Proses-Karbohidrat -2

96
PROSES KONVERSI KIMIAWI PADA BAHAN YANG MENGANDUNG KARBOHIDRAT

Transcript of Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Page 1: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

PROSES KONVERSI KIMIAWI PADA BAHAN YANG MENGANDUNG

KARBOHIDRAT

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TEKNOLOGI PROSES

BahanMentah

Pengubahan Kimiawi/

biokimiawi,atau Fisik

Produk

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Daftar Konversi Kimiawi Utama1. Asetilasi

2. Alkoholisis

3. Alkilasi

4. Aminasi dengan

reduksi

5. Aminolisis

6. Aromatisasi atau

Siklisasi

7. Kalsinasi

8. Karboksilasi

9. Penyabunan

10. Pembakaran

11. Kondensasi

12. Dehidrasi

13. Dinitrifikasi

14. Dekomposisi ganda

15. Elektrolisis

16. Esterifikasi

17. Fermentasi

18. Reaksi Friedel -

Crafts

19. Halogenasi

20. Hidroformilasi

21. Hidrogenasi

22. Dehidrogenasi

23. Hidrogenolisis

24. Hidrolisis

25. Hidrasi.

26. Pertukaran ion

27. Isomerisasi

28. Netralisasi

29. Nitrasi

30. Oksidasi

31. Polimerisasi

32. Pirolisis

33. Reduksi

34. Pembentukan

Silikat

35. Sulfonasi

36. Dsb.

 

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Karbohidrat (Hydrates of carbon), sebagian mempunyai rumus empiris : Cn(H2O)n

n = 3 - ribuan

Penggolongan Karbohidrat :1. Monosakarida

(n=5 Pentosa, n=6 heksosa, n=7 heptaosa)Paling sederhana : 3 C gliseraldehida

dihidroksiaseton

2. Oligosakarida (2-10 unit monosakarida)

3. Polisakarida (> 10 unit monosakarida)Homopolisakarida, Heteropolisakarida

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Karbohidrat sumber energi utama bagi aktivitas

manusia selain protein dan lemak

Indonesia : 80-90% sumber energi dari karbohidrat

pangan pokok beras, jagung, sagu

USA : 46% karbohidrat, 42% lemak, 12% protein

Sumber karbohidratSumber karbohidrat

-Sumber Nabati : Hasil fotosintesa

-Sumber Hewani : biosintesis glikogen & sintesa

kimiawi lain

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Konversi Kimiawi pada karbohidrat

Hidrolisis DehidrasiXilan Xilosa furfural Asam H2SO4

Glukosa komersial dihasilkan dari proses hidrolisis pati(C6H10O5)n + n H2O n C6H12O6

Hidrolisis Isomerisasi Pati Glukosa Fruktosa

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22O11 + H2O monosakarida monosakarida disakarida air

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Sukrosa (Saccharose)

Sumber : tebu (Saccharum officinarum) dan bit (Beta vulgaris)

Gula invert : hasil reaksi hidrolisis sukrosa menghasilkan campuran glukosa dan fruktosa, dikatalisis oleh enzim invertase atau asam

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Sukrosa Inversi Gula invert-dekstrorotari - levorotari- + 66.5o - - 19.8o

Fruktosa + melibiosa

Rafinosa

Galaktosa + sukrosa

Asam lemah

maltase

Hidrolisis Disakarida + air monosakarida

Pengaruh panasGula dipanaskan karamelisasi

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Tingkat kemanisan relatif gula

Gula Kemanisan relatif (%)

Fruktosa 170

Gula invert 130

Sukrosa 100

Glukosa 75

Maltosa 30

Galaktosa 30

Laktosa 15

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Tingkat kemanisan berbagai sugar alcohol

Pemanis Tingkat kemanisan (%)[sukrosa 100%]

Sumber bahan baku/ proses

Manitol 40-50 Hidrogenasi fruktosa

Sorbitol 40-50 Hidrogenasi glukosa

Xilitol 100 Hidrogenasi xilosa

Arabinitol ~100 Hidrogenasi arabinosa

Isomaltitol 50 Hidrogenasi isomaltulosa

Laktitol 30 Hidrogenasi laktosa

Maltitol ~90 Hidrogenasi maltosa

L-sorbosa 60-80 Proses fermentasi glukosa

D-xilosa 50 Hidrolisis hemiselulosa

Laktulosa ~60 Isomerisasi laktosa

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Tingkat kemanisan relatif berbagai pemanis sintetis

Pemanis Kemanisan relatif (b/b.)

Sukrosa 1

Sodium siklamat 15-31

Dulcin (p-etoksifenilurea) 70-350

Saccharine 240-350

L-aspartil-L-fenilalanin metil ester

250

1-n-propoksi-2-amino-4-nitrobenzen

4100

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Tingkat kemanisan relatif pemanis alami

Pemanis alami SumberKemanisan

relatif (sukrosa 1)

Monellin Pulp dari Dioscorephyllum cumminsii

3000

Thaumatins Buah Thaumatococcus daniellii

2000

Miraculin Buah Synsepalum dulcificum

Steviosida Daun Stevia rebaudiana 300

Osladin Polypodium vulgare 3000

Phylloducin Hydragea macrophylla 200-300

Glycyrrhizin Akar Glycyrrhiza glabra 50

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Bahan Hasil Pertanian sumber Karbohidrat

Biji-bijian sumber pati : gandum, cantel, sorgum, jali-jali, jagung, jawawut, dll

Wheat

Rye

Barley

Oats

Serealia

Maize

Sorgum

Spelt

Greencorn

Buckwheat

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Ekstraksi Pati dari sumber biji-bijian

Bahan Baku

Pembersihan Penggilingan Perendaman

Air

Penapisan

Air Rendaman Air

Penyaringan

Ampas

Suspensi Pati

Pengendapan

Supernatan

Endapan Pati

Pengeringan Penggilingan Pati

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Diagram blok garis besar pengolahan produk-produk yang berasal dari jagung (Corn Products Refining Corp. and Dorr-Oliver)

Jagung

Pembersihan

PerendamanAir SO2

Air perendaman encer

Suspensi pati Suspensi pati-serat

Separasi hidrosiklon lembaga

Suspensi lembaga

Ekstraksi minyak

Minyak jagung

Ampas

Evaporasi

Pakan hewan

Penggilingan , pencucian dan penyaringan

Suspensi pati-gluten

Pemisahan

Gluten Pati

A

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Diagram blok garis besar pengolahan produk-produk yang berasal dari jagung (Corn Products Refining Corp. and Dorr-Oliver) (lanjutan)

A

Hidrosiklon pencuci pati

Perlakuan kimiawi

Filtrasi dan pengeringan

Produk pati Pemasakan

Dekstrin dan gum

Pati bersih

Konversi pati dengan asam enzim netralisasi

Filtrasi dan pemurnian

Evaporasi dan pemurnian

Kristalisasi

Sirup jagung Sentrifugasi dan pengeringan

Dekstrosa gula dan sirup jagung

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Diagram alir garis besar pengolahan produk-produk yang berasal dari jagung (Corn Products Refining Corp. and Dorr-Oliver di dalam Shreve dan Brink, 1984)

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Diagram blok proses pembuatan bir

GrindingMalt barley Malt adjunct (beras/jagung)

Penimbangan

Pemasakan bertekanan

Air panas dan dingin

Uap

Pemasakan di ketel bir

Hop

Pendinginan

Penumbuhan awalKhamir

Fermentasi (40-58 oF)

Pendinginan dan penyimpanan di tangki timbun (32 oF)

Filtrasi

Penyimpanan di tangki

CO2

Kompresi

A

A

Bir Pembotolan

Penutupan, pasteurisasi dan

pelabelan

Bir dalam botol / kaleng

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Diagram alir proses pembuatan bir (Shreve dan Brink, 1984)

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Kacang-kacangan sumber karbohidrat

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Ganyong Kimpul Talas

Gembili Uwi Suweg

Umbi-umbian sumber pati : ganyong, gembili, uwi, suweg, kentang, talas, kimpul, dll

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Ekstraksi Pati Ubi Kayu

Bahan Baku Pengupasan dan pencucian

Pemarutan Pengepresan

Suspensi patiPengendapanEndapanPengeringan

Penggilingan Pati

Air Cucian

Air Air

Ampas

Air

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Ekstraksi Pati dari Sumber Batang

Bahan Baku

Pembersihan Pemotongan Pembelahan Penokokan

Air

EmpulurPemerasan

Ampas dan

Kotoran

Suspensi Pati

Penyaringan

Ampas dan

Kotoran

Suspensi Pati

Pengendapan Endapan Pati

Pengeringan Pati

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InulinLinear polilfruktan berikatan dengan ikatan -2,1 glikosidik

Sumber Inulin : Jerusalem Artichoke, umbi dahlia, akar chicory, dan dandelion

Sifat : - sedikit larut dalam air panas - mudah dihidrolisis oleh asam - Tidak berfungsi sebagai sumber nutrisi - Sumber HFS (dengan inulinase)

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Proses Produksi Pati Termodifikasi (Food Thickener)

A

Pati cassava 50 %

Pengadukan pada T= 45 oC

Sodium Sulfat

Pengadukan pada t=24 jamT= 45 oC

Sodium Hidroksid dan propilen oksid

Netralisasi dengan HCl

Sentrifuse

ResiduPencucian

Sentrifuse

Supernatan

Endapan

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Proses Produksi Pati Termodifikasi (Food Thickener)

Pengadukan

Penambahan Posporous oksiklorid dan diaduk 30 mnt

Penambahan sodium hidroksid sampai pH 11-11,8

SupernatanSupernatan

Air

Netralisasi dengan HCl

A

Pencucian 2 kali dengan air

A

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Proses Produksi Pati Termodifikasi (Food Thickener)

Penggilingan

Pengeringan

A

Endapan Supernatan

Pati termodifikasi

Penggilingan

Penyaringan

Sentrifuse

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Produk Hidrolisis Pati DE Aplikasi

Maltodekstrin 3-20 Stabilizer, thickener, filler,lem dan pasta

Sirup Maltosa 48-63 Permen keras, mencegah higroskopis, fermentasi

Sirup Glukosa 96-98 Soft drink, fermentasi

Sirup Fruktosa - Industri pengalengan, soft drink, produk susu

Sirup Campuran 42-63 Soft drink, bahan baku industri pangan

Hidrolisis Pati

1. Enzimatis

2. Hidrolisis Asam

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Proses produksi HFCS (High Fructose Corn Syrup)

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Proses Produksi Dekstrin

Hidrolisat parsial dari pati, hasil kerja enzim, asam dan panasSenyawa antara dalam sintesis pati

Sifat dekstrin :

- Larut dalam air, tidak larut dalam alkohol- Mempunyai gugus karbonil bebas senyawa pereduksi- Memberikan respon warna terhadap Iodine berbeda

Jenis Pati/Dekstrin Respon warna terhadap iodin

Amilosa Biru tua, hitam

Amilodekstrin Biru

Erithrodekstrin Merah

Achrodekstrin Tidak berwarna

Amilopektin Merah-violet

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Sumber gula : tebu, bit, aren, nipah, dll

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Diagram blok pembuatan gula tebu kasar

Tebu

PenggilinganHasil samping :

Bagase

Boiler

Jus tebu

Pencampuran

Kapur

Filtrasi 1

Filtrat keruh

Filtrasi 2

Filtrat jernih

Pemanasan dan evaporasi

A

A

Filtrat kental

Kristalisasi

Kristal bibit

Sentrifugasi

Gula kasar mutu tinggi

Molase akhir

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Diagram alir pembuatan gula tebu mentah (Shreve dan Brink, 1984)

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Diagram blok pembuatan gula tebu murni

Gula kasar

PencairanAir

FiltrasiAdsorban Air pencuci panas

Cairan dan sirup

Pemvakuman

KristalisasiPenghalusan dan

aerasiPenyaringan

Pengeringan hingga membentuk granular Gula putih

Gula halus

kadar gula tinggi

Kadar gula rendah

Pencampuran Molase akhir

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Diagram alir pembuatan gula tebu murni (Shreve dan Brink, 1984)

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Diagram blok proses dalam industri alkohol

Molase

Penimbangan

PengenceranAir

Sterilisasi molase

Penyiapan kultur khamir

(NH4)2SO4

H2SO4

UapFermentasi

Bir

Pembuangan CO2 Air CO2

Penukar panas

Destilasi Slop

A

A

PemurnianH2O

Uap

Dephlegmator

Kondensor

Aldehid

Separator Minyak fusel

Kolom pemisah

H2O

Dephlegmator

Kondensor

Alkohol 95%

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Diagram alir proses dalam industri alkohol (Shreve dan Brink, 1984)

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BIOETANOL

Substitusi bahan bakar bensin Rumus kimia (C2H5OH) Penampakan : cairan tidak berwarna, jernih,

mudah menguap, berbau khas alkohol, berfase cair pada suhu kamar, mudah terbakar dan dapat dibuat dari biomassa maupun fraksi minyak bumi

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Bahan baku bioetanol

Bahan berpati

Sugar contain material

Cellulose contain material

Ketela pohon Sagu Sorghum Jagung Kentang manis

Tebu Nira nipah Nira sorghum manis Nira aren Molase

Kayu Jerami Batang pisang Bagas tebu

Bahan baku berpotensi lainnya

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PROSES PRODUKSI

Prinsip : Fermentasi dengan bantuan mikoorganisme dimana bahan baku (gula sederhana/glukosa) diubah menjadi etanol

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Produksi Bioetanol

Bahan berpati

Hidrolisis (Asam/enzim)

Larutan Gula

Fermentasi

Bioetanol

Produksi bioetanol dari pati sagu

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Hidrolisis EnzimPati

Pembuatan suspensi pati 30% dalam CaCO3 200 ppm

Larutan Gula

Gelatinisasi (105oC, 5 menit)

-amilase1.75 U/g pati

Pengaturan pH 5.2

Likuifikasi95oC, 180 menit

Sakarifikasi(60oC, pH 4.5, 72 jam)

Glukoamilase0.3 U/g pati

Konversi pati menjadi gula

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Hidrolisis AsamPati Sagu

Pembuatan suspensi pati 30% dalam air

Larutan Gula

Pengaturan pH 2 dengan HCL 0.1%

Penetralan dengan NaOH 1 N

Hidrolisis121oC, 60 menit

Hidrolisis asam skala pabrik

Konversi pati menjadi gula

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Fermentasi Larutan Gula Menjadi Etanol

Larutan gula 25-35 Brix

Penambahan nutrisi dan pengaturan PH 3.9-4

Bioetanol

Fermentasi 7 hari, suhu 25-30oC

Starter 10-15% (v/v)

Pasteurisasi85oC, 5 menit

Destilasi

Fermentasi bioetanol skala pabrik

Fermentasi skala lab

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Fermentasi Larutan Gula Menjadi Etanol

Broth

Etanol

Fermentor

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Nutrisi yang ditambahkan :

• (NH4)2SO4 5.19 g/l

• KH2PO4 1.53 g/l

• MgSO4 0.55 g/l

Sumber nutrisi lainnya :

• NPK 0.04% (b/v)

• ZA 0.15% (b/v)

NUTRISI STARTER

Inokulum :

1. Ragi Komersial

2. Biakan Saccharomyces

Biakan S.cerevisiaeRagi komersial

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Persiapan Starter

Inokulum

Pemindahan ke medium GYE steril 1 g ragi komersial/20 ml1 jarum ose biakan/20 ml

Starter

InkubasiRagi komersial : 24 jamBiakan murni : 48 jam

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Destilasi

Bertujuan untuk pemisahan etanol dari komponen lain (terutama air)

Destilasi menghasilkan etanol dengan kadar alkohol 95%.

Perlu dilakukan pengeringan (dehidrasi)

Destilasi skala pabrik

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Molecular Sieve

• Bahan yang digunakan sebagai absorben untuk gas dan cairan

• Dapat menyerap air hingga 22% dari berat bahan adsorben

• Molecular sieve : alumunium silikat, zeolit, carbon aktif, clays

zeolit

PSA

Molecular sieve plant Molecular sieve skala kecil

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Bahan baku

Slurry tank Liquifiying tank Saccharifiying tank

Clarifiying tankFilter press

Filter tank Evaporating tank

Fermentor

Etanol

PILOT PLANT BIOETANOL-IPB

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Bahan berlignoselulosa : serat, kayu, tongkol jagung, tkks, pelepah, dll

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Lignoselulosa : bahan hasil pertanian yang mengandung (1) Lignin, (2) Hemiselulosa, (3) selulosa

Fungsi Lignin- Mengikat sel-sel tanaman satu dan lainnya- Sebagai pengisi dinding sel sehingga tanaman menjadi menjadi keras, teguh dan kaku

Hemiselulosa, terdiri atas :(1) Glukomanan Monomer : -D-glukopiranosa, -D-manopiranosa(2) Arabinogalaktan

Monomer : -D-galaktopiranosa. -D-glukopiranosa(3) Xilan

Monomer : -D-xilopiranosa, ikatan -1,4 glikosidik

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Selulosa Senyawa utama dalam struktur jaringan tanamanDalam dinding sel bergabung dengan lignin dan hemiselulosa

Sumber selulosa berbeda kekuatan dan ketahanannyaCo. Serat kayu, flax, kapas (>90% selulosa)

Kapas

benang

Pulp & kertas kayu

Dietary fiber

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Xilitol Termasuk gula alkohol dengan lima karbon (1,2,3,4,5

pentahydroxy pentane) dengan formulasi molekul C5H12O5.

Pemanis rendah kalori (4 kal/g), indeks glukemik jauh lebih rendah tidak meningkatkan gula darah dan metabolisme tanpa insulin aman untuk penderita diabetes

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Proses pembuatan xilitol

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Rumput Laut sumber Karbohidrat

Rumput laut bernilai ekonomis

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Struktur Kimiawi Polisakarida(1) Homopolisarida(2) Heteropolisakarida(3) Senyawa konjugasi : gabungan dengan lipid & protein

Polisakarida dalam bahan pangan(1) Pati (pati kasar, pregelatinisasi, pati termodifikasi)(2) Selulosa dan turunan selulosa(3) Ekstrak rumput laut (alginat, karagenan, agar, furcellaran)(4) Gum dan lendir dari tanaman (arabik, karaya, tragacanth)(5) Gum biji-bijian (locust bean dan guar)(6) Ekstrak tanaman (pektin)(7) Mikrobial gum (xanthan)

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Klasifikasi Hidrokoloid Alami dari Tanaman

(1) Polisakarida Anionik dari Rumput LautCo. Agar, alginat, karagenan

(2) Polisakarida Anionik dari Exudate Co. Arabic, ghatti, karaya, tragacanth(3) Polisakarida non-ionik dari bijian

Co. Guar gum, locust bean gum,(4) Polisakarida anionik hasil fermentasi

Co. Xantan, dekstran, gellan gum

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Produk Hidrokoloid Alami

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Klasifikasi Hidrokoloid Alami dari Tanaman

Polisakarida Komponen Penyusun SumberAgar Poligalaktosa Rumput laut alga merah

GracalariaAlginat Asam manuronat &

guluronatAlga coklat Laminaria

Karagenan Poligalaktosa ester asam sulfat

Alga merah Chondus crispus

Gum arabic L-arabinosa, L-rhamnosa, D-galaktosa, asam D-glucoronat

Exudate tanaman Acacia Senegal

Gum tragacanth Campuran polisakarida asam, unit asam galakturonat, D-galaktosa, L-fucose, D-xylose, L-arabinosa

Exudate tanaman Astragalus

Locust bean gum

Rantai manosa, dan unit galaktosa

Locust bean (carob bean) dari Ceratonia siliquia

Xantan Rantai utama selulosa, rantai cabang galaktosa

Mikroba Xanthomonas campestris

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Carbohydrates Chemical Reaction

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Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

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Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

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Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides amd polysaccharides

Ketoses Aldoses Reducing (hemiacetals) Non-reducing (acetals)

Hexoses PentosesA b ility to re a c t w ith A g 2 O + N H 3 + H 2 O

E x a m p le s :

CHOOH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

O

OH** ** *

*

A n a ld o h e x o se , 2 4 = 1 6 s t e re o iso m e rs A k e to p e n to se , 2 2 = 4 s t e re o iso m e rs

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Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

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CH2OH

H O

H OH

D-glyceraldehyde

CH2OH

H O

OH H

L-glyceraldehyde

D-key L-key

Every monosaccharide belongs to either D- or L-type

L- and D-monosacharides are enantiomers

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Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

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CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

O

OHH

HH

OHOH

H OH

HCH2OH

Open form of glucose

OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

HOH2C H

H

OHO

H

OH

OH

H

H

OH

CH2OH

H

H

H + o r O H -

Not Fischer projections!

OHH

H

OH

OH

H

H

OH

CH2OH

H

O

O

HH

HH

OHOH

H OH

OHCH2OH

H + o r O H -

Haworth projections

-Glucose (-D-glucopyranose)

Epimers

-Glucose (-D-glucopyranose)

All cyclic forms of monosaccharides are cyclic hemiacetals. The cycle are preferred forms and contain either 6 atoms (pyranoses) or 5 atoms (furanoses)

Page 69: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

CH2OH

H O

H OH

H OH

H OH

Open form of ribose

-Ribose (-D-Ribofuranose)

OH

H O

H OH

H OH

HOH2C H

H + o r O H - H + o r O H -

OHH

O

H

OH

H

OH

CH2OH

HOH

O

H

H

OH

H

OH

CH2OH

H

O H

OHH

OH

H

OH

CH2OH

H

O OH

HH

OH

H

OH

CH2OH

H

-Ribose (-D-Ribofuranose)

Example 2: Cyclization of ribose

Page 70: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

CH2OH

CH2OH

O

OH H

H OH

H OH

Open form of fructose

-Fructose (-D-fructofuranose)

H + o r O H - H + o r O H -

-Fructose (-D-fructofuranose)

OH

CH2OH

O

OH H

H OH

HOH2C HOH

CH2OH

O

OH

H

H

OH

CH2OH

HOH

O

CH2OH

OH

H

H

OH

CH2OH

H

O CH2OH

OHH

OH

OH

H

CH2OH

H

O

CH2OHH

OH

OH

H

CH2OH

H

OH

Example 3: Cyclization of fructose

Page 71: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 72: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

Glucose

C a (O H ) 2

H 2 O

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

CH2OH

O

OH H

OH H

H OH

H OH

H CH2OH

CH2OH

O

OH H

H OH

H OH

+ +

CH2OH

OH

OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

Enolization

Recovered glucose, 67% Mannose, 2% Fructose, 30%

Page 73: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 74: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

O

OHH

HH

OHOH

H OH

HCH2OH

A glycoside hydroxyl

-D -G lu c o p yra n o se (a h e m ia c e ta l)

O

OH

HH

OHOH

H OH

HCH2OH

CH3

M e th yl-D -g lu c o p yra n o s id e (a g lyc o s id e (a n a c e ta l)

H C l, C H 3 O H

OC

+H

HH

OHOH

H OH

H

CH2OHO

HH

HH

OHOH

H OH

O+CH2OH

CH3

HO

O+H

HH

OHOH

H OH

HCH2OH

HH

H+

OH CH3

+

+

O

HH

HH

OHOH

H OH

OCH2OH CH3

O

O+

HH

H

OHOH

H OH

HCH2OH

CH3

H

O

H

CH3H

OHH

NH2

O

H

OH

OH

OH

H3CO

O

O

O

CH2OH

H

A n o th e r e x a m p le o f a g lyc o s id e :

D o x o ru b ic in (a n a n t ic a n c e r d ru g )

Page 75: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 76: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

O

OHHH

OH

HH

OH OH

H

OH

(C H 3 O ) 2 S O 2

N a O H

O

OCH3

HH

H3CO

HH

H3CO OCH3

H

OCH3O

HHH

H3CO

HH

OCH3OCH3

OCH3

OCH3

+

1. Alkylation at the glycoside position (see the previous slide)

2. Complete alkylation

3. Complete acylation

O

OHHH

OH

HH

OH OH

H

OH

O

OAcHH

AcO

HH

AcO OAc

H

OAcO

HHH

AcO

HH

OAcOAc

OAc

OAc

+A c e t ic a n h yd r id e

P y

Page 77: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

HCOOH

CH2OH

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

B r 2 , H 2 O

C a C O 3

Glucose Gluconic acid

4. Oxidation to aldonic acids

5. Oxidation to aldaric acids

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

HCOOH

COOH

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

Glucose Glucaric acid

H N O 3 , H 2 O

6 0 oC

Page 78: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

6. Reduction to alditols

7. Oxidation by the Tolence reagent (Ag2O, NH3, H2O), producing Ag (a silver mirror reaction).

Because of the basic conditions, the reaction produces a messy mixture ofcarbohydrate-based ammonium salts (mostly ammonium gluconate).

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

HCH2OH

CH2OH

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

Glucose Sorbitol

N a B H 4 , H 2 O

Page 79: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 80: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

CH2OH

H O

OH H

H OH

H OH

Arabinose

CH2OH

NH

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

H C N

O H - +

29% 51%

CH2OH

O

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

H

Glucose

H 2 O , H +

H 2 , P d / B a S O 4 ,P re ssu re

Gluconitrile Manonitrile

CN

CH2OH

H OH

OH H

H OH

H OH

CN

CH2OH

OH H

OH H

H OH

H OH

Page 81: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 82: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Disaccharides and polysaccharides are composed from two or more cyclicmonosaccharides. If the saccharide contains at least one semi-acetal group, it is a reducing sugar due to the equilibrium with the open form, whichactually reacts with the Tolence reagent. Saccharides-acetales do not react withTolence reagent, because they do not equilibrate with the open form in the alkaline conditions.

Examples:

OH

HOH

HOH

H OH

OH

OHO

HH

H

OHOH

H OH

OH

OHH + , H 2 O

+

-L a c to se(-D -g a la c to p yra n o s id o --D -g lu c o p yra n o se )

Galactose Glucose

O

OHH

HOH

H OH

H

OHHO

HH

HOH

HOH

H OH

O

OH

A semi-acetal fragment

A reducing sugar

Page 83: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

O

HH

H

OHOH

H OH

OH

OHH + , H 2 O

Glucose

A non-reducing sugar

+O

OHH

OH

OH

HH

OH OH

Fructose

O

H

OH

OH

HH

OH

OH

O

OH

H

OHOH

H OH

H

OHH

S u c ro se (-D -g lu c o p yra n o s id o --D -fru c to fu ra n o s id e )

Polysaccharides

OH

HH

OHOH

H OH

OH

OHH + , H 2 O

Glucose

+O

OHH

HOH

H OH

H

OHHO

HH

H

OHOH

H OH

O

OHH

C e llu b io se (b u ilt fro m - fra g m e n ts o f g lu c o se )

Page 84: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

O

HH

H

OHOH

H OH

OH

OHH + , H 2 O

Glucose

+

A m ilo se is a w a te r u n so lu b le c o m p o n e n t o f s t a rc h , b u ilt fro m - fra g m e n t s o f g lu c o se w ith a lm o s t n o b ra n c h in g

O

O

HH

OHOH

H OH

OHH O

OHH

HOH

H OH

H

OHHH

A m ilo p e c t in is a w a te r so lu b le c o m p o n e n t o f s t a rc h , b u ilt fro m - fra g m e n t s o f g lu c o se w ith h ig h e x te n t o f b ra n c h in g

Site of branching

Cellulose is a water unsoluble polymer, built from -fragments of glucose with no branching

Maltose

Page 85: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 86: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

N

N

N

N

N

N

HPyrimidine

Purine

N

N

OH

OH

NH

N

O

O

HUracil (U)

The point of attachment to RNA

N

N

OH

OH

H3CNH

N

O

O

H

H3C

Thymine (T)The point of attachment to DNA

NH

N

O

O

H

F

Fluorouracil (an anticancer drug)

N

N

NH2

OH

N

N

NH2

O

HCytosin (C)

The point of attachment to DNA or RNA

Page 87: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

N

N

N

N

H

NH2

Adenine (A)

The point of attachment to DNA or RNA

N

N

N

N

H

OH

NH2

Guanine (G)

The point of attachment to DNA or RNA

NH

N

N

N

H

O

NH2

Complimentarity of pyrimidine and purine bases

NN

NNH

N H

H

AD

A

N

N

O

O

H

CH3

H

T

A

A

D

A

D

G C

D

A

A

D

NN

N

N

H

O

N

H

H

H

NN

N

O H

HH

Page 88: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 89: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Nucleosides are glycosides, formed by one of five above listed bases with either -D-ribose or -D-2'-deoxyribose

Examples:

O OH

HH

OH

H

OH

H

OHO OH

HH

H

H

OH

H

OH

OH

OH

H

OH

H

OH

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

Adenosine2'-Deoxythymidine

OH

H

H

OH

H

OH

H

NH

N

O

O

H3C

Page 90: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Nucleotides are esters of nucleosides and phosphoric acid

Examples:

OH

OH

H

OH

H

O

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

PO

OH

OH

Adenosine-5'-phosphate 2'-Deoxythymidine-5'-phosphate

OH

H

H

OH

H

O

H

NH

N

O

O

H3CPO

OH

OH

OH

OH

H

OH

H

O

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

PO

OH

O

PO

OHO

P

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

H

OH

H

O

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

PO

OH

O

PO

OHOH + H3PO4

H 2 O , e n z ym e

+ energy

Adenosinetriphosphoric acid (ATP) - a universal carrier of energy for all forms of life on the Earth

Page 91: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Nucleic acids are esters, formed from nucleotides

Examples of dinucleotides:

OH

H

HH

O

H

NH

N

O

O

H3CPO

OH

OH

OH

H

H

OH

H

O

H

NH

N

O

O

H3CPO

O

OH

OH

OH

H

OH

H

O

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

PO

OH

OH

OH

H

O

H

O

N

N

N

N

NH2

H

PO

OH

OH

DNA is a polynucleotide, formed from deoxyribophosphates of adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine

RNA is a polynucleotide, formed from ribophosphates of adenine, uracil, cytosine and guanine

Page 92: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 93: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Individual polynucleotide chainsinteract due to the H-bondingbetween complimentary bases,forming double strained DNAand RNA.

A sequence of three nucleotidesencodes incorporation of a specificaminoacid to a protein.

The double strain DNA, discoveredby Watson, Wilkins and Crick(1962 Nobel Prize), is the most common, but not the only formof DNA in living organisms.

Page 94: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Outline

1. Classification of carbohydrates2. Stereochemistry of open monosaccharides3. Cyclic forms of monosaccharides4. Base-catalyzed isomerisation of monosaccharides 5. Glycosides6. Reactions of monosaccharides7. Synthesis of monosaccharides8. Disaccharides and polysaccharides9. Pyrimidine and purine bases10. Nucleosides and nucleotides11. Structures of DNA and RNA12. Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids

Page 95: Proses-Karbohidrat -2

Fluorescent detection of nucleic acids is base on their ability to interact withcertain dyes and restrict internal rotation of chromophoric fragments around conjugated bonds. It may reduce rotational dissipation of the light energy andinitiate fluorescence.

Example of a DNA-sensitive dye:

S

N+

CH3 N

COOH

CH3

H3C

S

N

CH3 N+

COOH

CH3

H3C

I-

I-

Page 96: Proses-Karbohidrat -2