Post on 08-Jan-2023
WORK-INDUCED STRESS AND COPING SKILLS OF
WORKERS
A CASE STUDY OF THE GHANA PORTS AND HARBOURS
AUTHORITY
(GPHA)
i
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
SOCIOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON
BY
BOAKYE-YIADOM, RACHEL; 10233263
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREE IN SOCIOLOGY
APRIL 2009
DECLARATION
“This thesis is the result of research work undertaken by
Boakye-Yiadom Rachel in the Department of Sociology,
ii
University of Ghana, under the supervision of Dr. W.K.
Ahadzie and Professor K.A. Sena.”
_______________________________
_______________________________
Boakye-Yiadom Rachel Professor K.A. Sena
STUDENT SUPERVISOR
_______________________________
_______________________________
Dr W.K. Ahadzie
Date
SUPERVISOR
iii
DEDICATION
“This long essay is dedicated firstly to God, and then to my
mother, Stella Evans-Anfom, for taking me through school
irrespective of all the challenges.”
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am very grateful to God for keeping me up to this point of
my life and taking me through thick and thin and turning
them into blessings.
I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Ansah-Koi; my
supervisors Professor K.A. Sena and Dr. W.K. Ahadzie; Mrs.
Josephine Gyimah-Akuafo; Naa Ansah-Koi; my cousin Frances
N.A.A. Enchia and George A. Baffour.
Last but not least, I would like to thank the management and
staff of the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.
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DECLARATIONDEDICATIONACKNOWLEDGEMENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF TABLESLIST OF FIGURESABSTRACTCHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION1.1 Introduction
a) Paranoidb) Schizoid
c) Emotionally unstable personality disorderd) Histrionic personality disordere) Insomniaf) Anankastic personality disorder
1.2 Background of the Ghana Ports and HarboursAuthority (GPHA)1.3 Significance of study1.4 Problem statement1.5 ObjectivesCHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW2.0 What is stress?2.1 Origin and Terminology2.2 Definitions of stress2.3 Causes of stress2.4 What should employers do about stress?2.5 How to recognize the symptoms of stress2.6 Theoretical Framework
a) General Adaptation Syndromeb) Selye: eustress and distress
c) Lazarus: cognitive appraisal modelCHAPTER THREE – MATERIALS AND METHODS3.1 Methodology3.2 Study area3.3 Study population3.4 Sampling techniques3.5 Data collection method3.6 Instrument for collecting data
iiiiiivvviiix122223333677799
9101213141616171820
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3.7 Procedure for data analysisCHAPTER FOUR – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION4.1 Background of respondents4.2 Nature of work stress4.3 To identify stress-inducing factors in the workplace 4.4 To determine how workers cope with work-inducedstress 4.5 To examine support systems for persons sufferingfrom stress4.6 Limitations encountered in the studyCHAPTER FIVE – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions 5.2 Recommendations REFERENCESANNEX A QUESTIONAIREANNEX B GLOSSARYANNEX C LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS USED
202020232323242525262731323435353739404546
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 GPHA employee headcount by gender reportTable 3.2 GPHA employee age profile report as at 23-01-2009Table 4.1 Age of respondentsTable 4.2 Number of children of respondentsTable 4.3 Length of employment of respondentsTable 4.4 Relationship between workers and theirbosses, colleagues and subordinatesTable 4.5 People workers direct their anger toTables 4.6 Last Body Mass Index (BMI) checkTable 4.7 Last Blood Pressure checkTable 4.8 Level at which complaints were discussed
212225262628
30323233
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ABSTRACT
All over the world, stress at work has become a real problem to organizations as
well as its workers. Though not classified as a disease, its effects have often lead
to serious ailments ranging from high blood pressure to diabetes. As a result,
research was carried out using the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (Tema
branch) as an area of study. Since an estimated number of about 15-30 people
were found as receiving monthly medication for high blood pressure treatment
daily. To enable us find what induces stress among workers and especially in the
x
above institution and how they responded to stress, questionnaires were sent
out, using stratifies and simple random sampling techniques to investigate the
nature of work stress, to identify stress inducing factors in the workplace, to
determine how workers cope with work induced stress, to examine support
systems for persons suffering from stress and to suggest ways of reducing stress
for workers. Finally, out of 30 respondents (19 male, 11 female, most people were
stressed out having to sit in the office for longer hours. Others, mostly the junior
staff complained of insufficient salaries. An estimated (33.3%) were not happy
with their jobs, while most people did not know their hypertensive status. Those
who knew stated quite high blood pressure figures.
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
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In Ghana, most workers are faced with series of problems
which result in different levels of stress depending on
individual temperaments, their environment and other factors
such as cultural background, socialization, behavioral
factors, etc. In most organizations where individuals are
diagnosed of having symptoms of stress, records have shown
that most established ones especially those with hospital
benefits or their own clinic have a number of staff on
medication to reduce their stress level.
Indications are that stress levels and their effects are
highly dependant on managerial levels in terms of their
responsibilities.
Symptoms of stress may take one or a combination of the
following:
Paranoid
Tendency to bear grudges persistently e.g. refusal to
forgive insults, injuries or slights.
xii
Unnecessary suspicion and pervasive tendency to distort
experience by misconstruing the mental or friendly actions
of others as hostile or contemptuous.
Schizoid
Showing little interest in having sexual experience with
another person (taking into account age).
Emotionally unstable personality disorder
Impulsive type
Marked tendency to act unexpectedly and without
consideration of the consequences
Borderline type
Excessive efforts to avoid abandonment and recurrent threats
or acts of self-harm
Histrionic personality disorder
Suggestibility (the individual is easily influenced by
others or by circumstances).
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Histrionic personality disorder continual seeks for
excitement and activities in which the individual is the
center of attention.
Insomnia
This is characterized either by inability to initiate sleep
or to maintain sleep for required duration.
Anankastic personality disorder
This calls for perfectionism that interferes with task
completion. There is also preoccupation with productivity to
the exclusion of pleasure and interpersonal relationships.
Again, rigidity and stubbornness sets in. Finally,
unreasonable insistence by the individual that others submit
exactly to his or her way of doing things, or unreasonable
reluctance to allow others to do things.
Stress may sometimes result in depression. It is important
to note that stress and depression are not the same.
xiv
Depression is a debilitating condition that has been an
enormous burden on society. In 2000, the World Health
Organization (WHO, 2001) ranked depression as the leading
cause of disability worldwide. An important component of the
economic impact of depression is lost productivity in the
workplace. Workers suffering from depression are more likely
to take time off because of short and long-term disability,
and depressed people tend to be less productive on the job.
The jobs considered to be the most stressful are often
referred to as “high strain” jobs (Karasek, 1979). This
means that demands are high, yet workers have few
opportunities to use their skills and make decisions. The
effects of high job strain on cardiovascular disease have
been well documented (Schnall et al, 1994), but associations
with mental health have not been studied as extensively,
especially longitudinally (Bourbonnais et al, 1996). Job
strain is only one of the stressors workers may face in day-
to-day life (Margot, 2006). Lack of support from supervisors
and co-workers, for example, can cause stress. Of course,
xv
workers may also confront stress at home and in other areas
of their lives.
Workplace stress is the harmful physical and emotional
response that occurs when there is a poor match between job
demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
worker (NIOSH, 1999). Stress, according to Vittorio (2003),
is the physical and emotional response that occurs when the
requirements of the job do not match the capabilities,
resources or needs of the employee.
Work stress is recognized world-wide as a major challenge to
workers’ health and the healthiness of their organizations.
Workers who are stressed are also more likely to be
unhealthy, poorly motivated, less productive and less safe
at work. Their organizations are less likely to be
successful in a competitive market.
Stress can be brought about by pressures at home and at
work. Employees cannot usually protect workers from stress
xvi
arising outside of work, but they can protect them from
stress that arises through work. Stress at work can be a
real problem to the organization as well as for its workers.
Good management and good work organization are the best
forms of stress prevention. If employees are already
stressed, their managers should be aware of it and know how
to help.
In the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority for example, which
is the area of study, an estimated number of about 15-30
people receive monthly medication for high blood pressure
(which has been discovered as being as a result of stress)
in a day. It is for this reason that it has become
necessary for this study to be conducted to enable us find
what induces stress among workers, especially those at GPHA.
xvii
1.1 Background of the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority
(GPHA)
The Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (GPHA) has two
branches; one in Tema (in the Greater Accra Region) and the
other in Takoradi (in the Western Region). Both ports are
charged with the responsibility of cargo handling, shipment,
transshipment and the transit of export and import goods.
The activities of these ports are entrusted in the sole
authority of the Director-General – who resides at the
headquarters of the Tema Port – together with two auxiliary
directors for each of the ports (Tema and Takoradi) and the
departmental heads, who help to run the day-to-day
administration of the ports.
Being a sea port, its vision is “To be the preferred port in
the sub region.” Its mission statement reads:
a) Our business is to provide efficient port facilities
and services to our customers.
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b) Our pricing policy seeks the mutual benefits of the
authority and our customers, as we keep them to keep us
in business.
c) We recognize our workforce as the greatest asset and
the key success to our pursuits to be the gateway to
the West African sub region.
d) We employ appropriate technology to our operations and
contribute towards a clean, healthy and safe marine
environment.
Considering the rigors required in achieving the above
goals, it is very conceivable that some, if not all, workers
of GPHA may face problems with stress.
1.2 Definitions of stress
There are many definitions of stress. The Health and Safety
Executive define stress as, "the reaction people have to
excessive pressures or other types of demand placed upon
them. It arises when they worry they can't cope".
xix
Often the feeling of 'not coping' is seen as a weakness that
cannot be acknowledged and people carry on. Individuals
generally accept reasonable pressures, which are, in the
main, considered as positive and motivational. These
pressures can provide the key to a sense of achievement and
job satisfaction. It
is only when there is excessive pressure whether at work or
outside (or both) that stress might become harmful. It can
then damage performance and undermines the health of the
staff member.
Stress is often described as "a variance between workload
and capability". The workload may be greater than the
capability of the individual or the workload may be less
than the individual's capability. (Health and Safety
Executive, UK)
Organizational stress management programs abound, and a
growing body of research has given us insight into the
causes and potential antidotes for stress. Yet, stress has
xx
not gone away. Far from it! Most indicators of mental health
in the United States show that symptoms of stress have been
on the rise. The decline in the economy has taken its toll
over the past few years. On September 11, 2001, the mental
health of the United States experienced a sudden jolt. And,
since then, there has been war, heightened awareness of
terror, and an on-going diffuse sense of unease and
nervousness. Even for those not directly affected by
economic or world events, there remain reverberating
aftershocks that affect us all.
And then, at a more local level, there is work-related
stress. The problem is stress can be cumulative. What goes
on at work can add to the "volume" of stress a person
perceives and experiences.
What to do? An organization only can do so much. Work stress
is only part of the problem. But, in many cases, a
significant part – and a part that potentially is changeable
through workplace interventions.
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Some stress clearly can be traced to individual factors
(e.g., personality, social support, coping skills), and not
some organizational culprit. People vary quite a bit in
terms of how much stress they can withstand, how much they
let it get to them, and how much they may transmit it to
those around them. Research has shown a number of factors to
be important in our capacity to tolerate stress. The same
individual factors discussed in a 1986 Training and
Development article (Nowack, K. “Who are the hardy?”) still ring
true today. People who are committed to meaningful goals,
who see problems as challenges, and who experience a sense
of control (the 3 “C’s”) are buffered against the effects of
stress. A fourth “C,” connection to others also has been
shown to mitigate the effects of stress. For the most part,
an organization can do little to modify or change these
individual factors (except perhaps more rigorous recruitment
and selection practices that screen those especially
susceptible to stress, or those who are known carriers of
stress).
xxii
Besides an individual's personality, emotional
predisposition or coping skills, there are many
organizational sources of stress. In fact, recent research
by Organizational Performance Dimensions suggests that
without addressing organizational sources of stress,
individual stress management programs usually are
ineffective with respect to productivity and quality of work
life outcomes.
Furthermore, a recent study by Marketdata, a Tampa, FL
research firm, reported that nearly 75 percent of people
seeking stress reduction were being treated for work-induced
stress. (Kenneth M. Nowack, Ph.D. Scott Wimer Ph.D. Envisia
Learning Wimer & A
ssociates)
1.3 Problem statement
The nature of work is changing at whirlwind speed, perhaps
even more than ever before. Interventions that consider the
broader social, economic, political, and contextual factors
xxiii
that influence health-related lifestyle decisions will
improve the effectiveness and relevance of such health
promotion initiatives. Continued work in these areas help to
uncover the methods that could be most effective in planning
and carrying out worksite interventions to reduce or manage
the occupational stress that these workers encounter and
encourage them to adopt healthy lifestyle behaviors and
reduce their risk for chronic diseases. The problem
statement for this study is how stress among workers is
responded to.
1.4 Significance of study
Because stress often has a considerable negative impact on
job performance, reducing job stress should be a priority
for employers. Understanding worker’s vulnerability to
different sources of stress is important, as well as how
these different stressors can interact to affect workers’
mental health. It is a result of these that this study is
being undertaken. This is because such information could
help employers take steps to reduce or prevent stress, and
xxiv
thus perhaps lower the risk of stress leading to depression
among workers.
1.5 Objectives
The main objective of this study is to look at the every day
stress of work among workers.
With specific objectives as:
a) To investigate the nature of work stress
b) To identify stress-inducing factors in the work place
c) To determine how workers cope with work-induced stress
d) To examine support systems for persons suffering from
stress
e) To suggest ways of reducing stress for workers
1.6 Theoretical Framework
xxv
Over the years various models have been proposed for stress.
a) General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye researched the effects of stress on rats and
other animals by exposing them to unpleasant or harmful
stimuli. He found that all animals presented a very
similar series of reactions, broken into three stages.
In 1936, he described this universal response to the
stressors as the general adaptation syndrome, or GAS.
i. Alarm is the first stage. When the threat or
stressor is identified or realized, the body's
stress response is a state of alarm. During this
stage adrenaline will be produced in order to bring
about the fight-or-flight response. There is also
some activation of the HPA axis, producing cortisol.
ii. Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor
persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means
of coping with the stress. Although the body begins
xxvi
to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the
environment, the body cannot keep this up
indefinitely, so its resources are gradually
depleted.
iii. Exhaustion is the third and final stage in the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model. At this
point, all of the body's resources are eventually
depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal
function. At this point the initial autonomic
nervous system symptoms may reappear (sweating,
raised heart rate etc.). If stage three is extended,
long term damage may result as the capacity of
glands, especially the adrenal gland, and the immune
system is exhausted and function is impaired
resulting in decompensation.
The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses
such as ulcers, depression, and diabetes, trouble with
the digestive system or even cardiovascular problems,
along with other mental illnesses.
xxvii
b) Selye: eustress and distress
Hans Selye published in 1975 a model dividing stress
into eustress and distress. Where stress enhances
function (physical or mental, such as through strength
training or challenging work) it may be considered
eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved
through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead
to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.
The difference between experiences which result in
eustress or distress is determined by the disparity
between an experience (real or imagined), personal
expectations, and resources to cope with the stress.
Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can
trigger a stress response.
c) Lazarus: cognitive appraisal model
Lazarus argued that in order for a psychosocial
situation to be stressful, it must be appraised as
xxviii
such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal
are central in determining whether a situation is
potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss, a
challenge, or is benign.
This primary appraisal is influenced by both person and
environmental factors, and triggers the selection of
coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at
managing the problem, while emotion-focused coping
processes are directed at managing the negative
emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation
of the resources available to cope with the problem,
and may alter the primary appraisal.
In other words, primary appraisal also includes the
perception of how stressful the problem is; realizing
that one has more than or less than adequate resources
to deal with the problem affects the appraisal of
stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in that the
individual generally examines the effectiveness of the
xxix
coping on the situation; if it is not having the
desired effect, s/he will generally try different
strategies.
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 What is stress?
Stress is a biological term which refers to the consequences
of the failure of a human or animal body to respond
appropriately to emotional or physical threats to the
organism, whether actual or imagined.
It includes a state of alarm and adrenaline production,
short-term resistance as a coping mechanism, and exhaustion.
It covers a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to
xxx
the kind of severe problems that might result in a real
breakdown of health.
Common stress symptoms include irritability, muscular
tension, inability to concentrate and a variety of physical
reactions, such as headaches and accelerated heart rate.
2.1 Origin and Terminology
In the 1930’s the endocrinologist Hans Selye first used the
term "stress" to identify physiological responses in
laboratory animals. He later broadened and popularized the
concept to include the perceptions and responses of humans
trying to adapt to the challenges of everyday life. In
Selye's terminology, "stress" refers to the reaction of the
organism, and "stressor" to the perceived threat.
Stress in certain circumstances may be experienced
positively. Eustress, for example, can be an adaptive
response prompting the activation of internal resources to
meet challenges and achieve goals.
xxxi
2.2 Causes of stress
The causes of stress are diverse and complex but are
considered to be essentially associated with the design and
organisation of work, including management.
Employers’ responsibility
Employers have a duty in law to make sure that their
employees are not made ill by their work. It is common
knowledge that stress can affect your health, and employers
need to be aware of the implications. Quite apart from the
legal obligation, action taken to reduce stress and the
working time lost as a result of stress-induced illness can
be cost-effective. The costs of stress to an organisation
may show up as high staff turnover, an increase of sickness
absence (particularly frequent but short duration absence),
reduced work performance and poor timekeeping. Stress in one
individual can have a knock-on effect and result in stress
in other team members covering for their colleague. There
are of course also the potential costs associated with
xxxii
compensation claims from employees who have suffered ill
health from work-related stress.
2.3 What should employers do about stress?
The starting point is the process of risk assessment. Risk
assessment for stress includes looking for pressure at work
that could cause high and sustained levels of stress,
identifying who might be harmed; including those who you
consider may be particularly at risk due to other factors,
and deciding whether enough is being done to prevent that
harm.
It is worth adding at this point that although employers are
not under any legal obligation to prevent ill health caused
by stress due to problems outside work, it should be
recognized that non-work problems and stress can make it
difficult to cope with pressures at work. Work performance
may well suffer as a result, so being understanding to staff
under these circumstances would be in an employer’s
xxxiii
interest. If necessary, employers must take reasonable steps
to deal with work-induced pressures.
2.4 How to recognize the symptoms of stress
Many of the outward signs of stress in individuals should be
noticeable to managers and colleagues. Look in particular
for changes in a person’s mood or behavior, such as
deteriorating relationships with colleagues, irritability,
indecisiveness, absenteeism or reduced performance. Those
suffering from stress may also smoke or drink alcohol more
than usual. They might also complain about their health,
suffering with frequent headaches.
Are some people more likely to suffer from stress than
others?
We are all vulnerable to stress, and although some people
claim to thrive on it there is arguably a difference between
enjoyable working pressures and those that push over the top
and result in ill health. It can be argued however, unless
xxxiv
you know otherwise, that all employees are mentally capable
of withstanding reasonable pressure from work.
Stress is recognized as an increasing global phenomenon,
affecting all professionals and all categories of workers,
families and society in general. The emerging approach to
dealing with the problem emphasizes prevention and
elimination of the causes, rather than the treatment of its
effects. (David Cowles, Buro Happold Health and Safety
Advisor)
According to the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974,
employers must provide a healthy environment for you to
operate in. They are required to adequately assess the risks
associated with work related stress and act appropriately to
minimize it. To decrease employees’ stress at work, an
employer might devolve extensive responsibilities, for
example, or ensure that highly stressful work is undertaken
by a variety of people instead of just one individual. They
might ensure exposure to stressful work practice is confined
xxxv
to short periods, or they may install mechanisms to listen
to employees’ grievances or provide means for employees to
relax.
What exactly is work related stress? We all at some points
in our lives face stress at work. The body is geared to deal
with the sense of threat to our wellbeing by releasing
adrenaline and making us ready for action, fight or flight.
Prolonged exposure to pressure can cause a detrimental
effect on health. The workplace has increasingly become
individuals’ key sources of stress. Tight deadlines, harsh
workloads, demanding pace of work and increased expectations
on employees across all sorts of industries has meant that
stress at work is a phenomenon common to many workers in the
United Kingdom.
Some people are keen to point out that pressure helps
performance. They say a healthy dose of pressure motivates
the body and mind and prevents complacency in the workplace
from slowing down productivity and effort. Yet there is an
xxxvi
important difference between the occasional incidence of
pressure which acts as a motivating tool, and chronic,
detrimental pressure which ends up de-motivating employees.
Of course an employer wants you to perform well, but he or
she should — and indeed is legally obliged to — assess the
emotional pressure their employees face and take action
appropriately.
What are the dangers? This problem contributes to
psychological conditions including depression and anxiety.
It affects family, who often bears the brunt of the problem
of an unhappy individual, and can cause social problems such
as divorce and arguments with spouses and children. Perhaps
the most dangerous psychological effect of stress at work is
nervous breakdown, when an individual feels unable to cope,
and this often results in doctors signing workers off work
for long periods. Physically it can contribute to high blood
pressure and has been linked to heart disease. Work related
stress also contributes indirectly to alcoholism and
nicotine addiction, which have clear detrimental effects on
xxxvii
individuals’ health. (The UK Occupational Illness Solicitors
Network)
CHAPTER THREE- MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.0 Methodology
This section describes the sources of data and the
methodology that as W employed to gather
data. Description of the procedures used in collecting data
will enable readers of this study appreciate the particular
strengths and limitations of the study.
3.1 Study area
This study was conducted at the Ghana Ports and Harbours
Authority, Tema.
3.2 Study population
The study population of this study was all workers. However
this study was limited to only workers of Ghana Ports and
xxxviii
Harbours Authority at Tema.
3.3 Sampling techniques
Both stratified and simple random sampling were used to
select respondents for the study. Members of staff of the
organization were stratified into two groups – junior
and senior staff. The stratified sampling was used because
it will ensure the actual distribution of the target
population and also provide a certain level of accuracy of
the results.
Simple random sampling was then used to select respondents
from each stratum. Numbers were assigned each member of
staff in the sample frame. These numbers were then put
in a container, after which the respondents were randomly
selected.
3.4 Data collection method
Data for this study was derived from both primary data and
secondary source. Secondary source would include library
xxxix
search which entailed viewing of published literature for
example books and articles in journals and also unpublished
literature.
Primary data was derived from questionnaire collected from
the field of the study.
3.5 Instrument for collecting data
questionnaires were used as the tool for collecting data
from the respondents. The questionnaire consisted of both
open-ended and closed-ended questions. The open-ended
questions offered the respondents the opportunity to
express themselves and their views where necessary.
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3.6 Procedure for data analysis
Data collected from the field was first sifted through
to separate correctly answered questionnaires from
incorrectly answered ones. After which editing was
undertaken to correct errors, check for non-responses
questions, appropriateness and accuracy.
The open-ended questions were extracted and then coded.
Serial numbers were thereby assigned to the individual
edited questionnaires for the purpose of easy identification
during the coding process and rechecking of information on
the questionnaire during the data entering exercise.
The numbering of the questionnaire was then followed by
preparation of a coding scheme for the actual coding
exercise where the coded responses were transferred onto
coding sheets for data entry and processing on the computer.
The necessary statistical tables were generated from the
computer for data analysis and discussions.
xli
Table 3.1 GPHA employee headcount by gender report
Name Male Female Total
Mgt-Hq 12 11 23
Senior-HQ 6 16 22
Junior-HQ 44 20 64
MGT-TM 28 6 34
Senior-TM 48 21 69
Junior-TM 1,059 132 1191
Mgt-FH 4 1 5
Senior-FH 1 5 6
Junior-FH 29 30 59
xlii
Mgt-GJT 4 2 6
GJT Senior Staff 4 6 10
GJT Junior Staff 51 196 247
Total 1,290 446 1736
Table 3.2 GPHA employee age profile report as at 23-01-2009
Name19-
24
25-
29
30-
34
35-
39
40-
44
45-
49
50-
54
55-
60
Tota
l
Mgt-HQ 0 0 0 2 1 4 5 11 23
Senior-
HQ0 0 3 4 3 6 2 4 22
Junior-
HQ2 9 14 8 7 15 4 5 64
Mgt-TM 0 0 0 0 5 8 12 9 34
xliii
Senior-
TM0 0 4 8 11 12 11 23 69
Junior-
TM2 48 191 269 240 215 134 92
1,19
1
Mgt-FH 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 5
Senior-
FH0 0 2 1 0 1 2 0 6
Junior-
FH1 27 3 4 9 9 3 3 59
Mgt-GJT 0 0 0 1 0 2 2 1 6
GJT
senior
staff
0 0 1 2 2 0 4 1 10
GJT
junior
staff
2 11 13 27 74 46 43 31 247
Total 7 95 231 326 352 318 226 1811,73
6
xliv
CHAPTER FOUR – RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Background of respondents
Thirty people were interviewed during the study. Of these,
19 (63.3
%) were male and 11 (36.7%) were female. The ages of the
respondents are shown in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1 Age of respondents
Age Frequency Percentage (%)
Below 20 1 3.3
21-30 2 6.7
31-40 7 23.3
41-50 14 46.7
51-60 6 20
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
xlv
Majority of them (86.7%) lived in Tema while (6.7%) lived in
Sakumono and another (6.7%) lived in Accra respectively. Of
the respondents, (90%) had children while (10%) did not have
any children. The number of children the respondents have is
shown in Table 4.2 below.
Table 4.2 Number of children of respondents
Number of children Frequency Percentage (%)
One 5 16.7
Two 9 30
Three 8 26.7
Four 1 3.3
Five 1 3.3
No answer 6 20
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
xlvi
4.2 Nature of work stress
The length of employment of the workers in GHAPOHA is shown
in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Length of employment of respondents
Frequency Percentage (%)
Less than 10 years 10 33.3
11-20 years 9 30
21-30 years 10 33.3
31-40 years 1 3.3
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
On the issue of their income being sufficient, (70%) said
their incomes were inadequate; (26.7%) said they were
adequate and (3.3%) did not answer. Most of the staff
(93.3%) said that they obtained work benefits while (6.7%)
said they did not receive any benefits. All those who
admitted that they received work benefits said that the
benefits helped them. Two-thirds (66.7%) said that they were
xlvii
happy with their jobs while the remaining (33.3%) said that
they were not happy with it. All the respondents said that
their jobs were very involving. Those who admitted that they
were stressed on the job formed a majority (73.3%) while
(26.7%) did not state whether or not they were stressed on
the job. When asked how often they were stressed out,
(43.3%) were stressed out daily; while (50%) were sometimes
stressed out. One person each admitted being never stressed
out and not often stressed out respectively. Stress in their
family lives affected (56.7%) while the remaining (43.3%)
said they were not affected by stress in their families.
Those who said they were stressed in their families
mentioned factors such as demands of the extended family and
responsibilities towards the extended family; by occasional
domestic and financial problems; by the kids; by household
chores and having too many children and wives.
4.3 To identify stress-inducing factors in the work place
Of the respondents, 22 complained of getting stressed by
having to sit for a long time to work while the remaining 8
xlviii
did not get stressed by sitting for a long time. A third of
the respondents complained of being stressed by official
duties which involved having to go out of the office on
official duties.
The relationship between the workers and their bosses,
colleagues and subordinates in found in Table 4.4 below.
Table 4.4 Relationship between workers and their bosses,
colleagues and subordinates
Yes No Don’t
know
Not
stated
Do you like your
boss?
25 3 0 2
Do you think your
boss likes you?
17 20 0 7
Do you like your
colleagues?
14 5 11 0
Do you think they 21 7 0 2
xlix
like you?
Do you like your
subordinates?
25 4 1 0
Do you think your
subordinates like
you?
19 3 8 0
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
Describing their bosses, 25 of them described their bosses
as hardworking; 3 said their bosses were lazy and 1
respondent did not answer the question. The respondents
generally got along with their bosses with 26 of them saying
they got along with their bosses; 3 saying no and 1 person
not responding. Teamwork was required of 26 of the
respondents; while 2 said their work depended that they
should be independent and 2 also said their work required
both teamwork and independence.
About how they preferred to work, 23 said they preferred
teamwork, while 2 preferred independent work. Of the rest, 4
l
did not answer and 1 preferred both teamwork and
independence. All the workers looked forward to going home
at the close of work; while 4 of them did not look forward
to coming to work. The remaining 26 looked forward to coming
to work.
All the workers returned home within an hour of leaving the
office. Apart from one worker who arrives about two hours
before the official work hours, all the staff arrived within
an hour before or after the official commencement time of
8am. Some of the staff stayed in the office after work hours
in order to ensure that they complete their assignments for
the day; and also to avoid traffic.
Generally the staff ate regularly. Most ate breakfast at
home; lunch in the office and supper ate home. Of the three
meals the one the staff was most likely to miss was
breakfast; and this is because they stated that they had to
rush to work. Some of the staff however, took their
breakfast in the office.
li
Anger seemed like a common phenomenon in GHAPOHA. Of the
respondents, 9 said they were always angry while 20 said
they sometimes got angry and 1 person said never got angry.
Table 4.5 below shows whom in the workplace; the workers
directed their anger to.
Table 4.5 People workers direct their anger to
Frequency Percentage (%)
Subordinates 5 16.7
Colleagues 2 6.7
Superiors 1 3.3
Clients 2 6.7
Not Stated 1 3.3
All 3 10
Not Applicable 16 53.3
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
Of the total number of workers, 7 expressed their anger when
lii
they were angry; while the
same number concealed it. For 13 of them, it was not
applicable and 3 did not answer. Most of the workers (25)
said their offices were comfortable. Although their offices
seem comfortable, they described the workplace as very noisy
(9); a bit noisy (8) and not at all noisy (13). About how
busy the workplace was the workers described it as being
very busy (22), a bit busy (6) and not at all busy (2). The
workers attributed the noise to people (63.3%), cars (3.3%)
and machines (33.3%). Of the total number of workers, 14
were very secure in their jobs; 10 were secure and 6 said
they were a bit secure in their jobs.
Most of the workers (66.7%) had a few friends at work, (30%)
had many friends and (3.3%) had no friends at work. Of the
respondents, 13 admitted that their friends were stressed
out at work; while 2 said their friends were not stressed
out. Of the rest, 10 said they didn’t know if their friends
were stressed and 5 said their friends sometimes got
stressed out.
liii
4.4 To determine how workers cope with work-induced stress
The workers gave various mechanisms they adopted in order to
cope with stress at work. These generally included time
management, voicing out stress, listening to music, taking
breaks when necessary and making phone calls. Others
mentioned include reducing the daily work burden, through
divine intervention and working in harmony with superiors,
subordinates and colleagues.
The workers generally admitted not being overweight (60%);
with (36.7%) admitting that they were overweight and (3.3%)
saying that they did not know whether they were overweight.
Only 7 of the respondents had medical conditions; with 9 of
the total number of respondents being on medication. Six of
the respondents provided detail of their medical conditions.
Of those who provided the details, 5 were hypertensive while
one was asthmatic.
liv
Tables 4.6 Last Body Mass Index (BMI) check
Frequency Percentage (%)
Less than 3 months 6 20
4-6 months 2 6.7
Over a year 4 13.3
Can’t remember 15 50
No answer 2 6.7
Never 1 33
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
Table 4.7 Last Blood Pressure check
Frequency Percentage (%)
Less than 3 months 23 76.7
lv
7-9 months 1 3.3
Not Stated 6 20
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
Only (36.7%) of the respondents could state their blood
pressure.
4.5 To examine support systems for persons suffering from
stress
The respondents (60%) admitted that there were avenues in
the workplace which made it possible for them to voice out
their concerns. Also, (56.7%) of the respondents said their
complaints were discussed when they raised them. The levels
at which the complaints were discussed are shown in Table
4.8 below.
lvi
Table 4.8 Level at which complaints were discussed
Frequency Percentage (%)
Not Applicable 14 46.7
Management 8 26.7
Union 3 10
Peers 1 3.3
Departmental Level 1 3.3
Not Stated 2 6.7
All 1 3.3
Source: Fieldwork, 2009
There is a staff clinic to attend to the needs of the staff
and their families. Provision of counseling services, only
(40%) admitted that such a service was provided in the
workplace. Of the workers, (23.3%) trusted in the counseling
services provided; while (26.7%) did not trust the
counseling services provided; with (50%) of the respondents
not indicating whether or not they trusted the counseling
services provided.
lvii
Most workers (43.3%) voiced out their stress; while (20%)
did not. Of the rest, (6.7%) said they sometimes voiced out
their stress and (30%) did not answer.
About how they felt after counseling, (56.7%) did not
answer. Of the rest, (26.7%) said they felt better; while
(10%) said they did not; with (6.7%) saying they did not
know. Only (23.3%) of the respondents had access to personal
counseling outside the office. Most of them (63.3%) however
did not have such access; while (13.3%) did not answer.
4.6 Limitations encountered in the study
A few limitations were encountered during the course of this
study.
1. As a visually impaired student, typing and formatting
posed a challenge and I had to rely on close friends to
help me achieve this.
lviii
2. Most of the people at the workplace who were known to
have been on medication, and were probably more
stressed, refused to fill the questionnaire.
3. Proximity to the various departments of GPHA was
sometimes a bit of a problem because of the expansive
nature of the port, requiring the use of vehicles to
move to and fro.
CHAPTER FIVE – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Conclusions
Looking at the above stated analysis, I guess everything
that readers want to know exclusively is whether the staff
of GPHA are stressed or not and which category of people are
most affected. Looking at the data collected, 19 males as
compared to 11 females had to answer the questionnaire
lix
because of the ‘male-female’ ratio in the port. The company
provided flats and bungalows for its workers and for that
matter, it is no wonder that (86.7%) of the staff live in
Tema. For the (6.7%) who lived in Accra, Sakumono and other
places, they may be living with their spouses or have not
yet had the chance of being accommodated or perhaps lived in
their own houses.
Although the length of employment ranges between 5 and 40
years, it does not indicate the position of particular
persons. Thus, for example, one who has worked between 10
and 20 years could be a manager, a senior or a junior staff
just the same as one who has worked between 30 to 40 years
etc. On the issue of their income being sufficient or not,
it was found out that the (70%) who said their income was
inadequate were mostly junior staff. That of the senior
staff varied, that is it was either manageable or
inadequate. For the management staff, it was sufficient.
Those who did not answer, if they were given the platform,
would have been very angry at the whole salary structure. It
lx
is true the company had benefits like car loans, housing
loans, bonuses, health care facilities etc; however the
(6.7%) who said they did not receive any benefits were
perhaps not pleased with the above stated benefits. The
(66.7%) who said they were happy with their jobs included
all the managers who responded to the data and several
others. However, no manager out of the (33.3%) was happy
with his or her job. All of them were mainly junior staff.
Owing to the fact that everybody’s job was involving, there
is no doubt that majority, that is (73.3%) were very
stressed on the job and even the (26.7%) who refused to
state could not measure their stress levels. The number of
times they were stressed suggests that most of them, if not
all, are sometimes stressed at work. The result/s above
indicates that most people are stressed out having to sit
for longer periods at work. The few who are stressed having
to go out of the workplace are faced with the headache of
heavy traffic and dealing with difficult clients. The
details seem to suggest that there is a friendly
lxi
relationship that exists at GPHA between bosses and their
subordinates. Most people are not sure whether their bosses
like them and the same applies to knowing whether their
colleagues like them. A large number of the respondents
thought their bosses were hardworking. Looking at the fact
that a large number of people thought their bosses were
hardworking, there are no doubt that majority of the
respondents got along with their bosses. To reduce a bit of
the stress on workers, most people loved team work. It is
not surprising that everybody looked forward to going home
as compared to coming to work.
Since research show that bad eating habits generate stress
and most people are angry at the slightest problem and their
workplaces are also very busy it may not be surprising that
the bad eating habits of staff contributed to their anger on
the job, whichever way it takes. From the analysis, those
who were not secure in their jobs indicated a higher
percentage which could also result in high stress level.
Most of the people had a few friends, all of whom were
lxii
friends from secondary school days, childhood etc. Looking
at (36.7%) who were overweight, there is no doubt that at
least a certain percentage had medical conditions and of the
medical conditions, majority were hypertensive. Most people
did not check their body mass index so they would not even
know whether they had medical conditions. The avenues in the
workplace which made it possible for the respondents to
voice out their concerns are not well spelt out. Thus most
people voiced out their problems unofficially than
officially. Although staff may be happy about the provision
of a clinic, they are not sure whether there is a welfare
department separated from the clinic, which is charge with
these responsibilities. However, most people are not too
sure whether its counselling unit either exists or would be
efficient. If over (56.7%) would not answer questions about
how they felt about counselling, then I guess I would be
right in stating that most of the staff does not have enough
information as to how to control their stress levels.
lxiii
5.2 Recommendations
From the findings of the study, the following suggestions
are recommended.
1. Incentives, especially for junior staff, should be
increased, so they may be able to aptly take care of
their families and thus not have undue stress from
home. All workers must feel comfortable in their
offices so as to be happy in the workplace.
2. Managers should get closer to their subordinates so as
to know their problems and try to find solutions to
them.
3. Management should use the technique of job-centred as
well as employee-centred approach.
lxiv
4. A proper counselling centre should be put in place to
cater for the various stresses that workers of GPHA may
face day-by-day.
5. Finally, occasional stress management seminars should
be organised for the various departments regularly
throughout the year.
REFERENCES
NIOSH (1999). Stress at work. U.S. National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication
Number 99-101
lxv
Margot Shields (2006) Stress and depression in the employed
population, Health Reports, Vol. 17, No. 4.
WHO (2001); The World Health Report 2001- Mental Health: New
Understanding, New Hope. Geneva: World Health Organization
Schnall PL, Landsbergis PA, Baker D; (1994) Job Strain and
Cardiovascular Disease. Annual Review of Public Health 15:381-411
Karasek RA; (1979) Job Decision latitude and mental strain:
Implications for Job Redesign. Administrative science Quarterly 24:
285-308
Bourbonnais et al; (1996) Job Strain and Psychological
distress in White-Collar Workers.
Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 22 (2): 139-145
lxvi
ANNEX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
WORK-INDUCED STRESS AND COPING SKILLS OF WORKERS. A CASE
STUDY OF THE GHANA PORTS AND HARBOURS AUTHORITY
QUESTIONNAIRE
Background
1. Sex:
2. Age:
3. Marital status: single, in a relationship, married,
divorced widowed.
4. Details of spouse: age, employed or unemployed and
where, do they live with you
5. Place of Residence:
6. Education:
7. Children:
8. When were you employed by GPHA?
lxvii
9. Position in Company:
10. Job schedule:
11. How long have you been working
12. What is your monthly income, annual income
13. Is your income sufficient, insufficient
14. Do you have any work-related benefits
15. Are you happy with your job? Yes of No
16. What is your profession by training?
17. What is your present job?
18. Please describe the nature of your work
Sources of Stress
19. Do you feel stressed in your job? If yes, then
please specify whether you are stressed daily,
sometimes, always, never.
20. Do you feel stressed in your family life?
21. If so, then why or by whom, and when
3. Demands of job
22. Which aspects of your job do you like the most?
lxviii
23. Which aspect of your job do you dislike the most?
24. Do you get stressed by having to sit for a long
time to work?
25. Do you get stressed by having to go out of the
office on official duties?
26. Does your job require lots of teamwork or is it
more independent
27. Do you generally love working in teams or do you
prefer independent work?
28. Do you feel secure in your job? Very, yes, a bit,
or not at all?
29. Do you look forward to going to work?
30. Do you look forward to going home?
4. Work relationships
31. Do you have friends at work? Many, few, none
32. Are your friends often stressed at work?
33. Do you like your boss?
34. Do you think they like you?
lxix
35. Do you like your colleagues?
36. Do you think they like you?
37. Do you like your subordinates?
38. Do you think they like you?
39. Which type of boss do you have? Hardworking or
lazy
40. Do you get along?
41. Are you often angry on the job?
42. Who is this anger directed to? Subordinates,
colleagues or superiors?
43. Do you express this anger or do you have to
conceal it? If you do express it, how do you express
it? (shout, fight, etc)
5. Job schedules
44. What time are you supposed to close from work?
45. What time do you actually close from work?
46. What time do you usually get home?
47. If late, then why?
48. What time are you supposed to report to work?
lxx
49. What time do you usually report to work? If late,
then why? If very early, then why?
50. Do you often eat breakfast before leaving home?
51. If not, why? When and where, then, do you eat
breakfast?
52. Do you usually eat lunch? When and where do you
eat lunch? lunch before work at work
53. Do you usually eat supper? When and where?
Physical work place
54. Are you comfortable in your office?
55. Do you consider your work space noisy? Very, a
bit, or not at all?
56. Do you consider your work space busy? Very, a bit,
or not at all?
57. If so, then with what (people, cars, machines,
etc.)
To determine how workers cope with work-induced stress
lxxi
58. How do you cope with stress at work? Please give
details.
59. Are you overweight?
60. Do you have any medical conditions? Please give
brief details.
61. Are you on medication?
62. When did you last check your Body Mass Index (BMI)
63. What was it?
64. When was your last Blood Pressure check?
65. What was it?
To examine support systems for persons suffering from stress
66. Does your office have avenues for officially or
unofficially voicing problems?
67. Are complaints discussed or dealt with? At which
levels (management, union, peers, departmental level)?
68. Does your office have a clinic?
69. Does your office have a counseling centre or
provide counseling service of some sort?
70. If so, do you trust your counselors?
71. Are you able to voice out your problems or stress?
lxxii
72. Do you feel better after counseling?
73. Do you have access to personal counseling outside
the office?
To suggest ways of inducing stress for workers
74. Suggest ways of reducing stress?
75. Suggest ways your work can be made easier or more
effective?
76. Suggest ways you think stress be reduced in your
workplace
77. What do you think can be done to reduce stress in
other offices as well?
ANNEX B
GLOSSARY
lxxiii
Blood pressure
Body mass
index
Cargo
Depression
Sea port
Shipment
Transhipment
Transit
Work
The pressure of blood as it travels around
the body.
An index of obesity calculated by dividing a
person’s weight in kilograms by the square
of their height in meters.
The goods carried in a ship or plane.
The medical condition which a person feels
very sad and anxious.
A town with a harbour used by large ships.
The process of sending goods from one place
to another.
The act of transferring from one ship or
form of transport to another.
The process of being moved or carried from
one place to another.
To do something that requires physical or
mental effort, especially as part of a job.
lxxiv