Rpp Sistem Koordinasi Utk Rsbi

RENCANA PELAKSANAAN PEMBELAJARAN( RPP )

Sekolah : SMPN 1 MEJAYANKelas / Semester : IX / 1Mata Pelajaran : IPA BIOLOGI – Science BiologyStandar Kompetensi

: 1. Memahami berbagai sistem dalam kehidupan manusia – Understanding various system in human life.

Kompetensi Dasar

: 1.3 Mendeskripsikan sistem koordinasi dan alat indera pada manusia serta hubungannya dengan kesehatan. – Describing coordination system and senses organ in human and its relationship with health.

Alokasi Waktu : 3 x meeting

Indikator Pencapaian KompetensiPendidikan Karakter

1.3.1 Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi jenis-jenis neuron pada manusia.Describing structure and function types of neuron in human.

1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 18

1.3.2 Mendeskripsikan jenis-jenis neuron berdasarkan bentuknya.Describing types of neuron by shape

1, 5, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25

1.3.3 Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi otak beserta bagian-bagiannya.Describing structure and function of brain and its parts.

1, 5, 22

1.3.3b Membedakan jalur impuls saraf normal dan jalur refleks.Differentiate common motion and reflex motion impuls

1, 5, 22

1.3.4 Membedakan sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf tepi. Differentiate central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

1, 5, 22

1.3.5 Mendeskripsikan bermacam-macam kelenjar endokrin beserta hormon yang dihasilkan.Describing various endocrine glands and there hormones produced.

1, 4, 5, 22,

1.3.6 Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi macam-macam indera manusia.Describing structure and function of human senses organ.

1, 5, 13, 22

1.3.7 Mendeskripsikan mekanisme kerja alat indera pada manusia.Describing work mechanism of sense organ in human

5, 22, 24, 28

1.3.8 Mengidentifikasi gangguan dan kelainan pada sistem saraf dan indera untuk menjaga kesehatan manusia.Identify interference and disorder in human nervous system and senses to keep human health.

1, 5, 10, 17

A.Tujuan Pembelajaran :Peserta didik dapat:1. Menjelaskan pengertian sistem

koordinasi.Explaine the coordination system

2. Menyebutkan fungsi sistem koordinasi. Mention the function of the coordination system.

3. Menjelaskan struktur dan fungsi sel saraf (neuron).

Explain the structure and function of nerve cells (neurons)

4. Mendeskripsikan neuron sensorik, neuron motorik, dan neuron asosiasi.

Describe the sensory neurons, motoric neurons and association neurons.

5. Mendeskripsikan neuron unipolar, neuron bipolar, dan neuron multipolar.

Describe the unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons, and multipolar neurons.

6. Menjelaskan mekanisme penghantaran impuls.

Explain the mechanism of impulse delivery.

RPP Sistem Koordinasi – SMPN 1 Mejayan – IX – Agus Joko Sungkono

7. Menyebutkan bagian-bagian sistem saraf manusia.

Mention the parts of the human nervous system.

8. Membedakan sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf tepi.

Differentiate central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

9. Menjelaskan struktur dan fungsi sistem saraf pusat.

Explain the structure and function of the central nervous system

10. Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi otak beserta bagian-bagiannya.

Describes the structure and function of the brain and its parts

11. Menjelaskan struktur dan fungsi sistem saraf tepi.

Explain the structure and function of peripheral nervous system

12. Membedakan sistem saraf sadar dan sistem saraf tak sadar.

Distinguishing conscious nervous system and involuntary nervous system.

13. Membedakan gerak biasa dan gerak refleks.

Distinguish normal and reflex motion.

14. Memberikan beberapa contoh gerak refleks yang dilakukan manusia.

Give some reflex examples the human do.

15. Menjelaskan bermacam-macam kelenjar endokrin pada tubuh manusia beserta hormon yang dihasilkannya.

Explain the various endocrine glands in human body and hormones it produces.

16. Mendeskripsikan anatomi alat indera pada manusia.

Describing anatomy of various sense organ in human

17. Mendeskripsikan mekanisme kerja alat indera pada manusia.

Describing work mechanism of sense organ in human

18. Mengidentifikasi gangguan dan kelainan pada sistem saraf, endokrin dan indera untuk menjaga kesehatan manusia.

Identify problems and abnormalities in the nervous system, endocrine and senses to safeguard human health

B. Materi Pembelajaran Learning MaterialsSistem koordinasi : (terlampir) Coordinate system : (attached)1. Sistem saraf 1. nervous system2. Sistem hormon 2. hormone system3. Indera 3. senses

C. Metode Pembelajaran : Learning Method1. Model

- Direct Instruction (DI)- Cooperative Learning

1. Model - Direct Instruction (DI)- Cooperative Learning

2. Metode - Diskusi kelompok- Ceramah- Observasi

2. Method- Groups Discussion - Lectures- Observations

D. Langkah-langkah Kegiatan :PERTEMUAN PERTAMA Meeting Ia. Kegiatan Pendahuluan Introduction activities

Guru memberi salam: Assalamu’alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokaatuh

Teacher greeting :Assalamu’alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokaatuh.

Guru meminta ketua kelas untuk memimpin doa dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.

Teacher ask captain of class to lead pray with reverence as a manifestation of religious national character building

Guru melakukan presensi kehadiran siswa sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa disiplin.

Teacher take attendance student presence as a manifestation of dicipline national character building.

Motivasi dan Apersepsi: Motivation and apperception: Kenapa tatkala kaki kita terantuk batu

kita merasa sakit, mulut mengucap Why when our feet hit the stone

we feel pain, mouth say ouch, and


aduh, dan mata kita keluar air ? Apa yang akan terjadi jika sistem saraf

manusia rusak ?

eyes out of water? What would happen if the human

nervous system is damaged?Prasyarat pengetahuan: Sistem koordinasi tersusun atas sistem

apa saja kah ?

Prerequisite knowledge : Coordinate system is composed of

what are the system?

b. Kegiatan Inti Guru mengawali mengawali kegiatan

pembelajaran dengan ceramah tentang pengertian sistem koordinasi, penyusun sistem koordinasi, dan fungsi sistem koordinasi.

Teacher initiated learning activities with a lecture on the meaning of coordination systems, compilers coordination system, and functions coordination system.

Guru membimbing siswa membentuk 4 kelompok tanpa membedakan agama, status sosial, jenis kelamin sebagai sebuah wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa m enghargai keberagaman .

Teacher guide students in forming 4 groups regardless of religion, social status, sex as a manifestation of a ppreciating diversity national character building.

Guru membagikan LKS kemudian menginformasikan kegiatan yang akan dilakukan oleh masing-masing kelompok.

Teacher share LKS (student’s task) then inform the activities to be undertaken by each group.

Peserta didik melakukan pengamatan charta : Sel saraf, sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf tepi, dan otak manusia dalam kelompok dilanjutkan berdiskusi tentang : Neuron, struktur dan fungsi neuron,

neuroglia neuron sensorik, neuron motorik,

dan neuron asosiasi. neuron unipolar, neuron bipolar,

dan neuron multipolar mekanisme penghantaran impuls. bagian-bagian sistem saraf

manusia. sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf

tepi. struktur dan fungsi sistem saraf

pusat. struktur dan fungsi otak dan

sumsum tulang belakang beserta bagian-bagiannya,

sebagai salah satu wujud membangun karakter bangsa menghargai keberagaman, kerja sama, demokratis, rasa ingin tahu, cinta ilmu, obyektif dan terbuka , cermat dan teliti.

Students observe charts of: neuron, CNS and PNS, and human brain in students group than continued discuss the : Neurons than, structure and

function of neurons, neuroglia. sensory neurons, motoric neurons

and association neurons. unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons

and multipolar neurons impulse delivery mechanism.parts of the human nervous

system.central nervous system and

peripheral nervous system. structure and function of the

central nervous system. structure and function of the

brain and spinal cord and its parts,

as a manifestation of national character building respect for diversity, cooperative, democracy, curiosity, love of science, objective and open minded , precision and thoroughly.

Peserta didik mempresentasikan hasil diskusi kelompok di kelas dan anggota kelompok lain menanggapi, sebagai salah satu wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa bertanggung jawab, percaya diri, demokratis, obyektif dan terbuka.

Students presenting the results of group discussions in front of the class and other group members can respond, as a manifestation of responsibility, confidenly, democracy, objective and open minded national character building.

Guru memberikan penguatan hasil diskusi kelompok peserta didik dengan menjelaskan sel saraf, struktur dan fungsi sel saraf, aliran impuls saraf, sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf tepi, otak dan sumsum tulang belakang manusia dengan menggunakan slide

Teacher gives strengthening the results of students group discussions by explaining the neurons, structure and function of neurons, the flow of nerve impulses, central nervous system and peripheral nervous system,


powerpoint. Guru membuka sesi tanya jawab

Guru menanggapi jawaban siswa dan memberikan informasi yang benar.

human brain and spinal cord by using a powerpoint slides.

Teacher opened the question and answer session

Teacher respond to student answers and provide the correct information

c. Kegiatan Penutup Closing activities Guru memberi tes formatif tentang

macam-macam neuron, bagian-bagian neuron, SSP dan SST, otak dan sumsum tulang belakang manusia.

Guru membimbing peserta didik membuat simpulan.

Guru memberikan tugas rumah membuat peta konsep tentang sistem koordinasi manusia.

Guru meminta ketua kelas untuk memimpin doa penutup dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.

Guru mengucapkan salam penutup: Wassalamu’alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokaatuh.

Teacher give formative tests about the various neurons, structure and function of neurons, CNS and PNS, human brain and spinal cord.

Teacher guide students make a conclusion.

Teacher gives homework to make a concept map of human coordination system.

Teacher ask captain of class to lead closing pray with reverence as a manifestation of religious national character building

Teacher greeted the closing activities by say: Wassalamu’alaikum warohmatullahi wabarokaatuh.

PERTEMUAN KEDUA Meeting IIa. Kegiatan Pendahuluan



Guru meminta ketua kelas untuk memimpin doa dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.

Teacher ask captain of class to lead pray with reverence as a manifestation of religious national character building



Motivasi dan Apersepsi: Kenapa kita bisa mengendalikan

tangan kita untuk bekerja, tetapi tidak bisa mengendalikan kerja jantung dan sistem pencernaan makanan kita ?

Motivation and apperceptions : Why we can control our hands to

work, but not in control of our heart and our digestive system?

Prasyarat pengetahuan: Apa perbedaan SISTEM SARAF PUSAT

dan SISTEM SARAF TEPI ?

Prerequisite knowledge : What is the difference in central

nervous system and peripheral nervous system?

b. Kegiatan Inti

Guru membimbing siswa membentuk 4 kelompok tanpa membedakan agama, status sosial, jenis kelamin sebagai sebuah wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa m enghargai keberagaman.

Teacher guide students in forming 4 groups regardless of religion, social status, sex as a manifestation of a ppreciating diversity national character building.



Peserta didik melakukan pengamatan charta : Sistem saraf tepi, sistem

Students observe charts of: PNS, sympathetic and the


saraf simpatik dan sistem saraf parasimpatik, gerak biasa dan gerak refleks, dan sistem endokrin manusia dalam kelompok dilanjutkan berdiskusi tentang : struktur dan fungsi sistem saraf

tepi. sistem saraf sadar dan sistem saraf

tak sadar. gerak biasa dan gerak refleks. Sistem endokrin , macam-macam

kelenjar endokrin dan hormon yang dihasilkan besera fungsinya pada manusia,

sebagai salah satu wujud membangun karakter bangsa menghargai keberagaman, kerja sama, demokratis, rasa ingin tahu, cinta ilmu, obyektif dan terbuka , cermat dan teliti.

parasympathetic nervous system, normal and reflex movement, and endocrine system of humans in students group than continued discuss the : structure and function of the

peripheral nervous system.nervous system of conscious and

unconscious nervous system. regular motion and reflexes,endocrine system, various

endocrine glands and its hormone function in human,

as a manifestation of national character building respect for diversity, cooperative, democracy, curiosity, love of science, objective and open minded , precision and thoroughly.

Peserta didik mempresentasikan hasil diskusi kelompok di kelas dan anggota kelompok lain menanggapi, sebagai salah satu wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa bertanggung jawab, percaya diri, demokratis, obyektif dan terbuka.

Students presenting the results of group discussions in front of the class and other group members can respond, as a manifestation of responsibility, confidenly, democracy, objective and open minded national character building.

Guru memberikan penguatan hasil diskusi kelompok peserta didik dengan menjelaskan SST, sistem saraf simpatik dan sistem saraf parasimpatik, gerak biasa dan gerak refleks, dan sistem endokrin manusia dengan menggunakan slide powerpoint.

Guru membuka sesi tanya jawab Guru menanggapi jawaban siswa dan

memberikan informasi yang benar.

Teacher gives strengthening the results of students group discussions by explaining the PNS, sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system, normal and reflex movement, and endocrine system of humans by using a powerpoint slides.



c. Kegiatan Penutup Guru memberi tes formatif tentang

SST, sistem saraf simpatik dan sistem saraf parasimpatik, gerak biasa dan gerak refleks, dan sistem endokrin manusia.


Guru memimpin doa penutup dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.


Teacher give formative tests about the various neurons, structure and function of neurons, CNS and PNS, human brain and spinal cord.

Teacher guide students to make a conclusion.

Teacher lead the closing prayer reverently as a manifestation of religious national character building


PERTEMUAN KETIGA Meeting IIIa. Kegiatan Pendahuluan Introduction activities



Guru meminta ketua kelas untuk Teacher ask captain of class to lead


memimpin doa dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.

pray with reverence as a manifestation of religious national character building



Motivasi dan Apersepsi: Bagaimana kita dapat melihat suatu

benda?

Motivation and apperceptions : How can we see an object?

Prasyarat pengetahuan: Apakah fungsi dari sistem saraf tepi ?

Prerequisite knowledge : What is the function of PNS ?

b. Kegiatan Inti Guru membimbing siswa membentuk 4

kelompok induk tanpa membedakan agama, status sosial, jenis kelamin sebagai sebuah wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa m enghargai keberagaman.

Teacher guide students in forming 4 main groups regardless of religion, social status, sex as a manifestation of a ppreciating diversity national character building.

Guru memberi kesempatan kepada peserta didik untuk memilih ketua kelompok dan menentukan aturan-aturan dalam kelompok, sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa demokratis dan patuh kepada aturan yang berlaku.

Teacher give opportunities for students to choose their leader and determine the rules of the group, as a manifestation of democratic and obey the rules nation character building.

Guru membimbing siswa membentuk 4 kelompok ahli : 1. Mata, bertugas untuk

mendeskripsikan struktur, mekanisme, dan fungsi indera penglihat.

2. Telinga dan kulit, bertugas untuk mendeskripsikan struktur, mekanisme, dan fungsi indera pen-dengar dan peraba.

3. Hidung dan lidah, bertugas untuk mendeskripsikan struktur, mekanisme, dan fungsi indera pem-bau dan pengecap.

4. Kelainan dan penyakit pada sis-tem koordinasi, bertugas untuk mencari tahu tentang berbagai macam kelainan dan penyakit pada sistem koordinasi manusia.

Teacher guide students to form four expert groups : 1. Eyes, tasked to describe the

structure, mechanism, and function of the sight senses.

2. Ear and skin, tasked to describe the structure, mechanism, and function of the hearing and touch senses.

3. Nose and tongue, tasked to describe the structure, mechanism, and function of the smell and taste senses.

4. Abnormalities and diseases of the coordination system, tasked to find out about the various abnormalities and diseases in human coordination system



Ketua kelompok menugaskan anggotanya untuk pergi berdiskusi di kelompok ahli, dan ada yang tinggal di kelompok induk untuk memimpin diskusi kelompok ahli tertentu, sebagai salah satu wujud membangun karakter bangsa menghargai keberagaman, kerja sama, demokratis, rasa ingin tahu, cinta ilmu, obyektif dan terbuka , cermat dan teliti.

Leader of the groups are assigned members of the group to go to discuss at expert groups, and anyone living in the main group to lead the discussion of certain expert groups, as a manifestation of national character building respect for diversity , cooperation, democracy , curiosity, love of science , objective and open minded , accurate and thoroughly

Setelah diskusi di kelompok ahli selesai, para utusan kelompok kembali

After discussions at the expert group is finished, the delegates


ke kelompok induknya masing-masing. Di kelompok induk para utusan mempresentasikan hasil diskusi dari kelompok ahli. Anggota kelompok yang lain mencatat di buku catatan, sebagai salah satu wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa disiplin, bertanggungjawab, jujur, demokratis, terbuka, bekerjasama, menghargai orang lain, dan percaya diri.

returned to their main groups. In the main group the delegates present results of the expert group discussion. Other group members recorded in notebook, as a manifestation of the character building of the discipline , responsibility , honesty , democratic , open minded , cooperative , respect for others , and confidently.

Guru memberikan penguatan hasil diskusi kelompok peserta didik dengan menjelaskan struktur, mekanisme, dan fungsi alat indera dan kelainan dan penyakit pada sistem koordinasi manusia dengan menggunakan slide powerpoint.

Guru membuka sesi tanya jawab Guru menanggapi jawaban siswa dan

memberikan informasi yang benar.

Teacher gives strengthening the results of students group discussions by explaining the structure, mechanism, and function of the senses and abnormalities and deseases of the human coordination system by using a powerpoint slides.



c. Kegiatan Penutup Guru memberi tes formatif tentang

panca indera, kelainan dan penyakit pada sistem koordinasi manusia.


Guru memimpin doa penutup dengan khidmat sebagai wujud pembangunan karakter bangsa religius.


Teacher give formative tests about the five senses, abnormalities and deseases of the human coordination system.

Teacher guide students to make a conclusion.

Teacher lead the closing prayer reverently as a manifestation of religious national character building


E. Sumber Belajara. Buku IPA Biologi b. Buku referensi yang relevanc. Lingkungand. Alat dan bahan praktikum

F. Penilaian Hasil Belajara. Teknik Penilaian:

Tes tertulisPenugasan

b. Bentuk Instrumen: Tes PG Tugas rumah membuat Peta

konsep

MengetahuiKepala SMPN 1 MEJAYAN

Mejayan, 3 Juli 2012Guru Mata Pelajaran IPA-BIOLOGI


Drs. HENDRO SUWONDO, M.Pd. NIP. 19690715 199802 1 003

AGUS JOKO SUNGKONO, S.Pd. NIP. 19660228 198903 1 005


WRITTEN TEST

COORDINATION SYSTEM

Indikator No

Soal Skor Kunci

1.3.1 Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi jenis-jenis neuron pada manusia.

1. The cells that make up the nervous system are called ….A. glialB. neuronsC. myelinsD. terminals

1 B

Describing struc-ture and function types of neuron in human.

2. Which of the following is not a part of a neuron?A. dendriteB. axonC. myelinD. pons

1 D

3. Axons….A. receive messagesB. send messagesC. process informationD. insulate neurons

1 B

4. What is the function of the oligodendrocytes?A. create myelin layerB. clean up cellular debrisC. supply blood and nutrientsD. alert the body to an infection

1 A

5. Gaps between the myelin sheath along an axon are called ….A. dendritesB. chromatophilic substanceC. astrocytesD. nodes of ranvier

1 D

6. Which cell connects neurons to blood vessels?A. astrocyteB. oligodendrocyteC. glialD. myelin

1 A

7. The chemical that moves from the axon of one neuron across a gap to the dendrite of another is a(n) ….A. gray matterB. theshold stimulantC. sodiumD. neurotransmitter

1 D

8. What ions are necessary for a nerve impulse to occur?A. carbon & sodiumB. oxygen & carbonC. potassium & sodiumD. hydrogen & potassium

1 C

9. White matter appears white due to ….A. no blood supplyB. myelinC. lack of nucleiD. electrical charges

1 B

10. A threshold stimulus results in the creation of a(n) ….A. waveB. node of ranvierC. neurotransmitterD. action potential

1 D

1.3.2 Mendeskripsikan jenis-jenis neuron berdasarkan

11.


Indikator No

Soal Skor Kunci

bentuknya.Describing types of neuron by shape1.3.3 Mendeskripsikan struktur dan fungsi otak beserta bagian-bagiannya.

Describing struc-ture and function of brain and its parts.

12. For problem numbers 11 and 12 notice the picture below !

Which letter on the image indicates the corpus collosum?

A. AB. BC. CD. D

1 B

13. Which letter on the image indicates the cerebel-lum?

A. AB. BC. CD. D

1 D

14. Which part of the brain is responsible for hearing and memory?A. occipital lobeB. cerebellumC. temporal lobeD. frontal lobe

1 C

15. Which part of the brain is responsible for process-ing visual information?A. temporal lobeB. occipital lobeC. parietal lobeD. medulla

1 B

16. A person with an injury to her frontal lobe may have difficulty ….A. remembering past eventsB. reasoning and making decisionsC. seeingD. sleeping

1 B

17. Which part of the nervous system controls volun-tary movement?A. autonomicB. sympatheticC. parasympatheticD. somatic

1 D

18. The central nervous system consists of the ….A. brain and peripheral nervesB. autonomic and somatic nervous systemC. brain and spinal cordD. pons and frontal lobe

1 C

19. Which of the following is NOT part of the limbic system ….A. amygdalaB. hippocampusC. hypothalamusD. cerebellum

1 D

20. The part of the brain that controls higher mental activities, such as reasoning is the ….A. cerebellum

1 D


Indikator No

Soal Skor Kunci

B. medulla oblongataC. temporal lobeD. frontal lobe

21. What connects the two hemispheres of the brain?A. pia materB. corpus callosumC. diencephalonD. pons

1 B

22. The pons, midbrain, and medulla oblongata all make up the ….A. white matterB. corpus callosumC. brain stemD. cerebrum

1 C

23. The part of the brain that controls emotional expe-riences ….A. limbic systemB. medulla oblongataC. hypothalamusD. pia mater

1 A

24. The web-like membrane between the outer and inner meninges is called the ….A. dura materB. gray matterC. arachnoid materD. ventricle

1 C

25. Fluid filled cavities within the brain are called ….A. matersB. ventriclesC. meningesD. cavities

1 B

1.3.4 Membedakan sistem saraf pusat dan sistem saraf tepi.

26. The lobe at the back of the head that controls vi-sion and visual processing is the …… lobe.A. parietalB. temporalC. frontalD. occipital

1 D

Differentiate cen-tral nervous sys-tem and peripheral nervous system

27. The part of the brain that controls coordination and balance is the ….A. cerebellumB. ponsC. hypothalamusD. temporal lobe

1 A

28. Damage to the hippocampus may result in ….A. loss of balanceB. inability to regulate body temperaturC. loss of memoryD. inability to speak or use language

1 C

29. The skeletal muscles are controlled by the ….A. brain stemB. autonomic nervous systemC. somatic nervous systemD. cerebellum

1 C

1.3.3b Membedakan jalur impuls saraf normal dan jalur refleks.

30. Reflexes (such as the knee-jerk reflex) occur when impulses travel from the muscle to the …… and then back to the muscle.A. brainB. spinal cordC. dendriteD. axon

1 B

Differentiate com-mon motion and reflex motion im-puls

31. Parathyroid hormone regulates the ….A. calcium level of the blood.B. rate of metabolism.C. size of fat reserves.D. production of sex hormones.

1 A

32. Which system carries hormones throughout the 1 A


Indikator No

Soal Skor Kunci

body?A. circulatory systemB. nervous systemC. endocrine systemD. digestive system

33. The nervous system and the endocrine system in-teract in the ….A. pituitary gland and adrenal cortex.B. adrenal cortex and thyroid gland.C. thyroid gland and hypothalamus.D. hypothalamus and pituitary gland.

1 D

34. The hormone that stimulates the liver, skeletal muscles, and fat cells to break down glycogen is ….A. insulin.B. oxytocin.C. glucagon.D. thyroxine.

1 C

35. Preparation for and reaction to stress are regu-lated by the….A. adrenal glands.B. thyroid gland.C. pituitary gland.D. pancreas.

1 A

36. The thyroid gland is most important in regulating the …..A. glucose level in the blood.B. rate of metabolism.C. activities of other glands.D. production of sex hormones.

1 B

37. The levels of hormones in the body are regulated by ….A. homeostasis.B. feedback mechanisms.C. the nervous system.D. the excretory system.

1 B

38. Testosterone affects cells that are found ….A. only in the testes.B. all over the body.C. only in the penis.D. only in the scrotum.

1 B

39. The lack of which hormone results in dwarfism?A. Growth hormoneB. Adrenaline C. Noradrenaline D. Insulin

1 A

40. Islets of Langerhans secrete ….A. InsulinB. Adrenaline C. Growth hormone D. Thyroxine

1 A

41. The lack of which hormone does not affect growth - Thyroxine, Insulin, Growth hormone or Sex hor-mone?A. InsulinB. Thyroxine C. Growth hormone D. Sex hormone

1 A

1.3.5 Mendeskripsikan macam-macam indera dan fungsinya.

Describing various

42. 1


Indikator No

Soal Skor Kunci

sense and it func-tion1.3.6 Mendeskripsikan anatomi alat indera pada manusia.

Describing anatomy of various sense organ in hu-man

43. 1

1.3.7 Mendeskripsikan mekanisme kerja alat indera pada manusia.

Describing work mechanism of

sense organS in human

44. 1

1.3.8 Mengidentifikasi gangguan dan kelainan pada sistem saraf dan indera untuk menjaga kesehatan manusia.

Identify interfer-ence and disorder in human nervous system and senses to keep human health.

45. 1


Lampiran :

ISTILAH PENTING IMPULS yaitu rangsangan atau pesan . Disampaikan melalui senyawa kimia dalam

tubuh yaitu asetilkolin. RESEPTOR yaitu struktur yang dapat menerima impuls.Dapat berupa sel, jaringan

atau organ, alat gerak, otot. EFEKTOR yaitu struktur yang dapat menanggapi impuls. Dapat berupaa sel, jaringan

atau organ, alat gerak, otot. Neruon atau sel saraf yaitu merupakan sel yang terpanjang yang dimilki oleh tubuh

manusia dan bertugas untuk menerima dan menghantarkan impuls ke tempat yang dituju.

Organel penyusun sel saraf/Neuron1. Dendrit merupakan penjuluran pendek yang keluar dari badan sel. Berfungsi

untuk menghantarkan impuls dari luar sel neuron ke dalam badan sel.2. Badan sel merupakan bagian neuron yang banyak mengandung cairan sel

(sitoplasma) dan terdapatnya nucleus (inti sel). Berfungsi sebagai penerima impuls dari dendrti dan menghantarkannya menuju axon dengan perantaraan sitoplasma.

3. Sitoplasma merupakan cairan pengisi badan sel. Berfungsi untuk mempercepat penyampaian/ penghantaran impuls dalam sel.

4. Nucleus merupakan bagian terpenting dari sel.benetuknya akan menyesuaikan bentuk sel. Berfungsi untuk mengatur seluruh kegiatan sel dan pembelahan sel.

5. Axon/neurit merupakan poenjukluran yang panjang yang keluar dari badan sel. Berfungsi untuk menerima impuls dari badan sel dan menghantarkannya ke percabangan axon.

6. Percabangan axon merupakan bagian dari axon yang bercabang-cabang. Berfungsi menerima impuls dari axon.

7. Selubung neurolema/neurilema merupakan selaput tipis yang berda paling luar dari axon. Berfungsi untuk melindungi axon serta memberikan nutrisi pada axon serta regenrasi pada selubung mielin.

8. Selubung myelin merupakan selaput tipis yang berhubungan langsung dengan axon dan terletak setelah selubung neurilema. Berfungsi untuk melindungi axon dan memberikan nutrisi pada axon.

9. Sel Schwann merupakan sel-sel yangterdapat di dalam selubung myelin. Berfungsi untuk memperbaiki sel axon yang rusak/regenerasi.

10. Nodus Ranvier merupakan celah diantara axonyang tidak tertutup oleh selubung neurilema. Berfungsi untuk mempercepat penyampaian impuls ke neuron.

Pembagian sel neuron


a. Berdasarkan fungsinya1. Saraf sensorik/aferen yaitu neuron yang berfungsi untuk menghantarkan

impuls dari reseptor ke sistem saraf pusat (SSP). 2. Saraf motorik/eferen yaitu neuron yang berfungsi untuk menghantarkan

impuls dari SSP ke efektor.3. Saraf asosiasi/interneuron yaitu neuron yang menghubungkan saraf sensorik

dengan sarf motorik di dalam SSP.

b. Berdasarkan strukturnya1. Neuron unipolar yaitu neuron yang memiliki satu buah axon yang bercabang.2. Neuron bipolar yaitu neuron yang memiliki satu axon dan satu dendrite.3. Neuron multipolar yaitu neuron yang memiliki satu axon dan sejumlah

dendrite.

Sinapsis Merupakan hubungan penyampaian impuls dari satu neuron ke neuron yang lain.

biasanya terjadi dari ujung percabangan axon dengan ujung dendrite neuron yang lain.

Celah antara satu neuron dengan neuron yang lain disebut dengan celah sinapsis. Di dalam celah sinapsis inilah terjadi loncatan-loncatan listrik yang bermuatan ion,baik ion positif dan ion negatif. Di dalam celah sinapsis ini juga terjadi pergantian antara impuls yang satu dengan yang lain, sehingga diperlukan enzim kolinetarase untuk menetralkan asetilkolin pembawa impuls yang ada. Dalam celah sinapsis juga terdapat penyampaian impuls dengan bantuan zat kimia berupa asetilkolin yang berperan sebagai pengirim (transmitter).


Muatan listrik dalam neuron Muatan listrik yang terjadi dalam satu axon akan memiliki muatan listrik yang

berbeda antara lapisan luar dan lapisan dalam axon. Polarisasi yaitu keadaan istirahat pada sel neuron yang memperlihatkan muatan

listrik positif dibagian luar dan muatan listrik negative di bagian dalam. Depolarisasi yaitu keadaan bekerjanya sel neuron yang memperlihatkan muatan

listrik positif di bagian dalam dan muatan listrik negative di bagian luar.

Gerakan berdasarkan tanggapan impuls1. Gerak biasa merupakan gerakan yang disadari dan impuls akan diolah oleh

SSP (otak dan medulla spinalis) terbeih dahulu sebelum terjadi gerakan.

Skema/bagan gerakan biasaImpuls reseptor neuron sensorik medulla spinalis otak Medulla spinalis interneuron neuron motorik Efektor gerakan

2. Gerak refleks merupakan gerakan yang tanpa disadari karena menanggapi impuls secara langsung. Sehingga sifat gerakan ini tidak diolah terlebih dahulu oleh otak. Jarak terpendek efektor dalam menanggapi impuls disebut dengan lengkung refleks.

Skema/bagan gerak refleksImpuls reseptor neuron sensorik medulla spinalis interneuron Neuron motorik efektor gerakan.

3. Macam gerakan refleks tergantung dari tanggapan efektor terhadap impuls yang ada. Bila tanggapan terhadap impuls melibatkan satu efektor saja, maka disebut dengan refleks tunggal. Jika tanggapan terhadap impuls melibatkan lebih dari 1 efektor maka disebut dengan refleks kompleks.

SSP (Sistem Saraf Pusat)


1. OtakDiselimuti oleh selaput otak yang disebut selaput meninges. Selaput meninges terdiri dari 3 lapisan :a. Lapisan durameter yaitu lapisan yang terdapat di paling luar dari otak dan

bersifat tidak kenyal. Lapisan ini melekat langsung dengan tulang tengkorak. Berfungsi untuk melindungi jaringan-jaringan yang halus dari otak dan medula spinalis.

b. Lapisan araknoid yaitu lapisan yang berada dibagian tengah dan terdiri dari lapisan yang berbentuk jaring laba-laba. Ruangan dalam lapisan ini disebut dengan ruang subaraknoid dan memiliki cairan yang disebut cairan serebrospinal. Lapisan ini berfungsi untuk melindungi otak dan medulla spinalis dari guncangan.

c. Lapisan piameter yaitu lapisan yang terdapat paling dalam dari otak dan melekat langsung pada otak. Lapisan ini banyak memiliki pembuluh darah. Berfungsi untuk melindungi otak secara langsung.

Otak dibagi menjadi beberapa bagian :a. Cerebrum

Merupakan bagian otak yang memenuhi sebagian besar dari otak kita yaitu 7/8 dari otak.

Mempunyai 2 bagian belahan otak yaitu otak besar belahan kiri yang berfungsi mengatur kegaiatan organ tubuh bagian kanan. Kemudian otak besar belahan kanan yang berfungsi mengatur kegiatan organ tubuh bagian kiri.


Bagian kortex cerebrum berwarna kelabu yang banyak mengandung badan sel saraf. Sedangkan bagian medulla berwarna putih yang bayak mengandung dendrit dan neurit. Bagian kortex dibagi menjadi 3 area yaitu area sensorik yang menerjemahkan impuls menjadi sensasi. Kedua adalah area motorik yang berfungsi mengendalikan koordinasi kegiatan otot rangka. Ketiga adalah area asosiasi yang berkaitan dengan ingatan, memori, kecedasan, nalar/logika, kemauan.

Mempunyai 4 macam lobus yaitu : Lobus frontal berfungsi sebagai pusat penciuman, indera peraba. Lobus temporal berungsi sebagai pusat pendengaran Lobus oksipetal berfungsi sebagai pusat pengliihatan. Lobus parietal berfungsi sebagai pusat ingatan, kecerdasan, memori,

kemauan, nalar, sikap.

b. Mesencephalon Merupakan bagian otak yang terletak di depan cerebellum dan jembatan

varol. Berfungsi sebagai pusat pengaturanan refleks mata, refleks penyempitan

pupil mata dan pendengaran.

c. Diencephalaon Merupakan bagia otak yang terletak dibagian atas dari batang otak dan di

depan mesencephalon. Terdiri dari talamus yang berfungsi untuk stasiun pemancar bagi impuls

yang sampai di otak dan medulla spinalis. Bagian yang kedua adalah hipotalamus yang berfungsi sebagai pusat

pengaturan suhu tubuh, selera makan dan keseimbangan cairan tubuh, rasalapar, sexualitas, watak, emosi.


d. Cerebellum Merupakan bagian otak yang terletak di bagian belakang otak besar. Berfungsi

sebagai pusat pengaturan koordinasi gerakan yang disadari dan keseimbangan tubuh serta posisi tubuh.

Terdapat 2 bagian belahan yaitu belahan cerebellum bagian kiri dan belahan cerebellum bagian kanan yang dihubungkan dengan jembatan varoli yang berfungsi untuk menghantarkan impuls dari otot-otot belahan kiri dan kanan.

2. Medulaa. Medulla oblongata

Disebut juga dengan sumsum lanjutan atau penghubung atau batang otak.

Terletak langsung setelah otak dan menghubungkana dengan medulla spinalis, di depan cerebellum.

Susunan kortexmya terdiri dari neeurit dan dendrite dengan warna putih dan bagian medulla terdiri dari bdan sel saraf dengan warna kelabu.

Berfungsi sebagai pusat pengaturan ritme respirasi, denyut jantung, penyempitan dan pelebaran pembuluh darah, tekanan darah, gerak alat pencernaan, menelan, batuk, bersin,sendawa.

b. Medulla spinalis Disebut denga sumsum tulang belakang dan

terletak di dalam ruas-ruas tulang belakang yaitu ruas tulang leher sampaia dengan tulang pinggang yang kedua.

Berfungsi sebagai pusat gerak refleks dan menghantarkan impuls dari organ ke otak dan dari otak ke organ tubuh.

SST (Susunan Saraf Tepi/Perifer)Merupakan system saraf yang menghubungkan semua bagian tubuh dengan system saraf pusat.

1. Sistem saraf sadar/somatikMerupakan system saraf yang kerjanya berlangsung secara sadar/diperintah oleh otak. Bedakan menjadi dua yaitu :

a. Sistem saraf pada otak


Otak Depan

Telencephalon

Otak Tengah

Otak Belakang

Diencephalon

Mesencephalon

Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

Cerebrum (Otak Besar)

Diencephalon (thalamus, hipothalamus, epithalamus)

Otak Tengah (merupakan bagan dari batang otak)

Pons (bagian dari batang otak) , cerebellum

Medulla oblongata (bagian dari batang otak)

Otak TengahOtak Belakang

Otak Depana. Embrio saat

berumur 1 bulan

(b) Embrio saat berumur 5 minggu(c) Otak manusia dewasa

MesencephalonMetencephalon

Myelencephalon

Syaraf Spinal

Diencephalon

Telencephalon

CerebralDiencephalon:

HipothalamusThalamusKelenjar Pineal

(bagian dari epithalamus)Batang Otak:

Otak TengahPons

Medullaoblongata

Cerebellum (Otak Kecil)Syaraf Spinal

Merupakan sistem saraf yang berpusat pada otak dan dibedakan menjadi 12 pasang saraf yaitu :

NoNama saraf

Jenis saraf

Menuju Fungsi

I Olfaktori Sensorik

Pusat pembau Berkaitan dengan penciuman

II Optik Sensorik

Retina mata Berkaitan dengan penglihatan

III Okulomotor Motorik Otot bola mata dan otot kelopak mata

Menggerakan bola mata (kiri dan kanan)Untuk akomodasi dan kontraksi iris

IV Troklear Motorik Oto bola mata Untuk memutar bola mataV Trigeminus

a.Oftalmik

b. Maksilar

Motorik Kelopak mata atsa, bola mata, kelenjar lakrimal

Mukosa hidung, langit-langit rongga mulut, taring, gigi atas, pipi dan kelopak mata bawah.

Membawa impuls yang berkaitan dengan sensai rasa, nyeri, raba dan suhu.


c.Mandibular

Lidah bagian atas (bukan pengecap), gigi bawah dan rahang bawah.

VI Abdusen Motorik Otot penggerak bola-mata

Pergerakan rektus lateral

VII Facial Motorik Lidah bagian pengecap anterior

Mempengaruhi pergerakan otot-otot rahang, wajah, kepala serta ekskresi kelenjar ludah dan air mata.

VIII Vestibulo koklear

Sensorik

Koklea telinga, vestibula dan kanal semisirkularis

Berkaitana dengan pendengaran dan keseimbangan.

IX Glosofaring Motorik Lidah pengecap, tonsil langit-langit mulut, kulit telinga

Mempengaruhi pergerakan otot faring dan lidah.

X Vagus Motorik Faring, laring, trakea, bronkus, pulmo, lengkung aorta

Mempengaruhi pergerakan menelan, stimulasi kelenjar lambung, usus, hati dan pankreas.

XI Asesori spinal

Motorik Otot sternokleidomastoid dan otot trapezius

Mengkoordinasi gerakan bahu dan leher.

XII Hipoglosus Motorik Otot lidah Berkaitan dengan kegiatan menelan dan berbicara.

b. Sistem saraf sumsum spinalis Merupakan sistem saraf yang berpusat pada medula spinali (sumsum tulang

belakang) yang berjumlah 31 pasang saraf yang terbagi sepanjang medula spinalis.

31 pasang saraf medula spinalis yaitu :

Jumlah Medula spinalis daerah

Menuju

8 pasang Servix Kulit kepala, leher dan otot tangan

12 pasang

Punggung Organ-organ dalam

5 pasang Lumbal/pinggang Paha5 pasang Sakral/kelangkang Otot betis, kaki dan jari kaki1 pasang koksigeal Sekitar tulang ekor

2. Sistem saraf OtonomMerupakan sistem saraf yang cara kerjanya secara tidak sadar/diluar

kehendak/tanpa perintah oleh otak. Sistem saraf yang mensarafi seluruh otot polos, otot jantung, kelenjar

endokrin dan kelenjar eksokrin.Dibedakan menjadi 2 bagian yaitu saraf simpatik dan saraf parasimpatik yang

keduanya bekerja secara antagonis/berlawanan.

a. Sistem saraf simpatik Merupakan 25 pasang simpul saraf (ganglion) yang terdapat di medulal

spinalis. Disebut juga dengan sistem saraf thorakolumbar karena saraf ini keluar

dari vertebrae thorak ke-1 sampai ke-12 dan vertebrae kolumbar ke-1 sampai dengan ke-3.

Beberapa fungsi sistem saraf simpatik yaitu : Mempercepat denyut jantung Memperlebar pembuluh darah


Menghambat pengeluaran air mata Memperluas/memperlebar pupil Menghambat sekresi air ludah Memperbesar bronkus Mengurangi aktivitas kerja usus Menghambat pembentukan urine

b. Sistem saraf parasimpatik Merupakan sistemsaraf yang keluar dari daerah otak. Terdiri dari 4 saraf otak yaitu saraf nomor III (okulomotorik), nomor VII

(Facial), nomor IX (glosofaring), nomor X (vagus). Disebut juga dengan sistem saraf craniosakral karena saraf ini keluar

dari daerah cranial dan juga dearah sakral. Beberapa fungsi sistem saraf parasimpatik yaitu :

Memperlambat denyut jantung Mempersempit pembuluh darah Memperlancar pengeluaran air mata Memperkecil pupil Memperlancar sekresi air ludah Menyempitkan bronkus Menambah aktivitas kerja usus Merangsang pembentukan urine


Endocrine System

IntroductionA. The endocrine system is made up of the cells, tissues, and organs that secrete

hormones into body fluids.B. The body has two kinds of glands;

Exocrine (secretes products into ducts) endocrine (secrete products into body fluids to affect target cells).

General Characteristics of the Endocrine System A. The endocrine system’s function is to communicate with cells using chemicals

called hormones.B. Endocrine glands and their hormones regulate a number of metabolic processes

within cells, and the whole body. C. Their actions are precise, they only affect specific target cells.D. Endocrine glands include the

1. pituitary gland, 2. thyroid gland, 3. parathyroid glands, 4. adrenal glands, 5. pancreas, and other hormone-secreting glands and tissues.


Hormone Action A. Hormones are can be divided into three groups on the basis of chemical structure:

amino acid derivatives (Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, thyroid hormones, melatonin), peptide hormones ( ADH, Oxytocin, GH, Prolactin), and lipid derivatives (steroids). • Alter cellular operations by changing the identies, activities, or quantities of

import enzymes and structural proteins in various target cells. • they can influence target cells even if they are present only in minute

concentrations.

B. Nonsteroid Hormones 1. Receptors in target cell membranes2. The hormone-receptor complex (as first messenger) triggers a cascade

biological activity.3. The hormone-receptor complex generally activates a G protein, which then

activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase that is bound to the inner cell membrane.

4. This enzyme removes two phosphates from ATP to produce cyclic AMP (the second messenger), which in turn activates protein enzymes that activate proteins.

5. These activated proteins induce changes in the cell.6. Not all nonsteroid hormones use cAMP; others use diacylglycerol (DAG) or

inositol triphosphate.

C. Prostaglandins 1. Prostaglandins are locally-produced lipids that affect the organ in which they are

produced.2. Prostaglandins produce a variety of effects: some relax smooth muscle, others

contract smooth muscle, some stimulate secretion of other hormones, and others influence blood pressure and inflammation.

Control of Hormonal SecretionsA. Hormone levels are very precisely regulated. B. Control Mechanisms

1. Release of hormones from the hypothalamus controls secretions of the anterior pituitary.

2. The nervous system influences certain endocrine glands directly.3. Other glands respond directly to changes in the internal fluid composition.

C. Negative Feedback Systems 1. Commonly, negative feedback mechanisms control hormonal releases.2. In a negative feedback system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of the

substance it regulates or which regulates it.3. When the concentration of the regulated substance reaches a certain level (high

or low), it inhibits the gland from secreting more hormone until the concentration returns to normal.

Pituitary Gland “Master Gland”A. The pituitary gland is attached to the base of the brain

• has an anterior lobe (anterior pituitary) & • a posterior lobe (posterior pituitary).


B. The brain controls the activity of the pituitary gland.1. Releasing hormones from the hypothalamus control the secretions of the

Anterior Pituitary.a. The releasing hormones are carried in the bloodstream directly to the

Anterior Pituitary by hypophyseal portal veins.2. The Posterior Pituitary releases hormones into the bloodstream in response

to nerve impulses from the hypothalamus. C. Anterior Pituitary Hormones

1. The anterior pituitary consists mostly of epithelial tissue arranged around blood vessels and enclosed in a capsule of collagenous connective tissue.

I. Growth hormone (GH) II. Prolactin (PRL) III. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) IV. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) V. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and VI. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

2. Growth hormone (GH) stimulates body cells to grow and reproduce; it also speeds the rate at which cells use carbohydrates and fats.a. Growth hormone-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus increases the

amount of GH released, GH release-inhibiting hormone inhibits its release.b. Nutritional status affects the release of GH

Acromegaly- excess GH causes an enlargement of hands and feet, facial features

3. Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk production following the birth of an infant.a. The effect of PRL in males is less-well understood, although it may cause a

deficiency of male sex hormones. Prolactinoma- menstral changes, infertility, in men impotence, loss of

sexual drive


4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) controls the secretion of hormones from the thyroid gland.a. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus regulates the

release of TSH.b. As blood concentrations of thyroid hormones increases, secretions of TRH

and TSH decrease. Hypothyroidism (Hashimoto’s disease, Goiter) and Hyperthyroidism

(Graves’ disease)5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) controls the secretion of hormones from

the adrenal cortex.a. It is regulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus,

and stress can also increase its release. Adrenal gland diseases- glucocorticoids (blood sugar levels and

metabolism of proteins and fats), Mineralocorticoids (body’s electrolyte level), and Androgens (sex hormones)

6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing horm o ne (LH) are gonadotropins affecting the male and female sex organs. Infertility

D. Posterior Pituitary Hormones1. The posterior lobe consists of nerve fibers and neuroglial cells that support

nerve fibers arising in the hypothalamus.2. Neurons in the hypothalamus produce antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, which

are stored in the posterior pituitary.3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produces its effect by causing the kidneys to

conserve water.a. The hypothalamus regulates the secretion of ADH based on the amount of

water in body fluids. Diabetes Insipidus- insufficient ADH loss of water balance

4. Oxytocin plays a role in childbirth by contracting muscles in the uterine wall, and in milk-letdown by forcing milk into ducts from the milk glands.a. Stretching of the uterus in the latter stages of pregnancy stimulates release

of oxytocin.b. Suckling of an infant at the breast stimulates release of oxytocin after

childbirth. Inducing Labor- synthetic oxytocin


Thyroid Gland A. The thyroid gland is located below the

larynx and consists of two broad lobes connected by an isthmus.

B. Structure of the Gland 1. The thyroid consists of secretory

parts called follicles filled with hormone-storing colloid.

C. Thyroid Hormones1. The follicular cells produce two

iodine-containing hormones, thyroxine (T4) (tetraiodothyronine) and triiodothyronine (T3), that together regulate energy metabolism.a. These two hormones increase the

rate at which cells release energy from carbohydrates, enhance protein synthesis, and stimulate the breakdown and mobilization of lipids.

b. These hormones are essential for normal growth and development.c. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland control release of thyroid hormones.

2. Extrafollicular cells of the thyroid secrete calcitonin, which lowers blood levels of calcium and phosphate ions when they are too high.a. Calcitonin increases the rate at which calcium is stored in bones and

excreted in the urine.b. Calcitonin secretion is regulated by negative feedback involving blood

concentrations of calcium.

Parathyroid Glands A. The four, tiny parathyroids are located on the

posterior of the thyroid.B. Structure of the Glands

1. Parathyroid glands consist of tightly packed secretory cells covered by a thin capsule of connective tissue.

C. Parathyroid Hormone1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood

calcium ion concentration and decreases phosphate ion concentration.

2. PTH stimulates bone resorption by osteoclasts, which releases calcium into the blood.

3. PTH also influences the kidneys to conserve calcium and causes increased absorption of calcium in the intestines

4. A negative feedback mechanism involving blood calcium levels regulates release of PTH.

D. Calcitonin and PTH exert opposite effects in regulating calcium ion levels in the blood. • Adrenals• Pancreas• Pineal Gland• Thymus• Reproductive• Digestive glands• Stress and Health

Adrenal Glands A. The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys enclosed

in a layer of fat.B. Structure of the Glands

1. The pyramid-shaped glands consist of an inner adrenal medulla and an outer adrenal cortex.


2. The adrenal medulla is made up of modified postganglionic neurons that are connected to the sympathetic nervous system.

3. The adrenal cortex makes up most of the adrenal glands and consists of epithelial cells in three layers - an outer, middle, and an inner zone.

C. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla 1. The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood

stream.2. The effects of these hormones resemble those of the sympathetic division

neurotransmitters of the same name, except that they last up to 10 times longer when they are secreted as hormones.

3. The are used in times of stress and for “fight or flight.”4. Release of medullary hormones is regulated by nervous impulses from the

central nervous system. D. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

1. The cells of the adrenal cortex produce over 30 different steroids, some of which are vital to survival, the most important of which are aldosterone (mineralocorticoid), cortisol (Glucocorticoid), and the sex hormones (Androgens).

2. Aldosteronea. Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, causes the kidneys to conserve sodium ions

and thus water, and to excrete potassium ions.b. Aldosterone is secreted in response to decreasing blood volume and blood

pressure as a result of changes in the kidney.3. Cortisol

a. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid, influences the metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat in response to conditions that stress the body and require a greater supply of energy in the bloodstream. Cushing’s Syndrome- excess cortisol, longer healing time, face becomes

puffy, fatigue, high blood pressure, hyperglycemicb. A negative feedback mechanism involving CRH from the hypothalamus

and ACTH from the anterior pituitary controls the release of cortisol.c. Stress, injury, or disease can also trigger increased release of cortisol.

4. Adrenal Sex Hormonesa. Sex hormones, produced in the inner zone, are mostly of the male type, but

can be converted to female hormones in the skin, liver, and adipose tissues.b. These hormones supplement those released by the gonads and may

stimulate early development of reproductive organs.

PancreasA. The pancreas secretes hormones as an

endocrine gland, and digestive juices to the digestive tract as an exocrine gland.

B. Structure of the Gland1. The pancreas is an elongated organ

posterior to the stomach.2. Its endocrine portions are the islets of

Langerhans that include two cell types--alpha cells that secrete glucagon, and beta cells that secrete insulin.

C. Hormones of the Islets of Langerhans1. Glucagon increases the blood levels of

glucose by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen and the conversion of noncarbohydrates into glucose.a. The release of glucagon is controlled by a negative feedback system

involving low blood glucose levels.2. Insulin decreases the blood levels of glucose by stimulating the liver to form

glycogen, increasing protein synthesis, and stimulating adipose cells to store fat.a. The release of insulin is controlled by a negative feedback system

involving high blood glucose levels.3. Insulin and glucagon coordinate to maintain a relatively stable blood glucose

concentration.


Other Endocrine Glands A. Pineal Gland

1. The pineal gland, near the upper portion of the thalamus, secretes melatonin, which is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms of the body.

B. Thymus Gland1. The thymus gland, lying between the lungs under the sternum, secretes

thymosins that affect production and differentiation of T lymphocytes that are important in immunity.

C. Reproductive Glands 1. The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone.2. The placenta produces estrogen, progesterone, and a gonadotropin.3. The testes produce testosterone.

D. Digestive Glands 1. The digestive glands secrete hormones associated with the processes of

digestion.E. Other Hormone Producing Organs

1. The heart secretes atrial natriuretic peptide affecting sodium and the kidneys secrete erythropoietin for blood cell production.

Stress and Health A. Factors that serve as stressors to the body produce stress and threaten

homeostasis.B. Types of Stress

1. Stress may be physical, psychological, or some combination of the two2. Physical stress threatens the survival of tissues, such as extreme cold,

prolonged exercise, or infections.3. Psychological stress results from real or perceived dangers, and includes

feelings of anger, depression, fear, and grief; sometimes even pleasant stimuli cause stress.

C. Response to Stress1. Responses to stress are designed to maintain homeostasis.2. The hypothalamus controls the general stress syndrome, which involves

increased sympathetic activity and increased secretion of cortisol, glucagon, growth hormone, and antidiuretic hormone.

Special Senses ‐ Smell and Taste

Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell Both senses use chemoreceptors Stimulated by chemicals in solution Taste has four types of receptors Smell can differentiate a large range of chemicals Both senses complement each other and respond to many of the same stimuli

Olfaction—The Sense of Smell Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity Neurons with long cilia Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex


The Sense of Taste Taste buds house the receptor organs Location of taste buds Most are on the tongue Soft palate Cheeks The tongue is covered with projections called papillae Filiform papillae—sharp with no taste buds Fungifiorm papillae—rounded with taste buds Circumvallate papillae—large papillae with taste buds Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae Gustatory cells are the receptors Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli) Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva

Taste Buds Taste Sensations Sweet receptors (sug-ars) Saccharine Some amino acids Sour receptors Acids Bitter receptors Alkaloids Salty receptors Metal ions Umami Elicited by the amino

acid glutamate and re-lated compounds

The Eye and Vision 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eyes Each eye has over a million nerve fibers Protection for the eye Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony or-bit A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye

Accessory Structures of the Eye Eyelids and eyelashes Conjunctiva Lacrimal apparatus Extrinsic eye muscles Accessory Structures of the Eye


Eyelids and eyelashes Tarsal glands lubricate the eye Ciliary glands are located between the

eyelashes Conjunctiva Membrane that lines the eyelids Connects to the surface of the eye Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye Lacrimal apparatus Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid Lacrimal canals—drain lacrimal fluid

from eyes Lacrimal sac—provides passage of

lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity Nasolacrimal duct—empties lacrimal

fluid into the nasal cavity

Accessory Structures of the Eye Function of the lacrimal apparatus Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye Empties into the nasal cavity Properties of lacrimal fluid Dilute salt solution (tears) Contains antibodies and lysozyme Extrinsic eye muscles Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye Produce eye movements

Structure of the Eye Layers forming the wall of the eye-ball Fibrous layer Outside layer Vascular layer Middle layer Sensory layer Inside layer

Structure of the Eye: The Fibrous Layer

Sclera White connective tissue layer Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye” Cornea

Structure of the Eye: Vascular Layer Choroid is a blood‐rich nutritive layer in the

posterior of the eye Pigment prevents light from scattering Modified anteriorly into two structures Ciliary body—smooth muscle attached to


Transparent, central anterior portion Allows for light to pass through Repairs itself easily The only human tissue that can be trans-

planted without fear of rejection

lens Iris—regulates amount of light entering eye Pigmented layer that gives eye color Pupil—rounded opening in the iris

Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer Retina Fovea centralis – highest concentration of photoreceptors Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball Cannot see images focused on the optic disc

Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer Retina contains two layers Outer pigmented layer Inner neural layer Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors) Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two‐neuron chain Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve


Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer Discs contain rhodopsin A purple pigment consisting of the protein opsin covalently bound to a yellow photo-sensitive pigment called retinal (derived from Vit. A) Exposure to light activates rhodopsin Rhodopsin is split by light into retinal and opsin, eventually resulting in an action po-tential Light adaptation is caused by a reduction of rhodopsin Dark adaptation is caused by rhodopsin production


Lens Biconvex crystal‐like structure Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body Cataracts result when the lens becomes hard and opaque with age Vision becomes hazy and distorted Eventually causes blindness in affected eye

Lens Aqueous and Vitreous Humor Aqueous humor Watery fluid found between lens and cornea Similar to blood plasma Helps maintain intraocular pressure Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral venous sinus, or canal of Schlemm Vitreous humor Gel‐like substance posterior to the lens Prevents the eye from collapsing Helps maintain intraocular pressure

Pathway of Light Through the Eye Light must be focused to a point on the retina for optimal vision The eye is set for distance vision (over 20 feet away) Accommodation—the lens must change shape to focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away)


Sensory Layer Rods Most are found towards the edges of the retina Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision All perception is in gray tones Cones Allow for detailed color vision Densest in the center of the retina Fovea centralis—area of the retina with only

cones Cone sensitivity Three types of cones Different cones are sensitive to different wave-

lengths Color blindness is the result of the lack of

one cone type

Pathway of Light Through the Eye Image formed on the retina is a real image Real images are Reversed from left to right Upside down Smaller than the object

A Closer Look Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the retina Myopia (nearsighted) Distant objects appear blurry Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and are focused in front of it Results from an eyeball that is too long Hyperopia (farsighted) Near objects are blurry while distant objects are clear Distant objects are focused behind the retina Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy lens” Astigmatism Images are blurry Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the retina due to unequal curva-

tures of the cornea or lens

Visual Disorders Homeostatic Imbalances of the Eyes Night blindness—inhibited rod function that hinders the ability to see at night Color blindness—genetic conditions that result in the inability to see certain colors Due to the lack of one type of cone (partial color blindness) Cataracts—when lens becomes hard and opaque, our vision becomes hazy and dis-torted Glaucoma—can cause blindness due to increasing pressure within the eye


Hearing and Balance

The Ear Houses two senses Hearing Equilibrium (balance) Receptors are mechanoreceptors Different organs house receptors for

each sense

Anatomy of the Ear The ear is divided into three areas External (outer) ear Middle ear (tympanic cavity) Inner ear (bony labyrinth)

The External Ear Involved in hearing only Structures of the external ear Auricle External acoustic meatus (auditory canal) Narrow chamber in the temporal bone Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands Ends at the tympanic membrane

The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity) Air‐filled cavity within the temporal bone Oval window and round window connect

to the inner ear Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity Malleus (hammer) Incus (anvil) Stapes (stirrip) Two tubes are associated with the inner

ear Mastoid air cells The auditory tube connecting the middle

ear with the throat Allows for equalizing pressure during

yawning or swallowing This tube is otherwise collapsed


Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth Includes sense organs for hearing and bal-

ance Filled with perilymph A maze of bony chambers within the tem-

poral bone Cochlea Vestibule Semicircular canals

Anatomy of the Ear Organs of Equilibrium Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are

called the vestibular apparatus Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts Static equilibrium Dynamic equilibrium

Static Equilibrium Maculae—receptors in the vestibule Report on the position of the head Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells

Dynamic Equilibrium Crista ampullaris—receptors in the semicircular canals Tuft of hair cells Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair cells Action of angular head movements The cupula stimulates the hair cells An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum Action of angular head movements The cupula stimulates the hair cells An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum


Organs of Hearing Organ of Corti Located within the cochlea Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane Gel‐like tectorial membrane is capable of bend-

ing hair cells Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells

transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe

Mechanism of Hearing Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial

membrane Hair cells are bent by the membrane An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve Continued stimulation can lead to

adaptation


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