DASAR DASAR RISET - Dr. Werner R. Murhadi · PDF filePerbandingan Desain Dasar Riset...

Dr. Werner R. Murhadi

DASAR – DASAR RISET

Disajikan oleh:


Jurusan Manajemen

Fakultas Bisnis & Ekonomi

Universitas Surabaya (UBAYA)


Filsafat Ringkas

1. Epistemologi (yunani: episcmc = knowledge/pengetahuan dan

logos = teori) yang pertama kali digunakan oleh J.F. Ferrier

(1854) --------- teori tentang pengetahuan atau the nature of

knowledge

2. Ontologi (yunani: on = being/wujud atau apa dan logos = teori) -

--------- teori tentang perwujudan/empiris atau the nature of

reality

3. Axiologi (yunani: axios = nilai dan logos = teori) ---------- teori

kemanfaatan

4. Metodologi --------- teori tentang cara/metode atau the nature of

how one comes to know


METODE PENELITIAN PADA DASARNYA MERUPAKAN CARA ILMIAH UNTUK MENDAPATKAN INFORMASI DENGAN TUJUAN DAN KEGUNAAN TERTENTU

CARA ILMIAH DIDASARKAN PADA CIRI-CIRI KEILMUAN:

RASIONAL

EMPIRIS

SISTEMATIS


The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness

2. Rigor

3. Testability

4. Replicability

5. Precision and confidence

6. Objectivity

7. Generalizability

8. Parsimony


Types of research

From the viewpoint of

Application ObjectivesType of information

sought

Pure

research

Descriptive

research

Exploratory

research

Quantitative

research

Applied

research

Correlational

research

Explanatory

research

Qualitative

research


Klasifikasi Riset: How research is used?

Basic AppliedResearch is intrinsically satisfying and judgments

are by other sociologist

Research is part of a job and is judged by

sponsors who are outside the discipline of

sociology

Research problem and subject are selected with a

great deal of freedom

Research problem are “narrowly constrained” to

the demand of employers or sponsors

Research is judged by absolute norm of scientific

rigor, & the highest standard of scholarship are

sought

The rigor & standard of scholarship depend on

the use of result. Research can be “quick and

dirty” or may match high scientific standard

The primary concern is with the internal logic and

rigor of research design

The primary concern is with the ability to

generalize findings to areas of interest to sponsor

The driving goal is to contribute to basic,

theoretical knowledge

The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or

uses for results

Success come when result appear in a scholarly

journal & have an impact on others in the

scientific community

Success come when results are used by sponsor

in decision making


Klasifikasi Riset: Purposes of the study

Research design

Exploratory Research Conclusive Research

Descriptive Causal

Cross sectional Longitudinal

Single Cross Sectional Multiple Cross Sectional


Perbandingan Desain Dasar Riset

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Objective Discover idea and insight Describe market

characteristic or function

Determine cause and

effect relationship

Characteristics Flexible

Versatile

Often the front end of total

research design

Marked by the prior

formulation of specific

hypothesis

Preplanned and

structured design

Manipulation of one or

more independent

variables

Control of other

mediating variables

Methods Experts survey

Pilot survey

Secondary data

Qualitative research

Secondary data

Survey

Panels

Observational & Other

data

Experiments


Perbedaan Qualitative dan Quantitative

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To gain a qualitative understanding of

the underlying reasons and

motivations

To quantify the data and generalize

the results from the sample to the

populations of interest

Sample Small number of nonrepresentative

cases

Large number of representative

cases

Data Collection Unstructured Structured

Data Analysis Nonstatistical Statistical

Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of

action


Exploratory research design

Klasifikasi prosedur riset kualitatif

Qualitative Research Procedures

Direct (Nondisguised) Nondirect (Disguised)

Focus Group Depth Interview

Association

Techniques

Completion

Techniques

Construction

Techniques

Expressive

Techniques

Projective Techniques


Descriptive research design

Survey dan Observasi

Survey Method

Telephone Interview Personal Interview Mail Interview Electronic Interview

Observation Method

Personal Observation Mechanical Observation Audit Content Analysis Trace Analysis


Causal research design

Experimen

Experimental Design

Pre-Experimental True-Experimental Quasi or Field Exp. Statistical

One Shot

Case Study

One Group

Pretest-posttest

Static Group

Pretest-posttest

Control Group

Post test only

Control Group

Solomon

Four Group

Time Series

Multiple Time

Series

Randomized Blocks

Latin Square

Factorial


Sumber Error dalam PenelitianTotal Error

Random Sampling Error,

occur because the particular

sample selected is an

imperfect representation

of the population of interest

Nonsampling Error

Response Error Nonresponse Error

Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error

Surrogate Information Error

Measurement Error

Population Definition Error

Sampling Frame error

Data Analysis error

Respondent Selection Error

Questioning Error

Recording Error

Cheating error

Inability Error

Unwillingness Error


Klasifikasi Teknik Sampling

Sampling technique

Nonprobability Probability

Convenience/

Haphazard/

Accidental

Judgmental/

Purposive

Quota Snowball

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Others

Proportionate Disproportionate


Kapan mempergunakan Nonprobability sampling VS Probability sampling?

Factors Conditions Favoring The use of

Nonprobability Probability

Nature of researc Exploratory Conclusive

Relative magnitude of

sampling and non sampling

errors

Non sampling error are

larger

Sampling error are large

Variability in the population Homogeneous (Low) Heterogeneous (High)

Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable

Operational consideration Favorable Unfavorable


Sinonim: Independent dan Dependent

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Explanatory Explained

Regressor Regressand

Exogenous Endogenous

Covariate (Metric)

Factor (Nonmetric-katagorical)

Outcome

Predictor Predictand

Predictor Criterion

Stimulus Response

Antecedent Consequence

Control Variable Controlled Variable

Predicted From Predicted To

Presumed Cause Presumed Effect

Manipulated Measured Outcome


JENIS VARIABEL BERDASARKAN

KEDUDUKANNYA DI DALAM HIPOTESIS

Antecedent

Independent

Intervening/

Mediating

Moderating

Dependent

Concomitant CONFOUNDING Control

Intraneous

Extraneous


Keterangan:

Variabel Intraneous merupakan variabel yg tercakup dalam riset.

V. Extraneous merupakan variabel yang tidak tercakup dalam riset,

dimana sifatnya benalu yang dapat menggerogoti informasi.

Variabel Intervening merupakan variabel yang bersifat menjadi

perantara (mediating) dari hubungan variabel bebas ke variabel

dependen.

Contoh:* Kualitas Produk Sales Profit

dalam hal ini sales merupakan jembatan/pengantara.

Artinya tidak akan ada profit bila tidak ada sales.

* Pendidikan Gaji Kinerja


Keterangan:

Variabel Moderator merupakan variabel yg bersifat

memperkuat/memperlemah pengaruh variabel bebas terhadap var.

dependen.

Cth: Kualitas Produk Sales

Promosi

Dimana ada/tidak promosi, sales tetap ada, namun banyak/sedikitnya

tergantung pada promosi yg dilakukan.

V. Confounding (Pembaur) merupakan var. yg tidak tercakup dalam

hipotesisi, akan tetapi muncul dalam riset dan berpengaruh terhadap

var. dependen. Pengaruhnya mencapuri atau berbaur dengan

variabel bebas


Keterangan:

Variabel Control (Kendali) merupakan variabel pembaur yang

pengaruhnya dapat dikendalikan. Pengendalian dapat dilakukan

dengan cara blocking dengan membuat kriteria ekslusi-inklusi, yaitu

dengan mengeluarkan objek yang tidak memenuhi kriteria (ekslusi)

dan mengambil objek yang memenuhi kriteria (inklusi).

Variabel Concomitant (Penyerta) merupakan variabel pembaur yang

tidak dapat dikendalikan, sehingga tetap menyertai dalam proses

riset. Konsekuensinya: data tersebut harus diamati. Pengaruh

baurnya dihilangkan pada tahap analisis data.


Var.Dependent Var.Independent Alat

Skala Jumlah Skala Jumlah

metrik 1 Metrik

Nonmetrik

> 1

> 1

Regresi

metrik 1 Nonmetrik > 1 ANOVA

metrik > 1 Nonmetrik > 1 MANOVA

metrik 1 Metrik (covariate)

Nonmetrik (Factor)

> 1

> 1

ANCOVA

Nonmetrik 1 Metrik > 1 Discriminant anaylsis

Nonmetrik or

Metrik

1 Nonmetrik >1 Conjoint Analysis

Nonmetrik

Metrik

> 1 Nonmetrik

Metrik

> 1 Canonical Correlation

Metrik * > 1 Nonmetrik

Metrik

> 1 Structural Equation Model

Beberapa Alat Multivariat


Teknik Multivariate (Hair et.al., 2006)

What type of relationship

How many variable

are being predicted

Is the structure of

relationship among:

Dependence Interdependence

Multiple Dependent

& independence

Several Dependent One DependentVariables Case/Resp. Object

SEMWhat’s scale of the

Dependent variable?

What’s scale of the

Dependent variable?

Metric MetricNon-Metric Non-Metric

Non-MetricMetric

What’s scale of the

Independent variable?

Canonical with

Dummy var.

Regression &

Conjoint An.

MDA &

Linear Prob.

Canonical

Correl. An.MANOVA

Factor

AnalysisCFA

Cluster

Analysis

How are the

Attribute

Measure?

Metric Non-Metric

Non-Metric

MDSCorrespondence

Analysis


Validity dan ReliabilityReliability means dependability or consistency. It suggests that the

same thing is repeated or recur under the identical or very similar

conditions.

Validity is the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish

to measure.

Summary of measurement reliability and validity type

Reliability (Consistency) Validity (True Measure)

Stability – over time Face – in the judgment of others

Representative – across subgroups Content – capture the entire meaning

Equivalence – across indicators Criterion – agree with external sources:

* Concurrent – agree with a pre-existing

measure

* Predictive – agree with future behavior

Construct – multiple indicator are consistent

* Convergent – alike one are similar

* Discriminant – different ones differ


Other uses of the terms Reliable and Valid

• Internal Validity : there are no error internal to the design of the

research project.

• External Validity : it is the ability to generalize finding from a specific

setting and small group to a broad range of setting

and people.

• Statistical Validity : the correct statistical procedure is chosen and its

assumptions are fully met.


Relationship between Validity and Reliability

Low Reliability High reliability High reliability

& Low Validity but Low validity & High validity


Type What is Measured Methods

Content Degree to which the content of the items

adequately represents the universe of all

relevant items under study

• Judgmental

• Panel evaluation with

content validity ratio

Criterion – Related

Concurrent

Predictive

Degree to which the predictor is

adequate in capturing the relevant

aspect of the criterion.

Description of the present; criterion data

are available at the same time as

predictor scores

Prediction of the future; criterion data are

measured after the passage of time

• Correlation

• Correlation

• Correlation

Construct Answer the question, “what accounts for

the variance in the measure?”; attempts

to identify the underlying construct being

measured and determine how well the

test represent it.

• Judgmental

• Correlation of proposed

test with established one

• Convergent – discriminant

techniques

• Factor analysis

• Multitrait – multimethod

analysis

Summary of Validity Estimate


Summary of Reliability Estimate

Type Coefficient What is Measured Methods

Test-Retest Stability Reliability of a test or instrument

inferred from examinee scores; same

test is administered twice to same

subject over an interval of less than

six months

•Correlation

Parallel Form Equivalence Degree to which alternative forms of

the same measure produce same of

similar result; administered

simultaneously or with a delay. Inter

rater estimates of the similarity of

judges observations or scores.

•Correlation

Split Half, KR20,

Cronbach’s Alpha

Internal

Consistency

Degree to which instrument items are

homogeneous and reflect the same

underlying construct

•Specialized

correlations formula


Aliran Riset (Neuman, 2003, p.91)

Positivism Interpretive Critical Feminist Postmodern

Reason

for

research

To discover natural

laws so people can

predict and control

To understand & describe

meaningful social action

To smash myths &

empower people to

change society radically

To smash myths &

empower people to

advance value of

nurturing other & equality

To express the

subjective self, to be

playful, & to entertain &

stimulate other people

Nature of

social

reality

Stable preexisting

patterns or order that

can be discovered

Fluid definitions of a

situation created by

human interaction

Conflict filled & governed

by hidden underlying

structures

Conflict filled, structured

power relations that keep

many people oppressed

Chaotic & fluid without

any real patterns or

master plan

Nature of

human

beings

Self interested &

rational individual who

are shaped by external

forces

Social being who create

meaning & who

constantly make sense of

their world

Creative, adaptive people

with unrealized potential,

trapped by illusion &

exploitation

Creative, gendered being

with unrealized potential

who are often trapped by

unseen forces

Creative, dynamic

beings with unrealized

potential

Role of

common

sense

Clearly distinct from &

less valid than science

Powerful every day

theories used by ordinary

people

False beliefs that hide

power & objective

condition

False beliefs that hide

power & objective

conditions

The essence of social

reality that is superior to

scientific or bureaucratic

form of reasoning

Theory

looks like

A logical deductive

system of

interconnected

definition, axiom, & law

A description of how a

groups meaning system

is generated & sustained

A critique that reveals

true condition & help

people see the way to a

better world

A critique that reveals

true conditions & help

people see the way to a

better world

A performance or work

of artistic expression

that can amuse, shock

or stimulate others

An

explanatio

n that is

true

Is logically connected to

laws & based on fact

Resonates or feels right

to those who are being

studied

Supplies people with

tools needed to change

the world

Supplies ideas/tools to

help liberate people from

oppressive relations

No one explanation is

more true; all are true

for those who accept

them

Good

evidence

Is based on precise

observations that other

can repeat

Is embedded in the

context of fluid social

interactions

Is informed by a theory

that unveils illusions

Is informed by theory that

unveils illusion

Has aesthetic properties

& resonates with people

inner feeling/emotions

Place for

values

Science is value free, &

value have no place

except when choosing

a topic

Value are an integral part

of social life; no group

values are wrong, only

different.

All science must begin

with a value position,

some position are right,

some are wrong

Value are essential to

research, & feminist

ones are clearly preferred

Value are integral to

research, but all value

positions are equal.

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