHp Nl;l khjphpapd; btspaPlhf nUf;fBtz;oa Mf;fKiw
nyf;fzA;fspd; gz;g[fisg;gw;wpa Fwpg;gpl;l msthd rhl;rp nUf;fpd;wJ. nr;rhl;rp
bkhHpapay; mikg;gpd; tifg;ghl;oay; fUj;Jfs; BghJkhdjy;y vd;Wk; nyf;fz mikg;gpd;
mwpt[ bkhHpapay;, cstpay; my;yJ jj;Jtapay; vd;gjw;Fs; nJtiu cUthf;fg;gl;l
gog;goahd vt;tif tpjptU brad;ikfspd; (inductive processes) (Twhf;Fjy;, ghFgLj;Jjy;,
nlg;bgah;r;rp bray;Kiwfs;, rl;lfA;fspd; Jisfspy; epug;g[jy;, bjhlh;g[gLj;jy;);
gpuBahfj;jhYk; tuhJ vd;Wk; bjspthff; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
Fwpg;gpl;l bkhHpfspd; mikg;g[, jdpegUf;F czh;t[s;s fl;Lg;ghL ny;yhj
fhuzpfshYk; rK}fj;jpw;F bjhpBth Rje;jpuBkh ny;yhj mf;fiwahYk; bgUk;ghYk;
jPh;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ng;BghJ nUf;fpw ey;y jfty;fspd; mog;gilapy; xU FHe;ij
mjdplk; jug;gl;l juit tpsf;f xU Fwpg;gpl;l tif khw;wpyf;fzj;ij (jplg;bghUs;fspd;
kPJ mjd; fl;g[y czh;t[ my;yJ BfhL kw;Wk; Bfhzk; vd;gjd; kPJ ftdk; vd;gijf;
fl;Lg;gLj;jtpaYk; vd;gijtplf; TLjyhff;) fl;likf;Fk; vd;W mDkhdpg;gJ epahakhdJ.
2.2.1.9. Mf;fj; jpwd; kw;Wk; mjd; bkhHpapay; bghUj;jk;
bkhHp mikg;gpd; tUzidf; Bfhl;ghL jug;gLk; BghJ, ehk; mjd; tYtw;w
cUthf;fj;jpwid mjd; tYthd cUthf;fj;jpwdpypUe;J BtWgLj;jyhk;. tYthd
cUthf;fj;jpwd; tUzid epiwt[ Ma;t[ld; bjhlh;g[ilaJ. xU nyf;fzk; mikg;g[
tUzidapd; rhpahd FGkj;ij tYthf cUthf;fpdhy; mJ tUzid epiwt[s;sjhFk;. xU
Bfhl;ghl;od; tYthd cUthf;fj; jpwd; xt;bthU naw;if bkhHpf;Fk; mikg;g[
tUzidfspd; xGA;FKiwia cl;gLj;jpdhy; mf;Bfhl;ghL tUzid epiwt[s;sJ MFk;
my;yhtpoy; mJ tUzid epiwtw;wjhFk;. nt;thW tYthd cUthf;fj;jpwdpd; epiwtpd;ik
mDgthjj;jpd; mog;gilapy; bkhHpapd; Bfhl;ghL kpff; Fiwa[s;sjhFk; vd;W fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
50
rpyFwpg;gpl;l Xust[f;Fj; bjhlf;ff; Bfhl;ghLfs; (Fwpg;ghf, R{Hy;Rje;jpukhd
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzKk; Kw;Wepiy nyf;fzj;jpd; tYtw;w Bfhl;ghLk; Tl)
naw;ifbkhHpapd; tUzidf;Fj; Bjitahd tYtw;w Mf;fj;jpwidf; bfhz;oUf;tpy;iy
nt;thW Fwpgpl;l Mr;rhpag;glj;jf;f tHpapy; epiwtpd; ghpBrhjidapy; Bjhy;tpa[Wfpd;wJ. ne;j
cw;WBehf;fpypUe;J ehk; bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghL nyf;fz mikg;gpd; TLjy; epiwt[ws;s
fUj;jhf;fjpw;F Kd;BdWfpd;wJ, mJ rpytp&aA;fspy; kpff; FiwghLs;s xGA;fikg;g[fspypUe;J
BtWgLfpd;w tYtw;w Mf;fj; jpwDs;s cghaA;fis mDkjpf;Fk; vd;W Kot[bra;aBtz;Lk;.
Kf;fpakhdf; ftdpf;f Btz;oaJ vd;dbtd;why; ne;j xGA;fikg;g[fspd; mog;gilahd
FiwghL tYtw;w Mf;fj;jpwdpy; mtw;wpd; tuk;gy;y khwhf tYthd Mf;fj; jpwdpy;
mtw;wpd; gy epiwtpd;ikahFk;. KG epiwthd Bfhl;ghl;od; cUthf;fj;jpy; Kf;fpa fhuzp
rhj;jpakhd nyf;fzA;fspd; tFg;g[fspd; tuk;ghFk;. bjspthf nt;tuk;g[ tYthd jpwdpd;
kPJ mDgt fl;Lg;ghLfis BehplBtz;Lk; BkYk; bghUj;jkhd kjpg;gPl;L mst[
cUthf;fg;gLifapy; tpsf;f epiwtpd; fl;Lg;ghl;il mDkjpf;fBtz;Lk;. nijj;jhz;oa
rpf;fy; vd;dbtd;why; “Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;ij” tiwaiwa[iu bra;a[k; tiut[j;jpl;lj;jpd;
kPJ BghJkhd mst[ mikg;igr; Rkj;jBtz;Lk; njdhy; Kjd;ik bkhHpj; jut[
jug;gLifapy; xj;jwp mog;gilapy; rpy fUJBfhs;fs; kjpg;gPl;L msthy;
ghpBrhjpf;fg;glBtz;Lk;.
RUf;fkhf nyf;fzA;fspd; totj; jd;ikfspd; fzpj Ma;t[ TLjy; tYt[s;s
bkhHpapaypd; gug;ghFk; rhj;jpaKs;sJ. nJ mDg Mh;tj;jpd; Bfs;tpfSf;F cs;Behf;if
Vw;fdBt je;Js;sJ xU fhyj;jpy; MHkhd cs;Behf;ifj; juyhk;.
2.2.2. bjhlhpay; Bfhl;ghl;oy; tifg;ghLfSk; cwt[fSk;
2.2.2.1. mog;gilf;Twpd; Behf;fk;
ehk; vt;thW Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk; xGA;fikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;w rPuhf;fk; kw;Wk;
tphpf;fhf;fk; Fwpj;j gpur;ridf;Fj; jpUk;g[Bthk;. ehk; bjhlhpay; Twpd; mog;gilf;Twpd;
totj; jd;ikfisf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;Bthk;. vdBt ehk; nA;F kpf vspa thf;fpaA;fspy;jhd;
Kjd;ikahf mf;fiw fhl;LBthk;.
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzj;jpd; Ma;it kugpyf;fzj;jpy; jug;gl;Ls;s jftypd; tifapd;
ftdkhd Ma;t[ld; bjhlhA;fyhk;. nij Cfr; bray;Kiwahf; iff;bfhz;L, kugpyf;fzk;
gpd;tUk; MA;fpy thf;fpaj;ijg; gw;wp vd;d TWfpd;wJ vd;gijf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;Bthk;:
(1) siencerity might firghten the boy ne;j thf;fpaj;ijg; gw;wp kugpyf;fzk; gpd;tUk; tifj; jftiyj; jUk;:
(2) (m) vd;w Bfhh;it xU thf;fpak; (th) MFk; frighten the boy vd;gJ xU
tpidj;bjhlh; nJ frighten vd;w tpidiaa[k; (tp), the boy vd;w bgah;j;bjhliua[k;
(bgbjh) bfhz;oUf;Fk; sincerity vd;gJk; xU bgbjh MFk; the boy vd;w bgbjh the
vd;w milbfhsp miliaa[k; (mm) mijj;bjhlh;e;J bgaiua[k; (bg)
51
bfhz;oUf;Fk; the vd;gJ xU bghJr; Rl;Lr; brhy;Yk; (article) MFk; may vd;gJ
JiztpidahFk; BkYk; mJ xU braw;ghA;Fk; (Modal) MFk;.
(M) sincerity vd;w bgbjh thf;fpak; (1)-nd; vGthahfr; bray;gLk; frighten the boy vd;w
tpbjh nt;thf;fpaj;jpd; gadpiyahfr; bray;gLfpd;wJ
2.2.1. bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
nit fpisaikg;ig cl;gLj;Jk; tphpj;bjGJ tpjpfshFk; kw;Wk; tifg;ghl;L
(fyitay;yhj (non-complex)) FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;Jk;. nit gpd;tUkhW rhjhuz
bjhlukikg;g[ tpjpfshFk;
th bgbjh⌢Jtp⌢tpbjh
tpbjh tp⌢bgbjh
bgbjh bg
mm the
Jtp T⌢(modal)⌢(have en)⌢(be ing)
(⌢ vd;gJ + vd;w FwpaPLfisg; Bghy; nizg;g[f; FwpaPlhFk; (v.fh.
thbgbjh+Jtp+tpbjh))rpyh; - vd;w FwpaPl;ilg; gad;gLj;Jth; (v.fh. thbgbjh-Jtp-
tpbjh)).
xU Kd;dpWjp Bfhh;it tifg;ghl;L cl;Twpd; fpistpLk; tpjpfshy; cUthf;fg;gLk;.
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
mm bg th’ tpghA;F tp bgbjh gpcbjh
mm bg th’gpc bgbjh
mm bg th
52
nJ Kd;dpWjpf; Bfhh;itfshFk;. Kd;DUg[ gpd;tUk; brhy; tpjpfs; (lexical ruels) mog;gilapy;
brhy; tothf;fpfisBah myFfisBah brUFtjhy; cUthf;fg;gLk;.
2.2.2. Jiztifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;
Jiztifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;, R{Hy; Fwpj;j Tw;W jtph;j;J, brhy; tifg;ghLfis kl;Lk;
cl;gLj;Jk; kw;Wk; mit mtw;wpd; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspy; bg my;yJ tp Bghd;w
tifg;ghLfisr; rpwg;gpf;Fk; fyitf; FwpaPl;ilg; gad;gLj;Jk;. nuz;L tifahd
Jiztifg;ghl;L tpjpfs; nUf;fpd;wd.
1. fz;og;ghd Jiztifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;;
bgbjh
bgabur;rk;
tp fF/ gadpiyg; bgah;
like gadpiyg; bgah;
that th’
bgbjh (of mm bg) th’
gpw tifg;ghLfs;
2. fyitf; FwpaPl;il mJ Bjhd;Wk; rl;lfA;fspd; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; go
Ma[k; Bjh;t[ tpjpfs;
[+mUtk;] Jtp--
[-mUtk;] Jtp--
[+tp] fF/ -mm [+tpyA;fpdk;]
-mm [-tpyA;fpdk;]
2.2.3. brhw;fsq;rpak;
nJ vy;yh brhy; tothf;fpfisa[k; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. mjhtJ, mJ brhy; gjpt[fspd;
xU FGkkhFk;. xt;bthU brhy; gjpt[k; xypadpay; BtWgLj;Jk; gz;g[f;TWfspd; xU
FGkj;ija[k; rpwg;gpf;fg;gl;l bjhlhpay; kw;Wk; bghUz;ikapay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; Brfhpg;iga[k;
bfhz;oUf;Fk;. nJ brhy; bghUz;ikapay; kl;LBk MFk;. brhy; myFfspd; gz;g[f;TWfs;
xUA;fpizf;fg;gl Btz;Lk; kw;Wk; KG thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikiaa[k; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a
Btz;o thf;fpaj;jpw;Fs; mtw;wpd; cwt[fs; Twg;glBtz;Lk;.
2.2.4. bjh-totA;fspd; cUthf;fk;
thf;fpaA;fspd; bghUz;ik mf mikg;g[ mog;gilapy; vLj;Jiug;g[ bra;ag;gLk;. mf
mikg;g[ khw;wA;fshy; g[w mikg;ghf btspg;gLj;jg;gLk;. mf mikg;ig cUg;gLj;jk;
bra;fpd;w bjhlh;totk; mjd; bjh-totk; (p-marker) my;yJ cs;Siw bjhlh;totk; (underlying
p-marker) vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;. xU jdp thf;fpaj;jpw;F mjd; mf mikg;ig cUg;gLj;jk;
bra;a xU moepiy bjh-totk; nUf;Fk;. Tl;L kw;Wk; fyit thf;fpaA;fs; xU FGk
moepiy tot[fisf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. bjhlhpay; cl;Twpd; mof;Twpd; bray;ghL mf
53
mikg;ig cUg;gLj;jk; bra;fpd;w, thf;fpaA;fis cs;Siw bra;fpd;w bjh-tot[fis
cUthf;FtJjhd;. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;lhy; nij tpsf;FBthk;:
uh$h me;j gHj;ijr; rhg;gpLthd;
nk;khjphpahd jdp thf;fpaA;fspy; mf mikg;g[k; g[w mikg;g[k; mjpfk; BtWglhJ. Bkw;
brhd;d thf;fpaj;jpd; bjh-totj;ij g[yf;Fwpg;g[ bra;ag;gl;l milg;g[f;FwpfshByh fpis tiu
glj;jhByh cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;. ne;j bjh-totk; gpd;tUk; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfshy;
cUthf;fk; bra;ag;gLk;.
1. th bgbjh + tpbjh + Jtp
tpbjh Btbjh + tp
Btbjh bgbjh + Btc
bgbjh mm + bg
bgbjh bg
Jtp vfhyk; + cld;ghL
2. vfhyk; t;
cld;ghL Md;
mm me;j
bg uh$h
bg czt[
Btc I
tp rhg;gpL
th
bgbjh tpbjh Jtp
bg Btbjh tp fhyk; cghL
bgbjh Btc vfhyk;
mm bg
uh$h me;j czt[ I rhg;gpL t; Md;
bjh-totA;fs; thf;fpaj;ij cUthf;Fk; tothf;fpfspd; Bfhh;itfis mjd; cWg;g[fshf tUk;
bjhlh;r;rpahd Jizf; Bfhh;itfshf BkYk; BkYk; gFf;Fk;. xt;bthU cWg;g[f;Fk; xU
tifg;ghL jug;gLk;. tpjpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;oUf;Fk; FwpaPLfs; tothf;fpfisa[k; (formatives)
(czt[, uh$h, rhg;gpL Bghd;wd) tifg;ghl;Lf; FwpaPLfisa[k; (th, bgbjh, tp Bghd;wd)
cs;slf;fpajhFk;. tothf;fpfs; bjhlhpay; cwtpy; NLgLfpw kpfr;rpwpa myFfshFk;.
mitfs; mikg;g[ bkhHpapay; cUgd;fSf;Fr; rkkhdit. tothf;fpfs; nU tifg;gLk;:
54
uh$h, czt[, rhg;gpL Bghd;w brhy; tothf;fpfs; kw;Wk; gd;ik, cilik, Btw;Wik
cUg[fs;, fhyk;, cld;ghLfs; Bghd;w nyf;fz tothf;fpfs;.
2.2.5. bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr; rhay;fs;
tifg;ghl;Lf; FwpaPl;il mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; tpjpfSf;Fk; tothf;fpfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jk;
tpjpfSf;Fk; naw;ifahd BtWghL nUf;fpd;wJ. Kjypy; Fwpg;gpl;lij tifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;
(categorical ruels) vd;Wk; nuz;lhtJ Fwpg;gpl;lijr; brhy; tpjpfs; (lexical rules) vd;Wk; Twyhk;.
nit bjhlhpay; mof;Twpd; BtWgl;l nU Jizg; gFjpfshFk;.
thf;fpaA;fis cWg;g[fshf mtw;wpd; g[yg;gLj;jg;gl;l tifg;ghLfSld; gFg;gJld;
vGtha;, gadpiy Bghd;w fUj;Jr;rhay;fSk; mf mikg;gpy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl
Btz;Lk;. vGtha; vd;w fUj;Jr;rhay; nyf;fzr; bray;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gpLk; bgbjh vd;w
fUj;Jr;rhay; nyf;fz tifg;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gpLk;. ne;jr; bray;ghl;ilf; fUj;Jr;rhay;fs;
bghUz;ik vLj;Jiug;g[f;Fj; BjitahdjhFk;.
vGtha; xU Fwpg;gpl;l thf;fpaj;Jld; bjhlh;g[gLj;jp tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, Kd;g[ ghh;j;j thf;fpaj;jpy; uh$h vd;gJ mjd; vGtha;. mJ tUk;
thf;fpaA;fs; xt;bthd;wpYk; mJ vGthahf nUf;fj; Bjitapy;iy. Mjyhy; ehk; uh$h
vd;gij xU bgbjh vd;W Fwpg;gpl Btz;Lk;. mJ ve;j thf;fpaj;jpy; te;jhYk; mJ bgbjh
jhd;. nt;thW bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr;rhay; tifg;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr;rhaypypUe;J BtWgl;l
epiyapy; nUf;fpd;wJ. vdBt mit Btwhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;glBtz;Lk;. nyf;fzr;
bray;ghLfs; bjh-tot[fshy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;lhy;, tifg;ghl;L epiyik (categorical
status) bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr;rhay;fSf;Fj; jug;gl;L rpf;fiy cUthf;Fk;. njdhy;
mitfSf;Fs;s bjhlh; gz;g[ btspg;gLj;jhky; tplg;gLk;.
jdp thf;fpaA;fSf;F gpd;tUk; tiuglj;jpy; je;Js;sJ Bghy tifg;ghl;ow;Fk;
bray;ghl;ow;Fk; cs;s bjhlh;ig Cfk; bra;a naYk;.
th
vGtha; gadpiy Jtp
bgbjh tpbjh vfh cgh
bg brag;gLbghUs; Ktp
Btbjh
bgbjh Btc
mm bg
uh$h me;j czt[ I rhg;gpL t; Md;
55
Mdhy; rpy fyit thf;fpaA;fspy; xBu bjhlUf;Fg; gy bray;ghLfs; nUf;fyhk;
mg;gobad;why; me;j cz;ikfis Bkw; brhd;dthW tiuglj;jpy; fhl;l nayhJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf
uh$h uhKit tz;o Xl;lr; brhd;dhd;
vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; uhK vd;gJ brhy; vd;w tpdiapd; brag;gLbghUshft[k; Xl;L vd;w
tpidapd; vGthahft[k; bray;gLfpd;wJ. nt;tifapyhd thf;fpaA;fspy; bjhlh;fspd; rpwg;ghd
bray;ghLfs; my;yJ bjhlh;g[fs; mf mikg;gpy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gLtJ g[w mikg;gpy;
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gLtjpypUe;J BtWgLk;.
vGtha;, brag;gLbghUs; vd;gd cwt[ mog;gilapyhdit. ntw;iwj; bjh-totj;jhy;
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a naYk;. mtw;wpd; cwt[g;gz;ig btspg;gLj;Jk;go nr;bray;ghLfs;
fUj;Jr;rhay;fis tpsf;FtJ mtrpak;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf vGtha; vd;gij bgbjh + tpbjh +
Jtp vd;w mikg;gpy; tUk; bgbjh-cf;Fk; KGthf;fpaj;jpw;Fk; cs;s bjhlh;g[ vd
tpsf;fyhk;. brag;gLbghUs; vd;gij Btbjh + + tp vd;w mikg;gpy; tUk; Btbjh-cf;Fk;
KG tpbjh-cf;Fk; cs;s cwt[ vdyhk;. nt;tpsf;fA;fisg; gpd;tUkhW tha;ghl;oy;
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;.
vGtha; : [bgbjh, th]
gadpiy: [tpbjh, th]
Beh;r;brag;gLbghUs;: [Btbjh, tpbjh]
Kjd;ik tpid: [tp, tpbjh]
nt;tpsf;fA;fspdhy; tpjpfshy; cUthf;fg;gl;l bjh-tot[ mog;gilapy; uh$h vd;gJ uh$h
ne;jg; czitr; rhg;gpLthd; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpd; vGtha; vd;Wk; ne;j czitr; rhg;gpLthd;
vd;gJ mjd; gadpiy vd;Wk; ne;j czt[ vd;gJ Beh;r;brag;gLbghUs; vd;Wk; tpsf;fyhk;.
bjh-toit cUthf;Fk; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; tothf;ff; Bfhh;itfis (string formatives) gy
nyf;fz tifg;ghl;ow;Fs; mlA;Fk; Jizf;Bfhitfshf tifg;ghL bra;tjhy; mit
tifg;ghl;L tpjpfs; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;.
nyf;fz tifg;ghL nuz;L tifg;gLk;: brhy;tifg;ghL kw;Wk; Kf;fpa tifg;ghL.
xU brhy;iyBah my;yJ tothf;fpiaBah (formative) mjpfhuk; bra;fpd;w tifg;ghL
brhy;tifg;ghL vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;.
xU FwpaPL xU tpjpapd; nlg;gf;fKk; kw;bwhU FwpaPL tyg;gf;fKk; tUifapy;, Kjy;
FwpaPL nuz;lhtJ FwpaPl;il Mjpf;fk; bra;tjhff; Twyhk;. fpis cUg;gLj;jj;jpy; xU
fZ mjd; fPH; tUk; fZf;fis Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ. kl;Lkd;wp mjd; Beuo fPH;tUk;
fZit cldoahf Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ.
xU Bfhitia ----X----- (X xU brhy; tifg;ghlha; nUe;jhy;) Mjpf;fk; bra;a[k;
tifg;ghL Kf;fpa tifg;ghL vdg;gLk;. Bky; brhd;d tpjpfspy; bg, tp, Jtp, mm vd;gd
brhy; tifg;ghLfshFk;. bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr;rhay;fs; vy;yhk; Kf;fpa tifg;ghl;BlhL
epWj;jpf; bfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
56
nyf;fz cwt[fshd vGtha;-tpid, brag;gLbghUs;-tpid my;yJ vGtha;-
brag;gLbghUs; vd;gdtw;iwr; bray;ghl;Lf; fUj;Jr;rhay; mog;gilapy; tpsf;fyhk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf vGtha;-tpid vd;gij thf;fpaj;jpd; vGtha;f;Fk; thf;fpaj;jpd; gadpiyapd;
Kf;fpa tpidf;Fk; nilapyhd cwt[ vd tpsf;fyhk;.
Bkw;brhd;d tpsf;fA;fSk; tpsf;fA;fSf;F mog;gilaha; mikfpd;w tifg;ghLfshd
th, bgbjh, tpbjh vd;gdt[k; xU Fwpg;gpl;l nyf;fzj;ijr; rhuhky; cyfg;bghJ
nyf;fzj;ijr; rhUk;.
2.2.6. bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs;
bghUz;ik vLj;Jiuf;Fj; Bjitahd TLjyhd xU bra;jp mf mikg;g[
cUg;gLj;jj;jpy; jug;glBtz;Lk;. nJ brhy; tifg;ghLfshd bgah;, tpid vd;gij
cs;tifg;ghL bra;tijf; Fwpj;jjhFk;.
Bkw; brhd;d tpjpfs; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ij cUthf;FtJld;
uh$h me;j czitr; rhg;gpLthd;
gpd;tUk; bjhlh;fisa[k; cUthf;Fk;
me;j czt[ uh$hitr; rhg;gpLk;
thf;fpaj;jpy; uh$h, czt[, rhg;gpL vd;w tothf;fpfs; nUf;fpd;wd. ntw;wpy; Kjy; nuz;Lk;
bgah; vd;w tifg;ghl;ilr; rhh;;e;jit. K}d;whtJ mA;fk; tpid vd;w tifg;ghl;ilr;
rhh;e;jJ. bgah; vd;w tifg;ghl;il +/- bghJ, +/- vz;zf;ToaJ, +/- tpyA;fpdk;, +/-
kdpjtpdk;, +/- mUtk; vd;W cs;tifg;ghL bra;ayhk;. ne;j cs;tifg;ghL kpff;
fl;Lg;ghlhd goepiy mikg;gy;y nJ vy;iy fle;j tifg;gLj;jiyf; bfhz;lJ.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, bghJg;bgah;fSk; naw;bgah;fSk; kdpjtpdg;bgah;fshft[k;
kdpjtpdkyhg;bgah;fshft[k; tuyhk;. njdhy; brhy;tifg;ghLfspd; cs;tifg;ghl;ilj;
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfshy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a nayhJ. khwhf brhy;tifg;ghL xU
gz;g[f;TWfspd; FGkkhff; bfhs;sg;gl;L fyg;g[f;FwpaPlhf Mag;gLk;. bgah; vd;gijg;
gpd;tUk; tpjpfshy; cs;tifg;ghL bra;ayhk;.
bg [bg, +/- bghJ]
[+bghJ] [+/- vz;zf;ToaJ]
[+ vz;zf;ToaJ] [+/- tpyA;fdk;]
[+tpyA;fpdk;] [+/- kdpjtpdk;]
[- vz;zf;ToaJ] [+/- mUtk;]
nt;tpjpfs; gpd;tUkhW bgah;fspd; cs;tifg;ghLfis cUthf;fyhk;.
[+bg, + bghJ, -vz;zf;ToaJ]
[+bg, -bghJ, +tpyA;fpdk;, +kdpjtpdk;]
57
[+bg, -bghJ, +vz;zf;ToaJ, +tpyA;fpdk;, -kdpjtpdk;]
xt;bthU thf;fpaKk; xt;bthU bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; FGkj;Jld; bjhlh;g[
gLj;jg;gLk;. czt[ vd;gjw;F [+bg, +bghJ, -vz;zf;ToaJ, -tpyA;fpdk;] vd;w bjhlhpay;
gz;g[f;TWfs; nUf;Fk;. nit cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpfshy; cUthf;fg;gLk;. cs;tifg;ghl;L
tpjpfs; bghJ bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;ow;FhpaJ. xU Fwpg;gpl;l nyf;fzj;jpw;F kl;Lk;
chpajy;y. xU brhy; tifg;ghl;ilf; fyg;g[f;FwpaPLfshf (complex symbol) Ma[k;
cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpfSk; (mjhtJ rpwg;gpf;fg;gl;l bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; FGkKk; =
specified syntactic features) cs;sd.
mof;Twpy; tothf;fpfis mwpKfk; bra;a[k; tpjpfs; fpilahJ. gjpyhf mof;Twpy; xU
bkhHpapYs;s thpirg;gLj;jg;glhj vy;yh tothf;fpfspd; gl;oayhd brhw;fsq;rpak; cs;sJ.
xt;bthU tothf;fpfSk; mjd; cr;rhpg;ig tiuaWf;Fk; xypadpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; kw;Wk;
bjhlhpay; gz;g[fTWfspd; FGkj;jhy; rpwg;gpf;fg;gl;oUf;Fk;. mjhtJ xt;bthU
brhw;fsq;rpaKk; brhw;gjpt[fspd; (lecixal entries) FGkk; MFk; xt;bthU brhw;gjpt[k; xU
mfuhjpr; brhy;fspd; xyp toit cs;slf;Fk; gz;g[f;TWfspd; rl;lfj;jhYk; (feature matrix)
bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd; bjhFg;ghYk; rpwg;gpf;fg;gl;oUf;Fk; nJ fyg;g[f;FwpaPL vd;W
miHf;g;gLk;. vdBt Kd;dh; brhd;d bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfSf;Fg; gjpyhfg; gpd;tUk; tpjpfSk;
brhw;fsq;rpaKk; mof;Twpy; nUf;Fk;.
1. th bgbjh + tpbjh + Jtp
tpbjh bgbjh + tp
bgbjh tp
bgbjh mm + bg
Jtp fhyk; + cld;ghL
2. bg [+bg, +/-bghJ]
[+bghJ] [+/-vz;zf;ToaJ]
[-vz;zf;ToaJ] [+/- tpyA;fpdk;]
[-bghJ] [+/- tpyA;fpdk;]
[+tpyA;fpdk;] [+/-kdpjtpdk;]
[+bg, +/-bghJ] [- vz;zf;ToaJ]
[- vz;zf;ToaJ] [+/-mUtk; ]
[- vz;zf;ToaJ] [- vz;zf;ToaJ]
3. (uh$h, [+bg, -bghJ, +kdpjtpdk;])
(czt[ [+bg, +bghJ, -vz;zf;ToaJ, -mUtk;])
(t;, [+fhyk;])
(me;j, [+mm, +Fwpg;g[])
Bkw;brhd;d tpjpfs; nyf;fz tothf;fpfshYk; fyg;g[ FwpaPLfshYk; Md Bfhitfshf
nWjpa[Wk; Mf;fA;fA;fis cUthf;Fk;. nf;Bfhitiafis Kd;dpWjpf; Bfhitfs; vdyhk;.
brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpypUe;J fyitf; FwpaPl;oy; brhy; tothf;fpfs; brUfg;gl;lhy; mf;Bfhit
nWjpf; Bfhitahf khWk;. brhy; tothf;fpfs; gpd;tUk; tpjpfspd; mog;gilapy; brUfg;gLk;:
58
Q vd;gJ Kd;dpWjpf; Bfhitapd; (preterminal string) xU fyg;g[f; FwpaPlhFk; kw;Wk; (D,C)
vd;gJ xU brhy;gjpthFk;; C vd;gJ Q-ny; nUe;J BtWglhtpl;lhy; Q-I D-My; nlk;
bgah;f;fyhk;.
tpjpfs; 1-ck; 2-ck; gpd; tUk; Kd;dpWjpf; Bfhitia cUthf;Fk;: [+bg, -bghJ, +kdpj
ndk;] + mm + [+bg, +bghJ, -vz;zf;Toait, -tpyA;fpdk;] + Q + vfhyk; + cghL Q vd;gJ
xU fyg;g[f;FwpaPL njpy; tpdahdJ tpidia cs;tifg;ghL bra;a[k; tpjpfshy; Ma;t[r;
bra;ag;gLk;. Kd;g[ je;j tpjpg;go uh$h vd;gJ Kjy; fyg;g[f; FwpaPl;oy; brUfg;gLk; rhg;gpL
vd;gJ Q vd;gjd; moapy; brUfg;gLk;; t; vd;gJ vjph;fhyk; vd;gjd; moapy; brUfg;gLk;;
me;j vd;gJ mm moapy; brUfg;gLk;. nj;bjhlh;toit (bjh-toit) gpd;tUkhW
fpisg;glj;jhy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;:
th
bgbjh tpbjh Jtp
bg Btbjh Q vfhyk; cghL
+bg
-bghJ bgbjh Btc
+kdpjtpdk;
mm bg
+bg
+bghJ
-vz;zf;Toait
-tpyA;fpdk;
uh$h me;j czt[ I rhg;gpL t; Md;
bg vd;w tifg;ghl;ilf; fyg;g[f; FwpaPlhf Ma;jyhy; uh$h vd;gij vGtha;g; bgauhft[k;
czt[ vd;gijr; brag;gLbghUs; bgauhft[k; brUf Koe;jJ. nJ gpd;tUk; thf;fpa
cUthf;fj;ijj; jil bra;a[k;.
*ne;j czt[ uh$hitr; rhg;gpLk;.
bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs; mog;gilapy; mfuhjpr; brhw;fisr; brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpy;
Fwpg;gpLk; BgJ, bghJ tpjpfspd; gad;ghl;lhy; Mf;fg;bgWtdw;iwf; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; Twj;Bjit
ny;iy. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, igad; vd;gjw;F [+bg, +bghJ, +vz;zf;ToaJ, +tpyA;fpdk;, +
kdpjtpdk;, -mUtk;, +Mzpdk;, -bgz;zpdk;] vd;w bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs; nUf;fpd;wd.
Mdhy; [+kdpjtpdk;] vd;gjw;F [+tpyA;fpdk;] kw;Wk; [-mUtk;] vd;w bghJ tpjp nUf;fpd;wJ.
kl;Lky;y, [+Mzpdk;] vd;gJ [-bgz;zpdk;] vd;gij cs;slf;Fk;. vdBt, igad; vd;gJ
brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpy; [+bg, +bghJ, +vz;zf;ToaJ, +kdpjtpdk;, +Mzpdk;] vd;W Fwpg;gpl;lhy;
BghJkhdJ. gpw gz;g[f;TWfs; vy;yhk; bghJ tpjpfshy; bgwg;gLk;. brhw;fsq;rpaj;ij
59
nt;thW vspikahf;fyhk;. nt;thW xU mfuhjpr; brhy;ypd; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfspd;
KGf;FwpaPl;ila[k; bgw cjt[k; bghJ tpjpfs; kpifik tpjpfs; (redundancy rules) vdg;gLk;.
nJtiuf; Twpa bgahpd; cs;tifg;ghL (subcategorization) R{Hy; fl;Lg;ghL ny;yhj
tpjpfshy; (context free ruels) MdJ. Mdhy; nyf;fz thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;Ftjpy;
gA;bfLf;Fk; rpy R{Hy; fl;Lz;l tpjpfSk; (context senstitive ruels) nUf;fpd;wd. R{Hy; fl;Lz;l
cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpfs; (context sensitive subcategorization ruels) gpd;tUk; tothdit:
m (M)n(N)
nt;tpjp n vd;w tifg;ghl;il mJ tUk; rl;lf mog;gilapy; xU fyg;g[f;FwpaPlhf
Ma;fpd;wJ. nr;rl;lfj;ij tifg;ghL FwpaPL mog;gilapYk; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TW
mog;gilapYk; Twyhk;. tifg;ghl;Lr; R{Hy; mog;gilapy; xU tifg;ghl;il mJ tUk;
rl;lfj;jpd; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs; mog;gilapy; Ma[k; tpjpfs; Bjh;t[tpjpfs; vdg;gLk;.
bgbjh (mm) bg (th) vd;w tpjp xU bgaiu nyf;fzj;jpy; (MA;fpy
nyf;fzj;jpy;) mwpKfg;gLj;Jf;fpd;wJ vd;why;, bgahpd; fz;og;ghd cs;tifg;ghLfs;
gpd;tUtd:
bgbjh [mm ---], [---th], [---]
tpbjh (bgbjh) tp vd;w tpjp xU tpidia mwpKfg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ vd;why;, tpidapd;
fz;og;ghd cs;tifg;ghLfs; gpd;tUtd:
[bgbjh---], [---]
nit brag;gLbghUs; Fd;wh tpidfs; MFk;. MA;fpyj;jpy; brag;gLbghUs; Fd;wh
tpidfisr; brag;gLbghUs; ePf;fiy mDkjpf;Fk; tpidfs; brag;gLbghUs; ePf;fiy
mDkjpf;fh tpdfs; vd cs;tifg;ghL bra;ayhk;. xU tifg;ghL tUfpd;w xt;bthU
rl;lfKk; xU tifg;ghl;od; fz;og;ghd cs;tifg;ghl;ow;F nd;wpaikahjJ.
Bjh;t[ tpjpfisg; bghWj;jtiuapy;, vGtha; kw;Wk; brag;gLbghUspd; xt;bthU
bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWk; tpidapd; ghFghl;il (classification) tw;g[Wj;Jfpd;wJ. mjhtJ
vGtha;g; bgah; kw;Wk; brag;gLbghUs; bgah; ntw;wpy; cs;s bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfs;
mog;gilapy; tpidfs; cs;tifg;ghL bra;ag;gLfpd;wd. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, rpy tpidfs;
[+kdpjtpdk;] vd;w gz;g[f;TW bgw;w vGtha;g; bgah;fisa[k; [-mUtk;] vd;w gz;g[f;TW bgw;w
brag;gLbghUs; bgah;fisa[k; Vw;Fk;. BtW rpy [+mUtk;] vd;w gz;g[f;TW bgw;w
vGtha;g;bgah;fis Vw;Fk;. nt;thW cs;tifg;ghLfs; gy bra;ayhk;. Bjh;t[ tpjpfs;
Bjh;t[f;fl;Lj;jpl;lj;ij my;yJ cld; tUiff; fl;Lj;jpl;lj;ij btspg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ.
Bkw;brhd;d thf;fpa cUthf;fj;jpy;, Bjh;t[tpjpfs; tpid vd;w tifg;ghl;il [+tp, +([-
bghJ, +kdpjtpdk;] vGtha;, [+bghJ, -vz;zf;Toait, -tpyA;fpdk;] brag;gLbghUs;)] vd;w
fyg;g[f;Fwplhf Mayhk;. brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpy; [+tp, +([-bghJ, +kdpjtpdk;] vGtha;, [+bghJ, -
vz;zf;Toait, -tpyA;fpdk;] brag;gLbghUs;)] vd;W Fwpg;gPLbra;ag;gl;l (rpwg;gpf;fg;gl;l)
60
rhg;gpL vd;w tothf;fp nUf;Fk;. brhw;brUfy; tpjpg;go, tpid Mag;bgw;w fyg;g[f;FwpaPl;oy;
rhg;gpL vd;gijr; brUf naYk;.
fz;og;ghd cs;tifg;ghL tpjpfis kPWjy; Bjh;t[tpjpfis kPWjyhy; Vw;gLk; tGitf;
fhl;oYk; TLjy; tGt[s;s thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;Fk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf,
uh$h Jf;fkhd rhg;gpl;lhd;
uh$h Beh;ikiar; rhg;gpl;lhd;
vd;gdtw;wpy; Kjy; thf;fpak; nuz;lhtJ thf;fpaj;ijtpl Fiwthd nyf;fzj;Jtk; cs;sJ
Vbdd;why; Kjy; thf;fpak; gpd;tUk; fl;lhakhd cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpia kPWfpd;wJ.
tpbjh Btbjh + tp
rhg;gpL vd;gJ xU brag;gLbghUs; Fd;wh tpid. vdBt mjw;FKd; xU Btw;Wikj;bjhlh;
tuBtz;Lk;. Jf;fkhd vd;gJ bgauil vd;w fhuzj;jhy; Kjy; thf;fpak;; fl;lha
cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpia kPWfpd;wJ vdyhk;. rhg;gpL vd;gJ [-mUtk;] vd;w gz;g[f;TW
cs;s Btw;Wikj; bjhliuj; bjhlh;e;J tuBtz;Lk;. Mdhy; nuz;lhtJ thf;fpaj;jpYs;s
Btw;Wikj; bjhlhpy; mlA;Fk; Beh;ik vd;gJ [-mUtk;] vd;w gz;g[f;TW cs;sjhFk;. vdBt
nuz;lhtJ thf;fpak; Bjh;t[ tpjpiaj;jhd; kPWfpd;wJ vdyhk;. [bghJ] my;yJ
[vz;zf;ToaJ] Bghd;w cah;epiyg; gz;g[f;TWfis kPWk; thf;fpaA;fs; [kdpjtpdk;] Bghd;w
jhH;epiyg; gz;g[f;TWfis kPWk; thf;fpaA;fistplf; Fiwe;j mst[ nyf;fzj;Jtk;
cs;sit. nt;thW nyf;fzj;Jt mst[ btspg;gilahf totkhf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.
Bjh;t[ tpjpfis kPWk; thf;fpaA;fis cUtfpj;jy; mog;gilapy; tpsf;fthk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf tpsf;F rphpj;jJ vd;gjw;F ‘tpsf;F gpufhrkha; vhpe;jJ’ vd;w bghUs;
juyhk;. rpy bkhHpapyhh; Bjh;t[ tpjpfs; bghUz;ik cl;Twpy; jhd; tuBtz;Lk;, vdBt
bjhlhpay; cl;TW Bkw;brhd; thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;fyhk; vd;gh;.
2.2.7. nyf;fz khw;wA;fs; (Grammatical transformation)
kughf rpy brhw;fs; Jiz tpidfs; vd;W miHf;g;gLk;. nit MA;fpy bkhHpapy;
have vd;w Kot[W tpidiaa[k; be vd;w bjhlh;tpidiaa[k; can, could, may, might, will, would,
shall, should, ought to, must vd;w tpidg;ghA;F tpidfisa[k; cs;slf;Fk;. gpd;tUk; MA;fpy
tpidj;jphpg[fs; ftdj;jpy; bfhs;sg;glBtz;Lk;:
1.could, mihgt, would kw;Wk; should vd;gd KiwBa can, may, will kw;Wk; shall vd;gdtw;wpd;
nwe;j fhy totA;fshFk;.
2. Kw;W tpidf; FGkj;jpy; Kjy; tpid fhyj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
3. have vd;w Kot[W Jiz tpid mijj; bjhlh;e;J nwe;jfhy tpidbar;r totk;
tUtij Btz;Lk;.
v.fh. Raja has forgotten to do his work.
4. bjhlh; Jiztpidahd be (am, is, are, was, were) epfH;fhy tpidbar;r totk;
mijj; bjhlh;tij Btz;Lk;.
v.fh. Raja is singing.
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ne;j cz;ikfs; tpjpfshy; Twg;glBtz;Lk;. ehk; en vd;gij tpidbar;r totj;jpw;Fk; ing
vd;gik epfH;fhy tpidbar;r totj;jpw;Fk; gad;gLj;JBthk;. bjhluikg;g[ tpjpia nuz;L
tHpfspy; vGjyhk;:
1. th bgbjh tpbjh
tpbjh Jtp + tp ...
th
bgbjh tpbjh
Jtp tp
2. th bgbjh Jtp bgbjh
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
mjhtJ ehk; Jtp-I Kjy; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; fhl;oa[s;sJ Bghy; tpbjh-nd; cWg;ghfBth
nuz;lhk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; fhl;oa[as;sJBghy; th-nd; cWg;ghfBth mDkhdpf;fyhk;. ehk;
bgUk;ghyhd bkhHpapayhuhy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w nuz;lhtJ vLj;Jf;fhl;ilg;
gpd;gw;WBthk;.
fhyk; xU Bfhh;itapy; Kjy; jdpkkhfj; Bjhd;Wfpd;wJ kw;Wk; mJ fl;lhakhdjhFk;
mJ tpidg;ghA;fhYk; tpidKotthYk; tpidj;bjhlh;rpahYk; bjhlug;gLfpd;;;wJ ne;j epuypy;
vy;yhk; tpUg;g[fshFk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fisa[k; Jtp-nd; gFg;gha;ita[k; cw;WBehf;ft[k;.
Raja washes his car every week. epfH;fhyk; + tp
Raja washed hid car yesterday nwe;jfhyk; + tp
Raja is wasing his car. epfH;fhyk; + be...ing + tp
tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
Raja was washing his car nwe;j fhyk; + be...ing + tp
tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
Raja has been wasing his car nwe;j fhyk; + have...en + be...ing + tp
tpidKot[ tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
Raja must have been wasing his car epfH;fhyk; + tpidg;ghA;F + have...en + be...ing + tp
(must) tpidKot[ tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
62
Raja might have been wasing his car nwe;jfhyk; + tpidg;ghA;F + have...en + be...ing + tp
(must) tpidKot[ tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
vy;yhj; jfty;fisa[k; gpd;tUkhW Twyhk;:
Jtp fhyk; + tpidg;ghA;F + have...en + be...ing + tp
fhyk; nwe;j/epfH;
Jtp
fhyk; tpidg;ghA;F tpidKot[ tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
nwe;j have...en be...ing
epfH;
ne;j glk; cWg;g[fisa[k; kw;Wk; bjhlh;rpaw;w gFjpfSf;F nilBa cs;s cwt[fisa[k;
bjspthff; fhl;Lfpd;wJ. nJ bjhluh cwt[fisf; fhl;Lk; naf;fbewpahFk;.
should have be-en work-ing
fhyk; shall
nwe;j tpidg;ghA;F tpidKot[ tpidj;bjhlh;r;rp
cWg;g[fSf;Fg; (fhyk;, -en, -ing) bghJthd fiyr;brhy; xl;L vd;gjhFk;. xl;L vd;w
fiyr;brhy; bjhlhpay; tifg;ghl;il FwpaPL bra;fpd;wJ. ehk; Bkw;fz;l nlkhw;wj;ij ‘xl;L
jdpepiy tpidj; jdpkj;jpd; tyJgf;fk; jhz;o mjDld; Brh;e;Jbfhs;fpd;wJ. nij
gpd;tUk; tpjpahy; totkhff; Twyhk;.
xl;Lj; jhz;ly;:
X xl;L tpidj;jdpkk; Y X tpidj;jdpkk; + xl;L Y
vd;w FwpaPL xl;lhy; bjhlug;gLk; tpidj;jdpkj;jpd; (tpj) Bfhh;it xU myfhff;
fUjg;glBtz;Lk; kw;Wk; gpw ve;j tpjpahYk; TLjyhfg; gFg;ghag;glf;TlhJ vd;gijf;
fhl;Lfpd;wJ. X kw;Wk; Y vd;gd gpw tifg;ghLfs; mjw;F Kd;tuBth mijg; gpd;bjhluBth
bra;ayhk;.
X xl;L tpidj;jdpkk; Y X tpidj;jdpkk; + xl;L Y
1 2 3 4 1 3 + 2 4
nij xU fpisg; glj;jpy; fhl;l naYk;
63
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
naw;bgah; fhyk; tpidg; tpid tpidj; tp bgbjh
ghA;F Kot[ bjhlh;r;rp
xl;L tpj tpj xl;L tpj xl;L tpj mm bg
Raja nfh may have en be ing wash the car
nJ xl;Lj;jhz;ly; tpjpapd; gpuBahfj;jpw;F migg;g[ tpsf;fj;ijBah mikg;g[f;
fl;Lg;ghl;ilBah fhl;Lk;:
vA;bfy;yhk; X xl;L + tpj Y vd;w mikg;g[ tpsf;fk; nUf;fpd;wBjh mA;bfy;yhk; mJ
(xl;Lj;jhz;ly; tpjpahy;) X tpj + xl;L Y vd;w mikg;ghf khWk;.
mikg;g[khw;wj;jpw;Fg; gpd; glk; gpd;tUkhW tUk;:
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
naw;bg ah; tp bgbjh
xl;L xl;L xl;L mm bg
Raja tpidg;+fhyk; have be+en wash+ ing the car
ghA;F nwe;j
Raja might have been washing the car. (may+nfh = might vd;gJ cUbghypad; tpjpahFk;.)
xl;Lj;jhz;ly; xU fl;lha tpjpahFk;
RUf;fk;
64
mwpjpwDk; bray; jpwDk;
cz;ikahd bkhHp elj;ijf;Fg; gpd;dhy; kd cz;ik (mental reality) nUf;fpd;wJ.
thf;fpaA;fspd; bghUs;BfhSf;F kd cz;ik Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;L
elj;ij mikg;bghGA;Ffis thpirg;gLj;Jtjw;Fg;gjpyhf cz;ikahd elj;ijf;Fg; gpd;dhy;
cs;s kd cz;ikiaf; fz;Lgpog;gjpy; ftdk; brYj;jBtz;Lk;. bkhHp kdj;ijg;
gpujpgypg;gjhy; bkhHpiag; gog;gJ kdpj kdjpd; cs;shh;e;j gz;g[fis mwpa cjt[k;.
mwptpd; bghJthd tot[ Kd;dBk tiuaWf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nJ kdjpd; cs;Siwg; gz;igf;
bfhz;oUf;Fk;. mDgtj;jpd; bray;ghL ne;jg; bghJj; jpl;l mikg;ig eilKiwg;gLj;;;jt[k;
KGtJkhf BtWgLj;jt[k; bra;tJjhd;. bkhHpapay; tptuizfs; bkhHpiag; gad;gLj;Jthpd;
bkhHp mwpt[ (bkhHp mwpjpwd; = Linguistic competence) gw;wp miktjhy; mwpjpwDf;Fk;
(competence) bray;jpwDf;Fk; (performance) cs;s BtWghL bkhHpapay; tptuizfSf;F kpft[k;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;jjhFk;. xU bkhHpapd; cz;ikahd gad;ghl;ghL xUgf;;fk; kdjpd;
cs;Siwg; gz;g[fshy; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. kWgf;fk; ftdj;jpUg;gk;, Brhh;t[, rypg;g[,
btspf;ftdj; jpUg;gk;, epidt[ vy;iy Bghd;w bkhHpapay; my;yhj fhuzpfshYk;
fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. g[w mikg;g[ tifg;ghL thf;fpa cUthf;fj;jpd; tpjpfs;,
bray;ghLfs; gw;wpa cs;swpt[ juhJ. BkYk; KGikahd tifg;ghL elf;f nayhJ.
xUbkhHp BgRgthpd; mwpjpwd; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l tpjpfspd; FGkj;jhy; vy;iyaw;w
vz;zpf;ifapyhd thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;ff; ifbfhLf;fpd;wJ. (Tl;ly;, fHpj;jy;, tFj;jy;,
bgUf;fy; ntw;wpd; bfhs;iffisf; fw;Wf;bfhz;l egh; ve;j vz;fisa[k; Tl;lBth fHpf;fBth
tFf;fBth bgUf;fBth naYk;.)
Mf;fKiw nyf;fzk;
juit tifg;gLj;;jhky; thf;fpaA;fSf;F nilBa cs;s cwt[fisa[k; thf;fpa
myFfSf;fpilBa cs;s cwt[fisa[k; Ma;e;J tpjpfspd; Kw;Wf; FGkj;ij va;jyhk;. xU
bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk; thf;fpaA;fspd; gl;oay; my;y. xU bkhHpiaf; fw;wy; xU bkhHpapy;
cs;s thf;fpaA;fspd; gl;oaiy kddk; bra;tjy;y. tpjpfisf; fz;Lgpog;gjd; bray;ghl;il
cs;slf;fpajhFk;. bray; jpwDf;Fj;jhd; vy;iy cz;L mwpjpwDf;F ny;iy mjhtJ ehk;
cUthf;Ffpd;w thf;fpaA;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapYk; thf;fpaA;fspd; tiffspYk; jhd; vy;iy
cz;L mwpjpwDf;F my;y. ek; epidt[ vy;iy, ftdkhw;wk;, thH;t[fhy vy;iy Bghd;wtw;wpd;
fhuzkhf ehk; kpf ePskw;w mjpfk; rpf;fyw;w my;yJ vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l thf;fpaA;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;Bwhk;.
xU naw;if bkhHpiag; BgRfpd;w vtUk; Kw;wpYk; g[jpa Tw;Wfis cUthf;fBth
g[hpe;Jbfhs;sBth naYk;. bjhpe;j tpjpfshy; mit cUthf;fg;gl;lit vd;w fhuzj;jhy;
mit Kw;wpYk; g[jpadty;y. mjhtJ Tw;Wfs; kdg;ghlk; bra;ag;gl;Lj; jpUk;gpf; Twg;gLtd
my;y. mit cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xU nyf;fzk; vy;iyaw;w vz;zpf;ifapyhd vy;yh
epfHtpaYk; thf;fpaA;fisa[k; cUthf;fp tpsf;ftpaYk; tpjpfspd; Kw;Wg;bgw;w xGA;FKiw
(rpwg;ghd xGA;F Kiwfs;). nt;tpfspd; Kw;Wbgw;w xGA;FKiw gw;wpa mwptjhy;jhd; g[jpjhd
vy;iyaw;w vz;zpf;ifapyhd thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;fpg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;s Kofpd;wJ. ekf;F xU
bkhHpapy; cs;s bkhHpapay; xGA;FKiw bjhpa[k;. Mdhy; vy;yh thf;fpaA;fisa[k; bjhpahJ.
65
nyf;fzk; Mf;fKiwahdJ (generative). btspaPL (output) cs;sPl;ilg; Bghd;wjy;y.
cs;sPLk; btspaPLk; xd;wy;y. mit totkhf;fg;gl;lJ (formalized). mjhtJ Xust[f;F
vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd ghh;j;j kw;Wk; Bfl;l Tw;WfspypUe;J fw;gth; (mtUila
tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; Kjph;r;rp mog;gilapy;) rpytw;iw Bjh;e;bjLj;J rpy bra;jpfisg; gphpj;bjLj;J
mij mfepiyahf;fk; bra;fpd;wdh;. mfepiyahf;fk; bra;ag;gl;l tpjpfspd; xGA;FKiw
Tw;Wfis cUthf;fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. nijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;:
ne;j mh;j;jj;jpy; nyf;fzk; Mf;fKiwapyhdJ. khw;Wtpjpfs; thf;fpa tiffisa[k;
thf;fpaA;fspd; ghfA;fisa[k; bjhlh;g[gLj;Jfpd;wJ. vdBt jhd; ne;j nyf;fzkhjphp
Mf;fKiw khw;wpyf;fzk; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;;wJ. xU bkhHpiaf; fw;wy; xU FGkj;
bjhlhpay;, bghUz;ikapy; kw;Wk; xypadpay; tpjpfisf; fw;gjhFk;. xU bkhHpapd; vy;yh
thf;fpaA;fisa[k; epidf;Ff; bfhz;LtUtjhByh Bghyr;bra;tjhByh fw;wy; BeuhJ. thf;fpa
cUthf;fk;, thf;fpag; bghUs;Bfhz;ik kw;Wk; cr;rhpg;g[ Mfpatw;wpd; tpjpfspd; FGkj;ij
Nl;lk; bra;tJ bkhHp fw;wyhFk;. ng;bghUspy; bkhHp tpjp Ml;rpikf;F cl;gl;lJ (rule
governed).
mf mikg;g[k; g[w mikg;g[k;
bkhHpapay; tpsf;fj;jpy; mf mikg;g[f;Fk; g[w mikg;g[f;Fk; cs;sBtWghL kpf
Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. mf mikg;g[ bkhHpapd; mog;gil xGA;ifg; gpujpgypf;Fk;. xU tifapy;
mf mikg;g[ kdj;jpd;/K}isapd; cs;Siw bkhHpapay; Mw;wiy gpujpgypf;Fk;. mf bkhHp
cs;sPL
ghh;j;j Bfl;l vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l
vz;zpf;ifapyhd Tw;Wfs;
cl;bfhsy;
K}isapd;/kdj;jpd; tsh;r;rp kw;Wk;
Kjph;r;rp mog;gilapy; bjhpe;bjLf;fgl;l
(ghh;j;j Bfl;l) Tw;Wfs;
bkhHpiaf; fw;Wf;bfhs;Sk; cs;Siw
Mw;wy; cs;s K}is/kdk;
nyf;fzk;, mjhtJ mfepiyahf;fk;
bra;ag;gl;l tpjpfspd; xGA;FKiw
btspaPL
vy;iyaw;w vz;zpf;ifapyhd Tw;Wfs;
66
mikg;igj;jhd; vy;iyf;Fl;gl;l vz;zpf;ifapyhd bghJikahf;fA;fspd; thapyhff;
Twyhk;. g[w mikg;gpy; gy vz;zpf;ifapyhd xGA;fPdA;fs; nUf;Fk;. ne;j xGA;fPdA;fis
mf mikg;g[ mog;gilapy;jhd; xGA;fhditfshf khw;w naYk;. g[wj;jpy;; jhd; gy
tp&aA;fs; elf;Fk; nJjhd; bjhpt[f;Fk; khw;wj;jpw;Fk; cl;gLfpw nlk; brhw;bghUs; kaf;fKk;
mikg;g[g; bghUs;kaf;fKk; Vw;gLfpw nlk; nA;Fjhd; bkhHp thH;fpd;wJ. mfj;jpy; jhd;
tp&aA;fs; nUf;fpd;wd nJ epue;juKk; xGA;Fk; cs;s nlk; cyfg;bghJf;; Tw;Wfspd; nlk;
bkhHpapd; cyfg;bghJikf; TWfisf; fz;Lgpoj;jy; kdpj K}isapd; nay;igg; g[hpe;Jbfhs;s
cjt[k;. ng;gz;g[f;TWfs; xUtifapy; bkhHpapd; cyfg;bghJg; gz;g[f;TWfs; mtw;wpypUe;J
bkhHpfs; Bjitahdtw;iwj; bjhpt[bra;J, nizj;J gy tHpfspy; fye;J itj;Js;sJ. nijg;
gpd;tUkhW cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ayhk;.
Mf;fKiw khw;wpyf;fzj;jpy; (transformational generative grammar) K}d;W cl;gFjpfs;
nUf;fpd;wd: bjhlhpay; cl;gFjp (syntactic component), bghUz;ikapay; cl;gFjp (semantic
component), xypadpay; cl;gFjp (phonological component). mitfs; mog;gil bkhHpapay;
Mw;wiyg; gpujpgypf;fpd;wd. eLtpy; tUk; ghfk; bjhlhpay; cl;gFjp. njpy; mog;gilj;
Jiz cl;gFjp (base subcomponent), khw;wy; Jiz cl;gFjp (transfomational subcomponent) vd;gd
mlA;Fk;. mog;gil Jiz cl;gFjpay; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfSk;, mfuhjpa[k; mlA;Fk;.
mog;gil cl;gFjp vy;iyaw;w mf mikg;g[fspd; FGkj;ij cUthf;fpd;wJ. ne;j
mikg;g[fs; (ePf;fy; bgah;r;rpkhw;wk; kw;Wk; Brh;f;if khw;wk;) Bghd;w xU rpy khw;wA;fSf;F
cl;gLfpd;wJ. khw;wA;fs; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; Twg;gl;oUf;Fk; (specified) kw;Wk; epuy; gLj;jg;gl;oUf;Fk;
(ordered). khw;;;;wr;bray;ghl;lhy; g[w mikg;g[fs; tpisa[k;. g[w mikg;g[fs; xypadpay;
cl;Twhy; (phonological component) xyp cUg;gLj;jk; (phonetic representation) bgWk; kw;Wk;
bghUz;ikapay; cl;Twhy; (semantic component) bghUz;ik cUg;gLj;jk; (semantic representation)
bgWk;. nt;thW thf;fpaA;fshf khWk;.
g[w cUg;gLj;jk; (surface representation) cz;ikahd Tw;wy;y kdpjd; cz;ikahd
Tw;Wfis cUthf;Ffpd;whd;. mjhtJ Tw;W jplkhd cz;ik thf;fpak; mUt cz;ik
(abstract reality). rPh;ikahf, bkhHpapd; mf cUthf;f nyf;fzj;ijf; (inbuilt grammar)
bfhz;oUf;Fk; xU bkhHpiaj; jha;bkhHpahfg; BgRgth; jhk;; jk;Kila cs;Szh;it (intution)
btspg;gLj;jpj; jk; bkhHpia tptuiz bra;a naYk;. btspgLj;jg;gLfpd;w nyf;fzk; mf
cUthf;f nyf;fzj;jpw;F khjphpahf mika[k;.
khw;wpyf;fzj;jpy; jha;bkhHp BgRgth; (native speaker) vd;gJ Ez;ikahf;fk;
(mUtkhf;fk;) MFk;. xU rPuhd rKjhaj;jpy; (homogenous community) mwpjpwd; epiyapy;
cyfg;bghJg; gz;g[f;TWfs;
bghUz;ikapay;-bjhlhpay; xypadpay;
gz;g[f;TWfs; gz;g[f;TWfs;
xU Fwpg;gpl;l bkhHpapd; nyf;fzk;
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jha;bkhHp BgRgth;-Bfl;gth; (native speaker-hearer) cwt[ tpsf;fg;glBtz;Lk;. rPhpa jha;bkhHp
BgRgth; (ideal native speaker) xU gz;ghl;L thjp. Mdhy; nth; Bjitahd
gpur;ridf;;Fhpath;. ehk; rPh;ikahf;fk; bra;ahtpl;lhy; xt;bthU egUk; jkJ mwpjpwid
btspg;Lj;j Btz;otUk;. bgUk; mstpy; khwpfis (large number of variables) ePf;Ftjw;fhf rPhpa
jha;bkhHp Bgrgth; vd;w fUj;Jr;rhay; Bjit. nJ Tl;lhd czh;thFk;. ve;j kdpj
elg;g[fisg; gw;wp gog;gjw;Fk; nJ jtph;f;f nayhJ.
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
cs;tifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;
brhw;brUfy; tUtiut[
tpjpfs; tpjpfs;
khw;W tpjpfs;
xypadpay; tpjpfs;
இயல்/gFjp 3 tphpt[gLj;jg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghLk; mjd; bjhlh;r;rpa[k;
3.1. Kd;Diu
1964-nypUe;J 1967 tiuapyhd fhyfl;lj;jpy; M!;bgf;oy; Kd;bkhHpag;gl;l
fUj;Jr;rhay;fspd; Bfhl;ghl;L mog;gilapyhd tphpt[gLj;jk; kw;Wk; tpsf;fg; gad;ghLfs; kPJ
Ma;t[fs; epfH;j;jg; bgw;wd. ne;jf; fhyfl;lj;jpd; nWjpapy; M!;bgf;l; khjphp
jpUg;jpfukhdjy;y vd;w fUj;J vGe;jJ. rhk;!;fp g[jpa g[ydwptpd; mog;gilapy; jkJ
khjphpia bjhlh;e;J rPuikj;Jk; jpwdha;t[ bra;Jk; te;jhh; nUg;gpDk; mth; jdJ
Bfhl;ghl;ow;F khw;whf ve;j Bfhl;ghLk; nUf;f nayhJ vd;gij epU}gpf;f Kad;whh;. rhk;!;fp
M!;bgf;l; khjphpia khw;w Kad;whh; Mdhy; ve;j bkhHpapay; Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fk; bjhlhpay;jhd;
ikakhdJ vd;Wk; bjhlhpay; mf mikg;g[ ny;yhky; bghJikahf;fA;fis bra;a nayhJ
vd;W thjpl;lhh;. mth; g[w mikg;g[ bghUz;ikapy; bghUs;BfhSf;F Kf;fpag; gA;F
tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;W xj;Jf;bfhz;lhh; Mdhy; mog;gilf; TWjhd; mf mikg;g[fis
cUthf;Ffpd;wJ vd;Wk; mjpy; tpidf;Fk; mjDld; nyf;fz mog;gilapy; bjhlh;g[s;s
bgah;j;bjhlh;fSf;Fk; nilapyhd ikaf;fUj;J cwt[fs; me;j kl;lj;jpy; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wd
brhw;fsq;rpak;:
brhw; gjpt[fSk;
kpifik tpjpfSk;
mfmikg;g[ bghUz;ik
vLj;Jiug;g[
g[w mikg;g[
xyp vLj;Jiug;g[
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vd;Wk; cWjpg;gLj;jpdhh;. mjhtJ mth; Mf;fKiw bghUz;ikapayhuhy; Kd;itf;fg;gl;l
thjA;fs; mf mikg;gpd; fUj;Jr; rhaiy MHg;gLj;jBth tpl;LtplBth bra;a[k;go
tYthdit my;y vd;W fUjpdhh;. nUg;gpDk; mf mikg;g[fs; epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;oy;
cz;ikapByBa TLjy; MHkhdit vd;Wk; mf;Bfhl;ghL gy bjhlhpay;
bghJikahf;fA;fis Vw;Wf;bfhs;Sk; gof;F mUtj;jd;ikapd; rhpahd msig va;j
khw;wg;glBtz;Lk; vd;Wk; Twyhk;.
1970-Mk; Mz;L Mf;fKiw khw;wpyf;fzr; rl;lfj;jpd; Kd;Bdw;wj;jpy; mLj;j
epiyapd; bjhlf;fj;ij epWt[fpd;wJ. rhk;!;fp ‘Remarks on Nominalization’ vd;w jd;Dila
Ma;t[f; fl;Liuia 1970-ny; btspapl;lhh; njpy; mth; Mf;fKiw bghUz;ikapay; kPJ xU
vjph;jhf;Fjy; bra;jhh;. 1971-ny; mth; Problems of Knowledge and freedom vd;w jd;
tphpt[iufspd; bjhFg;ig btspapl;lhh;. njpy; mth; ‘Rje;jpuk;’ vd;w fUj;JUt[ld; jdJ rpy
Bfhl;ghLfis xUA;fpizj;jhh;. 1972-ny; Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar
btspaplg;gl;lJ.
rhk;!;fp jdJ epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;il khw;Wk; Kaw;rp tphpthf;fg;gl;l epiybgW
Bfhl;ghL (tpepBfh) vd;W miHf;fg;gl;l Bfhl;ghlhf tpise;jJ (Extended Stnadard
Therory=EST). Mf;fKiw bghUz;ikapayhh; nij ‘bghUs;Bfhs; bghUz;ikapay;’
(interpretive semantics) my;yJ ‘bghUs;Bfhs; khjphp’(interpretive model) vd;W miHj;jdh;.
bghUs;Bfhs; bghUz;ikapay; mjd; tphpthd mh;j;jj;jpy; bghUs;Bfhs; bghUz;ik
tpjpfs; thf;fpaA;fspd; mikg;g[ kw;Wk; mJ bfhz;oUf;Fk; brhy; myFfs; tHp
thf;fpaA;fisg; bghUs;Bfhs; bra;J thf;fpag; bghUz;ikiaj; jUk; vd;w epiyiaf;
Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ.
3.2. mf mikg;ig BkYk; MHg;gLj;Jtjw;fhd thjA;fs;
ghy; gh!;ly;, $hz; uh!;, B$k;!; bkf;fhBy kw;Wk; uhgpd; yhfh|g; vd;Bghh;
epiybgWBfhl;ghL kpf MHkw;wJ vdBt MHg;gLj;jBtz;Lk; vd czh;e;jdh;.
xU thf;fpaj;jpd; mf mikg;gpy; thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikapd; Kf;fpakhd gz;g[fs;
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ vd;W epiybgWBfhl;ghl;oy; Twg;gl;lJ. nijj; bjhlhe;J
xBu bghUz;ika[s;s ve;jf; FGk thf;fpaA;fSk; mtw;wpd; g[w mikg;gpd; BtWghLfs;
fUjg;glhJ xBu mf mikg;igf; bfhz;oUf;Fk; vd;W Twg;gl;lJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf
gpdtUk; thf;fpaA;fspd; nizfisf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;.
1.m. Put away the bottle after you have fixed the drinks.
M. Put the bottle away after you have fixed the drinks.
2. m. Raja gave a book to Rani.
M. Rani was given a book by Raja.
ne;j niz thf;fpaA;fspd; g[w mikg;gpd; cWg;g[ mikg;g[ BtWgl;lJ. BtWgl;l totA;fs;
nUe;jhYk; MA;fpy bkhHp BgRgth; xt;bthUtUk; niz thf;fpaA;fspy; m vd;gjd;
bghUz;ika[k; M vd;gjd; bghUz;ika[k; xd;whdJ vd;gij mwpth;. xU bkhHpapd;
thf;fpaA;fis tpsf;Fk; nyf;fzk; bgah;g[iu Fspj;j BgRgthpd; mwpit fzpf;f Btz;Lk;.
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vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf Fiwr; brhy; efh;t[ khw;wk; (put away the book> put the book away) my;yJ
brag;ghl;L khw;wk; bghUz;ikia khw;whJ.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpa nizfisf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;:
3.m. uh$h uhzpf;F xU ghpR bfhLj;jhd;.
M. uhzp uh$htplkpUe;J xU ghpR bgw;whs;.
4.m. uh$h uhzpf;F xU Fjpiuia tpw;whd;.
M. uhzp uh$htplkpUe;J xU Fjpiuia thA;fpdhs;.
xt;bthU niz thf;fpaA;fisa[k; bgah;g[iufshff; fUjyhk;. mitfSf;F Ke;ija
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfisg; Bghy; bghJthd mf mikg;g[ bfhz;oUf;Fk;. Aspects khjphpay; 1-f;Fk;
2-f;Fk; xBu mf mikg;g[ jug;gLk; Mdhy; 3-f;Fk; 4-f;Fk; mf mikg;g[ tpsf;fg;gLtjd;
tHp fhuzkhf xBu mf mikg;g[ jug;glhJ.
bghUz;ik kaf;fk; bgah;g;g[iuapd; jiyfPHhFk;. bghUz;ik kaf;fj;jpy; xU
thf;fpj;jpw;F xd;Wf;Fk; Bkw;gl;l bghUz;ik nUf;Fk; bgah;g;g[iuapy; nuz;L my;yJ mjw;F
Bkw;gl;l thf;fpaA;fSf;F xBu bghUz;ik nUf;Fk;. khw;wA;fs; xU jdpepiy mf
mikg;gpypUe;J gy g[w mikg;g[fisj; jUtJBghy; khw;wA;fs; BtWgl;l mf
mikg;g[fspypUe;J xU jdpepiyg; g[w mikg;igg; bghUs; kaf;fk; ju Btz;o gpuBahfpf;fg;
gLfpd;wJ vdyhk;. vLj;Jfhl;lhf
uh$h fhz;gjw;F btF bjhiytpy; nUf;fpwhd;.
vd;gJ
m. uh$h mtid ahuhtJ fhz;gjw;F btF bjhiytpy; nUf;fpwhd;.
M. uh$h mtd; vijahtJ fhz;gjw;F btF bjhiytpy; nUf;fpwhd;.
vd;gitfis mh;j;jg;gLj;jyhk;.
gpd;tUk; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ijf; fUj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;:
ne;j miwapYs;s xt;bthUtUk; VBjh xU eoifia tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;..
ne;j thf;fpak; nU rhj;jpakhd bghUz;ikfspy; bghUz;ik kaf;fk; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wd:
m. xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpiug;gl eoifia ne;j miwapYs;s xt;bthUtUk;
tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;.
M. ne;j miwapYs;s xt;bthUtUk; jdpj;jdpBa VjhtJ xU eoifia
tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;.
nuz;L bghUs;Bfhs; nUf;Fkhdhy;, nuz;L BtWgl;l mf mikg;g[fs; nUf;f Btz;Lk;.
Mdhy; M!;bgf;l; khjphp nU bghUs;BfhspYk; bjhlhpay; cwt[ xd;whf nUg;gjhy; xBu
70
xU mf mikg;igj; jhd; jUfpd;wJ. vdBt jug;gl;ljpypUe;J MHkhd BtWgl;l
tifapw;gLk; mf mikg;g[ Btz;Lk;.
xU thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikapd; gFjpiaf; bfhz;oUf;Fk; vy;yh jdpkA;fSk; mit
g[w mikg;gpy; Bjhd;wpdhYk; Bjhd;whtpl;lhYk; thf;fpaj;jpd; mf mikg;gpy; nUg;gjhff;
fUjpdhy;, rpy fl;Lg;ghLfspd; fPH; ePf;fy; khw;wA;fs; rpy jdpkA;fis ePf;f naYk;.
jha;bkhHp BgRgth;fs; rpy jdpkA;fs; ny;yhjpUg;gij mwpthh;fs; nUg;gpDk; mth;fs;
thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikiag; g[hpe;Jbfhs;fpd;wdh;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ijf;
fUj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;: fjit K}L. xt;bthU jkpH; BgRgtUk; thf;fpaj;jpd; vGtha; eP vd;Wk;
mJ g[hpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ my;yJ ny;iy vd;Wk; mwpthh;fs;.
bgah;g[iufs;, kaf;fk; kw;Wk; tpl;Ltplg;gLfpd;w jdpkA;fs; vd;gd jha;bkhHp BgRghpd;
jk; bkhHp gw;wpa mwptpd; gFjpahFk;. nJBghyBt Kw;Bfhs;fs; mth; mwptpd; gFjpahFk;.
ehk; bkhHpiag; gad;gLj;Jifapy; ehk; mBj bkhHpiag; gad;gLj;Jk; Bfl;gtUld; my;yJ
gog;gtUld; ehk; gA;fpl;Lf;bfhs;Sk; mwpitg; gw;wp mDkhdA;fs; (rpy Btisfspy; ek;ik
mwpahkByBa) bra;fpd;Bwhk;. nk;khjphpahd mDkhdA;fs; Kw;Bfhs;fs; vdg;gLk;; nit
bghUz;ikapd; kw;BwhU fhzhkw;BghFk; Behf;fhFk;. Bgr;Rr; bray;ghl;Lf; Bfhl;ghl;oy; nJ
braw;Tw;W Cf;fk; (illocutionay force) vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;. nJ thf;fpaj;ijg gad;gLj;Jtjpy;
BgRgthpd; fUj;Jg;ghpkhw;w tpUg;gj;ij my;yJ tpUg;gA;fisf; Fwpg;gpLk;. braw;Tw;W
Cf;fj;jpd; tiffs; typa[Wj;jy;fs;, xU braYf;fhf Btz;Ljy;fs; (Vty;fs;) kw;Wk;
jftYf;fhd Btz;Ljy;fs; (Bfs;tpfs;) Bghd;wtw;iw cl;gLj;Jk;;. rpyBtisfspy; tpUg;gk;
cl;gilahdjhFk; (implicit) gpw re;jh;g;gA;fspy; btspgilahdjhFk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fisf;
fUj;jpy; bfhs;t[k;.
m. ehd; cdf;F cjt thf;FWjp bra;fpd;Bwd;.
M. ehd; tzf;fk; bra;a fl;lisapLfpd;Bwd;.
ne;j thf;fpaA;fspy; tpUg;gA;fs; btspgilahFk;. nk;khjphpahd thf;FWjpbra;, fl;lisapL
vd;w tpidfs; bray;Tw;W tpidfshFk; (performative verbs). tzf;fk;bra; vd;w fl;lis
thf;fpaj;jpw;F M vd;w thf;fpaj;ijg; BghyBt braw;Tw;W Cf;fj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;
Mdhy; tzf;fk;bra; vd;gjpy; tpUg;gk; cl;gilahdjhFk;. vy;yh thf;fpaA;fSk; mf
mikg;g[ braw;Tw;W tpidfshy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;lhy;, gy cl;gilahd
tpUgA;fisa[k; Kw;Bfhs;fisa[k; tpsf;f naYk;.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ijg; ghh;f;ft[k;:
uh$tpd; kidtp fy;Yhpapy; Btiybra;fpwhs;.
gpd;tUtd ne;j thf;fpaj;jpd; Kw;Bfhs;fshFk;:
1. uh$h vd;w bgaiuf;bfhz;l xU egh; nUf;fpd;whh;.
2. Bfl;gtUf;Bfh gog;gtUf;Bfh uh$hitj; bjhpa[k;.
3. uh$h xU taJte;j Mz;.
4. uh$h fy;ahzkhdth;.
5. uh$htpd; kidtp capBuhL nUf;fpwhh;.
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6. fy;Yhp vd;w epWtdk; vA;Bfh nUf;fpd;wJ.
7. fy;Y]hpapy; mYtyh;fs; nUf;fpd;wdh;.
8. uh$htpd; kidtp me;j fy;Y]hpapy; Btiy bra;fpwhs;.
ne;j vy;th Kw;Bfhs;fSk; thf;fpaj;jpy; cl;gilahf cs;sd BkYk; g[hpe;Jbfhs;sg;gLfpd;w
braw;Tw;W tpida[k; nUf;fpd;wJ.
ehd; cdf;Ff; TWfpd;Bwd; [uh$htpd; kidtp fy;Yhpapy; Btiy bra;fpwhs;]
TW vd;gJ xU braw;Tw;W tpidahFk;. bgUk;ghyhd thf;fpaA;fspy; g[hpag;gLfpd;w
braw;Tw;W tpid nUf;fpd;wJ.
ehd; cdf;F cWjp TWfpBwd; [ehd; rkaj;jpy; tUBtd;].
ehd; TWfpBwd; [ehd; rkaj;jpy; tUBtd;/tuKay;Btd;]
mjhtJ thf;fpaA;fs; mtw;wpd; braw;Tw;W Cf;fj;ija[k; Kw;Bfhs;fisa[k;
btspf;bfhzh;tjw;fhf TwpltpaYk;.
nJBghy brhy; myFfisa[k; TwpltpaYk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, uh$h fz;zhoiia
cilj;jhd; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; cil vd;w tpidia ‘cile;jjhf tur; bra;’ vd;W
Twplyhk;. uh$h ghk;igf; bfhd;whd; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; bfhy ; vd;w tpidia ‘nwe;jjhf
tur; bra;’ vd;gjpypUe;J Mf;fyhk;.
I regret that... vd;w thf;fpj;jpy; regret vd;w tpid I am sorry that... vd;w
thf;fpaj;jpYs;s be sorry vd;gjd; xUbghUs;gd;bkhHpa cwt[ bfhz;Ls;sJ.
xUbghUs;gd;bkhHpfs; aht[k; brhy; bgah;g;g[iufs; mtw;wpd; xypadpay; gz;g[f;TWfs; jhd;
BtWgLfpd;wd.
xUbrhy; Bghypfs; bghUs;kaf;fKs;s thf;fpaA;fspd; brhy; epfud;fshFk; mit xBu
xypapay; gz;g[f;TWfis gA;fpl;Lf;bfhs;fpd;wd Mdhy; bghUz;ikf;TWfspd; BtWgl;l
FGkA;fisf; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wd. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, ehd; jpdKk; E]y; thA;FBtd; vd;w
thf;fpaj;jpy; E]y; vd;gJ ijf;fg; gad;gLk; E]iyBah g[j;jfj;ijBah mh;j;jk; bra;ayhk;.
vjph;bkhHpfs; xU bghUz;ikg; gz;g[f;Tiwj; jtpu gpw vy;yhg; gz;g[f;TWfisa[k;
bghJthff; bfhz;oUf;Fk; nU brhw;fs; MFk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf bghpa, rpwpa vd;gd cUt
msitf; Fwpg;gpl;L, Mdhy; mBjrkak; xd;wpypUe;J xd;W vjph; ghpkhzj;jhy; BtWgLk;
vd;gjhy; vjph;bkhHpfshFk;.
fhl;!; kw;Wk; |ghlh; (Kaz and Foder) bjhlh;g[s;s brhy; myFfSf;F jdpahd
tUtiut[ tpjpfis (projection rules) gad;gLj;jpdh;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;oy;,
bfhy; kw;Wk; nw vd;w tpidfSk; regret kw;Wk; sorry vd;w tpidfSk; jdpj;jdpahd
brhw;fshff; fhl;lg;gl;ld. njd; fhuzkhf jdpj;jdpahd Jiztifg;ghl;Lg;
gz;g[f;TWfis Btz;od. bgauilfs;, Kd;DUg[fs;, Jiztpidfs; kw;Wk; vjph;kiw
jdpkA;fs; vd;gd mf mikg;gpy; tpid vd;w tifg;ghl;od; cWg;gpdh;fshFk; uh$h
72
fz;zhoia cilj;jhd; vd;w thf;fpaA;fs; gpd;tUJ Bghd;w mUtj;jd;ikahd bjhlhpay;
kl;lj;jpd; cUg;gLj;jj;jpypUe;J Mf;fg;bgWk;.
ehd; TWfpd;Bwd; mJ ele;jJ uh$h bra;jhd; uh$h mJ te;jJ fz;zho cile;jJ
uh!; kw;Wk; yhf;fh|g; mf mikg;g[ M!;bgf;oy; TWtJBghy; ny;iy vd;Wk; Kd;dh;
fhl;oago kpf mUtj;jd;ik tha;e;jJ vd;W thjpLfpd;wdh; mUtj; bjhlhpay; (Abstract
Syntax) vd;W miHf;fg;gLk; nt;tHpapyhd vz;zk; nWjpapy; mf mikg;gpy;yhf;
Bfhl;ghlhf khwpaJ nJ ng;bghGJ Mf;fKiwg; bghUz;ikapay; vd;W
miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
Mf;fKiwg; bghUz;ikapy; bjhluikg;gpypUe;J my;yhky; Beuoahf bghUz;ikiaf;
fzpf;f Kad;wJ. mjd; tpsf;fA;fs; bghUz;ikg; gz;g[f;TWfs;, bghUz;ik cwt[fs;,
braw;Tw;Wfs; kw;Wk; Kw;Bfhs;fs; vd;gitfs; mlA;fpa mf bghUz;ikapay; mikg;g[ld;
bjhlA;fpaJ. mk;khjphpahd mf mikg;g[ brhw;brUfy;fs; kw;Wk; khw;wA;fs; vd;gitfSf;F
cl;gLj;jg;gl;L nWjpahf g[w mikg;g[fs; bgwg;gl;lJ nit xypadpay; cl;Twpd; tpjpfs;
gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; mikg;g[fshf mika[k;. nt;thW Mf;fKiwg; bghUz;ikapaypy; vy;yh
bghUz;ikfSk; mf mikg;gpy; nUf;Fk; (nJ M!;bghf;l;rpd; mf mikg;g[fspypUe;J
BtWgLj;j Btz;o jh;f;f mikg;g[ vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;.)
rpy g[jpa g[ydwpjpwd;fs; bkhHpapyhh;fis epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;ow;W khw;whf
Mf;fKiwg; bghUz;ikapaiy Kd;itf;f Cf;Ftpj;jJ. bjhlf;f fhy Mf;fKiwg;
bghUz;ikapay; brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpy; (lexicon) ftdk; brYj;jpaJ.
bghUz;ik cUg;gLj;jk;
brhw;fsq;rpak ; khw;W tpjpfs;
g[w mikg;g[
gpd;dh; nJ gpd;tUkhW khw;wg;gl;lJ:
73
khw;W tpjpfs;
cyfg;
bghJ
tpjpfs;
khw;W tpjpfs;
cyfg;bghJ tpjpfs; (global rules) fz;og;ghd khw;W tpjpfs; mog;gilapy; Tw nayhj
fl;Lg;ghLfisj; jUk; tpjpfshFk; Vbdd;why; gy fl;Lg;ghLfs; Kw;Bfhs;fis cs;slf;Fk;.
xU cyfg;bghJtpjpia gpd;tUkhW Twyhk;. xU jh;f;fg; gadpiy bghUz;ik
cUg;gLj;jj;jpy; kw;bwhd;iw xt;th nirt[ld; mjpfhuk; bra;jhy; (mjhtJ xd;iwtpl
cah;e;j thf;fpaj;jpy; nUe;jhy;), mJ mjd; Mf;fg;gl;l mikg;gpw;F Kd;dh; tUk;.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf assacinate vd;w tpid kill vd;gij cWjp bra;a[k; mjd;
brag;gLbghUs; xU Kf;fpakhd bghJkf;fs; mwpe;j eguhf nUf;f Btz;Lk; vd;gij
Kw;Bfhs; bra;a[k;. vdBt assacinate vd;w brhy;ypd; brUfy; Bkw;brhd;d Kw;Bfhshy;
cyfg;bghJthf fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.
thf;fpaA;fs; tpidfisf;bfhz;l Bjw;wf;Tw;Wfshf gadpiyfshft[k; bgah;j;bjhlh;fs;
gA;bfLg;ghsh;fshft[k; (arguments) ifahsg;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf uh$h uhzpia
bfhd;whd; vd;gJ mjd; jhf;f mikg;gpy; nuz;L Bjw;wf;Tw;Wfisf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
uh$h bra; [uhzp nw]
kw;bwhU tpjp bfhy; vd;gjd; cUbghypadpay; totj;ij nwf;fr; bra; vd;gjd; nlj;jpy;
brUFk;. nk;khjphpahd cUg;gLj;jk; jtwhdJ vd;W fhl;l vjph; thjA;fs; cs;sd.
uh$h uhzpia qhapw;wf; fpHik fj;jpahy; Fj;jp jpA;fs;fpHik nwf;fr;bra;jhd;.
*uh$h uhzpia qhapw;wf; fpHik fj;jpahy; Fj;jp jpA;fs; fpHik bfhd;whd;.
Bkw;fz;l vLj;Jf;fhl;L bfhy; vd;gJk; nwf;fr; bra; vd;gJk; xd;wy;y vd;W fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
Mf;fKiw bghUz;ikapayhh; gpd;tUtd Bghd;wit xBu mf mikg;igf;
bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ vd;gjw;F thjA;fis Kd;itg;gh;.
m. uh$h uhKitg; Bghy; nUf;fpwhd;.
M. uh$h uhKitg; Bghy nUg;gjhf vdf;Fj; Bjhd;Wfpd;wJ.
n. uh$h uhKitg; Bghy nUf;fpwhd; vd;W vdf;Fj; Bjhd;Wfpd;wJ.
c. uh$h vdf;F uhKit epidt[gLj;Jfpwhd;.
jh;f;f mikg;g[
MHkpy;yh mikg;g[
g[w mikg;g[
Kw;Bfhs;,
braw;Tw;W Cf;fk;
Bghd;wit
brhw;fsq;rpak;
74
vy;yh thf;fpaA;fSk; gpd;tUk; xBu mf mikg;igf; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ vd vLj;Jf; bfhz;L
(Bjhd;W ehd; Bghy; uh$h uhK) g[w totA;fis Mf;Ftjw;Fr; rpf;fyhd tpjpfis
cUthf;Fth;.
nUg;gpDk; Mf;fKiwg; bghUz;ikapayhh; vt;thW jh;f;f mikg;g[fs; g[w
mikg;g[fshf khw;wg;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjw;F tphpthd tpsf;fk; juj; jtwpdh;. mth;fs; gy
Kf;fpakhd rpf;fy;fis vGg;gpdh; Mdhy; mth;fs; Kf;fpakhd nyf;fz elg;ig tpsf;f
naytpy;iy mth;fs; je;j tpsf;fA;fs; bjsptw;wdthf nUe;jd. ne;jf; Bfhl;ghL kpff;
FHg;gkhd epiyia mile;J jd;idj;jhBd mHpj;Jf;bfhz;lJ.
3.4. khw;Wtpjpfs; Vw;gLj;Jk; bghUz;ik khw;wk;
mf mikg;gpy; cUg;gLj;jj;jpd; nay; gw;wpa Bfs;tp jtpu khw;W tpjpfs; bghUz;ik
khw;wj;ij tpistpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij cWjpg;gLj;Jk; rhd;Wfs; gy Rl;of;fhl;lg;gl;ld.
1. rpy tpidg;ghA;F Jiz tpidfs; tpdhf;fspy; BtWgl;l bghUz;ikiaf; fhl;Lfpd;wd
mjhtJ tpdhthf;fpaA;fs; Tw;Wf;fspypUe;J khw;W tpjpfshy; bgwg;gl;lhy; vt;thW ehk;
bghUz;ik khw;wj;ij tpsf;f naYk;?
We shall come early in this morning (Tw;W)
Shall we come early this eventing (Bahrid)
2. bra;tpid-brag;ghl;L tpid khw;wk; bghUz;ik khw;wj;ij tpistpf;Fk;.
v.fh.
1..m. Many people buy same brand of cigarettes. (Faithful to one)
M. The same brand of cigrettes is bought by many pelple. (Cetain brands are more
successful)
2. m. Many arrows didn’t hit the target. (Many arrows didn’t hit the target but some did.)
M. The target was not hit by many arrows. (the negation is more emphatic)
3. m. Every one in the room knows two languges. (any two)
M. Two languages are known by everyone in the room. (two specific)
75
3.5.khw;Wg; bgauhf;fj;ijf; ifahs khw;WKiw
1970-ny; vy;yh bghUs;Bfhs; bghUz;ikapayhUk; Kw;Rl;L Fwpg;g[il khw;Wg;bgah;
(anaphoric definite pronoun) mfmikg;gpy; nUf;fpd;wJ vd;gij xj;Jf;bfhz;ldh;.
bjhlf;fj;jpy; epiybgWBfhl;ghl;oy; khw;Wg;bgah;fs; KG bgah;j; bjhlh;fisa[k; khw;W
tpjpfshy; nlk;bgah;f;Fk; vd;W fUjg;gl;lJ (v.fh. uhkd; uhkd; tPl;ow;Fr; brd;whd;
uhkd; jd; tPl;ow;Fr; brd;whd;). nUg;gpDk; vkd; ghf; kw;Wk; !lhd;yp gPl;lh;!; (Emmon
kw;Wk; Stanley Peters) vd;Bghh; khw;Wg;bgauhf;fj;ij xU KG bgah;j;bjhlhpy; brad;ik
bra;a[k; khw;wkhff; bfhs;tJ xU Kuz;iz cUthf;Fk; vd;W epU}gpj;jdh;. nJ gPl;lh; Kuz;
vd;W mwpag;gLk;. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; xt;bthU khw;Wg;bgaUk; kw;bwhd;wpd;
Kd;tUfpstpf;Fs; nUf;fpd;wJ.
The man who shows he1 deserves it2 will get the prize he desires. It vd;gJ the prize he desires vd;gija[k; he vd;gJ the man who shows he deserves it vd;gija[k;
Fwpg;gpLk;. Kd;tot[fis fPBH fhl;oa[s;sJ Bghd;W KG bgah;j;bjhlh;fshy; nlk;bgah;f;f
nayhJ.
The man who shows he deserves it will get the prize he desires
the prize he desires the man who shows he deserves it
the man sho shows he deserves it the pize he desires
the prize he desires
ne;j Kuz; jPh;f;fg;gl Btz;Lbkd;why;;; khw;Wg;bgah;fSf;Fk; bgah;j;bjhlh;fSf;Fk; nilapy;
nizf;Fwpg;g[iuiaj; jUk; bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpa[ld; Tloa mf mikg;gpy; khw;Wg;bgah;fs;
nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
khw;Wg;bgauhf;fj;ijf; ifahs bghUs;Bfhs; mZFKiw khw;w mZFKiwia tpl
ey;yJ vd;W fhl;l gpw thjA;fs; vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gLfpd;wd. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf gpd;tUk;
thf;fpaA;fis ghpBrhjid bra;at[k;:
m. I asked Raja to help me, but the rascal would’t do it.
M. Although the bastard tried to hit me, I am preapred to pardon Raja.
m vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; rascal Raja-If; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ M vd;w thf;fpj;jpy; Paul vd;gJ the
bastard-If; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ. the rascal vd;gJk; the bastard vd;gJk; Kd;Rl;L gl;lg;bgah;fs;
MFk; mit rhjhuz khw;Wg;bgah;fs; Bghy; bray;gLk;. nk;khjphpahd Beh;t[fspy; vd;d
bra;aBtz;Lk;? xU bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpa[ld; mit mf mikg;gpy; nUf;f
mDkjpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. nk;khjphpahd ty rpf;fy;fs; rhk;!;fpia mf mikg;gpd; nay;ig
khw;w fl;lhag;gLj;jpaJ. jd;Dila ‘Remarks on Nominalization’ rhk;!;fp Mf;fg;gl;l
bgah;fs; mtw;Wld; bjhlh;g[ila tpidfspypUe;Bjh bgauilfspypUe;Bjh khw;W tpjpfshy;
Mf;fg;glhky; Beuoahfg; bgah;fshf brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpy; juBtz;Lk; vd;W fhl;Lfpd;whh;.
gpd;tUk; bjhlh;fisg; ghh;f;ft[k;:
Raja’s refusal to the offer
76
Rani’s great performance at tennis The payment of one hundred rupees to the fund Rani’s marriage to Raja Bfholg;gl;l vy;yh brhw;fSk; (Mf;fr; brhw;fSk;) mf mikg;g[g; bgah;fs;.
3.6. X-ghh; bjhlhpaypd; mwpKfk;
bjhlh;-totk; BfhLfshByh fpisfshByh nizf;fg;gl;lit. xt;bthU KGika[w;w
fpisaikg;gpd; nWjpapy; (my;yJ moapy;) tUk; fZf;fs; nWjpf;fZf;fs; vdg;gLk;. gpw
nWjpa[whf; fZf;fs; MFk;. xt;bthU fZt[k; xU g[yf;Fwpg;ig (label) bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
nWjpa[whf;fZf;fs; (bg, bgbjh, tp, tpbjh Bghd;wd) tifg;ghl;Lf; g[yf;Fwpg;g[fisf;
bfhz;oUf;Fk;. nWjpa[whf; fZf;fs; (btw;wplkhf ny;yhtpoy;) bghUj;jkhd brhy;yhy;
g[yf;Fwpg;g[ bra;ag;gl;oUf;Fk;. xU bjhlh; totpy; fZf;fSf;F nilBa nUtifahd
cwt[fs; nUf;Fk;. mit Kd;BdtUjy; my;yJ Mjpf;fk; bra;jy; vd;gd. xU fZ BtW
xU fZt[f;F Kd;dh; tUfpd;wJ vd;why; mJ bjh-totpy; BtW xd;wpd; nlJ trkhf
tUfpd;wJ vd;W Twyhk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh Jtp
bg Btbjh tp vfhyk; cghL
bgbjh Btc
bg
uhkd; brd;id F Bgh t; Md;
Bkw;brhd;d vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; Jiz tpidahdJ tpidj;bjhliuj; bjhlh;e;J tUfpd;wJ
kl;Lkd;wp mJ tpidf;Fg; gpd;dhy; tUfpd;wJ Btw;Wikj; bjhlUf;Fg; gpd;dhy; tUfpd;wJ
brd;id vd;w brhy;Yf;Fg; gpd;dhy; tUfpd;wJ. ng;gof; Twpf;bfhz;Bl Bghfyhk;. xU
fZ kw;bwhU fZtpw;Fg; gpd;dhy; tUfpd;wJ vd;why; mJ kw;bwhU fZtpd; gpd;dhy;
cldoahf mLj;J tyg;gf;fkhf tUfpd;wJ vd;W Twyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, Jiztpid
vd;w fZ tpidj;bjhlh; vd;w fZtpw;F cldoahfg; gpd;dhy; tUfpd;wJ Mdhy;
Btw;Wikj; bjhlh; fZtpw;F cldoahfg; gpd;dhy; tutpy;iy brd;id vd;w brhy;Yf;Fk;
cldoahfg; gpd;dhy; tutpy;iy. ng;gor; brhy;ypf;bfhz;Bl bry;yyhk;. nt;thW gpd;tUjy;
vd;w cwt[f;Fk; cldoahf gpd;tUjy; vd;w cwt[f;Fk; btspg;gilahd cwt[ nUf;fpd;wJ.
vdBt nf;fiyr; brhw;fisr; rhpahfg; gad;gLj;j Btz;Lk;.
gpd;tUjy; cwt[ bjh-totpy; btspg;gilahf fhl;lg;gltpy;iy. mJ je;jpukhf
nlg;gf;fj;jpypUe;J tyg;gf;fk; vd;w thpirfpukj;jhy; btsg;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wJ. nUg;gpDk;
gpd;tUif cwit tiuglkhff; fhl;l naYk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf g[s;spf;BfhL mk;g[f;Fwpfshy;
me;jg; igad;fs; vd;w bgah;j;bjhlhpy; tUk;; g[yf;Fwpg;g[fSf;F nilBa cs;s cwitf;
fhl;l naYk;.
77
bgbjh
mm bg
me;j igad;fs;
Mdhy; nt;tiuglk; K}yk; TLjy; vz;zpf;ifapyhd fZf;fspd; gpd;tUjy; cwt[fisf;
fhl;LtJ gog;gjw;Fr; rpf;fyhdjha; mika[k;. vdBt gpd;tUjy;/ Kd;tUjy; cwt[fs;
btspg;gilahff; fhl;lg;glhky; nlkpUe;J tyk; vd;w thpirf;fpukk; mog;gilapy; je;jpukhff;
fhl;lg;gLfpd;wJ.
xU bg-bjh totpy; tUk; fZf;fSf;fpilBa cs;s nuz;lhtJ tif cwthd
Mjpf;fk; mGj;jkhd BfhLfshy; cUg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;oUf;Fk;. xU fZ kw;bwhU
fZit tpl fpisg;glj;jpy; cah;e;j epiyapy; te;J, mJ kw;bwhd;Wld; mGj;jkhd
BfhLfshy; (fpisfshy;) nizf;fg;gl;oUe;jhy; mf;fZ kw;w fZit Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ
vdyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, th vd;w fZ fpisg;glj;jpy; vy;yhf; fZf;fisa[k; Mjpf;fk;
bra;fpd;wJ. tpbjh vd;w fZ tp vd;W g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l fZita[k; Btbjh vd;W
g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l fZita[k; Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ vdyhk;. Mdhy; tpbjh vd;w
fZ Jtp vd;w fZitBah t; vd;W g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l fZitBah th vd;W
g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l fZitBah uhkd; vd;W g[yg;gLj;;jk; bra;ag;gl;l fZitBah
Mjpf;fk; bra;atpy;iy. nt;thW Twpf;bfhz;Bl bry;yyhk;. xU fZ Beuoahf
fpisg;glj;jpd; BkypUe;J bfhz;L xU tiuahy; kw;bwhU fZt[ld; nizf;fg; gl;oUe;jhy;
mJ mf;fZit Beuoahf (cldoahf) Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ vdyhk;. ng;goahf th vd;w
fZ Beuoahf bgbjh vd;w fZita[k; tpbjh vd;w fZita[k; Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ
vdyhk;. ehk; Beuoahf Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ, Mjpf;fk; bra;fpd;wJ vd;w fiyr;
brhy;ylA;fpa Tw;Wfisf; ftdkhfg; gad;gLj;j Btz;Lk;. njpy; FHg;gk; Vw;gl;lhy;
mh;j;jkpy;yky; (jg;gha;) Bgha;tpLk;.
xU fZ kw;w fZit Beuoahf Mjpf;fk; bra;jhy; mij mf;fZtpd; jha;
vdyhk;.
xU fZ kw;bwhU fZthy; Beuoahf Mjpf;fk; bra;ag;gl;lhy; mij mf;fZtpd;
kfs; vdyhk;.
xU fZf;fspd; FGkk; Beuoahf xU fZthy; Mjpf;fk; bra;ag;gl;lhy; mtw;iwr;
rBfhjhpfs; vdyhk;.
tifg;ghL brhy;tifg;ghL, bjhlh;tifg;ghL vd nUtifg;gLk; vd;W Kd;dh;
ghh;j;Bjhk;. bg, tp, Jtp, mm, tm, nizg;ghd;, gjpyPL vd;gd brhy; tifg;ghLfshFk;.
bjhlh; vd;w brhy; jhA;fpa tifg;ghLfs; bjhlh;tifg;ghLfs; MFk;. mjhtJ th, bgbjh,
gpcbjh, Kcbjh vd;gd bjhlh;fshFk;. brhy; tifg;ghl;ow;Fk; mtw;wpw;F nizahd
bjhlh;fSf;Fk; nilBa cs;s cwt[ Behpilahdjy;y.
Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJfpd;wd
vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; Bgdh vd;gJ bg, ed;whf vd;gJ tpm, vGJ vd;gJ tp vd;gJ
Kuz;ghlhd Tw;wy;y. nj;Jld; ehk; kug[j; bjhlhpay; tifg;ghLfshd vGJfpd;wJ vd;gJ
78
tpbjh, Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJfpd;wd vd;gJ thf;fpak; my;yJ vr;rj;bjhlh; (clause) vd;W
TWfpd;Bwhk;. vdBt gpd;tUk; mikg;ig njw;Fj; juyhk;.
th
bg tpbjh Jtp
tpm tp epfh cgh
Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJ fpd;w; md
nij bkhHpayhh; xj;Jf;bfhs;Stjpy;iy. Bgdhf;fs; bgah; vd;gJld; bgah;j;bjhlUk;
MFk; vGJ tpid vd;gJld; tpidj;bjhlUk; MFk; ed;whf tpidail vd;gJld;
tpidailj; bjhlUk; MFk; vd;W fUJfpd;wdh;. gpd;tUk; gFg;gha;it tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh Jtp
bg tpmbjh tp epfh cgh
tpm
Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJ fpd;w; md
Mdhy; Bgdhf;fs; vd;gJ xU bgah;;j; bjhlh;, ed;whf vd;gJ xU tpidailj; bjhlh; vd;W
TWtJ jtwhfj; Bjhd;Wfpd;wJ. Vbdd;why; bjhlh; vd;gJ nuz;L my;yJ mjw;F Bkw;gl;l
brhw;fshy; Md bjhlh;r;rpahFk;. Mdhy; bjhlh; vd;gijj; bjhluikg;g[f; Bfhl;ghl;oy;
ne;j mh;j;jj;jpy; gad;gLj;jtpy;iy. bjhlh; vd;gJ xU cWg;ig cUthf;Fk; myFfspd;
FGkkhFk;. vj;jid myFfs; tuBtz;Lk; vd;w fl;Lg;ghL ny;iy. njd;go Bgdhf;fs;
vd;w bgaUk; bgah;j; bjhluhFk;;. Mdhy; nt;thW TWtjpy; vd;d mDgt ePjp nUf;fpd;wJ
vd;W Bfl;fyhk;. ve;j cz;ikfspd; FGkk; nij tpsf;Fk; vd;;;;Wk; Bfl;fyhk;.
nt;t[z;ikfspy; xd;W Tw;Wfspy; Bgdhf;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; tUif Kiwiag;
bghWj;jpUf;fpd;wJ vd;gjhFk;. gpd;tUk; Tw;Wfspy;
tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJk;
kpf tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJk;
me;j tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; ed;whf vGJk;
mof;Bfhol;l bjhlh;fs; vy;yhk; bgah;j;bjhlh;fs; vd;gjpy; Iak; ny;iy. nit thf;fpaj;jpy;
Bgdhf;fs; tUk; mBj nlj;jpy; tUk;. ehk; Bgdhf;fs;, tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs;, kpf
tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs;, me;j tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; vy;yhk; bgah;j;bjlh;fs; vd;W
vLj;Jf;bfhz;lhy; gpd;tUk; bjhlikg;g[ tpjp nijf; fhl;Lk;.
th bgbjh + tpbjh + Jtp
79
ehk; Bgdhf;fs; vd;gijg; bgah;r;brhy; vd;Wk;, Mdhy; tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs;, kpf
tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs;, me;j tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; vd;gdtw;iwg; bgah;j;bjhlh;fs; vd;Wk;
Twyhk;. mt;thW vd;why; gpd;tUk; rpf;fyhd tpjp Bjitg;gLk;.
th bgbjh + tpbjh + Jtp
bg
thf;fpaA;fspy; vA;bfy;yhk; bgbjh tUfpd;wBjh mt;tplA;fspy; vy;yhk; nt;tpjp bghUe;Jk;.
vdf;F tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; tpUg;gk;.
ehd; tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fshy; vGJfpBwd;.
ehd; itj;jpUg;gJ tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs;.
xU thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; cWg;g[fspd; tUifKiw gw;wpa nyf;fzf; Tw;Wfspy; Bjitaw;w
nUkoahf;fk; (duplication) tUfpd;wJ. nt;tifapyhd kpif nyf;fzj;jpd; gpw nlA;fspYk;
tUfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhfg; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; Bgdhf;fs; vd;gJ
bgauhFk;, nuz;lhk; thf;fpaj;jpy; tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; bgah;j;bjhluhFk; vd;W TWifapy;
mtw;iw nlk;bgahf;Fk; gjpyPL totkhd mit vd;gjw;F nU BtWgl;l bjhlhpay;
bray;ghl;ilj; juBtz;o nUfpd;wJ.
vdf;F Bgdhf;fs; tpUg;gk;, Mdhy; mit bjhiye;J tpLk;.
vdf;F tpiya[ah;e;J Bgdhf;fs; tpUg;gk;. Mdhy; mit bjhiye;J tpLk;.
Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; mit vd;gijg; gjpyPL-bgah; vd;Wk; nuz;lhtJ thf;fpaj;jpy; mit
vd;gij gjpyPL-bjhlh; vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpl Btz;o nUf;fpd;wJ. khwhf ehk; Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy;
tUk; Bgdhf;fs; vd;gJk; nuz;lhk; thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; tpiya[ah;e;j Bgdhf;fs; vd;gJk;
bjhlh;fs;jhk; vd;w Koit vLj;jhy;, mit vd;gijg; gjpyPL-bjhlh; vd;W Fwpg;gplBtz;Lk;.
nJBghyBt tpiya[ah;e;j vd;w bgauila[k; kpf tpiya[ah;e;j vd;w bgauilj; bjhlh; tUk;
thf;fpa nlj;jpByBa tUtjhy; tpiya[ah;e;j vd;gija[k; bgauilj;bjhlh; vdyhk;.
nJ Bghd;w tpsf;fA;fisg; gpw cWg;g[f;fSf;Fk; juyhk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf uh$h
bkJthfg; BgRfpd;whd; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy; bkJthf vd;w tpidail kpf bkJthf vd;w
tpidailj; bjhlh; tUk; mBj nlj;jpy; tUtjhy;, bkJthf vd;w tpidailia tpidailj;
bjhlh; vdyhk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh Jtp
bg tpmbjh tp epfh cgh
tpm
fz;zd; bkJthfg; BgR fpw; Md;
80
gy bgz;fs; goj;jth;fs; vd;w thf;fpaj;jpy;, gy vd;gJ mstil. nJt[k; vz;zw;w
gy Bghd;w msitj; bjhlh; tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk;. vdBt gy vd;gija[k; msit
milj; bjhlh; vdyhk;.
bgbjh
msmbjh bg
msm
gy bgz;fs;
nt;tpthjk; tpidfSf;Fk; bghUe;Jk;.
uh$h fhyhy; cijg;ghd;.
uh$h cijg;ghd;.
fhyhy; cijg;ghd; vd;w tpidj; bjlh; tUk; nlj;jpy; cijg;ghd; vd;w tpida[k; tuyhk;.
vdBt cijg;ghd; vd;w tpidiaa[k; tpidj; bjhlh; vdyhk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh
bg tp
uh$h cijg;ghd;
fhyhy; cijg;ghd; kw;Wk; cijg;ghd; vd;gjd; gjpyPL-tpbjh fpstpahf mg;goj;jhd; vd;gJ
tuyhk;.
uh$h fhyhy; cijg;ghd;. fz;zDk; mg;goj;jhd;.
uh$h cijg;ghd;. fz;zDk; mg;goj;jhd;.
gjpyPL fpstp cijg;ghd; vd;gij tpidj;bjhluhff; bfhs;syhk; vd;gij cWjp bra;fpd;wJ.
RUA;fr; brhd;dhy; ve;j myFk; cld;tuhj bgah; vd;gJ gjpyPL bgah;j;bjhluhFk;, ve;j
myFk; cld;tuhj bgauil vd;gJ bgauilj; bjhluhFk;, ve;j myFk; cld;tuhj
tpidail vd;gJk; tpilailj; bjhluhFk;. ng;gof; Twpf;bfhz;Bl bry;yyhk;.
th bgbjh + tpbjh
vd;w tpjpiag; gpd;tUkhW Twyhk;:
81
xU tiuglj;jpy; K}d;W g[s;spfis vLj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;. mtw;iw fZf;fs; vd;W
itj;Jf;bfhs;Bthk;. xd;iw th vd;Wk;, kw;bwhd;iw bgbjh vd;Wk; K}d;whkij tpbjh vd;Wk;
g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;Bthk;. th vd;w fZ tpbjh vd;w fZita[k; bgbjh vd;w fZita[k;
Beuoahf Mjpf;fk; bra;al;Lk;. bgbjh vd;w fZ tpbjh vd;w fZtpw;F cldoahf Kd;Bd
tul;Lk;.
th
bg tpbjh
nt;thW Bkw;brhd;d tpjpiag; bghUs;bfhs;tJ jtwhd ghijiaf; fhl;Ltjha; mika[k;.
njw;Fg; gjpyhf ehk; fZ mDkjpf; fl;Lg;ghL (node admissibility condition) vd;gjhy;
bghUs;bfhs;syhk;. bgbjh vd;Wk; tpbjh vd;Wk; g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l nU fZf;fspy;
bgbjh vd;w fZ tpbjh vd;w fZtpw;F cldoahf Kd;Bd tu, nuz;ila[k; Beuoahf th
vd;w fZ Mjpf;fk; bra;a[khdhy;, xU bjh-totpy; th vdg; g[yg;gLj;jk; bra;ag;gl;l ve;jf;
fZt[k; ey; cUthf;fk; bra;ag;gl;ljhFk;.
cUthf;f tpjpfis ey; cUthf;f fl;Lg;ghL my;yJ mDkjpf;fl;Lg;ghL vd;W
bghUs; bfhs;tJ thf;fpa mikg;ig cUthf;Fk; bray;ghL kw;Wk; EZf;fk; gw;wpa
cl;fPilia (implicaton) kWg;gjhFk;. mjhtJ vt;thW gpd; tUk; mikg;g[fs; cUthf;Ffpd;wd
vd;w Bfs;tpia tpl;L tpl;L, nk;khjphpahd mikg;g[fs; vt;thW ey; tothf;fk; bgw;wit vd;W
Fwpg;gpLtJ rhpahFk;.
th
bgbjh tpbjh
Kf;fpa tifg;ghLfspd; mf xw;Wikfisg; gad;gLj;Jk; xU totthjk;
cUthf;fg;gl;lhy; xU brhy;ypayhhpd; (lexicalist)[ tpsf;fk; ne;j cz;ikfisf; ifahs
naYk; vd;W rhk;!;fp thjpLfpd;whh;. bgah;j;bjhlh;fSf;fpilapy; bghJikg;gLj;jg;gl
Btz;oa thf;fpA;fSf;Fs; nUf;Fk; Brh;e;JtUiff; fl;Lg;ghl;il fhl;l mth; X-ghh; kuigg;
gad;gLj;jpdhh; (ghh;f;f X-ghh; bjhlhpahy;). mth; X-ghh; kuig gad;gLj;jp vt;thW
Mf;fg;gl;l bgah;fspd; mf mikg;g[ thf;fpaj;ijg; gpujpgypf;fpd;wJ vd;W fhl;Lfpwhh;.
epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;oy; the cat Bghd;w bjhlhf;fSf;Fg; gpd;tUk; bjhluikg;g[
nUf;Fk;.
bgbjh
mm bg
82
ne;j mDkhdj;jpd; mog;gilapy; mm (milbfhsp mil) vd;gjw;Fr; brhy;
tifg;ghl;od; epiy nUf;Fk; kw;Wk; ve;jr; brhy; myFBghyt[k; ifahsg;gLk;. rhk;!;fpahy;
(Chomsky, 1970) Twg;gl;l khw;W Bahrid fZf;fs; Ma nayhj bjhlf;ff;TWfs;,
Mdhy; gz;g[f;TWfspd; fl;Lfs; Maf; Toait. nJ bgbjh-tpw;Fg; gpd;tUk;
cUgLj;jj;ijj; jUk;.
bgbjh
[ Fwpg;ghd;] bg
ne;j Kd;bkhHpigg; gpd;gw;wp gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis X-ghh; Fwpkhdj;jpy; juyhk;.
m. Raja proved the thoerem,
M. Several of Raja’s proofs of the theorem
th
bg tp
[Fwpg;, tp] tp
tp bg
John past prove the theorm
bg
[Fwpg;, bg] bg
Several [+mm, bg] bg bg
John [prove, pl] the theorem
mth; gpd;tUtd Bghd;w tpjpfis mog;gilahdjhff; fUJfpd;whh;:
m. th bg tp
M. X [Fwpg;, X] X (Fwpg;:Fwpg;ghd;)
n. X... (njpy; X vd;gJ bg, bgm, my;yJ tp)
83
(Fwpg;g[: nJ X-ghh; Fwpkhdj;jpd; Muk;gfhy tiuthFk; njpy; ‘Fwpg;ghd;fs;’ bgauil,
bgah; kw;Wk; tpidj; bjhlh;fs; ntw;wpw;F nilapyhd nizBfhLfis fhl;Ltjw;F
mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ mjhtJ more, very Bghd;wtw;wpw;F nilapy; [Fwpg;, bgm],
milbfhsp milfs; [Fwpg;, bg], Jtp [Fwpg;, tp] . )
vf;!;ghh; bjhlhpaiyg; gw;wp mwpKfk; bra;gth; bjhlhpay; bjhluikg;g[ gw;wp
nUtifahd kWg;g[fs; TWfpd;wdh;:
1. mit mJ mDkjpf;Fk; tifg;ghLfspd; tiffspd; vz;zpf;ifapy; TLjy;
fl;Lg;ghL fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
2. mJ mDkjpf;Fk; bjhlh;mikg;g[ tpjpfspd; FGkA;fspy; kpff;Fiwe;j fl;Lg;ghL
fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpaypy; nuz;L tifahd tifg;ghLfs; cs;sd:
brhy; tifg;ghLfs;: bg, tp, gpc, Kc, tpm, tm, Jtp, mm,
bjhlh;tifg;ghLfs;: bgbjh, tpbjh, gpcbjh, KtpBjh, Btbjh, bgmbjh, tpmbjh,
th
brhy;iytpl bghpa Mdhy; bjhliutpl rpwpa nilg;gl;l tifg;ghL ny;iy.
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, bgaiu tpl bghpa Mdhy; bgah;j;bjhliu tpl rpwpa tifg;ghL ny;iy.
nilg;gl;l tifg;ghLfs; cs;sd vd;gjw;F Bjitahd eU}gzA;fs; nUf;fpd;wd. bjhlhpay;
tifg;ghl;od; Bfhl;ghL njw;F tif bra;a Btz;Lk;. bgah;j;bjhlhpd; mf mikg;gpd;
gpd;dzpapy; nr;rpf;fiy tpsf;fyhk;.
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfk;.
bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpay; kug[ xGA;F Kiwg;go gpd;tUk; mikg;igj; juyhk;.
bgbjh
mm bgmbjh bg
tm bgm
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfk;
kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;w Bfhit xU cWg;ghf tuhJ vd;gJjhd; ne;j Ma;tpd; Kf;fpa
gz;g[f;TwhFk;. gy fhuzA;fshy; nJ jtwhFk;. Kjyhtjhf bgmbjh-bg vd;gij BtW
xU bgmbjh-bg vd;gJld; nizf;f naYk;.
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfKk; kpfg; bghpa iga[k; mtSf;FhpaJ.
uhzp xU kpf mHfhd bgz;Zk; kpf ey;y mjpfhhpa[k; Mths;.
84
xU Bfhitia mBj khjphpahd kw;bwhU Bfhita[ld; nizf;f Koa[khdhy; mJ xU
cWg;ghFk; vd;w ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;Bjhk;. nuz;lhtjhf bgmbjh-bg vd;w bjhlh;r;rp
gjpyPl;L tothd xd;W vd;gjd; Kd;tU fpstpahf (antecedent) tUk;. xU Bfhitia mBj
khjphpahd kw;bwhU Bfhita[ld; nizf;f Koa[khdhy; mJ xU cWg;ghFk; vd;W Kd;dh;
ehk; ghh;j;Bjhk;.
ehd; ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfj;ij goj;Bjd; mtd; me;j xd;iwg; goj;jhd;.
Bkw;fz;l thf;fpaj;jpy; gjpyPL tothd xd;W vd;gJ kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;w Bfhitf;Fg;
gjpyhf te;J gpd;tUk; bghUs;Bfhisj; juyhk;:
ehd; ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfj;ijg; goj;Bjd; mtd; me;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfj;ijg;
goj;jhd;.
khwhf xd;W vd;gJ g[j;jfk; vd;w brhy;Yf;F kl;Lk; gjpyPlhf te;J gpd;tUk;
bghUs;Bfhisj; jUk;.
ehd; ne;j ey;y g[j;jfj;ijg; goj;Bjd; mtd; me;jg; g[j;jfj;ijg; goj;jhd;.
ehk; Kd;g[ ghh;j;jgo xU cWg;g[jhd; xU gjpyPL totpd; Kd;tU fpstpahf tUk;. vdBt
bgmbjh-bg Bfhitahd kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; xU cWg;ghFk;.
mm-bgmbjh-bg vd;w bgah;j;bjhlhpy; tUk; bgmbjh-bg vd;w bjhlh;r;rp xU
cWg;ghFk; vd;gjw;F nuz;L tpthjA;fisg; ghh;j;Bjhk;. njd;go ne;j ey;y g[j;jfk;
gpd;tUkhW Mag;glBtz;Lk;:
bgbjh
mm ??
bgmbjh bg
mm bgm
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfk;
mg;goahdhy; bgmbjh-bg vd;w Bfhitia Mjpf;fk; bra;a[k; ‘??’ vd;gjd; tifg;ghL
vd;d vd;w Bfs;tp vGk;. ‘??’ vd;gij bgbjh vd;W mDkhdpf;fyhk;. Mdhy; nJ
rhpay;y Vbdd;why; kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;gjw;F ne;j ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;w bgah;j;bjhlh;fisg;
Bghy tUifKiw ny;iy.
v.fh.
ne;j ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;DilaJ.
*ey;y g[j;jfk;
85
uhkd; ne;j ey;y g[j;jfj;ij tpUk;gpg;goj;jhd;.
*ey;y g[j;jfj;ij
uhkd; ne;j ey;y g[j;jfj;ij tpUk;gpg;goj;jhd; .
*ey;y g[j;jfj;ij
uhkd; ne;j ey;y g[j;jfj;jpw;Fg; gjpyhf BtW xd;iwj; je;jhd;
*ey;y g[j;jfj;jpw;Fg;
njpy; nUe;J ehk; ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;w bjhliug; bgah; vd;W cUg;gLj;jk; bra;a nayhJ.
vdBt ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;gijg; bgaiu tplg; bghpa Mdhy; bgah;j;bjhliutplr; rpwpa
tifg;ghlhf cUg;gLj;jk; bra;aBtz;Lk;. Mdhy; bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpaypy; brhy;
tifg;ghl;ow;Fk; bjhlh; tifg;ghl;ow;Fk; nilg;gl;l tifg;ghL ny;iy. nf;Fiw ghl;il
epth;j;jp bra;jhd; X-ghh; bjhlhpay; cUthf;fg;gl;lJ. X-ghh; rl;lfj;jpy;, X vd;w
brhy;tifg;ghl;ow;F xd;wpw;Fk; Bkw;gl;l bjhlhpay; ePl;rpfs; tuyhk;. mjhtJ X-ghh;
rl;lfj;jpy; gpd;tUk; tifg;ghl;L tiffspd; bjhlh;r;rpiaf; fhzyhk;.
1. X my;yJ X0, ghh; ny;yhj X = X vd;w brhy; tifg;ghL.
2. X my;yJ X1, X-ghh; my;yJ xU ghh; cs;s X
3. X my;yJ X2, nuz;L ghh; cs;s X
4. X my;yJ X3, K}d;W ghh; cs;s X
ng;go Bgha;f;bfhz;Bl nUf;Fk;.
VjhtJ X vd;w brhy; tifg;ghl;Lld; bjhlh;g[w;wpUf;Fk; xt;bthU ghh;-tifg;ghLk; X-
nd; ghh; tUtiut[ (projecton) vdyhk;. bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpay; X-ghh; bjhlhpaypd;
fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;l khjphpahFk;. bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhhpaypy; ve;j tifg;ghl;od; ghh;-
tUtiutpd; (bar projection) TLjy; vz;zpf;if xd;W MFk; vd;w fl;Lg;ghl;il
tw;g[Wj;Jfpd;wJ. nJjhd; bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpaYf;Fk; X-ghh; bjhlhpaYf;Fk; cs;s
BtWghL. Vbdd;why; bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpaypy; ve;j xU tifg;ghl;ow;Fk; xU bjhlhpay;
tUtiut[jhd; nUf;fpd;wJ. ne;j khWgl;l tifg;ghLf; Bfhl;ghl;od; go ne;j ey;y g[j;jfk;
vd;gjd; mikg;igg; gpd;tUkhW Mayhk;.
bg
mm bg
bgmbjh bg
tm bgm
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfk;
86
X-ghh; Bfhl;ghl;od;go kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; bg MFk;. g[j;jfk; bg MFk;. njd; go xd;W
vd;gJ gjpyPL bg my;yJ gjpyPL bg MFk;. mjhtJ xd;W vd;gJ nuz;L tHpfspy;
gA;bfLf;Fk;. xd;W vd;gJ gjpyPL bg vd;w fhuzj;jhy; nij kpfg;bghpa g[j;jfk; vd;gJld;
bjhlh;g[gLj;jyhk; vdBt xd;W vd;gjd; Kd;tUfpstp bg Mfj;jhd; nUf;fBtz;Lk;. xd;W
vd;gJ g[j;jfk; vd;gjw;Fg; gjpyhf tUfpwgoahy;, g[j;jfk; vd;gJk; bg MFk;. njd;go
Bkw;fz;l thf;fpaj;jpd; mikg;g[ gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
bg
mm bg
bgmbjh bg
tm bgm bg
ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfk;
ehd; ne;j kpf ey;y g[j;jfj;ijg; goj;Bjd; mtd; me;j xd;iwg; goj;jhd;
vd;w thf;fpaj;jpd; nUtifahd bghUs;Bfhspd;go kpf ey;y g[j;jfk; vd;gJk; g[j;jfk;
vd;gJk; bg vd;W Mag;gLtjhy;, xd;W vd;gJ jdpg;gl;l gjpyPL bg Mfr; bray;ghL
bra;fpd;wJ.
nilg;gl;l tifg;ghl;il epiy epWj;Jk; rhl;rpahfg; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fSk;
mikfpd;wd.
ey;y g[j;jfk; nJ vd;whYk; nij kpfr;rpyBu tpUk;gpg; gof;fpd;wdh;.
Bkhrkhd g[j;jfk; mJ vd;whYk; mijg; gyh; tpUk;gpg; gof;fpd;wdh;.
Fs;skhd bgz; mts; vd;whYk; mtisg; gyh; tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;.
ey;y g[j;jfk;, Bkhrkhd g[j;jfk;, Fs;skhd bgz; vd;gjd; cWg;g[ epiyik bgbjh
vdf;Twyhk;. Mdhy; mm cs;s bgbjh Bkw;brhd;d bjhlh; tUk; nlA;fspy; tuhJ.
?*xU ey;y g[j;jfk; nJ vd;whYk; nij kpfr;rpyBu tpUk;gpg;gof;fpd;wdh;
*me;j Bkhrkhd g[j;jfk; mJ vd;whYk; mijg; gyh; tpUk;gpg;gof;fpd;wdh;
*ne;j Fs;skhd bgz; mts; vd;whYk; mtisg; gyh; tpUk;g[fpd;wdh;
Bkw;fz;l thf;fpaA;fspd; nyf;fzj; jd;ikapypUe;J nJ, mJ, mts; vd;gdtw;wpw;F Kd;tUk;
cWg;g[ bg MFk; bgbjh my;y vd;gij czuyhk;.
gpd;tUk; MA;fpyj; bjhlUf;fhd nuz;L tpjkhd bghUs;Bfhz;ikia ghh;
FwpaPl;lhy; BtWgLj;jpf;fhl;lyhk;.
the English king : 1. the king who is English
3. the king of England
87
bg bg
mm bg mm bg
bgmbjh bg bgmbjh bg
bgm bg bgm
the English king the English king
Kjy; Ma;tpy; king vd;gjw;F bg vd;w epiy nUf;fpd;wJ. nuz;lhk; Ma;tpy; bg vd; epiy
jhd; nUf;fpd;wJ. one vd;gJ gjpyPL-bg Mfr; bray;gLfpd;wJ vd;W bfhz;lhy; the English
one vd;gjw;F Kjy; bghUs;Bfhs; jhd; bra;a naYk; nuz;lhtJ bra;a nayhJ.
I like the French king, but not the English one.
nJ BghyBt Kd;cUg[j; bjhlh;fs; bg vd;gij milbra;fpd;wjh my;yJ bg vd;gij
mil bra;fpd;wjh vd;gijg; bghWj;J nU BtWgl;l Ma;t[fs; juBtz;Lk;.
bg bg
mm bg mm bg
bg Kcbjh bg Kcbjh
a student with long hair a student of physics
Kjy; mikg;gpYs;s student vd;gijg; gjpyPL-bg Md one vd;gjhy; nlk; bgah;f;fyhk;
nuz;lhk; mikg;gpYs;s student vd;gjij nlk; bgah;f;fyhfhJ.
I like this student with long hair better than that one with short hair.
*I like the student of chemistry better than that one of physics.
bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzA;fs; (phrase structure grammar) bgbjh, tpbjh vd;gd mnemonically
trjpahd FwpaPLfs; kl;Lky;y mit bgauhft[k; tpidahft[k; tUk; thf;fpa cWg;g[fSf;F
Btz;o epw;git vd;w cz;ikia Kiwg;gLj;jj; jtwptpl;ld. Vbdd;why; mitfspy; bg
vd;gJk; tp vd;gJk; fl;lhakhd Kf;fpa cWg;ghf nUf;Fk;. X-bjh vd;w totpy; tUk; thf;fpa
cWg;g[fis X cld; bjhlh;g[gLj;Jk; kugpyf;fz Kiwjhd; Bjit. X vd;gJ (bg, tp
Bghd;w) ve;j Kf;fpa tifg;ghlhft[k; tuyhk;. nJ gpd;tUk; tpjpfisj; juhJ.
bgbjh tp-bgbjh
tpbjh mm-bg
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs; mog;gilapy; gpd;tUk; tpjpfs; jhd; bghJthdjhf ve;j bkhHpapYk;
fhzg;gLk;.
bgbjh …bg…
88
tpbjh …tp…
bgbjh …bgm…
Kcbjh … gpc…
tmbjh …tm…
njd; go bgbjh vd;gjpy; vJ Kd;dBuh gpd;dBuh te;jhYk; mjpy; bg vd;gJ fl;lhakhf
nUf;fBtz;Lk;. iyahd;!;, rhk;!;fp Bghd;Bwhh; TWk; kuigg; gpd;gw;wp X vd;gij ve;jr;
brhy; tifg;ghl;ila[k; Fwpf;Fk; khwpahfg; gad;gLj;jp bjhluikg;g[ tpjpia gpd;tUk;
cyfg;bghJ tpjpahfj; juyhk;:
X-bjh …X …
xt;bthU X-bjhlUf;Fk; X vd;w jiy[ nUf;Fk;. ne;j tpjp kug[j; bjhluikg;g[ nyf;fzr;
rl;lfj;jpw;Fs; totikf;fg;gl;lit. nij vt;thW X-ghh; bjhlhpay; tifg;ghl;od; Behf;Fld;
cl;gLj;jyhk; vd;gjw;Fg; gpd;tUk; fl;Lg;ghLfs; juyhk;.
1. K}d;W X ghUf;F nuz;L X ghh; jiyahf nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
2. nuz;L X ghUf;F xU X ghh; jiyahf nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
3. xU X ghUf;F X vd;gJ jiyahf nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
tpjp jpl;ltiutpd; go, thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpfSf;Fg;; gpd;dh; tUk; tot[ juyhk;:
1. X …X…
2. X …X…
3. X …X…
ne;jj; jpl;ltiuit gpd;tUkhW bghJikg;gLj;jyhk;:
X n …X
n -1…
n ghh;fs; cs;s X vd;w tifg;ghl;oy; n-1 ghh;fs; cs;s X bjhlh; tifg;ghL
nUf;fBtz;Lk;. vy;yh bkhHpfspd; thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpfs; Bkw;brhd;d jpl;l tiuit
(schema) cWjp bra;aBtz;Lk;. Bkw;brhd;d jpl;ltiut[ gpd;tUkhW khw;wg;glBtz;Lk;.
X n …X
m… (m=n, my;;yJ n-1)
ne;j tpjp bjhlh;fspy; fhzg;gLk; gpd;tUtJ Bghd;w kWjuit (recustion) mDkjpf;fpd;wJ.
89
bg
mm bg
xU bgm bg
caukhd bgm bg
fWg;ghd bgm bg
mHfhd bgz;
jiy, epug;gp Mfpad tUk; thf;fpaA;fis Ma Bkw;fz;L tpjp tYtw;wJ. jiy, epug;gp
Mfpad tUk; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis Ma
As for this book, I think you should read it
I told him that I was bored with X-bar syntax
rhk;!;fp gpd;tUk; tpjpfisj; jUfpd;whh;:
S TOP - S th jiy-th
S Com - S th epug;gp-th
nt;tpjpfs; ehk; Kd;dh; je;j tpjpfis kPWfpd;wJ. rkepiy nizg;ig (coordionation) Mat[k;
Kjw;fz;l tpjp tYtw;wJ.
ne;j caukhd igaDk;; me;jf; Fs;skhd rpWkpa[k;
this tall bod and that short girl
bg
bg nfp bg
this tall boy and that short girl
bg
bg nfp bg nfp
ne;j caukhd igad; ck; me;j Fs;skhd rpWkp ck;
gpd;tUk; tpjpiaj; juBtz;Lk;.
bg bg niz bg (MA;fpyj;jpy;)
bg bg-niz bg-niz (jkpHpy;)
90
X-ghh; bjhlhpay; jtW bra;af;Toa rpy brhw;fisf; Fwpg;gplj; Bjitahfpd;wJ. Kjyhtjhf,
bjhluikg;g[j; bjhlhpaiyg; Bghy;, nuz;L ghh; cWg;igg; Bghy; tUif Kiwa[s;s
milbra;ag;glhj cWg;g[f;F nuz;Lghh; jug;gLk;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy;
uhkd;, uhij vd;w nuz;ow;Fk; bg vd;w epiy jug;gLk;.
th
bg Btbjh tp
bg bg Btc
bg bg
bg
uhkd; uhij I fhjypf;fpwhd;
bg vd;gJ gjpyPL-bg Kw;Rl;Lfshd mtd; my;yJ mts; Bghd;wtw;wpd; Kd;tUfpstpahf
tUk; vd;gJ njw;Ff; fhuzkhfpd;wJ.
kdjpy; bfhs;sBtz;oa nuz;lhtJ bra;jp vd;dbtd;why; X-ghh; bjhlhpaypy; X-If;
bfhz;l cWg;g[ X-ghh; vd;Wk; X-ghiu bfhz;l cWg;g[ X-nul;ilghh; vd;Wk; X-
nul;ilghiuf; bfhz;l cWg;g[ X-Kg;ghh; vd;Wk; vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gl;lhYk;, ekf;F xU
cWg;g[ mBj tifiar; rhh;e;j kw;bwhU cWg;gpy; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; cl;gLk; vd;Wk; xt;bthU
bjhlh;r;rpahd bghpa cWg;g[k; mij cldoahf mLj;J tUk; cWg;g[ bfhz;oUg;gij tpl
xU ghh; TLjyhff; bfhz;oUf;Fk; vd;W mh;j;jky;y. ne;j bfhs;ifaia typa[Wj;JtJ, xU
cWg;g[ mBj tifiar; rhh;e;j kw;bwhU cWg;gig cl;gLj;Jk; vd;w kWjut[ (recusion)
braw;ghA;if kWg;gjhFk;. xU mHfhd fWj;j caukhd bgz;, ne;j caukhd igaDk;
me;j Fs;skhd rpWkpa[k; vd;w thf;fpaA;fspd; mikg;g[fs; nij vLj;Jf;fhl;Lk;. vdBt out
from the bed vd;w bjhlh; gpd;tUkhW Mag;gLk;:
[P out [P from[P under the bed]]] gpd;tUtJ kw;bwhU rpf;fyhFk;. tifg;ghl;L khwp Bghd;w X ve;j brhy;
tifg;ghl;ila[k; Fwpg;gpl gad;gLj;j naYk; vd;W Kd;dh; vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gl;lJ. rh!;fp
(Chomsky, Studies (1972) nk;khjphpahd tifg;ghl;L khwpfis gpw Beh;t[fspYk; gad;gLj;JtJ
trjpahdJ vd;W thjpLfpd;whh;. tifg;ghl;L khwp X-I gad;gLj;jp the question whether John
should leave Bghd;w epug;gp tiffisg; gpd;tUk; thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpg;go cl;gLj;jyhk;: X
X-th.
3.7. mikg;igj; jf;fitf;Fk; fl;Lg;ghL
vl;kz;l;!; (Edmonds 1976) Vd; xU FG khw;Wtpjpfs; mikg;igj; jf;fitf;Fk;
gz;igf; bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ vd;w Kiwahd tpsf;fj;ijj; jUfpd;whh;. mikg;igj;
jf;fitf;Fk; fl;Lg;ghL khw;W tpjpfs; C vd;w tifg;ghl;od; jdpkj;ij tifg;ghL C-nd;
fZthy; xU bjhlh;-Fwpg;gpy; gpoj;J itj;jpUf;fg;gLk; xU nlj;Jld; kl;Lk;jhd; efh;j;j
91
naYk; vd;W Twpfpd;wJ. mjhtJ, bgbjhfs; gpw bgbjhfshYk; Kcbjhfs; gpw
KcbjhfshYk; bgah;j;bjhlh;fs; gpw bgah;j;bjhlh;fshYk; nlg;bgah;r;rp bra;a naYk;.
nJ kw;bwhU Bfs;tpia vGg;gpaJ. xU cWg;g[ thf;fpaj;jpd; xU nlj;jpypUe;J
efUk;BghJ mJ Vw;fdBt nUe;j nlj;jpw;F vd;d rk;gtpf;Fk;? ne;jf; Bfs;tpf;Fr; rhk;!;fpapd;
tpil vd;dbtd;why; mJ e my;yJ vd;gjhy; Fwpf;fg;gl;l mBj tifapd; fhypf; fZit
tpl;Lr; bry;fpd;wJ vd;gjhFk;. gpd;tUk; cUg;gLj;jij;ijg; ftdpf;ft[k;:
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
bg nfh tp bgbjh gcbjh
gpc bgbjh
Raja ed defeat Rani by
bgbjh bgbjh nlj;jpw;F efUk; (gpd;tUjy;)
Raja vd;w bgbjh by vd;gjw;Fg; gpd;dhy; cs;s fhyp bgbjh-I epug;g gpd;efh;j;jg;gLk;.
ng;BghJ Raja vd;gjhy; fhypbra;ag;gl;l nlk; fhypahf nUf;Fk;. vdBt me;j nlj;ij
epug;g Rani mA;F efh;j;jg;gLk;.
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
nfh Jtp tp bgjh gpcbjh
gpc bgbjh
ed be ed defeat Rani by Raja bgbjh bgbjh nlj;jpw;F efUk; (Kd;tUjy;)
rhk;!;fp nBj tifahd efh;t[ bgauhf;fj;jpYk; elg;gijf; fhl;Lfpd;whh;. ehk; mf
mikg;g[f; fyitfspy; mm-bg-bgbjh-by vd;w totpYs;s bgah;j;bjhlh;fspy;,
vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf enemy-destruction–by- vd;gjpy; of vd;w Kd;DUg[ bg-bgbjh fl;Lkhdj;jpy;
bghJ tpjpahy; brhUfg;gLfpd;wJ. ne;jg; bgauhf;fj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;:
92
bgbjh
bgbjh bgbjh Kcbjh Kcbjh
mm bg Kc bgbjh gpc bgbjh
[destroy+bg ] of the city by
bgbjh gpd;tUjy;
[destroy, +N] vd;w brhy; bgauhf milahsg;gLj;jg;gLk;BghJ destruction vd;W
vGj;Jf;Tl;lg;gLk; clik kw;Wk; Kd;DUg[ of vd;gd bghJ tpjpfshy; brUfg;gLk; bgbjh-
gpd;tUjy; the enemy vd;gij by vd;gjw;F gpd;dhy; bgbjh nlj;jpy; efh;j;Jk;.
bgbjh
bgbjh bgbjh gpcbjh gpcbjh
gpc bgbjh gpc bgbjh
destruction of the city by the enemy mm the fhypf; fZit nlg;bgah;r;rp bra;J gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ijj; jUk;: the destruction of
the city by the emeny. khwhf bgbjh-Kd;tUjYk; epfHyhk; the city vd;gJ fhypf; fZit
nlk;bgah;f;Fk; kw;Wk; of vd;gJ ePf;fKWk;. nJ gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;ij tpistpf;Fk;: the city’s
destruction by the enemy. mikg;gpy; ve;j fhypf; fZt[k; Bjhd;whJ vd;W fUjg;gLfpd;wJ
mg;go Bjhd;wpdhy; tpisa[k; thf;fpak; nyf;fzkw;wjhFk;.
3.8. tphpt[gLj;jg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghl;od; totk;
rhk;!;fp Some issues in the Theory of Transformational Grammar (1972) kw;Wk; Conditionals
of Transfomations (1973) jkJ gilg;g[fspy; khw;Wtpjpfspy; gy fl;Lg;ghLfisf;
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whh;. nJ bjhlhpay; cl;Twpd; kpff; TLjyhf khw;wg;gl;l xGA;FgLj;jYf;Ff;
bfhz;Lbrd;wJ. gpd;tUk; glk; 1970-nypUe;J 1972 tiu Vw;gl;l khw;wj;ijf; fhl;Lfpd;wJ.
the enemy
93
brhy;rhuh khw;wA;fs;
bghUz;ik bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpfs;
;1 tifg;ghl;L cl;TW
bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
mof;Twpd; fpis tpjpfs; nyf;fzr; bray;ghLfisa[k;
nyf;fz cwt[fs; tptuiz bra;fpd;wJ.
2 brhy;yd; kw;Wk;
brhw;brUfy; tpjpfs;
brhw;fsq;rpak; bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfshy; cUthf;fg;gLk;
Bfhh;itfSf;Fs; mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; rpy nlg;bgah;r;rp
khw;w tpjpfSld; bjhlh;g[ila gjpt[fisf;
bfhz;oUf;fpd;wJ. mof;TwpYs;s vy;yh R{Hy;
fl;Lg;ghLfSk; brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpd; tpjpfshy;
jug;gLfpd;wJ.
3 brhy;rhuh khw;wA;fs;
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;
mikg;g[ khw;wk;
X P Y Q W
1 2 3 4 5 1 0 3 2 5
4 g[w tog;ghd;fs; g[w mikg;gpd; kPJ ey;tothf;fj;jd;ikapd; fl;Lg;ghL
khw;wA;fSf;F tog;g[ tpist[ nUf;fpd;wJ vd;W cl;Bfhs;
bra;fpd;wJ. khw;wA;fspd; tog;g[ tpisit BghJkhd
mst[ tsg;gLj;j cjt[k; btspaPl;Lf; fl;lg;ghLfs; g[w
tog;ghd;fs; vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;.
5 bghUz;ikapy;
bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpfs;
bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpfs; bjhlhpay;
totA;fSf;F bghUz;ik jUfpd;wJ.
tog;ghd;fs;:
v.fh.
1. [for,...to] vd tu nayhJ (mjhtJ for vd;gJ xU fhyp tifg;ghl;lhy; (mjhtJ -
My;) bjhlu nayhJ)):
It be illegal [for merchants to raise prices]
*Merchants are illegal for to raise prices.
mo
tifg;ghl;L cl;TW brhw;fsq;rpak;
bjhlhpay; mikg;g[ tpjpfs; brhw;brUfy; tpjpfs;
bjh1
mf mikg;g[
bghUz;ik cl;TW
bghUz;ik cUg;gLj;jk;
g[w mikg;g[
bjhn
bjhn
g[w tog;ghd;fs;
94
tog;ghd;*... [for, ...to...]...
2. tpdhr; brhw;fs; brag;gLbghUs; nlj;jpypUe;J efh;j;jg;gl;lhy;, mJ ePf;fg;glyhk;
Mdhy; vGtha; nlj;jpypUe;J efh;j;jg;gl;lhy; ePf;ftpayhJ.
m. The man who I saw [RtL]
The man I saw.
M. The man who [RtL] saw Raja
*The man saw Raja
bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;Bfhs; tpjpfs;:
v.fh.
m. Not many arrows hit the target.
M. Many arrows did’t hit the target.
vjph;kiwapd; Behf;fk; g[w mikg;gpy; not vd;gjd; nlj;jhy; cWjpbra;ag;gLk;. m vd;gjpy;
many arrows hit the target vd;w Bjw;wf;Tw;W vjph;kiwgLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ Mdhy; M vd;gjpy;
tpidj; bjhlh; vjph;kiwgLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ: many arrows are asserted to have failed to hit the target.
3.9. RtL Bfhl;ghl;oypUe;J (Trace theory) tsh;r;rp
xU cWg;g[ thf;fpaj;jpd; kw;bwhU nlj;jpw;F efh;e;jhy; mJ e my;yJ vd;W
milahsg;gLj;jg;gl;l fhypf; fZit tpl;Lr;bry;Yk; vd Kd;dh; ghh;j;Bjhk; mJ ve;j
brhy;rhh; myifa[k; Vw;fhJ. njd;go Raja is like to be elected President vd;gJ gpd;tUk;
cs;SW cUg;gLj;jj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
It is likely – Raja be elected President. Robert is likely nJ gpd; tUk; mikg;igj; jUk;:
Raja is likely e to be elected President. bgbjh
Raja vd;gjd; efh;thy; tpl;Lbry;yg;gl;l xU fhyp bgbjh-fZ Raja vd;W vt;thW ehk;
mwpBthk;? ehk; fhyp tifg;ghL mBj tifiar; rhh;e;jJ vd;W mwpBthk; (mjhtJ bgbjh)
Mdhy; mJ Raja-cf;F Btz;o epw;fpd;wJ vd;gij ehk; vt;thW mwpBthk;?
rhk;!;fpapd; jPh;khdk; gpd;tUkhW mika[k;. ehk; vA;Fk; vg;bghGJk; xU cWg;g[
efh;e;jhy; efUk; tifg;ghLk; mJ tpl;Lr; bry;Yk; fhyp tifg;ghLk; nizahf
mwpFwpgLj;jg;gLk; (coindexed) vd;w kuig cUthf;fpBdhk; mjhtJ mitfSf;F xBu fPH;
vz; jug;gLk;. efh;j;jg;gl;l tifg;ghL tpl;Lr;brd;w nlj;jpy; xU Rtl;il tpll;Lr;bry;Yk;
95
nizmwpFwp mjd; efh;itg; gjpt[bra;a[k;. efh;t[ tpjpfspd; gjpthf Rtl;Lld; (t) g[w
mikg;g[ cUthf;fg;gLk;.
1975-ny; rhk;!;fpapd; Reflections on Language vd;gJ btspaplg;gl;lJ. mjpy; rhk;!;fp
efh;t[ tpjpfspd; Rtl;Lf; Bfhl;ghl;il (Trace Theroy of Movement Rules) RUf;fkhff;
TWfpd;whh;. nJ gpd;dh; Rtl;Lf; Bfhl;ghL (Trace Theroy) vd;W miHf;fg;gl;lJ. rpy fhyk;
nJt[k; khw;wpaikf;fg;gl;l tphpthf;fg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghL (kh.tp.ep.Bfh) (Revised
Extended Standard Theory= REST) vd;W miHf;fg;gl;lJ. ne;j khw;wk; rpy khw;wA;fs; K}y
nlj;jpy; cWg;g[fspd; Rtl;il tpl;Lr;bry;fpd;wJ vd;Wk; RtL g[w mikg;gpy; bghUs;BfhSf;F
Btz;o nUf;Fk; vd;Wk; TWfpd;wJ tphpthf;fg;gl;l Bfhl;ghl;oy; Kd;dh; TwpaJBghy;
TLjyhd fhypf; fZ ePf;fg;glhJ. gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;L ne;j Kf;fpaj; jftiy
vLj;Jf;fhl;Lk;.
does Raja teach Englsih t nyf;F do-Mjut[ brayp tp ikaf;fUj;J
RtL jtpu BtW Fwpg;gpl;l khw;wA;fSk; kh.tp.ep.Bfh.-ny; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.
nJ jh;f;f kw;Wk; g[ydwpt[ xGA;FKiwfspd; mwpKfkhFk;. nit nuz;Lk; g[w mikg;gpd;
bghUs;Bfhspy; gA;fspg;g[ bra;fpd;wd.
jh;f;f totA;fs; (Logical forms) msit milfs;, vjph;kiw, tpidg;ghA;Ffs;, jiyg;g[,
fUj;Jiu, Fwpg;g[iu, ftdf;Ftpg;g[, Kw;Bfhs;fs;, kw;Wk; jh;f;f jdpkA;fspd; Behf;fk;
vd;gdthFk;. jh;f;f totA;fspd; jdpkA;fs; g[w bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;Bfhis cWjpbra;a
Btz;o g[w mikg;gpy; gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; tpjpfshy; g[Fj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. rhk;!;fp ne;j
kl;lj;jpy; btspg;gilahd bjhlhpaiyj; jutpy;iy Mdhy; ‘thf;fpa mikg;gpd; ve;j
gz;g[f;TWfSk; Beuoahf thf;fpaj;jpd; bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;BfhSf;Fs; bry;fpd;wJ
kw;Wk; mit nyf;fzj;jpd; (thf;fpaj;jpd;) gz;g[fshy; fz;og;ghf cWjpbra;ag;gLfpd;wJ’
vd;W TWfpd;whh; (Chomsky, 1976).
g[ydwpt[ xGA;FKiwfs; (cognitive system) bkhHpfisa[k; kdpj elj;ijiaa[k; cs;Siw
bra;a[k; mwpt[ kw;Wk; ek;gpf;if ntw;iw fUj;jpw;bfhz;l mfepiyahf xGA;fikf;fg;gl;l
tpjpfspd; xGA;FKiwfshFk; mk;khjphpahd xGA;FKiwfs; bjhlf;ffhyf; FHe;ijg;
gUtj;jpByBa tsh;fpd;wJ kw;Wk; ehk; cw;WBehf;Fk; elj;ijapd; tifia cWjpbra;a Btz;o
gy gpw fhuzpfSld; Clhl;lk; bra;fpd;wJ.
tp.ep.Bfh.-ny; khw;wA;fspd; fl;Lg;ghLfs; nyf;fzj;jpd; bjhlhpay; cl;Twpy;
gpuBahfpf;fg;gl;lJ kw;Wk; mit epuy;gLj;jgl;lit MFk;. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf bgbjh-tpbjh-
bgbjh-by-bgbjh vd;w mikg;gpy; brag;ghl;L tpjp gpuBahfpf;fg; gLk;BghJ, gpcbjh-cf;Fs;
vGthiag; gpd;efh;j;Jk; tpjp gpuBahfpf;fg;glBtz;Lk; njd; tpisthf fhypbra;ag;gl;l
vGtha; nlj;jpy; brag;gLbghUs; bgbjh Kd;efh;j;jg;gLk;.
Rtl;Lf; Bfhl;ghl;oy;, jdpgl;l khw;wA;fspd; kPjhd fl;Lg;ghLfs; bgbjh-RtL
nizfis MSk; epakA;fshy; g[w mikg;gpy; g[wf; fl;Lg;ghLfshy; nlg;bgah;r;rp
bra;ag;gLk;.
To whom
96
Raja was seen bgbjh [RtL].
ne;j Beh;tpy; bgbjh [RtL] nizapy;, gpcbjh [by someone] g[w mikg;gpypUe;J
ePf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ehk; thf;fpaj;jpy; xU bgabur;rj; bjhliu Brh;j;jhy;, mJ bgbjh [RtL]-
If; fhl;Lk; Raja-I fhl;lJ.
Raja was seen bgbjh [RtL] was going home.
Raja was seen bgbjh [RtL] who was going home.
*Raja was seen bgbjh [RtL] who was going home.
nt;thW tp.ep.Bfh.-ny; fl;Lg;ghLfs; khw;w tpjpfspd; epuypy; gpuBahfpf;fg; gLfpd;wJ.
khw;wtpjp1, khw;wtpjp2, khw;wtpjp3...
Rtl;Lf; Bfhl;ghl;oy;:
mf mikg;g[ mf mikg;g[
.khw;wtpjp1 .khw;wtpjp1
.khw;wtpjp2 .khw;wtpjp2 (fl;Lg;ghLfs; ny;iy)
.khw;wtpjp3 .khw;wtpjp3
.khw;wtpjp4 .khw;wtpjp4
g[w mikg;g[ g[w mikg;g[
(bgbjh-RtL nizfis MSk; epakA;fs;)
khw;wA;fs; bra;ag;gl;L gpd;tUk; xGA;FgLj;jypd; xl;Lbkhj;j totk; gpw;gl;l 1970fspy;
btsptUfpd;wJ.
97
khw;wA;fspd; Bky; fl;Lg;ghLfs; cs;s khw;w tpjpfs;
S = mikg;g[ = khw;W tpjpfspd; btspaPL
g[w mikg;g[ = ePf;fy; tpjpfspd; btspaPL
mof;TW
tifg;ghl;Lf; TW brhw;fsq;rpak;
bjhlhpay; tpjpfs; brhw;brUfy;
bjh1
mfmikg;g[fs;
S-mikg;g[fs;
bghUz;ikapay; bghUs;Bfhs;tpjpfs;
jh;f;f totA;fs; bghUz;ikapay; cl;TW
bghUz;ikapay; cUg;gLj;jk;
g[ydwpt[ xGA;FKiw
ePf;ftpjpfs; kw;wk; ePf;fypd; fl;Lg;ghLfSld; Toa
ePf;fy; TW
g[w mikg;g[fs;
g[w tog;ghd;fs;
bjhn tof;fg;gl;l g[w mikg;g[fs;
xypadpay; cl;TW
xypadpay; tpjpfs;
xyp cUg;gLj;jk;
98
g[w kl;lk; nuz;L Kf;fpakhd tHpfspy; tp.ep.Bfh.-nypUe;J BtWgl;lhYk;,
kh.tp.ep.Bfh.-ny; vy;yh bghUs;BfhSk; g[w mikg;gpd; kl;lj;jpy; elf;fpwJ vd;gijf;
ftdj;jpy; bfhs;st[k;. KjyhtJ nJ efh;t[tpjpfspd; gpuBahfj;jhy; tpl;Lr;bry;yg;gl;l
RtLfshy; tsg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ nJ fUjj;jf;f mst[f;F Ke;ija khjphpfistplf; TLjy;
mUtj;jd;ikahdJ (Vbdd;why; ePf;fy;fSk; nWg;ghd;fSk; nilg;gl;l kl;lkhd S-
mikg;gpw;Fg; gpwF gpuBahfpf;fg; gLfpd;wJ) kw;Wk; ed;whf tpsf;fg;gl;lJ.
3.10. gpw tsh;r;rpfs;
khw;wpyf;fzr; rl;lfj;jpd; tsh;r;rpa[ld; TlBt rKjha bray;ghLfs;, fUj;Jg;ghpkhw;wr;
bray;ghLfs; kw;Wk; gpw fhuzpfs; bkhHpiaj; jdpahf Ma;tij tpl TLjy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
tha;e;jJ vdf; fUj;jpy; bfhz;l rpy bkhHpapayhh;fs; rhk;!;fpapd; fUj;Jf;fspypUe;J jdpahf
my;yJ mjw;Fg; gjpy;brayhf gpw Bfhl;ghLfis cUthf;fpdh;.
g[s{k;gPy;oad; Bfhl;ghl;lhsuhd igf; (Pike) tifa[wt[f; Bfhl;ghL (Tagmemic theory)
vd;w Bfhl;ghl;il cUthf;fpdhh;. |gph;j; kw;Wk; #hypBl (Firth and Halliday) vd;Bghh;
mth;fspd; Bfhl;ghl;il cUthf;fpdh;. bly; i#k;!; (Dell Hymes) bkhHpapd; fUj;Jg;ghpkhw;wr;
bray;ghLfis typa[Wj;jpdhh;. yBght; (Labov) bkhHpapd; rKjha Behf;Ffis totkhf;f
Kad;whh;.
இயல்/gFjp 4
khw;wA;fSk; fl;Lg;ghLfSk;
4.1. khw;wA;fs;
khw;wk; vd;gJ mikg;g[ cUg;gLj;jA;fspd; nU epiyfisg; bghUj;jg;gLj;Jk;
tot[rhh; bkhHpapay; braw;ghA;F MFk;. xU khw;W tpjp (T-rule) Fwpg;gpl;l kug[fs;
mog;gilapy; xU FwpaPLfspd; Bfhh;it kw;bwhU Bfhh;itahf khw;wp vGjg;gLk;
braw;ghA;iff; Fwpg;gpLk;. tpjpapd; cs;sPL mikg;g[ tpsf;fkhFk; (structural description) mJ
gpuBahfpf;fg;gLk; bjhlh; totj;ij tptuiz bra;fpd;wJ. ne;j tpjp cs;sPl;od; kPJ gy
mog;gilahd braw;ghA;Ffspy; xd;iwBah mjw;Ff; TLjyhdtw;iwBah bray;gLj;jp xU
mikg;g[ khw;wj;ij (structral change) eilKiwgLj;Jfpd;wJ. efh;t[ (epuiy khw;wp mikj;jy;
my;yJ thpir khw;wpaikj;jy;), movement)), Brh;f;if (addtion), nizg;g[ (adjunction), brUfy;
(insertion), goahf;fk; (copying), gjpyPL (replacement) vd;gd mog;gil khw;wr;
braw;ghA;FfshFk;. efh;t[ khw;wA;fs; cs;sPl;L mikg;ig mJ bfhz;oUf;Fk; jdpkA;fspd;
thpir khw;wpaikj;jyhy; khw;Wk;. ne;j braw;ghA;F bjhlh;totj;jpy; jdpkA;fs;
nizf;fg;gLk; nlj;jpw;F efh;tJ nizg;g[ vd;W miHf;fg;gLk;. (nJ Fwpj;J fPBH
tpsf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ). brUfy; khw;wA;fs; g[jpa mikg;g[j; jdpkA;fis cs;sPl;L mikg;gpy;
Brh;f;Fk;. (vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf goahf;fk; jkpHpy; cld;ghl;L myFfis tpidapd; nWjpay;
Brh;g;gJk;, MA;fpyj;jpy; bra;tpidahf;fk; by vd;gij vGtha;g; bgah;j;bjhlUld; Brh;g;gJk;
brUfy; khw;wA;fshFk;: Raja killed a snakde -> The snake was killed by Raja uhkd; goj;j; ->
uhkd; goj;j-Md;) cs;sPl;L mikg;gpypUe;J jdpkA;fis ePf;FtJ ePf;fy; khw;wA;fs; MFk;.
(vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf fl;lis thf;fpaA;fspy; Kd;dpiyg; bgaiu ePf;FtJ ePf;f khw;wkhFk;: eP Bgh
99
-> Bgh) gjpyPl;L khw;wA;fs; cs;sPl;L mikg;gpypUe;J xU jdpkj;ij mjDld; bjhlh;g[ila
ne;jr; braw;ghA;Ffspd; bgah;fspy; Xust[f;F BtWghL nUf;fpd;wJ kw;Wk; Bfhl;ghl;ow;Fs;
mog;gil braw;ghA;Ffshf mtw;wpd; epiyiag; bghWj;j fUj;Jf;fs; BtWgLk;.
4.2. rpy kug[ khw;Wtpjpfs; mog;gilapyhd khw;wA;fs;
khw;WtpjpfSk; khw;Wtpjpfspd; brad;ikfSk; khw;wpyf;fzf;Bfhl;ghl;oy; Vw;gl;l
khw;wA;fis btspg;gLj;Jtjhf mikfpd;wd. kug[ khw;wpyf;fzk; mog;gilapyhd rpy
khw;wA;fis nA;F ghh;g;Bghk;.
4.2.1. Vty; khw;wk;
Vty; khw;wk; vGthaahf tUk; Kd;dpiyg; bgaiu cs;sPl;L mikg;gpypUe;J ePf;Fk;.
nA;F ePf;fy; tpjp gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;: eP th
1 2
mikg;g[ khw;wk;: th
2
4.2.2. tpidbar;r cl;gLj;jy;
nuz;L jkpH; thf;fpaA;fs; thf;fpaA;fs; niza[k;BghJ xUthf;fpak; (cl;gLj;Jk;
thf;fpak;) kw;bwhU thf;fpaj;ij cl;Lj;Jk;. ne;jr; braw;ghA;fpd; BghJ cl;gLj;Jk;
thf;faj;jpd; tpid Kw;Wtpidahf tu cl;gLk; thf;fpaj;jpd; tpid vr;r tothf khWk;.
nk;khw;wj;jpy; vGtha; nuz;L thf;fpaA;fspYk; xd;whf nUejhy; cl;gLj;jg;gLk;
thf;fpaj;jpYs;s vGtha;j;bjhlh; ePf;fk; bgWk;. nk;khw;wj;ij xBubgah;j;bjhlh; ePf;fk; (equi-
NP deletion) vd;W miHg;gh;.
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;;: uh$h te;jhd;. uh$h rhg;gpl;lhd;
1 2 3 4
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 1: uh$h te;J uh$h rhg;gpl;lhd;
(tpidvr;rkhw;wk;) 1 2 1 4
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 2: uh$h te;J rhg;gpl;lhd;
(xBug;bgah;j;bjhlh; 1 2 5
ePf;fk;)
4.2.3. brag;ghl;L khw;wk;
brag;gLbghUs; Fd;wh tpidfisf; bfhz;l xU FGk bra;tpid thf;fpaA;fs;
brag;ghl;L tpidthf;fpakhf khw;wk; mila[k;. n;e;j khw;wj;jpd; BghJ bra;tpid
brag;ghl;Ltpidahf khw;wk; mila[k;. jkpiHg; bghWj;jtiuapy; vGtha; bgah;j;bjhlh; My;
vd;w fUtp Btw;Wik xl;ilg;bgw, brag;gLbghUs; bgah;j;bjhlhpy; cs;s I vd;w nuz;lhk;
Btw;Wik xl;L ePf;fk; bgWk;. nt;thW brag;ghl;L tpid khw;wk; totkhw;wj;ija[k;
brUfiya[k; (My; brUfy;), ePf;fiya[k; (I ePf;fy;) cl;gLj;Jk;.
100
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;: uh$h xU ghk;g[-I bfhd;whd;.
1 2 3 4
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 1: uh$h xU ghk;g[-I bfhy;ygl;l;-
(brag;ghl;Ltpidkhw;wk;) 1 2 3 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 2: uh$h-My; xU ghk;g[-I bfhy;yg;gl;;l;
(My; brUfy;) 1 2 3 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 3: uh$h-My; xU ghk;g[ bfhy;yg;gl;;l;
(I ePf;fy;) 1 2 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 4: uh$h-My; xU ghk;g[ bfhy;yg;gl;;l-mJ
(goahf;fk;) 1 2 4
4.2.4.bgabur;rj;bjhlh; khw;wk;
bgabur;rj;bjhlh; khw;wj;ij xUtpj bgauhf;fk; vdf;Twyhk;. jkpHpy;
bgabur;rj;bjhlh; khw;wj;jpd; BghJ xU thf;fpak; kw;bwhU thf;fpj;jpy; cl;gLj;jg;gLk;.
nk;khw;wk; tpid bgabur;rkhf khWk; khw;wj;ija[k; cl;gLk; thf;fpaj;jpy; cs;s bjhlh;g[s;s
bjhlh; bgabur;rj;jpw;F Kd; efUtija[k; xBubgah;bjhlhpy; xd;W ePf;f khw;wk; miltija[k;
cl;LgLj;Jk;.
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;: ehd; xU igaidg; ghh;j;Bjd;. me;jg; igaid eP ghh;f;ftpy;iy.
1 2 3 4 5 6
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 1: ehd; xU igaidg; ghh;j;j me;j igaid eP ghh;f;ftpy;iy
(bgabur;r khw;wk;) 1 2 3 4 5 6
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 1: ehd; xU igaidg; ghh;j;j me;j igaid eP ghh;f;ftpy;iy
(bgabur;r khw;wk;) 1 2 3 4 5 6
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 2: ehd; ghh;j;j xU igaid me;j igaid eP ghh;f;ftpy;iy
(bgauhf;fk;) 1 3 2 4 5 6
mikg;g[ khw;wk; 3: ehd; ghh;j;j igaid eP ghh;f;ftpy;iy
(xBubgah;j;bjhlh;ePf;fk;) 1 3 4 5 6
bgah;j;bjhlh; khw;wj;ijr; gpd;tUkhW fpisaikg;gpy; btspg;gLj;jyhk;:
th
bgbjh tpbjh
khbg th BtBjh tp
bgbjh tpbjh bgbjh Btc
khbg Btbjh tp mm bg
bgbjh Btc
mm bg
eP ehd; xU igad; I ghh;j;Bjd; me;j igad; I ghh;f;ftpy;iy
101
th
bgbjh tpbjh
khbg th tp
bgbjh tpbjh Btbjh
khbg bgbjh Btc
bg
eP ehd; ghh;j;j igad; I ghh;f;ftpy;iy
4.2.5. khw;Wg; bgauhf;fk; (pronominalization)
khw;Wg;bgauhf;fk; xU gjpyPl;Lr; braw;ghA;fhFk;. nJ cs;sPl;Lf; Bfhh;itapYs;
bjhlh;g[s;s bgaiu khw;Wg;bgauhy; nlk; bgah;f;Fk;.
mikg;g[ tpsf;fk;: uh$h uh$htpd; kfidg; ghuhl;odhd;.
1 2 3 4
mikg;g[ khw;wk; uh$h jd; kfidg; ghuhl;odhd;.
4.2.6. jw;Rl;lhf;fk; (reflexivation)
jw;Rl;lhf;fKd; xU gjpyPl;Lr; braw;ghA;fhFk;. jkpHpy; nk;khw;wj;jpy; tpida[k;
jw;Rl;Lj; Jiztpidia (bfhs; vd;gij) Vw;Fk; mjhtJ jw;Rl;L Jiztpidr; brUfg;gLk;.
Kjd;ik tpid tpidbar;r totkhw;wk; mila[k;. nijj; bjhlh;e;J rk;ge;jg;gl;l
bgah;j;bjhlh; jw;Rl;Lg;bgauhy; nlk;bgah;f;fg;Lk;.
mikg;g[tpsf;fk;: uh$h uh$h-I moj;jhd;
1 2 3 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 1: uh$h uh$h-I moj;Jf; bfhz;lhd;
(bfhs; brUfy;) 1 2 3 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 2: uh$h jd;id-I moj;Jf; bfhz;lhd;
(nlg;bgah;r;rp) 1 2 3 4
mikg;g[khw;wk; 3: uh$h jd;id-I jhBd moj;Jf; bfhz;lhd;
(jhBd brUfy;) 1 2 3 4
4.3. tphpthf;fg;gl;l epiybgW Bfhl;ghL mog;gilapyhd khw;wA;fs;
102
Kd;dh; Twpago bjhlhpay; tpjpfis mof;Twhfg; gad;gLj;jp vt;tifapyhd
cWg;g[fs; efh;fpd;wd, vA;fpUe;J efh;fpd;wd, vA;F efh;fpd;wd vd khw;Wtpjpfs; TWfpd;wd
vdg;ghh;j;Bjhk;. ehk; jPh;khdpj;j nyf;fzj;ij kPz;Lk; nA;F epidt[TWBthk;:
1. mof;TW
m. bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;/X-ghh; bjhlhpay;/gz;g[f;TWfs; mog;gilapyhd
tpjpfs;/ my;yJ xd;Wfye;j khjphp
M.brhw;fsq;rpak;: brhy; brUfy; rl;lfA;fs;
brhy; kpikik tpjpfs;
brhy;yhf;f tpjpfs;
khw;wpaikg;g[ tpjpfs;
mof;Twpd; btspaPL: mf mikg;g[ (mo mikg;g[, cs;Siw mikg;g[, my;yJ D-
mikg;g[ bjhlf;f mikg;g[, Bra;ik mikg;g[ vd;W gy bgah;fspy; mwpag;gLfpd;wJ
rhk;!;fp D-mikg;g[ vd;gij Mjhpf;fpwhh;.)
2. khw;wA;fs; (efh;t[ tpjpfs;)
efh;t[fspd; btspaPL: S-mikg;g[
gpd;tUk; thf;fpa khw;wj;jij vLj;Jf; bfhs;Bthk;:
Your father will put which car in the garage?
WH-efh;t[ khw;wk;
Which car will your father put---in the garage?
‘-----‘ which car vd;gJ efh;t[f;F Kd; nUe;j nlj;ijf; Fwpf;Fk;. ng;gFg;gha;t[ bjhlhpaypy; nU
epiyfis Kw;Bfhs; bra;fpd;wJ. Kjyhtjhf g[w mikg;g[ nuz;lhtjhf rhk;!;fp
Bghd;Bwhuhy; Fwpg;gplg; gLk; mf mikg;g[ (deep structure) my;yJ mo mikg;g[ (base structure)
my;yJ cs;Siw mikg;g[ (underlying structure) vd;w mUt mikg;g[ (abstract structure).
cs;Siw mikg;g[ wh-bgah;r;rp Bghd;w khw;W tpjpahy; g[w mikg;g[ld; bjhlh;g[ilajha;
nUf;Fk;. cs;tifg;ghl;Lf; fl;Lj;jpl;lr; rpf;fy;fs; thf;fpaj;jpd; cs;Siw mikg;gpByBa
jPh;t[fhzg;gLk;.
ne;j nyf;fzj;jpy; bjhlhpay; Twpy; nuz;L TWfs; fhzg;gLk;:
1.mof;TW: bgbgbjh-tpbjh-Jtp Bghd;w totpy; tifg;ghl;L thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpfspd;
FGkKk; xt;bthU brhy;Yk; ve;jj; bjhlh; tifg;ghl;ilr; rhh;e;jJ vd;w Fwpg;g[k;
cs;tifg;ghl;Lf; fl;Lj;jpl;lA;fSk; bghUe;jf;Toa brhw;brhUfy; tpjpfSk; (subcategorization
restrictions) mlA;fpa brhw;fsq;rpaKk; mlA;fpa mof;TW (base component) mo mikg;g[fspd;
FKkj;ij cUthf;Fk;.
2. khw;Wf;TW: wh-efh;t[ Bghd;w khw;W tpjpfs; mlA;fpa khw;Wf;TW.
nt;tpyf;fzj;ijg; gpd;tUkhW KiwgLj;jpj; juyhk;:
103
mof;TW: 1. (thf;fpaA;fis cUthf;Fk;) tifg;ghl;L tpjpfs;
2. brhw;fsq;rpak;
3. brhw;brhUfy; tpjpfs;
mo mikg;g[fs;
4. efh;t[ tpjpfs;
g[w mikg;g[fs;
vt;thW Which car will your father put in garage? vd;w thf;fpak; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wJ vd;W
ghh;;Bghk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpfspd; FGkj;ij Bfhs;Bfhs; bra;Bthk;.
th bgbjh-Jtp-tpbjh
tpbjhtp-(bgbjh)-Kcbjh
Kcbjh Kc-bgbjh
bgbjh mm-bg
nt;tpjpfisg; gad;gLj;jp bghUj;jkhd brhw;fisr; brhw;fsq;rpaj;jpypUe;J bjhpe;bjLj;Jg;
bghUj;jkhd brhy; tifg;ghLfspy; brUfp (tp vd;w fZitj; jtpu) gpd;tUk; mikg;gig
cUthf;fyhk;.
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
mm bg tp bgbjh Kcbjh
mm bg Kc bgbjh
mm bg
your father will ? which car in the garage
cs;tifg;ghl;Lr; rl;lfj;jpd; mog;gilapy; put vd;w tpidia tpidj;bjhlhpy; bgbjh-gpcbjh
vd;w bjhlh;r;rpf;F Kd;dh; tp vd;w brhy;tifg;ghl;od; fPH; brUfyhk;. nJ gpd;tUk;
mikg;igj; jUk;.
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
mm bg tp bgbjh Kcbjh
mm bg Kc bgbjh
mm bg
your father will put which car in the garage
104
njpypUe;J which car will your father put in the garage vd;w thf;fpaj;Jld; bjhlh;g[ila bghUj;jkhd
g[w mikg;igg; bgw nuz;L efh;t[r; brad;ikfs; Bjit:
1. xd;W which car vd;w bjhlh; thf;fpaj;jpd; Kd;dh; efh;j;jg;glBtz;Lk;.
2. nuz;L Jiztpidahd will vd;gJ your father vd;w bgah;j;bjhlUf;F Kd;dh;
efh;j;jg;glBtz;Lk;.
nt;tpuz;L brad;ikfSk; wh-efh;t[ tpjpapd; gFjpfsh my;yJ mit nU BtWgl;l tpjpfis
cUg;gLj;jk; bra;fpd;wjh vd;gJ btspg;gilahd Bfs;tpahFk;. nf;Bfs;tpf;Fg; gjpyhf wh-
efh;t[ kw;Wk; bgbjh-Jtp Kd;Df;Fg;gpd; efh;t[ (NP-AUX inversion) vd;gdtw;iw nuz;L
BtWgl;l tpjpfshff; bfhs;tJ gpd;tUk; khw;wA;fis tpsf;f cjt[k; vd;w tpiliag; bgwyhk;.
1. Kjyhtjhf Wh-bjhlh; ny;yhj thf;fpaj;jpypUe;J tpdhthf;fpak; cUthf;Fk;
khw;wj;ij tpsf;f bgbjh-Jtp Kd;Df;Fg;gpd; efh;t[ tpjp BghJkhdJ.
Your father will put which car in the garage?
Will your father put the car in the garage?
2. nuz;lhtjhf gpd;tUtd Bghd;w vjpbuhyp tpdhf;fis (echo questions) cUthf;f
bgbjh-Jtp Kd;Df;Fg;gpd; efh;t[ tpjp BghJkhdJ.
Will your father put Mercedes car in the garage?
Will your father put which car in the garage?
3. K}d;whtjhf cl;gL wh-tpdhf;fis (embedded wh-questions) tpsf;f Kd;Df;Fg;gpd;
khw;wkpy;yhj efh;t[ tpjp BghJkhdJ.
I don’t know your father will put which car in the garage.
I don’t know which car your father will put --- in the garage.
tpdhj;bjhlh; vd;why; vd;d? ve;j tpdhj;bjhlh;fis wh-efh;t[ tpjpahy; thf;fpaj;jpd;
Kd;dplj;jpy; efh;j;j naYk;? vd;w Bfs;tpfSf;F tpilfhzg;glBtz;Lk;.
who, what, when, where, why, which, how Bghd;w Bfs;tpr; brhw;fs; tUk; bjhlh;fs;
MA;fpyj;jpy; tpdhj;bjhlh; vdg;gLk;.
What has he given --- to Mary?
How many parcels will he send--- to London?
Which witch might they burn ---- at stake
Who could she be talking to ----.
Kd;DUg[j;bjhlUk; tpdh myF efh;t[f;F cl;gLk;.
105
To whom can I send the letter----?
About what are they quarrelling ----?
In which book did you read about it----?
bgauilj;bjhlUk; wh-efh;t[f;F cl;gLk;.
How anxious will Mary be ---- about her exam results?
How famous has Noam Chomsky become ----
tpidailj;bjhlUk; wh-efh;t[f;F cl;gLk;.
How quickly will he drink that bear----?
How carefully did he plan his campaign?
tpdhr;brhy; mlA;fpa bgbjh, gpcbjh, bgmbjh, tpmbjh vd;gd wh-efh;t[f;F cl;gLk;.
njpypUe;J ve;jj; bjhlh; tifg;ghLk; wh-efh;t[f;F cl;gLk; vd czuyhk;. Mdhy;
MA;fpj;jpy; tpbjh, tp (=to-tpbjh), th, th wh-efh;t[f;F cs;shfhJ. tpiday;yhj
bjhlh;fs;jhd; wh-efh;t[f;F cs;shFk;.
*Read which book upside down can he---? (tpbjh my;yJ tp)
*To go where does he went---? (tp)
*She did what does he think that ---? (th)
*That she did what does he think---? (th)
tpdhj; bjhlh; efUifapy; mJ vA;F nlk;bgaUk; vd;gJ Bfs;tp. cl;gL tpdh
myFf; Bfs;tpfs; Kd;tU tpdhj;bjhlh;fisf; (preposed wh-phrases) fhl;Lfpd;wd.
I don’t know where John went---.
I don’t know what you think I was doing --- to Mary.
I don’t know how many guests he may have invited ---to the party.
vy;yhtw;wpYk; tpdhj;bjhlh; Bfs;tp vr;rj;bjhlhpd; g[w mikg;g[ vGtha;f;F Kd;dh; tUfpd;wJ.
epug;g[f; fpstpfs; (complementisers) mjhtJ vr;rj;bjhliu mwpKfg;gLj;Jk; nilr;brhw;fs;
vGtha;f;F Kd;dh; tUfpd;wd.
I said that I would go home.
I wonder whether he would go home.
nU mog;gil tifahd epug;g[f;fpstpfs; tUfpd;wd: xd;W Bfs;tpay;yhj that, kw;bwhd;W
Bfs;tp Ugj;jpyhd whether. epug;g[ vr;rj;bjhlh;fis cUthf;Fk; thf;fpa cUthf;f tpjpfisg;
gpd;tUkhW fUjyhk;:
1. th epfpstp-th
2. epfpstp tpdh
3. …
106
+tpdh (+WH) vd;gJ Bfs;tp epug;g[f;fpstp tifg;ghL, -tpdh (-WH) vd;gJ Bfs;tpay;yhj
epug;g[f;fpstp tifg;ghL. tifg;ghLfs; vy;yhk; bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TWfshd fyitfs;
(complexes) vd;Wk; tpdh vd;gJ mk;khjphpahd xU bjhlhpay; gz;g[f;TW vd;Wk;
mDkhdpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Bkw;fz;l Kjy; tpjp xt;bthU vr;rj;bjhlhpYk; (clause) mij
cl;gLj;Jk; epug;g[f;fpstp nUf;Fk; vdj; bjhptpf;fpd;wJ nuz;lhtJ tpjp epug;g[f;fpstp
tpdhthfBth tpdh my;yhkByh tuyhk; vd;W bjhptpf;fpd;wJ. vy;yh epug;g[f;fpstpfSk;
vr;rj;bjhlhpd; bjhlf;f nlj;jpy; tUtjhy; wh-bjhlh;fs; vt;thBwh epug;g[f;fpstp nlj;jpw;Ff;
ftug;gLfpd;wJ vd;W fUj naYk;. wh-Bfs;tpiag; bghWj;j tiuapy;, Kd;tU wh-bjhlh;
Bfs;tp (+WH) epug;g[f;fpstp (interrogative complementiser) rhjhuzkhf nUf;Fk; nlj;jpw;F
ftug;gLk;.
‘wh-bjhlh;-MdJ epug;g[f;fpstp nlj;jpw;Ff; ftug;gLk;’vd;gjd; mh;j;jk; vd;d
vd;gJ nA;F vGg;gg;gLk; Bfs;tpahFk;. nij nU tHpfspy; Ma naYk;: Kjy; tHp wh-
bjhlh; rhjhuzkhf epug;g[f;fpstp tUk; nlj;jpy; tUk; vdBt epug;g[f;fpstpiag; gjpyPL
bra;fpd;wJ vdyhk;. nuz;;lhtJ tHp wh-bjhlh; epug;gpf;F mLj;jjhf Brh;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
nij ehk; nizg;g[ Ma;t[ (adjunct analysis) vdyhk;. wh-efh;t[ tpjpiag; gpd;tUkhW
totikf;fyhk;:
WH-efh;t[ wh-bjhliu epug;g[f;fpstpf;F nlJgf;fkhfr; Brh;f;fpd;wJ.
ne;j nizg;g[ nUtifahf epfHyhk;: 1. rBfhjhp-nizg;g[ (sister-adjunction), 2. rhk;!;fp
nizg;g[ (Chomsky-adjuction). nit gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
n n n
M m M m
m M
nizg;g[f;F Kd;djhd rBfhjhp nizg;g[ rhk;!;fp nizg;g[
bjhlf;f mikg;g[ m-I M-nd; nlJ m-I M-tpd; nlJ
gf;fk; nizf;Fk; gf;fk; nizf;Fk;
I don’t know what he will do.
vd;w thf;fpaj;jpd; mf mikg;g[ gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg tp th1
epfpstp th
+WH bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg tp bgbjh
khbg
I don’t know e he will do what
107
e = empty= fhyp
wh-bjhliu epug;g[f;fpstpa[ld; rBfhjhp-nizg;g[ bra;tJ gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg tp th
epug;gp th
bgbjh +WH bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg khbg tp bgbjh
khbg
I don’t know what e he will do e
wh-bjhliu epug;g[f;fpstpa[ld; rhk;!;fp-nizg;g[ bra;tJ gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg tp th
epfpstp th
bgbjh epfpstp bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
khbg WH khbg tp bgbjh
khbg
I don’t know what e he will do e
rhk;!;fp rhk;!;fp-nizg;g[ mog;gilapyhd wh-efh;t[ gpd;tUk; tpisitf; Fwpg;gpLtjhf
mDkhdpf;fpd;whh;:
WH-efh;t[: rhk;!;fp-nizg;g[ wh-bjhliu epug;g[f;fpstpf;F cldo nlJgf;fkhfr;
Brh;f;fpd;wJ.
gpd;tUk; tUtd Bghd;w Beuof; Bfs;tpfspy; vt;thW wh-efh;itr; bray;gLj;jyhk;
vd;gJ mLj;jf; Bfs;tp.
108
What will he do ---?
rhk;!;fp nija[k; cl;gL wh-efh;itg; BghyBt bray;gLj;jyhk; vd;W tpilaspf;fpd;whh;: ehk;
Kjd;ik thf;fpaj;jpy; (tpdhthfBth tpdh my;yhjjhfBth nUf;Fk;) xU mUt epug;g[f;fpstp
nUg;gjhft[k; wh-bjhlh; mjDld; niztjhft[k; fUjBtz;Lk;. njd;go Bkw;brhd;d
thf;fpaj;jpw;Fg; gpd;tUk; mf mikg;g[ Mf;fg;gLk;:
th
epug;gp th
+WH he will do what
e
njpy; wh-efh;ita[k; bgbjh-Jtp Kd;gpd; efh;ita[k; gpuBahfpj;jhy; gpd;tUk; mikg;g[
fpilf;Fk;:
th
epug;gp th
bgbjh epug;gp will he do---
khbg +WH
what e
4.3.1. bgbjh-efh;t[
bgah;j; bjhlh; efh;t[ rhk;!;fpahy; gjpyPl;L tpjpahf mwpKfgLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. nJ
BtWgl;lf; fl;LkhdA;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. gpd;tUk; brag;ghl;Ltpid thf;fpaA;fspYk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ.
1. The car has been put --- in the garage.
Bkw;fz;ljpy ; ‘---‘ cs;s nlj;jpypUe;J ‘the car’ vd;w bgah;j;bjhlh; moapy; Bfhol;l
nlj;jpw;F efh;j;jg;gl;Ls;sJ vd;W rhk;!;fp TWthh;. mjhtJ bgbjh tpidf;F gpd;dh; tUk;
nlj;jpypUe;J tpidf;F Kd;dh; tUk;. gpd;dh; tUk; mUt cs;Siw mikgpypUe;J
cUthf;fg;gl;ljhff; fUjyhk;:
2. [epfpstp -WH] --- was put the car in the garage
Bkw;fz;ljpy; ‘---‘ vd;gJ bgbjh efh;thy; brd;wila[k; nlj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLk;. put vd;w
tpidapd; cs;tifg;ghL Bkw;fz;l cs;Siw mikg;g[f;Fr; rhjfkha; mikfpd;wJ. put vd;w
tpid tpbjh-tpy; bgbjh-thd ‘the car’ vd;gjw;Fk; Kcbjh Md
109
in the garage vd;gjw;Fk; Kd;dhy; tUk;. mjhtJ 2 vd;gJ cs;tifg;ghL mog;gilapy; 1
vd;gjd; cs;Siw mikg;ghfr; bray;gLfpd;wJ vd;W fUjyhk;. kug[j;bjhlh;
bgah;j;bjhlh;fSk; (idiom chunk) Bkw;fz;l cs;Siw mikg;g[f;Fr; rhjkhf mikfpd;wJ.
Little heed was paid ---- to her proposal
Close tabs were kept ---- on all Thatcherites
Little note was taken --- of what I said.
Due advantage was taken --- to the dead.
kug[j;bjhlh; bgah;j;bjhlh;fSk; tpidf;Fg; gpd;dhy; cs;s nlj;jpypUe;J bgbjh efh;thy;
tpidf;F Kd;dhy; cs;s nlj;jpw;Fr; bry;tjhff; fUjBtz;Lk;.
brag;ghl;Ltpid thf;fpaA;fspy; fhzg;gLk; Bjh;t[f; fl;Lg;ghl;LfSk; (selectional
restrictions) bgbjh efh;it Mjhpg;gjhf mikfpd;wJ. Fwpg;gpl;l gadpiyahy;
mDkjpf;fg;gLk; epug;gpapd; Bjh;t[f;F rpy fl;Lg;ghl;Lfs; nUf;fpd;wd.
John cooked a new dish/!a new theory
nf;fl;Lg;ghl;Lj;jpl;lk; gpd;tUtd Bghd;w brag;ghl;Ltpid thf;fpaA;fSf;Fk; bghUe;Jk;:
Not many new dishes/!new theories were cooked --- at the exhibition.
nA;F brag;ghl;L tpid vGtha; bra;tpid brag;gLbghUs; fhl;oa mBj fl;Lg;ghLfis
vt;thW fhl;Lfpd;wJ vd;w Bfs;tp vHyhk;. brag;ghl;Ltpid vGtha; cs;Siwa[k; bra;tpidr;
brag;gLbghUspypUe;J cUthdJ vd;w gjpy; bghUj;jkhf mika[k;.
nJtiu fh;j;jh/tpidKjy; ny;yhj thf;fpaA;fisg; ghh;j;Bjhk;. ndp tpidKjy;
cs;s thf;fpaA;fisg; ghh;g;Bghk;.
The city was destroyed ---- by the enemy.
ne;j thf;fpaj;jpw;Fg; gpd;tUkhW cs;Siw mikg;g[ mikayhk;.
th
epug;gp th
-WH bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
tp bgbjh Kcbjh
mm
bg Kc bgbjh
mm bg
e e was destroyed the city by the enemy
bgbjh efh;t[
g[w mikg;gpy; was, destroyed, the, city, by the kw;Wk; enemy vd;w brhw;fs;jhd; nUg;gjhy;,
cs;Siw mikg;gpy; e vd;wfhyp nlA;fspy; brhw;fs; nUe;jjhfr; rhl;rpak; ny;iy. bgbjh-
110
efh;tpd; gpuBahfk; the city vd;w bgbjh-I was vd;gjd; nlJgf;fkhf cs;s fhyp vGtha;
nlj;jpw;F efur;bra;J gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;Jld; bjhlg;g[ila g[w mikg;igj; jUk;.
The city was destroyed --- by the enemy.
Bkw;fz;l gFg;gha;tpy; braypj; bjhlh; (agent phrase, i.e. by the enemy) tpbjh-ny;; bjhlh;g[ila
g[w mikg;gpy; nUf;Fk; nlj;jpByBa nUg;gjhf vLj;Jf;bfhs;sg;gl;Ls;sJ. giHa BtWgl;l
Ma;tpy; bgah;j;bjhluhd the enemy braypj;bjhliu K}ytplkhff; bfhs;shky; KGr;
brag;ghl;L thf;fpaj;jpd; cs;Siw vGthahf mika[k;. cs;Siwa[k; braypj; bjhlh; by-[bgbjh
e] vd;w fhyp nlj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. gpd;dh; cs;Siw vGtha; ne;j fhyp nlj;jpw;F
efUk;. nijg; gpd;tUkhW fhl;lyhk;:
th
epug;gp th
-WH bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
mm bg tp bgbjh Kcbjh
mm bg Kc e
e the enemy was destroyed the city by
bgbjh efh;t[ the enemy vd;gij by-bjhlhpd; fPH; bfhz;L bry;Yk;. nJ ehk; Kd;g[ghh;j;j
gpd;tUk; mikg;ig cUthf;Fk;.
th
epug;gp th
-WH bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
tp bgbjh Kcbjh
mm
bg Kc bgbjh
mm bg
e e was destroyed the city by the enemy
kPz;Lk; bgbjh efh;t[ epfGk;. nJ the city vd;w bjhliu vGtha; nlj;jpw;Ff; bfhz;L
bry;Yk;.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpYk; bgbjh efh;t[ epfH;fpd;wJ.
111
John seems to me--- to be unhappy.
rhk;!;fp John vd;gjd; K}yk; Kjd;ik Kw;Wj;bjhluhf mikahky; Jizepiy vr;rj;bjhlhpy;
cs;s nlkhf mikfpd;wJ vd;;;W thjpLfpd;whh;. mjhtJ cs;Siw mikg;g[ gpd;tUk;
thf;fpaj;ijg; Bghy; mika[k; vdyhk;.
It seems to me that John is unhappy.
nuz;od; cs;Siw mikg;g[k; xBu Bghd;wit vd;W Tw nayhJ. Vbdd;why; Kjypy; cs;s
thf;fpaj;jpy; Jizepiyj;bjhlh; tpidbar;rj; bjhluhf tUfpd;wJ nuz;lhtjpy;
Jizepiyj; bjhlh; tpidKw;Wj; bjhluhf tUfpd;wJ. Kjyhtjpy; John Jiz epiy
vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J gphpe;J Kjd;ikj; bjhlUf;F cah;fpd;wJ. vdBt ne;jf; fl;likg;g[fspy;
bgbjh efh;t[ vGtha; Vw;wk; (subject raising) vd;W miHf;fg; gLfpd;wJ.
th
bgbjh Jtp tp tpbjh
epfh Kcbjh th
Kc bgbjh bgbjh Jtp bgmbjh
khbg bg bgm
e seems to me John be unhappy
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy; bgbjh efh;t[ my;yJ vGtha; Vw;wk; jw;Rl;Lg; bghUs;Bfhz;ikf;Fr;
rhjfkhf nUf;fpd;wJ Vbdd;why; jw;Rl;Lg; bghUs;Bfhz;ikf;F Kd;tU fpstpa[k; (antecedent)
jw;Rl;Lf; fpstpa[k; xBu vr;rj;bjhlhpByBa tuBtz;Lk;.
John seems to me --- to have perjured himself.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy; himself Kjd;ik Kw;Wj;bjhlh; vGthiaa[k; Jizepiy Kw;Wj;bjhlh;
vGthiaa[k; Fwpg;gplyhk; Mdhy; cz;ikapy; Paul-I kl;LBk Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ.
John thinks Paul perjured himself.
vdBt gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy;
John seems to me --- to have perjured himself.
jw;Rl;L bghUs;Bfhz;ik John Jizepiyj; bjhlhpy; tUk; cs;Siw mikg;gpByBa
bgwg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd; gpd;dh;jhd; bgbjh Vw;wk; Kjd;ik Kw;Wj;bjhlUf;F John-I
efh;j;Jfpd;wJ.
112
th
bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
gpcbjh th
bg epfh gpc bgbjh bgbjh Jtp tpbjh
bg bg tp bgbjh
jRbg
e to me John to have perjured himself
bgbjh efh;t[ my;yJ vGtha; Vw;wk; bgbjh John-I Jizepiy vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J cah;j;jp
Kjd;ik Kw;Wj; bjhlhpy; cs;s vGtha; nlj;jpw;Ff; bfhz;L brd;W gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;Jld;
bjhlh;g[s;s g[w mikg;igj; jUfpd;wJ.
John seems to me --- to have perjured himself.
gpd;tUk; mikg;gpy; tUk; cld;ghLk; (agreement) Bkw;fz;l vGtha; Vw;wj;ij epU}gpg;gjhf
mikfpd;wJ.
They considered John to be a fool/*fools
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy; cld;ghL vGtha; Vw;wj;jpw;F Kd; bgwg;gl;ljhff; fUjBtz;Lk;.
They seem to me --- to be fools/* a fool
vGtha; kug[j;bjhlh; TW (subject idiom chunk) efh;t[k; Kd;dh; Twpa vGtha; Vw;wj;ij
epU}gpg;gjhf mikfpd;wJ.
The cat is out of the bag.
The fur will fly.
The shit hit the fan.
ne;j vGtha; kug[j;bjhlh; TWfs; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspYk; tUk;.
The cat seems --- to be out of the bag.
The fur seems --- to be flying.
The shit seems --- to have hit the fan.
bgbjh efh;t[ kug[j;bjhlh; TWfs; Jizepiy thf;fpaA;fspd; vGthahf cs;Siw
mikg;g[fspy; nUe;J efh;t[w;wij btspg;gLj;Jk;.
John seems --- to like Mary.
vd;gij gpd;tUk; cs;Siw mikg;gpypUe;J bgwg; bgw;wjha;f; fUjBtz;Lk;:
113
th
epug;gp th
-WH bgbjh tpbjh
e e tp th
epug;gp t
-WH bgbjh tp
e bg Kc tp
tp bgbjh
bg
seems John to like Mary
bgbjh efh;it gpd;tUk; tpjpahy; rhjhuzkhff; Twyhk;:
bgbjh-efh;t[: bgbjh-I fhypahf nUf;fpw bgbjh-nlj;jpw;F efh;j;J.
giHa nyf;fzj;jpy; bgbjh efh;t[ xUtifg; gjpyPL Mff; fUjg;gl;L gpd;tUk; tpjp
jug;gl;lJ:
xU cWg;g[ BtW xU brhy; cWg;g[ gpoj;Jitj;jpUf;Fk; nlj;jpw;F efuyhk;.
nJ bgbjh-tpy; tUk; brhy;YWg;ig kw;bwhU brhy;YWg;g[ gjpyPL bra;tij mDkjpf;Fk;.
nk;khjphpahd gjpyPL bra;a[k; efh;it kugpyf;fzBkh BtW nyf;fzBkh mDkjpf;fhJ.
vdBt gpd;tUk; tpjp Twg;gl;lJ:
ve;j naw;if bkhHpapYk; brhy; cs;s cWg;ig BtW xU brhy; cWg;ghy; gjpyPL
bra;a naYk; vd;w tpjp ny;iy.
bgbjh efh;t[ WH-efh;tpypUe;J BtWgLk;. bgbjh efh;t[ xU gjpyPL tpjp (substitution rule)
njpy; xU cWg;g[ (fhypahf tUk;) kw;bwhU cWg;ghy; gjpyPL bra;ag;gLfpd;wJ. WH-efh;t[
xU nizg;g[ tpjp (adjunction rules) njpy; Xh; cWg;g[ kw;bwhU cWg;g[ld;
nizf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. bgbjh efh;tpy; xU bgbjh xU fhyp bgbjh gpoj;Jitj;jpUf;Fk;
nlj;ij Mf;fpukpf;Fk;. ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;j fl;Lg;ghL Vd; bgbjh xU fhypf; fZit
Mf;fpukpf;Fk; vd;gjw;F tpsf;fk; jUfpd;wJ. Mdhy; vt;tifapyhd fhypf; fZit gjpyPL
bra;ayhk; vd;W Twtpy;iy. xU nyf;fzk; th;zid epiwt[ va;j mJ Vd; bgbjh fhyp
bgbjh nlj;jpw;Fr; bry;fpd;wJ, Vd; BtW fhyp brhy; tifg;ghl;L nlj;jpw;Fr; bry;ytpy;iy
114
vd;gjw;Ff; bfhs;if mog;gilapyhd tpsf;fk; juBtz;Lk;. rhk;!;fp gpd;tUk; gjpyPL
tpjpf;fhd fl;Lg;ghl;ilf; TWfpd;whh;:
mikg;igj; jf;fitf;Fk; fl;Lg;ghL: xU cWg;g[ gjpyPl;L tpjpahy; mBj
tifg;ghl;ilr; rhh;e;j nlj;jpw;Fj;jhd; efu naYk;.
nf;fl;Lg;ghl;od;go bgbjh-fis gpw bgbjh-fshy; jhd; gjpyPL bra;a naYk; bghJthfr;
brhy;yg;Bghdhy; xU Xn
tifg;ghl;il kw;bwhU Xn
tifg;ghl;lhy; jhd; gjpyPL bra;a
naYk;.
nJ tiu gpd;tUk; Bfs;tpf;F tpil fz;Blhk;: xU cWg;g[ vA;Bf efh;fpd;wJ?
ng;bghGJ gpd;tUk; Bfs;tpf;F tpil fhz;Bghk;: xU cWg;g[ xU thf;fpaj;jpy;
mDkjpf;fg;gl;l nlj;jpypUe;J btspBa efUk; BghJ mJ vg;bghGJk; nUf;Fk; nlj;jpy;
(mjhtJ mJ fhyp bra;j nlj;jpy;) vd;d elf;Fk;? vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf, ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;j
vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; John Jizepiy vr;rj;bjhlhpy; cs;s bgbjh nlj;jpypUe;J Kjd;ik Kw;Wj;
bjhlhpYs;s vGtha; nlj;jpw;F efUk; BghJ fhyp nlj;jpy; vd;d elf;Fk; vd;gJ Bfs;tp.
rhk;!;fp gpd;tUk; tpsf;fk; jUfpd;whh;:
Xn
vd;w tifg;ghl;od; ve;j efh;t[w;w cWg;g[k; mJ ve;j nlj;jpypUe;J efh;fpwBjh
me;j nlj;jpy; mBj tifapy; gLk; xU fhyp tifg;ghl;il [Xn e]-I tpl;Lr; bry;Yk;.
Bkw;brhd;d mf mikg;gpw;Fg; gpd;tUk; Mf;f mikg;g[ fpilf;Fk;:
th
epfpstp th
-tpm bgbjh tpbjh
e bg tp th
John seems epfstp th
-tpm bg tp
e e gpc tp
to tp bgbjh
like bg
Mary
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaj;jpy; jw;Rl;Lg; bghUs;Bfhz;ikf;F Btz;o bgbjh-e vGtha; nlj;jpw;F
cah;e;Js;s John cld; bjhlh;g[gLj;j Btz;Lk;.
115
John seems to me [bgbjh e] to have perjured himself.
rhk;!;fp ne;jr; rpf;fiy jPh;f;f ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;j kug[ Kiwia (convention) jpUj;jp
mikf;fg;gl;l gpd;tUk; kug[ Kiwahy; gjpyPL bra;fpd;whh;:
Rtl;Lf;Bfhl;ghL kug[Kiw (efh;t[ tpjpfspd; Rtl;Lf;Bfhl;ghL): Xn
vd;w tifapy; gLk;
ve;j efh;t[w;w tifg;ghLk; mJ ve;j nlj;jpypUe;J efh;fpwBjh mA;F efh;t[w;w
cWg;g[ld; bjhlh;g[f;FwpaPL (coindex) bra;ag;gl;oUf;Fk; fhypr; Rtl;il (Xne)
tpl;Lr;bry;Yk;.
ne;jj; jpUj;jg;gl;l kug[ Kiwapd; go cs;Siw mikg;gpy; bgbjh efh;t[ eilKiwg;
gLj;jg;gl;l gpd; gpd;tUk; mf mikg;g[ fpilf;Fk;:
[bgbjh2 John] seems to me [bgbjh2 e] to have perjured himself.
ng;BghJ jw;Rl;L tpjpahy; himself vd;gijg; g[w mikg;gpy; tUk; perjured-vr;rj;bjhlhpd;
vGthahf tUk; fhyp-bgbjh fZt[ld; bjhlh;g[gLj;jp bghUs; bfhs;syhk;. ng;bghGJ ehk;
fhypf;fZthdJ John nUf;Fk; bgbjh-cld; bjhlh;g[f;FwpaPL bra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ vd;w cz;ik
mog;gilapy; fhypf; fZ John vd;gjw;Fg; gjpyhf epw;fpd;wJ vd;w cz;ikia kPl;LU
bra;ayhk;.
4.4. khw;wA;fspy; fl;Lg;ghLfs ;
4.4.1. fyitg; bgah;j;bjhlh;f; fl;Lg;ghL (Complex Noun Phrase Constraint)
4.4.1.1. bgabur;rj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL (Relative clause constraint)
WH-efh;t[ xU WH-bjhliu xU Jizepiy vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J efh;j;jp nWjpapy;
epug;gpf;fpstpa[ld; nizf;f mDkjpf;Fk; Mdhy; WH-efh;t[ xU myif
bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ.
Which car +WH have you bought ---?
*What +WH have you met the man that invented ---?
jkpHpy; WH-efh;t[ MA;fpyj;ijg; Bghd;W mikahtpoDk; WH-myif bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J
gphpj;bjLf;f nayhJ.
eP vijf;fz;Lgpoj;j kdpjidr; re;jpj;jha;?
*vij eP fz;Lgpoj;j kdpjidr; re;jpj;jha;.
jiyg;ghf;fk; (topicalization) rpytifapw;gLk; cWg;g[f;fis mit jiyg;g[ vd;W
milahsg;gLj;jg;gl thf;fpaj;jpw;F Kd; efh;tij mDkjpf;Fk;.
116
I don’t think I’d ever do that kind of thing
↓
jiyg;ghf;fk;
↓
That kind of thing, I don’t think I’d ever do---.
gpd;tUk; efh;t[ jtwhdjhFk;.
I know a man who does that kind of thing
↓
jiyg;ghf;fk;
↓
*That kind of thing, I know a man who does ---.
Though-efh;t[ gpd;tUtJ Bghy; bgauilj;bjhliu Though vd;gjw;F Kd;dhy; efur;bra;a[k;.
Though I think she is very pretty, I don’t like her
↓
Though-efh;t[
↓
Very pretty though I think she is ---, I don’t like her.
Mdhy; Though-efh;t[ ve;j myifa[k; bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ.
gpd;tUk; efh;t[ gpiHahdJ.
Though I’ve met someone who is very kind, I don’t want to marry him.
↓
bgauil Kd;tUif
↓
*Very kind Though I’ve met someone who is ---, I don’t want to marry him.
tp-ghh; Kd;tUif (my;yJ tpbjh Kd;tUif) tp-ghiu Kd;g[ efh;j;Jk;.
I suspected that he would be playing cricket, and playing cricket he was ---.
Mdhy; tp-ghh; Kd;tUif ve;j myifa[k; bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J gphpj;bjLf;f
mDkjpf;fhJ.
*They said they were looking for a man who was wearing pink tights, and wearing pink tights they found a
man who was ---.
tpidail Kd;tUif (Adverbial preposing) tpidailia thf;fpaj;jpd; Kd;; efh;j;Jk;;.
I think I’ll go to a disco tomorrow
↓
tpidail Kd;tUif
↓
Tomorrow, I think I’ll go to a disco ---.
117
Mdhy; tpidail Kd;tUifa[k; (Adverbial preposing) ve;j myifa[k; bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J
gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ. gpd;tUk; efh;t[ gpiHahdJ.
I know someone who’s going to a disco tomorrow.
↓
tpidail Kd;tUif
↓
*Tomorrow, I know someone who’s going to a disco ---.
Bkw;fz;l efh;t[f;fl;Lg;ghLfisg; gpd;tUk; bghJf;fl;Lghl;L tpjpapy; mlf;fyhk;:
ve;j efh;t[ tpjpa[k; xU cWg;igg; bgabur;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J gphpj;bjLf;f
mDkjpf;fhJ.
nt;tifapyhd tpjpfisg; (mjhtJ khw;wy;fisg;) gad;ghLj;Jtjw;fhd epge;jidjhd;
fl;Lg;ghL vd;W miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. uh!; vd;gh; njidj; jPt[f;fl;Lg;ghLfs; vd;ghh;.
njd;go bgabur;rj;bjhlh;fs; vy;yhk; jPtfshFk;.
xU fl;Lkhdj;jpypUe;J mjd; ve;j cl;ghfKk; efh;t[ tpjpahy; gphpj;bjLf;f nayhj go
nUe;jhy; mJ jPt[ vdg;gLk;.
4.4.1.2. epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL (Complement clause constraint)
bgabur;rj;bjhliug; Bghy; epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlh; Bghd;w gpw mikg;g[fSk; jPt[fis
cUthf;Fk;. WH-efh;t[, jiyg;ghf;fk; (tyopicalization), THOUGH-efh;t[, tp-ghh; Kd;tUif,
tpidail Kd;tUif vd;gd epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J ve;j cWg;iga[k; gphpj;bjLf;f
mDkjpf;fhJ.
WH-efh;t[
*What can’t you explain the fact that he bought ---?
jiyg;ghf;fk;
*Bananas, I don’t believe the rumour that he hoards ---?
THOUGH-efh;t[
*Very intelligent though I believe you claim that she is ---, the fact remains that she can only count up to 5.
tp-ghh; Kd;tUif
*Some say that he was playing cricket, but playing cricket I don’t believe the unfounded
allegation that he was ---.
tpidail Kd;tUif
118
*Tomorrow, I have already rejected the possibility that there will be a strike ---.
ne;jf; fl;Lg;ghLfisg; gpd;tUk; bghJf;fl;Lg;ghl;L tpjpapy; mlf;fyhk;:
ve;j tpjpa[k; bgah;epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J xU myif efh;j;j mDkjpf;fhJ.
nijg; gpd;tUkhWk; Twyhk;:
bgah; epug;gp vr;rj;bjhlh;fs; jPt[fshFk;.
xUtpjf; fl;Lg;ghL gpd;tUk; vr;rj;bjhlh; mikg;gpy; ve;j X myifa[k; milg;g[f;Fwpf;Fs;
tUk; vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J efh;j;j mDkjpf;fhJ.
[NP....N – [S’...X...]...]
uh!; vd;ghiuj; jGtp ntw;iw ehk; fyitg; bgah;j;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL (complex noun phrase
constraint) vdyhk;.
fyitg; bgah;j;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL:
ve;j tpjpa[k; ve;j myifa[k; fyitg; bgah;j;bjhlh; vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J efu
mDkjpf;fhJ.
thf;fpa vGtha;f; fl;Lg;ghL (Sentential subject constraint)
MA;fpyj;jpy; xU vr;rj;bjhlh; BtW xU vr;rj;bjhlhpd; vGthahf tUtJ rf$k;.
For you to give up Linguistics would be a pity.
That the world is round is obvious.
WH-efh;t[ WH-bjhliu vr;rj;bjhlh; vGthapypUe;J gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ.
*What would for me to give up -----be a pity.
nJBghyBt jiyg;ghf;fk;, THOUGH-efh;t[, tp-ghh; Kd;dfh;t[, tpidail Kd;tUif vd;gd
epug;g[ vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J ve;j cWg;iga[k; gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ.
jiyg;ghf;fk;
*Linguistics, for you to give up----would be a wise move.
though-efh;t[
*Extremely attractive though that Mary is----may seem obvious, not everyone thinks so.
tp-ghh; Kd;tUif
*Unzipping his banana, for him to be ----while Mary was talking to him would be extremely rude.
119
tpidail Kd;tUif
*Tomorrow, for him to leave----would be a pity.
uhi!g; gpd;gw;wp gpd;tUk; fl;Lg;ghl;il Kd;bkhHpayhk;:
thf;fpa vGtha;f; fl;Lg;ghL:
ve;j cWg;iga[k; thf;fpa vGthapypUe;J efh;j;j nayhJ.
gpd;tUkhW khw;wpa[k; Twyhk;:
thf;fpa vGtha;fs; vy;yhk; jPt[fs; MFk;.
WH-jPt[f;fl;Lg;ghL (WH-island constraint)
WH-efh;t[, jiyg;ghf;fk;, THOUGH-efh;t[, tp-ghh; Kd;tUif, tpidail Kd;tUif
vd;gd tpdh vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;J ve;j cWg;iga[k; gphpj;bjLf;f mDkjpf;fhJ.
WH-efh;t[
*What might he ask where/whether she is ---.
jiyg;ghf;fk;
*Pronolinguistics, he asked me when/whether we teach ---.
THOUGH-efh;t[
Popular, I sometimes wonder why/whether she is ---.
tp-ghh; Kd;tUif
*Playing cricket, I don’t know where/whether he is ---.
tpidail Kd;tUif
*Tomorrow, I don’t know how/whether he’s leaving ---?
rhk;!;fpiag; gpd;gw;wp ehk; gpd;tUk; fl;Lg;ghl;il Kd;bkhHpayhk;.
WH-jPt[f;fl;Lg;ghL:
WH-bjhluhy; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLk; vr;rj;bjhlh;fs; vy;yhk; jPt[fshFk;.
jw;Bghija Ma;t[ mog;gilapy; nijg; gpd;tUkhW khw;wpf;Twyhk;:
epug;g[f;fpstpapy; wh-bjhliuf; bfhz;oUf;Fk; ve;j vr;rj;bjhlhpypUe;Jk; ve;j
cWg;iga[k; efh;j;j nayhJ.
rkepiyj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL (Coordinate structure constraint)
rpy tifapyhd vr;rj;bjhlh;;fs; kl;Lkd;wp rkepiyj; bjhlh;fSk; (mjhtJ X and Y, X
or Y Bghd;witfSk;) jPt[fshFk;. WH-efh;t[, jiyg;ghf;fk;, THOUGH-efh;t[, tp-ghh;
120
Kd;tUif, tpidail Kd;tUif vd;gd rkepiyj;;bjhlhpypUe;J ve;j cWg;iga[k; gphpj;bjLf;f
mDkjpf;fhJ.
WH-efh;t[
*Who have you just met naughty Nelly and ---.
jiyg;ghf;fk;
*Mildred, I really like George and ---.
THOUGH-efh;t[
Handsome though he’s tall, dark and ---, she doesn’t fancy him.
tp-ghh; Kd;tUif
*The police always suspected that he was sniffing glue and smoking grass, and sure enough, smoking grass
he was sniffing glue and ---.
tpidail Kd;tUif
*Tomorrow, I might go to a disco today or ---.
uh!; gpd;tUk; fl;Lg;ghl;ilg; gpBuuiz bra;fpwhh;:
rkepiyf;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL:
rkepiyj;bjhlhpypUe;J ve;j myifa[k; btspBaw;w nayhJ.
gpd;tUkhW khw;wpa[k; Twyhk;:
rkepiyj;bjhlh;fs; vy;yhk; jPt[fs;.
v-Bky;-v fl;Lg;ghL (A-OVER-A CONSTRAINT)
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fis ghh;g;Bghk;.
He will emerge out of which tunnel?
Which tunnel will he emerge out of---?
Out of which tunnel will he emerge---?
*Of which tunnel will he emerge out---?
The prepositional phrase ‘out of which tunnel’ can be represented in a tree diagram as given below:
121
Kcbjh1
Kc Kcbjh2
|
out
K bgbjh
| Δ
of which tunnel
ehk; bghbjh, Kcbjh1 vd;gitfis Kd;tUif bra;ayhk;. Mdhy; Kcbjh2-I Kd;tUif
bra;a nayhJ. rhk;!;fpiag; gpd;gw;wp nij v-Bky;-v fl;Lg;ghL vdyhk;.
v-Bky;-v fl;Lg;ghL:
ve;j v tifg;ghl;L cWg;giga[k; mBj v tifg;ghl;ilr;rhh;e;j bghpa cWg;gpypUe;J
efh;j;j nayhJ.
rg;$rd;rp fl;Lg;ghL (Subjacency condition)
MA;fpyk; kpifaPl;L khw;wj;ij (extraposition transformation) mDkjpf;fpd;wJ. njd;go
Kd;DUg[j;bjhliu vr;rj;bjhlhpd; nWjp nlj;jpw;F efh;j;jyhk;.
A critical review of his latest book has just appeared.
↓
kpifaPl;L khw;wk;
↓
A critical review---has just appeared of his latest book.
Mdhy; gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;oy; tUtJBghy; kpifaPl;L khw;wk; xU cWg;ig xd;Wf;F
Bkw;gl;l bgbjh-fZ my;yJ th-fZitf; fle;J efu mDkjpf;fhJ.
The fact that a critical review of his latest book has just appeared is very worrying.
↓
kpifaPl;L khw;wk;
↓
The fact that a critical review---has just appeared of his latest book is worrying.
*The fact that a critical review---has just appeared is worrying of his latest book.
rh!;fpapd; rg;$rd;rp fl;Lg;ghL nij epth;j;jp bra;a[k;.
rg;$rd;rp fl;Lg;ghL:
xd;Wf;F Bkw;gl;l bgbjh-fZ my;yJ th-fZ nUf;fpw cWg;gpypUe;J ve;j
cWg;iga[k; efh;j;j nayhJ.
4.5. ePf;fy;
MA;fpyk; kug[ mog;gilapy; K}d;W tifahd bgabur;rj;jbjhliuf;
bfhz;oUg;gjhff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mitahtd:
122
1. ndq;Rl;Lk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh;
2. tpsf;Fk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh;
3. Rje;jpukhd bgabur;rj;bjhlh;
ndq;Rl;Lk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; cs;s rha;btGj;Jf;fshy; jug;gl;l
bjhlh;fshFk;.
I met the man who lives next to door in town.
The book that you lent me was interesting.
I enjoyed the meal you made us.
Bkw;brhd;d vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfspy; the man who leves next door vd;gjpy; who lives next door vd;gJ xU
tFg;g[ kdpjh;fis mLj;j tPl;oy; trpg;gtuhf ndk; Rl;Ltjhy; mJ ndk;Rl;Lk;
bgabur;rj;bjhlh; vd miHf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ndk;Rl;Lk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh;fs; who vd;w wh-
khw;Wg;bgauhByh that vd;w epug;g[f;fpstpahByh mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gLj;jg;glyhk;;.
rpyBtisfspy; wh-khw;Wg;bgaBuh that vd;w epug;g[f;fpstpBah nd;wpa[k; tuyhk;.
jkpHpy; ndk;Rl;Lk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh; rhh;g[khw;Wg;bgah; nd;wp tUk;.
vd;Dila tPl;od; mz;ilapy; trpf;Fk; uhkid Bew;Wg; ghh;j;Bjd;.
eP vdf;Fj; je;j g[j;jfk; UrpfukhdJ.
ePA;fs; rikj;j czit ehd; Urpj;J cz;Bld;.
tpsf;Fg; bgabur;rj; bjhlh; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; rha;t[vGj;Jf;fshy; jug;gl;lit MFk;.
Raja – who used to live in Coimbatore – is a good friend of mine
Yestreday I met your principal, who was in a bad mood.
Rani has left home – which is very unfortunate for her parents.
nA;F bgabur;rj;bjhlh; mJ mil bra;a[k; jiyg; bgaiu ndk;fhzg; gad;gLtjpy;iy.
bgabur;rj;bjhlh; milg;g[f; FwpfSf;Fs; jug;gl;lj; bjhlh; Bghy thf;fpaj;jpd; gpw
ghfj;jpypUe;J jdpg;gl;l nirBahl;lf; FGkj;ijf; bfhz;oUf;Fk;. mtw;iw milbra;ag;lhj
naw;bgah;fis Fzthf;fk; bra;ag; gad;gLj;jg;glyhk;. mit MA;fpyj;jpy; vg;BghJBk wh-
khw;Wg;bgauhy; cl;gLj;jg;gLk;, that vd;w epug;gpahy; cl;gLj;jg;glhJ.
Raja –who you met last week – is a good friend of mine.
Raja –that you met last week – is a good friend of mine.
Raja- you met last week – is a good friend of mine.
bgUk;ghYk; mtw;iw mtw;wpd; jiyapypUe;J gphpj;J itf;f nayhJ.
Raja came to see me –who you met last week.
Rani is living at home –who is very nice.
123
jkpiHg; bghWj;j tiuapy; ndq;Rl;Lk; bgabur;rj;bjhlUf;Fk; tpsf;Fk;
bgabur;rj;jbjhlUf;Fk; tot[ mog;gilapyhd BtWghL ny;iy.
kJiuapy; trpf;Fk; vd; jhahh; Bew;W vd;idg; ghhf;f te;jhh;.
eP Bghdthuk; re;jpj;j uh$h vd;idr; re;jpf;f te;jhd;
kfpH;r;rpaha; nUe;j cd; khkdhiu tHpapy; re;jpj;Bjd;.
gpd;tUtd Rje;jpu bgabur;rj;bjhlh;fshFk;.
What you say is is true
This is who I spoke to
I will go where you go
nt;tifapyhd bgabur;rj;bjhlh; btspg;ghh;itf;F Kd;tUfpstp (antecedent) Bghy; tUk;.
mjhtJ mit jhk; nUf;Fk; thf;fpaj;jpByh BtW ve;j thf;fpaj;jpByh ve;j cWg;iga[k;
gpd;Fwpg;g[ bra;a tUtjpy;iy. jkpHpy; nt;tifapyhd bgabur;rj;bjhlh; ny;iy.
gpd;tUtd wh-bgabur;rj; bjhlh;fs; vdg;gLk;.
the man who(m) I met
the book which I read
the day when we went to Chennai
the pace where we started
the reason why I went there
nit bgbjh-fs; MFk;. Vbdd;why; nit gpd;tUkhW bgbjh-Jiztpid nlkhw;wk;
bra;a[k;.
Is the man who I met at home?
ntw;wpd; mikg;g[gpd;tUkhW epfpstp-ny; wh-rhh;g[khw;Wg;bgaiuf; bfhz;l th-ghh; vd;gjhy;
milbra;ag;gl;l jiy bgbjh-If; bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp who th I met
wh-rhh;g[ khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhlh;fSf;F nizahf that-rhh;g[ khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhlh;fSk;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
the man that I met
the book that I read
the day that we went to Chennai
the pace that we started
the reason that I went there
ntw;wpd; mikg;g[k; wh-rhh;g[ khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhlh;fSf;Fj; je;j mikg;g[BghyBt nUf;Fk;.
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp that th I met
124
nit jtpu K}d;whtJ tifapy;gLk; epfpstp nlj;ij fhypahf tpLk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh;fSk;
MA;fpyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
the man I met
the book I read
the day we went to Chennai
the pace we started
the reason I went there
nk;khjphp epfpstp nlj;ijf; fhypahf tpLk; rhh;g[khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhlh;fis e-
rhh;g[khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhlh;fs; vd;W miHf;fyhk;. ntw;wpd; mikg;g[ gpd;tUkhW mika[k;.
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp e th I met
that-rhh;g[ khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fisa[k; e-rhh;g[ khw;Wg; bgah;j;bjhlh;fisa[k; Brh;j;J ehk; wh-
my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; vdyhk;. nt;thW ehk; bgabur;rj;bjhlh;fis wh-
khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; kw;Wk; wh-my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; vd;W tifg;gLj;jyhk;.
wh-my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; cs;SW wh-khw;Wg;bgaiuf; bfhz;oUg;gjhff;
fUjg;gLk;. nJ epfpstpa[d; wh-efh;thy; mz;ikg;gLj;jg;gLk;. gpd;dh; mijj; bjhlh;e;J
wh-ePf;fy; tpjpahy; ePf;fg;gLk;. mjhtJ the man that I met vd;w bgbjh gpd;tUkhW
Mf;fg;gLk;.
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp that th I met who -D-mikg;g[
= wh-efh;t[
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp who that th I met --- -S-mikg;g[
= wh-ePf;fy;
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp that th I met --- -g[w mikg;g[
mjhtJ D-mikg;gpy; met vd;gJ wh-khw;Wg;bgah; brag;gLbghUs; who-If; bfhz;oUf;Fk;.
nJ epfpstpf;F wh-efh;thy; mz;ikg;gLj;jg;gLk;. nJ S-mikg;igg; jUk;. mjid
mLj;J wh-ePf;fy; tpjpahy; epfpstpapy; cs;s who ePf;fg;gLk;. nA;F ehk; S-mikg;g[
(khw;Wtpjpfspd; btspaPL) vd;gjw;Fk; g[w mikg;g[ (ePf;fy; tpjpfspd; btspaPL) vd;gjw;Fk;
BtWghL ghuhl;Lfpd;Bwhk;. nBjBghy; ehk; e-rhh;g[ khw;Wg; bgah;j;bjhlh;fisa[k; gpd;tUkhW
Mf;fk; bra;ayhk;.
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp e th I met who -D-mikg;g[
= wh-efh;t[
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp who e th I met --- -S-mikg;g[
= wh-ePf;fy;
bgbjh bgbjh the man th epfpstp e th I met --- -g[w mikg;g[
wh-my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;j efh;t[tpjpfspd;
fl;LghLfSf;Ff; fPH;g;goa[k;. vdBt MA;fpyj;jpy; wh-my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fs; wh-
efh;it wh-ePf;fYf;FKd; cl;gLj;Jk;. mjhtJ ePf;fy; tpjpfs; wh-efh;t[ Bghd;w
125
khw;wA;fSf;FKd; bray;glBtz;Lk; vd;gjhFk;. khw;wpf;TWtjha; nUe;jhy; ehk; nyf;fzk;
gpd;tUkhW tiuKiwg;gLj;jg;glBtz;Lk;:
mog;gil tpjpfs;
khw;wA;fs;
ePf;fy; tpjpfs;
ePf;fy; tpjp gpdtUkhW Twg;glyhk;:
wh-ePf;fy;
epfpstpapy; wh-khw;Wg;bgah;j;bjhliu ePf;ft[k;
nt;thW TWtJ gpd;tUtJ Bghd;w wh-Bfs;tpj;bjhliua[k; ePf;ft[k; vd mh;j;jk; jUk;.
epfpstp what have you bought---?
vdBt wh-Bfs;tpj;bjhliu ePf;fy; tpjpapypUe;J jilbra;a ePf;fy; tpjpBky; cyfg;bghJ
fl;Lg;ghl;il epWtBtz;Lk;. nJ gpd;tUkhW mikayhk;.
(ePf;fypy;) kPsg;bgwtpaYk; fl;Lg;ghL (Recoverability conditon)
bghUz;ik cs;slf;fk; ny;yhj myFfis kl;LBk ePf;fy; bra;ayhk;.
ehk; who kw;Wk; which bghUz;ik cs;slf;fKs;sit vdf;bfhz;lhy; kPsg;bgwtpaYk;
fl;Lg;ghl;od;go who kw;Wk; which vd;gdtw;iw MA;fpyj;jpy; ePf;ftpayhJ vd;W vLf;f
Btz;otUk;. nt;thW TWk;BghJ ehk; wh-my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fspy; who kw;Wk;
which vd;gdtw;wpd; ePf;fiy mDkjpf;f nayhJ vd tUk;. njd; fhuzkhf ehk; wh-
my;yhj khw;Wg;bgah;j; bjhlh;fspy; wh-gjpyp (WH-PRO) vd;w cs;SW mUt toit
nUg;gjhft[k; mJ wh-efh;tpd;BghJ epfpstp nlj;jpw;F mz;ikg;gLj;jg;gLtjhft[k; bfhz;L
ne;jr; rpf;fiyj; jPh;f;fyhk;. njd;go a man I know vd;gij gpd;tUk; D-mikg;gpypUe;J
Mf;fyhk;.
a man epfpstp wh-gjpyp I know---
WH-efh;t[ mUt wh-gjpypia epfpstp nlj;jpw;F mz;ikg;gLj;Jk;.
a man epfpstp I know wh-gjpyp
wh-ePf;fy; ne;j mUt gjpyp toit ePf;Fk;.
a man I know
njd;go kPsg;bgwtpaYk; fl;Lg;ghl;il gpd;tUkhW khw;wyhk;:
ve;j bkhHpapYk; brhy; myF(fs;) (=cz;ikahd brhy;(fs;)) ePf;f nayhJ.
my;yJ
fhztpayhj gjpy; tot[fis (=fhyp tifg;ghLfis) ePf;fyhk;.
126
ehk; ekJ nyf;fzj;jpy; ePf;fy; tpjpfis cl;gLj;j Btz;Lk; vd;why;, ek;Kila
khw;wg;gl;l khjphp gpd;tUkhW mika[k;:
1. mo TW
(m) bjhluikg;g[ tpjpfs;
(M) brhw;fsq;rpak; (brhy; gjpt[fs;, brhy; kpif tpjpfs;, brhy; Mf;f tpjpfs;,
kPs;Kiwahf;f tpjp
n. brhy; brUfy; tpjpfs;
moapd; btspaPL: D-mikg;g[
2. khw;wf; TW
m. khw;wA;fs; (wh-efh;t[, bgbjh-efh;t[, Bghd;wit. my;yJ -efh;t[)
M. khw;wA;fspd; fl;Lg;ghLfs; (mikg;g[ jf;fitg;g[ fl;Lg;ghL, rg;$rd;rp
Bghd;wit
khw;wf; Twpd; btspaPL: S-mikg;g[
3. ePf;fy; TW
m. ePf;fy; tpjpfs; (wh-ePf;fy; Bghd;wit)
M. ePf;fypy; fl;Lg;ghLfs; (kPsg;bgWk;rhj;jpaf;fl;Lg;ghL)
ePf;fy; Twpd; btspaPL: g[w mikg;g[
4.6. nWg;ghd;fs; (filters)
fl;Lg;ghLfs; mjpf cUthf;fA;fis jil bra;a[k; cghakhf rhk;!;fp
gad;gLj;jpdhh;. nuz;lhtJ tifahd elj;ij nWg;ghd;fs; MFk;.
KjyhtJ uhrpd; (Ross, 1967) mf vr;rj;bjhlh; nWg;ghd; (internal clause filter) vd;w
elj;ijia ghh;g;Bghk;. gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; bgbjh-Jiztpid nlkhw;wj;ijg; (NP-AUX-
INVERSION) gad;gLj;jpdhy;
That the world is round is obvious
For Mary to climb the fense would surprise Bill
mjdhy; tpisa[k; thf;fpak; Vw;Wf;bfhs;s nayhjjhft[k; kugpd;ik nd;wpa[k; mika[k;.
*Is that the world is round obvious?
*Would for Mary to climb the fesne surprise Bill?
nijj; jilbra;a uh!; gpd;tUk; nWg;ghid Kd;bkhHpfpd;whh;:
mf vr;rj;bjhlh; nWg;ghd;:
xU vr;rj;bjhlUf;Fs; mfkhf cl;gLk; kw;bwhU vr;rj;bjhliuf; bfhz;l ve;jg; g[w
mikg;g[k; nyf;fzj;jd;ikapy;yhJ MFk;.
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fs; njw;F tpjptpyf;fhf nUg;gJ Bghy; Bjhd;Wk;.
127
Would overthrowing the government be a good idea?
Would some one who tries to overthrow the governmet be excetuted?
njw;Ff; fhuzk; vd;dbtd;why; tpidg;bgah; epug;gpfSf;F th-ghhpd; (S-bar) me;j!;J
ny;iy. mjhtJ mjw;F epfpstp-th (COMP-S) mikg;g[ ny;iy. mtw;iw mf tpbjh
nUf;fpw bgbjhfshf Mayhk;. njd;fhuzkhf Bkw;fz;l nWg;ghd; Tw;iwg; gpd;tUkhW
khw;wyhk;.
mf th-ghh; nWg;ghd;:
xU vr;rj;bjhlUf;Fs; cl;gLk; th-ghiuf; bfhz;lJk; mjd; tyJgf;fKk;
nlJgf;fKk; me;j vr;bjhlhpypUe;jhd btspg;gilahd brhy; cs;slf;fj;jhy; (lexical
material) epug;gg;gLk; ve;jg; g[w mikg;g[k; nyf;fzj;jd;ikapy;yhJ MFk;.
ehk; Kd;dh; ghh;j;j rkepiyj; bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghL, rg;$rd;rp fl;LghL Bghd;d
fl;LghLfSf;Fk; mf vr;rj;bjhlh; nWg;ghd; Bghd;w nWg;ghd;fSf;Fk; nilapyhd
Bfhl;ghl;L mog;gilapyd BtWghl; epWtBtz;Lk;. fl;Lg;ghl;ow;Fg; gpd;tUk; jpl;l totk;
nUf;fpd;wJ:
Mf;fj;jpd; xU fl;lj;jpy; xU jPt[f;Fs; xU cWg;g[ C nUf;f mjd; mLj;;j fl;lj;jpy;
(xU tpjp gad;gLj;jg;gl;l gpd;dh;) C jPt[f;F btspBa te;JtpLkhdhy;, mjdhy;
tpisa[k; Mf;fk; (tpisa[k; g[w mikg;g[ mjhtJ thf;fpak;) jtwhd Mf;fk;
cilajhFk;.
rkepiyj;bjhlh; fl;Lg;ghl;il gpd;tUk; vLj;Jf;fhl;lhy; tpsf;fyhk;:
the man [S that I saw [Raja and who]]
WH-efh;t[
the man [S who that I saw [Raja and ---]]
WH-ePf;fy;
the man [S that I saw [Raja and ---]]
nJ gpd;tUk; Mf;fj;ij cUthf;Fk;
*the man that I saw Raja and
nA;F rkepiyf;fl;Lg;ghL kPwg;gl;oUf;fpd;wJ. ne;j Mf;fj;jpy; nuz;L fl;lA;fs;
nUf;fpd;wd. Kjy; fl;lj;jpy; jPt[f;fl;Lg;ghL kPwg;gLfpd;wJ. nuz;lhtJ fl;lj;jpy; ve;j
fl;Lg;ghLk; kPwg;gltpy;iy. njw;F Kuzhf nWg;ghd;fs; nyf;fzj;jpd; xU Fwpg;gpl;l
cl;Twpd; btspaPlhfr; bray;gLk; mikg;g[fspd; Bky; fl;Lg;ghlhFk;. mit gpd;tUk;
jpl;lj;ijf; bfhz;of;Fk;:
x vd;w tifapd; ve;j mikg;g[k; jtwhd cUthf;fk; cs;sJ.
128
uhrpd; Muk;gfhy Ma;t[f;Fg;gpd;dh; mLj;j Kf;fpakhd Ma;t[ bgh;y;kllhpd; (Perlmutter) Deep
and Surface structure constraints in Syntax (1971) .
gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fs; who vd;gJ epfpstp nlj;jpw;F efh;tjhy; Mf;fg;bgw;wjhFk;.
Who did he say [that he met ---]?
Who did he say [he met]?
Mdhy; gpd;tUk; thf;fpaA;fspy; vGthahf tUk; who milg;g[f;FwpfSf;Fs; nUf;Fk;
epug;gpapypUe;J efh;e;jjhFk;.
*Who did he say [that ---was coming]?
Who did he say [---was coming]?
Kjy; thf;fpj;jpy; that vd;w btspg;gilahd epug;g[f;fpstp nUg;gjhy; mJ gpiHahdjhFk;.
vGtha; nWg;ghd;:
btspg;gilahd vGtha; ny;yhj fl;lisay;yh vr;rj;bjhliuf; bfhz;l ve;j g[w
mikg;g[k; nyf;fzg;gpiHahdjhFk;.
Kjy; thf;fpaj;jpy; milg;g[f;Fwpf;Fs; nUf;Fk; epug;gpf;F vr;rj;bjhlh; me;j!;J nUf;fpd;wJ,
Mdhy; nuz;lhtJ thf;fpaj;jpy; milg;g[f;Fwpf;Fs; tUk; epug;gpf;F vr;rj;bjhlh; me;j!;J
ny;iy. rhk;!;fpa[k; yh!;dpf;Fk; (1977) gpd;tUkhW njw;F tpsf;fk; jUfpd;wdh;:
fhyp vGtha; nWg;ghd;
fhyp bgbjhthy; cldoahfj; bjhlug;ggLk; epug;g[f;fpstp that vd;gjhy;
cl;gLj;jg;gLk; vr;rj;bjhliuf; bfhz;l ve;j g[w mikg;g[k; jtwhf
Mf;fg;gl;ljhFk;.
4.7. Btw;Wik
MA;fpyj;jpy; khw;Wg;bgah;fSf;f K}d;W BtWgl;l tot[fs; nUf;fpd;wd:
he-him-his
ne;j K}d;W tot[fSk; kug[ mog;gilapy; khw;Wg;bgah; vd;W Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd: he vd;gJ
khw;Wg;bgahpd; vGtha; Btw;Wik tot[, him brag;gLbghUs; tot[ kw;Wk; his cilik
Btw;Wik tot[. ne;j BtWg;gl;l Btw;wik tot[fs; BtWgl;l thf;fpa nlA;fspy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
v.fh.
He live here (=vGtha; Btw;Wik)
I can’t stand him (=brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik)
His car has broken down (=cilik Btw;Wik)
129
gpw nl khw;Wg;bgah;fSf;Fk; K}d;W Btw;Wik tot[fs; nUf;fpd;wd. MA;fpyj;jpYs;s
Btw;Wik xGA;FKiwiag; gpd;tUkhW btspg;gLj;jyhk;:
vGtha; Btw;Wik: I we he they she you it who
brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik: me us him them her you it who(m)
cilik Btw;Wik: my our his their he your its whose
Btw;Wik khw;Wg;bgah;fspd; gz;g[f;Twh my;yJ bghJthfg; bgbjhfspd; gz;g[f;Twh vd;w
Bfs;tp vHyhk;. bgbjh khjphpfSk; mBj Btw;Wik mLf;fpy; tUk;:
Raja lives here (vGtha; Btw;Wik)
I can’t stand Raja (brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik)
Raja’s car has broken down (cilik Btw;Wik)
vdBt MA;fpyj;jpy; ehk; Btw;Wik vd;gJ bgbjhfspd; bghJthd gz;g[f;TW vd;Wk;
mtw;wpw;F K}d;W Btw;wik tot[fs; nUf;fpd;wd vdf; Twyhk;: vGtha; Btw;Wik,
brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik, cilik Btw;Wik. BtWgl;l Btw;Wik tot[fs; thf;fpaj;jpy;
bgbjhtpd; BtWgl;l nlA;fspy; bghUj;jkhf nUf;Fk;. vGtha; Btw;Wik tUk; nlj;jpYk;
cilik Btw;Wik tUk; nlj;jpYk; brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wikiag; gad;gLj;j nayhJ
brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik tUk; nlj;jpy; vGtha; Btw;Wikiag; gad;gLj;j nayhJ.
*Him lives here (brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik)
*I can’t stand he (vGtha; Btw;Wik)
*Him car has broken down (brag;gLbghUs; Btw;Wik)
bgbjhfSf;F mit thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; nlk; mog;gilapy; Btw;Wik jug;gLk; vd nij
kw;bwhU tpjj;;jpy; Twyhk;. MA;fpyj;jpy; Bjitiag; g{h;j;jpbra;a[k; ve;j nyf;fzKk;
bgbjhfSf;F mit thf;fpaj;jpy; tUk; nlk; mog;gilapy; bghUj;jkhd Btw;Wik
Fwpg;gPl;ilj; jUk; xU FGk tpjpfs; nUf;fBtz;Lk;.
vt;thW ne;j Btw;Wik Fwpg;gPL elf;fpwJ vd;W fhz;Bghk;.
He ran towards me/*I/*/my
Raja hit me/*I/my
gpd;tUk; tpjpahy; nijf; Fwpg;gplyhk;:
bgbjh Kd;DUgByh brag;gLbghUs; Fd;whtpidahByh MSik bra;ag;gl;lhy;
[+brbgh] vd;w Btw;Wik gz;g[f;TWf;fhf Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
tp=[-bg, +tp], gpc=[-bg, -tp], vd;w fhuzj;jhy; ehk; Bkw;brhd;dij gpd;tUkhW khw;;wp
mikf;fyhk;:
bgbjh Kd;DUgByh brag;gLbghUs; Fd;whtpidahByh MSik bra;ag;gl;lhy; [-
bg] vd;w Btw;Wik gz;g[f;TWf;fhf Fwpg;gplg;gLk;.
130
‘MSikbra;’ vd;w fiyr;brhy;iy tptuiz bra;ahik ehk; BehpLk; rpf;fy; MFk;. ehk;
brhy;y tpUk;g[tJ vd;dbtd;why;, Kcbjh-ny; [gpc towards] vd;gJ [bgbjh me] vd;gij
MSik bra;fpd;wJ. tpbjh-ny; [tp hit] vd;gJ [bgbjh me] vd;gij MSik bra;fpd;wJ.
MSik bra; vd;gij Xust[f;F gpd;tUkhW Xust[f;F tptuiz bra;ayhk;.
gpc vd;gBjh tp vd;gBjh mJ cWg;g[ fl;;lilapLk; (c-command) vija[k; MSik
bra;a[k;.
Jiz E]y;fs;
muA;fd;, fp. 1985. bjhlhpay;: khw;wpyf;fz mZFKiw. jq;rht{h;:
jkpH;g;gy;fiyf;fHfk;.
rz;Kfk;, br. 1998. rhk;!;fpd; g[J khw;wpyf;fzk;. brd;id: Rtpjh
gjpg;gfk;.
RrPyh, vk;. 1979. ‘glf;if nlg;bgah; jhd;-mjd; bjhlhpay; gz;g[fs;’,
bkhHpaay; 3, 187-197.
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