Post on 30-Jan-2023
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and sequence stratigraphyacross the mid-Carboniferous boundary in the Central Taurides,Turkey
Ayse Atakul-Ozdemir • Demir Altıner •
Sevinc Ozkan-Altıner • Ismail Omer Yılmaz
Received: 9 July 2010 / Accepted: 28 December 2010
� Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract The Aladag Unit is one of the main tectonic
units in the Tauride Belt, located in southern Turkey. It
includes a continuous Paleozoic carbonate sequence
encompassing the mid-Carboniferous boundary, with out-
crops being especially well exposed in the Hadim region.
The boundary succession lithology is mainly composed of
carbonates with intercalated quartz arenitic sandstone lay-
ers. Based on foraminifers, four biostratigraphic zones have
been defined in the interval from the Upper Serpukhovian
to the Lower Bashkirian. These zones are, in ascending
order: the Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis—E. postmosquensis
Zone (Zapaltyubinsky Horizon, Upper Serpukhovian); the
Plectostaffella jakhensis—P. bogdanovkensis Zone, and
the Millerella marblensis Zone (Bogdanovsky Horizon,
lower Bashkirian); and the Semistaffella sp. Zone
(Syuransky Horizon, lower Bashkirian). The mid-Carbon-
iferous boundary occurs between the Eostaffella ex gr.
ikensis—E. postmosquensis Zone and the Plectostaffella
jakhensis—P. bogdanovkensis Zone. Boundary beds are
characterized by eight, repeatedly occurring microfacies
types, namely: (1) coated crinoidal packstone; (2) coated
bioclastic grainstone; (3) oolitic grainstone; (4) oolitic
packstone-grainstone; (5) intraclastic grainstone; (6) mud-
stone-wackestone; (7) quartz-peloidal packstone; and 8)
quartz arenitic sandstone. Based on microfacies stacking
patterns, various types of shallowing-upward cycles have
been recognized. Depositional sequences and sequence
boundaries are correlatable with those described from
North America and Russia and Carboniferous global
sea-level curves. The duration of cycles has been estimated
as 100 ky, suggesting that cycle periodicities correspond to
the Milankovitch eccentricity band.
Keywords Mid-Carboniferous boundary � Foraminiferal
zones � Microfacies analysis � Meter-scale cyclicity �Central Taurides
Introduction
The Mississippian-Pennsylvanian (mid-Carboniferous)
boundary is defined by the evolutionary appearance of the
conodont Declinognathodus noduliferus, with certain
foraminiferal species being useful as auxiliary indices.
Although there are several studies on calcareous foramin-
ifers of the mid-Carboniferous GSSP at Arrow Canyon
(Lane et al. 1972, 1999; Lane and Manger 1985; Brenckle
et al. 1977, 1982, 1997a, b), this datum in Turkey is not
directly correlatable with the American stratotype because
of foraminiferal provincialism as discussed in Groves
(1988). It is, however, possible to compare and correlate
the Turkish foraminiferal associations with Paleotethyan
and Uralian counterparts, particularly those described and
illustrated from the Russian Platform, Urals, and the
Donets Basin. By definition, the mid-Carboniferous
boundary coincides with the Serpukhovian-Bashkirian
stadial boundary in Russia and also with the Chesterian-
Morrowan boundary in the United States (Einor et al.
1979). In the 1970s and 80s, the mid-Carboniferous
boundary was placed at the top of the Voznessensky
horizon of the Russian Platform and correlated with the
boundary between the Bogdanovsky and Syuransky hori-
zons of the Urals. In the Donets Basin, it was placed at the
base of the E1 limestone (Aisenverg et al. 1979; Einor et al.
A. Atakul-Ozdemir � D. Altıner (&) � S. Ozkan-Altıner �I. O. Yılmaz
Department of Geological Engineering, Middle East Technical
University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: demir@metu.edu.tr
123
Facies
DOI 10.1007/s10347-010-0260-y
1979; Rotai 1979; Semichatova et al. 1979). Several
important studies adopted this scheme (Lys et al. 1978;
Vachard 1980; Altıner 1981; Vdovenko et al. 1990;
Vachard and Beckary 1991). However, following the
Carboniferous Meeting held in 1995 (Kagarmanov and
Kossovaya 1997), the boundary in the former Soviet Union
was adjusted downward to the contact between Zapaltyu-
binsky and Voznessensky horizons of the Russian Plat-
form, the base of the Bogdanovsky horizon of Urals and the
base of the C1d2 Zone of the Donets Basin. This modifi-
cation in the Paleotethyan-Ural realm is the fundamental
chronostratigraphic scheme for the most recent studies
(Vachard and Maslo 1996; Groves et al. 1999; Kulagina
and Sinitsyna 1997, 2003; Brenckle and Milkina 2003).
The main objective of the present study is to identify the
mid-Carboniferous boundary using calcareous foraminifers
within the context of high-resolution sequence stratigraphy
at a well-exposed section in the Taurides. Shallow-water
carbonates in the Hadim area are composed of upward-
shallowing cycles revealed by microfacies studies. It is well
established on the basis of previous studies (Goldhammer
et al. 1987, 1990, 1993; Strasser 1988; Goldhammer and
Harris 1989; Elrick and Read 1991; Osleger and Read 1991;
Elrick 1996) and on recent studies of Paleozoic and
Mesozoic successions of Taurides in Turkey (Altıner et al.
1999; Unal et al. 2003; Yılmaz et al. 2004; Yılmaz and
Altıner 2006), that stacking patterns of sedimentary cycles
are useful for the detection of sea-level changes. The
genetic organization of strata recognized in this study
reveals sequences comparable to those described by Ross
and Ross (1987), Alekseev et al. (1996), Lane et al. (1999),
Izart et al. (2003), Davydov et al. (2004), and Haq and
Schutter (2008) for the Paleozoic.
Geologic setting and measured section
The study area is located in the Aladag Unit of Ozgul (1976,
1984) approximately 10 km southwest of the town of Hadim
in the Central Taurides (Fig. 1). The Aladag Unit, one of the
allochthons of the Central Tauride Belt, is composed of
shelf-type carbonates and clastic rocks of Late Devonian
through Late Cretaceous age. In the study area, Devonian—
Triassic carbonate deposits of the Aladag Unit are widely
exposed and the Upper Paleozoic succession, in particular, is
nearly complete. The Aladag Unit locally is thrusted over
the Bolkar Dagı Unit, one of the other important allochthons
of the Tauride Belt (Fig. 1). The Paleozoic succession starts
with the Golbogazı Formation of Devonian age, comprising
quartz arenitic sandstones, shales, sandy limestones, and
reefal limestones. The overlying Carboniferous Yarıcak
Formation consists of shales, siltstones, and thinly bedded
limestones of the Tournaisian Cityayla Member and quartz
arenitic sandstones and limestones of the overlying Mantar
Tepe Member of latest Tournaisian to Gzhelian age (Altıner
and Ozgul 2001; Kobayashi and Altıner 2008a, b). The
Permian Cekic Dagı Formation is subdivided into four
members whose lithologies are quartz arenitic sandstones
and limestones. The Keltas and Camalan members are car-
bonates of Asselian to Artinskian age (Altıner and Ozgul
2001; Kobayashi and Altıner 2008a). They are overlain by
quartz arenitic sandstones of the Kizilgeris Member of
possible Wordian age, which constitutes the base of a thick
Middle to Upper Permian succession. Carbonates of the
Yellice Member of Wordian (?) to Changhsingian age rep-
resent the upper part of the formation (Altıner and Ozgul
2001; Altıner et al. 2007), which is paraconformably over-
lain by the Triassic Gevne Formation (Altıner and Ozgul
2001; Unal et al. 2003; Groves et al. 2005; Payne et al.
2007). The studied stratigraphic section, consisting of a
25.64-m-thick succession, was measured in detail through
the mid-Carboniferous boundary beds of the Mantar Tepe
member of the Yarıcak Formation (Fig. 2). The section is
characterized by four main lithologic intervals: a, b, c, and d
(see member column in Fig. 3). The succession starts with
quartz arenitic sandstones at the base and continues upward
with peloidal grainstones rich in quartz grains intercalated
with quartz arenitic sandstones (a). It passes upward into
bioclastic and oolitic limestones containing abundant mi-
crofossils and ooids (b). The middle of this interval includes
a prominent dark lime mudstone facies (Fig. 3). Towards the
upper part of the section, oolitic grainstones with quartz
fragments and quartz arenitic sandstones become dominant
(c). This interval is overlain by oolitic and bioclastic
grainstones including another dark limestone unit in the
upper part (d, Fig. 3).
Biostratigraphy
The studied section is divided into four foraminiferal zones
(Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) corresponding in age to the Zapaltyu-
binsky, Bogdanovsky and Syuransky horizons in the Upper
Serpukhovian to lowest Bashkirian of the Urals scheme
(Table 1). The Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis—E. postmosqu-
ensis Zone corresponds to the Upper Serpukhovian (Zap-
altyubinsky Horizon). The overlying Plectostaffella
bogdanovkensis—P. jakhensis Zone, Millerella marblensis
Zone and Semistaffella sp. Zone are early Bashkirian in age
and correlate to the Bogdanovsky and Syuransky horizons
(Fig. 4).
Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis—E. postmosquensis Zone
This zone encompasses the lower and middle parts of the
measured section and consists of quartz arenitic
Facies
123
sandstones, an alternation of quartz peloidal grainstones
and quartz arenitic sandstones, and the overlying oolitic
and coated bioclastic grainstones and packstones (upper
part of lithological interval a and lower part of lithological
interval b in Figs. 3, 4; samples 56 to 28). The interval
between samples 64 and 57, below the Eostaffella ex gr.
ikensis-E. postmosquensis Zone, has not been zoned due to
the absence of characteristic taxa. However, the presence
of Globivalvulina sp. suggests that this part of the section
deposited in continuity with the Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis-
E. postmosquensis Zone corresponds to the Serpukhovian
and probably to the Protvinsky Horizon.
The zone is characterized by the overlapping ranges of
two taxa, Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis and E. postmosquensis
and the upper boundary is marked by the last appearance of
E. ex. gr. ikensis. According to Vachard and Maslo (1996),
the last appearance of Eostaffella ikensis, based on the data
given in Einor et al. (1979), nearly corresponds to the
Serpukhovian-Bashkirian boundary. Similarly, Vdovenko
et al. (1990) reported the stratigraphic range of this taxon
from the Russian Platform as ranging from the Upper
Visean to the Serpukhovian—Bashkirian boundary,
including the Zapaltyubinsky Horizon. The lower boundary
of this zone is marked by the first appearance of E. post-
mosquensis in this study. In earlier studies, Vdovenko et al.
(1990) and Vachard and Beckary (1991) reported the first
occurrence of E. postmosquensis in the Serpukhovian,
below the Zapaltyubinsky Horizon. However, in more
recent studies (Vachard and Maslo 1996; Maslo and
Vachard 1997; Krainer and Vachard 2002; Kulagina et al.
2009) the first occurrence of E. postmosquensis was
reported at the base of the Zapaltyubinsky Horizon.
Fig. 1 a Location of the study area in Turkey. The box in the figure
corresponds to (b); b Geographic location of the study area near the
town of Hadim. The box in the figure corresponds to (c); c Geologic
map of the study area (after Altıner and Ozgul 2001) and location of
the measured section (MS)
Facies
123
This zone is considered to be equivalent to the Zapal-
tyubinsky Horizon in the Russian Platform and Donets
Basin (Vachard and Maslo 1996; Shcherbakov 1997), to
the upper part of the E2 Zone in Western Europe
(Vdovenko et al. 1990; Shcherbakov 1997) and to the
Ustsarbaisky Horizon in Urals (Rui et al. 1996) (Table 1).
Plectostaffella bogdanovkensis—P. jakhensis Zone
This zone consists of oolitic grainstones, coated bioclastic
grainstones, and oolitic packstones (upper part of litholog-
ical interval b and lowermost part of lithological interval c in
Figs. 3, 4; samples 27 to 18). It is defined as the interval from
the last occurrence of Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis to the first
occurrence of Millerella marblensis. The most characteristic
features of this zone are the first occurrences of Plectostaf-
fella bogdanovkensis and P. jakhensis at or very close to the
lower boundary. According to Vdovenko et al. (1990) and
Vachard and Maslo (1996), Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis became
extinct close to the Serpukhovian-Bashkirian boundary.
Vachard and Maslo (1996), Groves et al. (1999), and
Kulagina and Sinitsyna (1997, 2003) stated that the
appearance of Plectostaffella bogdanovkensis is a good
marker the Serpukhovian-Bashkirian boundary. Although,
Groves (1988), Vachard and Beckary (1991), and Vachard
and Maslo (1996) reported the first occurrence of the P.
jakhensis in the Syuransky Horizon, this form was observed
lower in our section and used for the determination of the
lower boundary of the zone. Altıner and Savini (1995)
reported P. jakhensis in equivalents of the Syuransky
Horizon in the Amazonas and Solimoes Basins in northern
Brazil. However, there is an unconformity at the base of
Pennsylvanian in these basins where equivalents of the
Bogdanovsky Horizon are missing.
This zone is equivalent to the lower Voznesensky Hori-
zon in the Russian Platform and the Donets Basin (Vdo-
venko et al. 1990; Vachard and Maslo 1996), the lower
Homoceras Zone in Western Europe (Vdovenko et al. 1990;
Vachard and Maslo 1996; Shcherbakov 1997) and the lower
Bogdanovsky Horizon in the Urals (Groves et al. 1994;
Fig. 2 Close-up view of the measured section. Letters a, b, c, and d stand for the lithologic intervals within the Mantar Tepe Member of the
Yarıcak Formation
Facies
123
Vachard and Maslo 1996; Kulagina and Sinitsyna 1997;
Shcherbakov 1997) (Table 1).
Millerella marblensis Zone
The interval between samples 17 and 12 (Fig. 4) is assigned
to this zone and is made up of coated crinoidal packstones,
coated bioclastic, oolitic grainstones with quartz fragments,
and quartz arenitic sandstones (lithological interval c and
lowermost part of lithological interval d in Fig. 3). It is
identified as the interval from the appearance of Millerella
marblensis to the first occurrence of Semistaffella sp. Va-
chard and Maslo (1996) first recognized this zone in the
upper Bogdanovsky Horizon. The upper boundary of this
zone was defined by Vachard and Maslo (1996) and
Kulagina and Sinitsyna (1997, 2003) on the entry of
Semistaffella.
The Millerella marblensis Zone corresponds to the
upper Voznesensky Horizon of the Russian Platform
(Vdovenko et al. 1990; Vachard and Maslo 1996), the
upper Homoceras Zone in Western Europe (Vdovenko
et al. 1990; Vachard and Maslo 1996; Shcherbakov 1997)
and to the upper Bogdanovsky Horizon of the Urals
(Groves et al. 1994; Vachard and Maslo 1996; Kulagina
and Sinitsyna 1997; Shcherbakov 1997) (Table 1).
Semistaffella sp. Zone
This zone is composed of oolitic and coated bioclas-
tic grainstones, a packstone facies, and a particular
Fig. 3 Columnar stratigraphic
section showing position of
mid-Carboniferous boundary
(S Stage, H horizon,
F formation, M member,
SN sample no)
Facies
123
mudstone facies representing the uppermost part of the
section (lithological interval d in Figs. 3, 4; samples 11
to 01). The lower boundary of the zone is defined by the
first occurrence of Semistaffella sp. The upper boundary
is not identified in this study because the top of the
measured stratigraphic section is within this zone. In
Ukraine and Russia, the lower boundary of the
Syuransky Horizon is also marked by the first occurrence
of Semistaffella (Vachard and Maslo 1996; Kulagina and
Sinitsyna 2003).
The Semistaffella sp. Zone corresponds to the Krasno-
polyansky Horizon of the Russian Platform (Vachard
and Beckary 1991; Vachard and Maslo 1996; Shcherbakov
1997), the Feninsky Horizon in the Donets Basin
Fig. 4 Fossil distribution chart
Facies
123
(Vachard and Maslo 1996) and the Syuransky Horizon
in the Urals (Vachard and Maslo 1996; Kulagina and
Sinitsyna 1997; Shcherbakov 1997) (Table 1).
Mid-Carboniferous boundary
The mid-Carboniferous boundary separates the Mississip-
pian and Pennsylvanian subsystems and it has been cor-
related to the Serpukhovian—Bashkirian boundary in
Russia. The basal Pennsylvanian (and basal Bashkirian)
GSSP at Arrow Canyon, Nevada (USA), was selected to
coincide with the first occurrence of the conodont Decli-
nognathodus noduliferus (Baesemann and Lane 1985; Lane
et al. 1999; Gradstein et al. 2004). Beds below the
boundary contain a rich association of archaediscid fora-
minifers dominated by Eosigmoilina robertsoni and Bren-
ckelina rugosa. Although the importance of these two
archaediscids for recognizing the boundary has been
mentioned in several studies (Brenckle et al. 1982, 1997a,
b; Skipp et al. 1985; Vdovenko et al. 1990; Harris et al.
1997; Baesemann et al. 1998; Kulagina and Sinitsyna
2003; Kulagina et al. 2008), they are known to range
upward into the lower part of the Pennsylvanian (Brenckle
et al. 1997a, b). At our section, Brenckelina rugosa is
totally absent and we observed a single occurrence of
Eosigmoilina just below the mid-Carboniferous boundary.
According to Groves (1988), the first occurrence of
Globivalvulina bulloides is useful for identifying the mid-
Carboniferous boundary. However, in recent studies from
Eurasia and Arctic Alaska, this species was recorded below
the mid-Carboniferous boundary (Vdovenko et al. 1990;
Harris et al. 1997; Baesemann et al. 1998). In our section,
Globivalvulina bulloides is present close to the base of the
Upper Serpukhovian Zapaltyubinsky Horizon. In the Bol-
shoi Kizil section in the Urals, Kulagina and Sinitsyna
(2003) reported Globivalvulina bulloides from even older
beds of the Steshevian-Protvian Horizons of the Ser-
pukhovian. Brenckle and Milkina (2003) also reported
Globivalvulina bulloides from the Protvinsky Horizon of
the Serpukhovian of the Tengiz Platform, Kazahsktan.
Finally, in one of the most recent studies, Vachard et al.
(2006), by discussing the problems on the taxonomy of
Biseriamminoidea, stated clearly that Globivalvulina
bulloides appeared below the mid-Carboniferous boundary,
more precisely in the late early Serpukhovian or Protvin-
sky. Among fusulinoideans, the genus Millerella previ-
ously was accepted as an informal marker of the mid-
Carboniferous boundary both in the western and eastern
hemispheres. It is now known that the genus originated in
late Mississippian time (Rauser-Chernousova et al. 1996;
Brenckle et al. 1997a, b; Gradstein et al. 2004). In the
Amazonas and Solimoes Basins, in northern Brazil, the
genus Millerella appears at the base of Pennsylvanian
(Altıner and Savini 1995). However, there is a gap at this
boundary corresponding to the lowermost Morrowan
(=Bogdanovsky Horizon) and so this appearance is strati-
graphically perched.
Although some of the important foraminiferal markers,
such as Eosigmoilina, Brenckelina, Eostaffella postmosq-
uensis, Eostaffella chomatifera were reported from the
Upper Serpukhovian—Lower Bashkirian strata of Libya
(Massa and Vachard 1979; Vachard et al. 1993), Tunisia
(Lys 1985), Algeria (Sebbar and Lys 1989; Mamet et al.
1994; Sebbar and Mamet 1999; Sebbar et al. 2000), and
Morocco (Mamet et al. 1966; Vachard and Tahiri 1991;
Vachard and Berkhli 1992; Berkhli et al. 1993, 2001;
Cozar et al. 2008), the mid-Carboniferous boundary has not
been delineated by carrying out a bed-scale sampling in
North Africa.
In the Paleotethyan-Uralian Realm, the most useful
foraminifers for recognizing the mid-Carboniferous
boundary are Plectostaffella jakhensis and P. bogdanovk-
ensis. Although the genus Plectostaffella has been reported
from the Upper Serpukhovian of Urals and Tien-Shan
(Einor 1996; Kulagina and Sinitsyna 2003; Orlov-Lab-
kovsky 2005; Nikolaeva et al. 2009), these two species are
reliable markers of the base of Pennsylvanian in most
places in the eastern hemisphere.
In Turkey, the mid-Carboniferous boundary was first
mentioned in the study by Altıner (1981). He placed the
Serpukhovian-Bashkirian boundary within his interval 12,
which was defined by the first appearance of Eostaffella
postmosquensis in the Late Serpukhovian and the first
appearance of Pseudostaffella antiqua in the Early Bash-
kirian. Following Vdovenko et al. (1990) and Vachard and
Maslo (1996), Altıner and Ozgul (2001) placed the mid-
Carboniferous boundary at the boundary between the Eo-
staffella postmosquensis—Plectostaffella ex gr. bogda-
novkensis Zone and the Semistaffella—Plectostaffella
jakhensis Zone. In accordance with the recent boundary
revisions, this boundary should be lowered down into the
Eostaffella postmosquensis—Plectostaffella ex gr. bogda-
novkensis Zone of Altıner and Ozgul (2001) where these
authors noted the first appearance of Plectostaffella ex gr.
bogdanovkensis following the first appearance of Eostaf-
fella postmosquensis. The lower part of this zone with
E. postmosquensis and Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis is now
assignable to the upper Serpukhovian (Zapaltyubinsky) and
the overlying interval with P. ex gr. bogdanovkensis is
correlative with the lower Bashkirian (Bogdanovsky).
The mid-Carboniferous boundary has been recognized
herein by the appearances of P. bogdanovkensis and
P. jakhensis and the last occurrences of Eostaffella ex gr.
ikensis. The range of the latter species is reported else-
where to terminate just below the mid-Carboniferous
Facies
123
boundary (Vdovenko et al. 1990; Vachard and Maslo 1996;
Altıner and Ozgul 2001; Nikolaeva et al. 2001). The mid-
Carboniferous boundary is drawn locally at the base of the
sample 27, coincident with the boundary between the Eo-
staffella ex gr. ikensis—Eostaffella postmosquensis Zone
and the Plectostaffella bogdanovkensis—P. jakhensis Zone
(Fig. 4).
Microfacies analysis
On the basis of bioclastic components and sedimentologi-
cal features observed in thin-sections, eight different mi-
crofacies have been identified. These are coated crinoidal
packstone, coated bioclastic grainstone, oolitic grainstone,
oolitic packstone-grainstone, intraclastic grainstone, mud-
stone-wackestone, quartz-peloid grainstone, and quartz
arenitic sandstone. These facies are grouped into four
facies associations that are assignable to four distinct
depositional belts (peritidal flat, lagoon, oolitic shoal, and
open marine). Major microfacies types comparable with
standard microfacies types (SMF) of Flugel (2004) are
summarized in Table 2. The microfacies and correspond-
ing depositional environments are discussed below.
Coated crinoidal packstone
The coated crinoidal packstone microfacies exhibits mi-
critic envelops around crinoid fragments and bioclasts
(Fig. 9a, b). Other components are superficial ooids, pel-
loids, dark intraclasts, foraminifers, bioclasts, brachiopods,
and gastropods.
This facies probably was deposited in open-marine,
moderately agitated conditions just below the wave base
(Wilson 1975; Elrick and Read 1991; Della Porta et al.
2004). It is equivalent of FZ 5 (platform margin reef) and
compatible with SMF 11 of Flugel (2004).
Coated bioclastic grainstone
This microfacies is essentially composed of bioclasts with
micritic envelopes. The major bioclastic components are
foraminifers (such as eostaffellids, archaediscids, palaeo-
textulariids, unilocular, and irregularly coiled bilocular
forms), crinoids, gastropods, brachiopods, and echinoid
fragments (Fig. 9c, d). Additional grain types are dark in-
traclasts, peloids, and rare ooids. Interparticle pores are
occluded by sparry calcite.
This facies occurs in areas of constant wave action at or
above wave base (Flugel 2004). It forms extensive sheets
generally seaward of oolitic grainstone shoals and grades
down dip into coated crinoidal packstone (Al-Tawil and
Read 2003; Della Porta et al. 2004). The coated bioclastic
grainstone microfacies is regarded as equivalent to SMF 11
and it corresponds to FZ 5 and FZ 6 (platform margin reef
and sand shoal) of Flugel (2004).
Oolitic grainstone
This microfacies consists mainly of ooids cemented by
sparry calcite (Fig. 9e, f). A variety of grains serve as the
nuclei, including intraclasts, quartz grains and skeletal
fragments, especially foraminifers. The laminae of the ooid
cortices exhibit radial fibrous structures. Superficial ooids,
characterized by a single lamina around the nucleus, are
also present in this grainstone. This facies is subdivided
into two subfacies, namely oolitic grainstone with bio-
clasts, and oolitic grainstone with quartz sand. The first
subfacies is moderately sorted and includes mainly fora-
minifers and other bioclast fragments together with ooids.
The other common constituents are intraclasts, peloids,
fragmented crinoids, and echinoids. The latter subfacies is
characterized by abundant, well-sorted ooids and fine
quartz sand.
This facies was deposited under high-energy, shallow-
water environments in platform margin sand shoals and
platform interior to open-marine settings (Elrick and Read
1991; Flugel 2004; Ahmad et al. 2006; Betzler et al. 2006;
Cozar et al. 2006; Armella et al. 2007; Barnaby and Ward
2007; Palma et al. 2007; Wanas 2008). The oolitic grain-
stone microfacies is equivalent to the SMF 15 of Flugel
(2004) and corresponds to FZ 6 and FZ 7 (platform-margin
sand shoal and restricted open marine) of Wilson (1975)
and Flugel (2004).
Oolitic packstone-grainstone
Radial fibrous ooids are the major components of this
microfacies. The microfacies consists mainly of ooids with
subordinate fossils, intraclasts, and peloids. The nuclei are
composed of bioclast fragments and dark intraclasts
Fig. 5 a–e Eostaffella postmosquensis, X100, a: HB04-27, b: HB04-
53; c: HB04-08; d: HB04-51; e: HB04-41, f–i Eostaffella postmosq-uensis acutiformis, X100, f: HB04-21, g: HB04-09; h: HB04-08; i:HB04-26, j–r Eostaffella pseudostruvei, X100, j: HB04-07; k: HB04-
08; l: HB04-08; m: HB04-11; n: HB04-04; o: HB04-11; p: HB04-19;
q: HB04-14; r: HB04-19, s Millerella angusta, X100, s: HB04-08,
t–u Eostaffella postproikensis, X100, t: HB04-32; u: HB04-33; v–xEostaffella ex gr. ikensis, X60, v: HB04-48; w: HB04-50; x: HB04-
27; y–z Eostaffella tenebrosa, X60, HB04-31, aa–ab Eostaffellapinguis, X100, aa: HB04-05; ab: HB04-04, ac–ae Eostaffellinaparaprotvae, X100, ac: HB04-21; ad: HB04-14; ae: HB04-04, af–aiPlectostaffella bogdanovkensis, X100, af: HB04-07, ag: HB04-17;
ah: HB04-14; ai: HB04-09, aj–al Plectostaffella jakhensis, X100,
aj–ak: HB04-07; al: HB04-05, am–an Plectostaffella varvariensis,
X100, am: HB04-05; an: HB04-17, ao–at Semistaffella spp., X100,
ao–aq: HB04-10; ar–at: HB04-11
c
Facies
123
(Fig. 9g). The grains are bound by sparitic to microsparitic
calcite cement, in places with micrite.
The radial fibrous ooids and poorly washed micritic
matrix indicate that this facies might have formed under
moderate to high energy (Folk 1959; Dunham 1962;
Lehrmann et al. 2001; Flugel 2004; Rott and Qing 2005).
This facies was deposited landward of the oolitic sand
shoal and equates to FZ 6 and FZ 7 (platform-margin sand
shoal and restricted open-marine settings) of Flugel (2004).
Intraclastic grainstone
This lithofacies is characterized by intraclasts, peloids,
coated and micritized skeletal grains, and aggregate grains.
Aggregate grains are composite grains consisting of ooids
and bioclasts bounded together by organic film of algal
origin and dark intraclasts (Fig. 9h). The most common
skeletal grains are echinoid fragments and foraminifers,
such as palaeotextulariids, pseudoendothyrids, globivalvu-
linins, eostaffellids, and unilocular forms. The intergranu-
lar spaces are mainly filled with sparry calcite cement.
This microfacies occurs under moderate water energy
levels (Flugel 2004). The presence of aggregate grains
indicates that this facies type was deposited in a shallow
subtidal environment with restricted circulation (Flugel
1982; Pomoni-Papaioannou and Kostopoulou 2008). The
intraclastic grainstone facies is comparable to SMF 17
(aggregate grain grainstone) and FZ 7 to FZ 8 of Flugel
(2004).
Mudstone-Wackestone
The mudstone-wackestone lithofacies is characterized by
abundant lime mud. It is poorly fossiliferous to unfossil-
iferous and contains peloids (Fig. 10a, b).
Lack of fossils and presence of vugs in this internally
featureless microfacies indicate a low-energy, restricted
lagoonal environment behind the high-energy sand
shoals (Al-Tawil and Read 2003; Al-Tawil et al. 2003;
Amirshahkarami et al. 2007; Barnaby and Ward 2007;
Wanas 2008). This microfacies corresponds to the standard
microfacies SMF-23 (non-laminated homogenous micrite
and microsparite) and FZ 9 of Flugel (2004), typical of the
shallow subtidal zone of a restricted, quiet water (lagoon)
setting.
Quartz-peloidal grainstone
This microfacies is unfossiliferous and composed of well-
rounded and abraded peloids, fine subangular quartz grains,
whole and abraded ooids, and skeletal fragments (Table 2;
Fig. 10c, d).
The cross-bedded quartz-peloidal grainstone microfa-
cies is interpreted as an eolianite on the basis of criteria
presented by Dodd et al. (1993) and Hunter (1993). The
eolian quartz-peloidal grainstones differ significantly from
marine grainstones in their abundant subangular quartz
grains and pelloids, microscopic grading, rounded broken
ooids and lack of in situ fossils (Hunter 1993; Smith and
Read 1999; Dodd et al. 1993, 2001; Abegg and Handford
2001; Smith et al. 2001; Al-Tawil and Read 2003;
Al-Tawil et al. 2003).
Eolianites can occur within transgressive or regressive
parts of sequences or both (Carew and Mylroie 2001;
Smith et al. 2001; Frebourg et al. 2008). Smith et al. (2001)
stated that eolinates overlying subaerial exposure surfaces
are interpreted to be deposited during transgressions.
Within our studied section, the eolian quartz-peloidal
grainstone facies probably was deposited during trans-
gression. It is commonly capped by the quartz-arenitic
sandstone facies and occurs at the base of cycles generally
recognized at the bottom of the measured section. It is
equivalent to FZ 10 (peritidal zone) of Flugel (2004).
Quartz arenitic sandstone
This microfacies consists of very fine quartz sand to silt.
Fossils and other constituents are absent. It comprises more
than 95% quartz grains (Fig. 10e, f). A fine-grained sparry
calcite to micrite is present between grains.
Herringbone cross-bedding indicates that the quartz
arenitic sandstone facies was deposited in an intertidal or
possibly a foreshore environment (Elrick and Read 1991;
Khalifa 2005). This microfacies is generally deposited
during the regressive phase and records sea-level lowstands
(Fischer and Sarnthein 1988; Barnaby and Ward 2007).
Cycles at the bottom of the studied section are capped by
this facies. It corresponds to FZ 10 (peritidal zone) of
Flugel (2004).
Fig. 6 a–f Pseudoendothyra spp., a: HB04-45, X60; b–c: HB04-11,
X60; d: HB04-59, X60; e: HB04-08, X60; f: HB04-38, X80; g–hParaarchaediscus koktjubensis, X100, g: HB04-40; h: HB04-41, i–kParaarchaediscus ninae, X140, i: HB04-51; j: HB04-24; k: HB04-46,
l–m Paraarchaediscus stilus, X100, l: HB04-51; m: HB04-54,
n Eosigmolina sp., X140, HB04-29, o–p Archaediscus postmoelleri,X140, o: HB04-40; p: HB04-04, q Archaediscus moelleri, X80,
HB04-59, r Archaediscus ex gr. karreri, X80, HB04-46,
s–v Archaediscus longus, X140, s–t: HB04-04; u–v: HB04-05,
w–y Neoarchaediscus probatus, X140, w: HB04-27; x: HB04-29; y:
HB04-27, z–ab Neoarchaediscus subbaschkiricus, X140, z: HB04-
09; aa: HB04-21; ab: HB04-26, ac–ae Neoarchaediscus achimensis,
X100, ac: HB04-47; ad–ae: HB04-32, af–ag Neoarchaediscusparvus, X140, af: HB04-49; ag: HB04-63, ah–aj Asteroarchaediscusbaschkiricus, X140, ah: HB04-51; ai: HB04-52, aj: HB04-32, ak–amAsteroarchaediscus rugosus, X140, ak: HB04-33; al: HB04-54; am:
HB04-30
c
Facies
123
Depositional model and facies distributions
A depositional model (Fig. 11) has been constructed for the
Serpukhovian—Bashkirian boundary beds on the basis of
detailed microfacies analysis and the successive occurrence
of microfacies types in the section. According to this
model, four major depositional belts are envisaged, (1)
peritidal, (2) lagoonal, (3) oolitic shoal, and (4) open
marine. In the peritidal depositional belt, the most abundant
microfacies types are quartz arenitic sandstone and quartz-
peloid grainstone (Fig. 11). The quartz-peloidal grainstone
facies is interpreted as eolianite on the basis of abundant
quartz grains and other petrographic features observed in
thin-sections (Hunter 1993; Dodd et al. 1993, 2001; Abegg
and Handford 2001; Smith et al. 2001). Elrick and Read
(1991), Smith and Read (1999, 2001), Smith et al. (2001),
Al-Tawil and Read (2003), and Al-Tawil et al. (2003)
reported that the quartz-peloidal grainstone and quartz
arenitic sandstone facies types are deposited in tidally
influenced shallow-marine or foreshore environments.
The lagoonal belt is characterized by low-energy con-
ditions and deposition of mudstone-wackestone facies
(Fig. 11). The mudstone-wackestone facies is interpreted to
be of low-energy, lagoonal origin on its lack of fossils,
presence of vugs, and association with shallow-marine
deposits (Al-Tawil and Read 2003; Al-Tawil et al. 2003;
Amirshahkarami et al. 2007; Barnaby and Ward 2007;
Wanas 2008).
An oolitic shoal was the likely setting in which intra-
clastic grainstone, oolitic packstone-grainstone, oolitic
grainstone, and coated bioclastic grainstone facies accu-
mulated (Fig. 11). Studies performed by Elrick and Read
(1991), Al-Tawil and Read (2003), Della Porta et al. (2004),
Flugel (2004), Betzler et al. (2006), Cozar et al. (2006),
Armella et al. (2007), Barnaby and Ward (2007), Palma et al.
(2007) and Wanas (2008) indicated that these grainstone and
packstone-grainstone facies packages were deposited in a
high-energy environment above the wave base.
The coated crinoidal packstone was mainly deposited
basinward of the oolitic shoal at or around the wave base
(Elrick and Read 1991; Al-Tawil and Read 2003; Della
Porta et al. 2004). Although, open-marine mudstone-wa-
ckestone facies was not observed in the studied section, the
presence of the mud-rich coated crinoidal packstone facies
indicates that open-marine mudstones might be found in
close proximity to the oolitic shoal belt whose seaward
depositional limit is controlled by the wave base (Fig. 11).
Meter-scale shallowing-upward cycles
Shallow-marine carbonates are reliable indicators of sea-
level fluctuations because their lithologic properties reflect
water depth, energy, and faunal content (Goldhammer et al.
1990). Detailed microfacies analyses of carbonates allowed
us to recognize shallowing-upward cycles in the studied
succession. Different types of cycles, mainly peritidal-
subtidal in character, are observed in this study based on
the vertical succession of the defined microfacies types and
associated subenvironments. Six different types of meter-
scale cycles are defined and microfacies variations within
these cycle types are as follows:
Cycle type: A
This type of cycle is characterized by peritidal facies
associations with abundant quartz fragments (Fig. 12).
Quartz-peloid grainstones at the bottom are followed
upward by quartz arenitic sandstones indicating relative
sea-level fall.
Cycle type: B
This type is composed completely of intraclastic grainstone
facies and the grain size of clasts, lumps, and biological
elements show a marked coarsening at the cycle tops
(Fig. 12). The upward increase in grain size is interpreted
to indicate a decrease in the rate of sea-level rise.
Cycle type: C
Coated bioclastic grainstone microfacies occurs at the
bottom of this type of cycle and the succession continues
upward with oolitic packstone-grainstone and oolitic
grainstone facies. It is capped by intraclastic grainstones
(Fig. 12, C1). In some cycles, mudstone-wackestone facies
is observed at the top of the cycles (C2). Other variations
are the absence of packstone-grainstone and intraclastic
grainstone facies at the cycle tops (C3).
Cycle type: D
This type is characterized by the dominance of oolitic
grainstones and displays two variations in capping facies at
the top of the cycle. It starts with oolitic grainstones with
abundant bioclastic grains and grades upward into oolitic
packstone-grainstone microfacies. The cycle is capped by
Fig. 7 a–f Globivalvulina sp., X100, a–d: HB04-43; e: HB04-52; f:HB04-44, g–m Globivalvulina bulloides, X100, g: HB04-44; h:
HB04-54; i–j: HB04-51; k: HB04-16; l: HB04-05; m: HB04-50,
n Globivalvulina sp., X100, HB04-44, o–q Bradyina cribrostomata,
X40, o: HB04-41, p: HB04-30, q: HB04-41, r Bradyina sp., X40,
HB04-44, s–v Endothyra spp., X80, s: HB04-11; t: HB04-20,
u: HB04-16; v: HB04-39, w Mediocris breviscula, X100, HB04-44,
x–y Mediocris mediocris, X100, x: HB04-24; y: HB04-51, z–aaMillerella umblicata, X100, z: HB04-11; aa: HB04-08, ab–adMillerella marblensis, X100, ab, ad: HB04-11; ac: HB04-10
c
Facies
123
the intraclastic grainstone facies with abundant lumps,
indicating shallowing-upward condition (Fig. 12, D1). This
cycle is sometimes incomplete because of the absence of
intraclastic grainstone facies at the top (D2).
Cycle type: E
In this type, coated crinoidal packstone facies occurs at the
bottom of the cycle and continues upward with the coated
bioclastic grainstone facies. Oolitic grainstones lying at the
top of the cycle establish an upward-shallowing cycle
(Fig. 12).
Cycle type: F
Coated crinoidal packstone facies occurs at the bottom and
the upper half of the cycle is characterized by oolitic
grainstones with quartz fragments (Fig. 12, F1). This type
of cycle is sometimes capped by quartz arenitic sandstones,
indicating a shallowing trend leading to subaerial exposure
(F2).
Sequence stratigraphic interpretation
A sequence stratigraphic interpretation is put forward
based on the microfacies associations of shallowing-
upward cycles and landward—basinward shifts in diag-
nostic facies belts. Vertical stacking patterns of the meter-
scale cycles are used to define systems tracts, large-scale
sequences, and sea-level fluctuations (Goldhammer et al.
1990; Osleger and Read 1991; Amirshahkarami et al.
2007). The vertical evolution of microfacies and the
interaction of cycle types within the studied section allow
the identification of two depositional sequences and part of
a third sequence (Fig. 13). Because of the absence of
exposure surfaces and erosional boundaries in the section,
sequence boundaries were identified by abrupt facies
changes. The first and third sequence boundaries in the
section were placed above quartz arenitic sandstones. The
second sequence boundary was placed at the top of the
mudstone-wackestone facies underlying relatively deeper,
coated bioclastic grainstone facies (Fig. 13).
Each sequence comprises a package of transgressive and
highstand systems tracts. The first sequence is marked by
peritidal lagoonal and oolitic facies associations. The
transgressive systems tract of the first sequence is domi-
nantly composed of siliciclastic facies and the highstand
systems tract is dominantly carbonate. The transgressive
systems tract consists of quartz arenitic sandstones, quartz-
peloidal grainstones, and intraclastic grainstone facies and
is characterized mainly by A and B-type cycles (Fig. 13).
In this sequence, the maximum flooding surface has been
placed at the base of coated bioclastic grainstone facies
(Fig. 13). The highstand systems tract consists of oolitic
shoal grainstones and lagoonal mudstone-wackestone
facies and comprises the genetical stacking of C1, C2, C3,
and D1, D2-type cycles (Fig. 13).
The second depositional sequence has been identified by
the deposition of relatively deeper, coated bioclastic
grainstones over lagoonal mudstone-wackestone facies.
The transgressive systems tract of this sequence is repre-
sented by C1 and D1 type cycles (Fig. 13) comprising
oolitic shoal facies, oolitic grainstones, coated bioclastic
grainstones, and intraclastic grainstones. The maximum
flooding surface is situated on top of the intraclastic
grainstones and at the base of the coated crinoidal pack-
stone facies. The highstand systems tract of this sequence is
represented by E and F1, F2-type cycles (Fig. 13) con-
sisting of relatively deeper, coated crinoidal grainstones
and oolitic grainstones with quartz fragments towards the
upper part and the sequence is capped by quartz arenitic
sandstone facies.
The scale of cyclicity in the measured section near
Hadim is comparable to that in the Late Paleozoic sea level
chart of Ross and Ross (1987, 1988), the sequence strati-
graphic chart of the Donets Basin constructed by Izart et al.
(2003) and the main transgressive–regressive sequences of
Davydov et al. (2004). Importantly, however, the position
of the mid-Carboniferous boundary in our study does not
coincide with a sequence boundary as interpreted by other
investigators. Ross and Ross (1987, 1988) considered the
coastal onlap curves of various regions worldwide and
concluded that the mid-Carboniferous boundary falls
between their third-order sequences N3 and N4 (Fig. 14).
In Ross and Ross (1987, 1988), the sequence stratigraphic
placement of the mid-Carboniferous boundary follows
Ramsbottom (1973, 1977, 1979 and 1981) and Ramsbot-
tom et al. (1978) who subdivided the Carboniferous of
England into mesothems, a concept introduced for depo-
sitional sequences larger than cyclothems but smaller than
the ‘sequences’ of Sloss (1963) and close to the deposi-
tional sequence concept of Vail and Mitchum (1977). The
sequence stratigraphic framework of Ramsbottom (1979)
was also used by Izart et al. (2003) who placed the mid-
Carboniferous boundary between their sequences N5 and
Fig. 8 a–b Diplosphearina inequalis, X100, a: HB04-12; b:HB04-
52, c–d Tuberitina sp., X100, c: HB04-45; d: HB04-43, e–hPseudoglomospira spp., X100, e, g: HB04-51; f: HB04-33;
h: HB04-45, i–k Paleonubecularia spp., X100, i: HB04-02;
j: HB04-11; k: HB04-10, l–o Turrispiroides sp., X100, l, m, o:
HB04-16; n: 08, P Paleotextularia sp., X40, HB04-39, q Climacam-mina sp., X40, HB04-11, r Cribrostomum? sp., X40, HB04-45,
s Tetrataxis sp., X100, HB04-30, t Endotaxis sp., X100, HB04-08,
u–w Insolentitheca horrida (=syzgial cyst of different authors.
For references, see Vachard and Cozar 2004), X80, u: HB04-01;
v: HB04-09; w: HB04-11
c
Facies
123
N6. According to Izart et al. (2003), the mid-Carboniferous
boundary also coincides with the boundary between SS5
and SB1 of their fourth or third-order depositional
sequences in the Donets Basin (Fig. 14). Elsewhere in
Eastern Europe, for example in the Russian Platform and
the Urals, the mid-Carboniferous boundary corresponds to
a gap and cannot be interpreted within a sequence strati-
graphic framework of the region (Alekseev et al. 1996;
Izart et al. 2003). Davydov et al. (2004), by stating that the
Carboniferous cyclic sequences are of glacio-eustatic ori-
gin and therefore global, depicted the mid-Carboniferous
boundary as coinciding with the boundary (Bsh 1) of their
transgressive–regressive depositional cycles in the marine
shallow-water cratonic shelves (Fig. 14).
We suggest here that previous studies placing the mid-
Carboniferous boundary at a sequence boundary are flawed
Table 1 Correlation chart of Upper Serpukhovian to Lower Bashkirian according to Vdovenko et al. (1990), Rui et al. (1996), Shcherbakov
(1997), and Maslo and Vachard (1997)
Russian Platform Donets Basin Urals Western Europe North America In this study
Stages Substages Horizons Horizons Horizons Horizons System Series Horizons
Bashkirian Lower Krasnopolyansky Feninsky Syuransky R (Reticuloceras) Pennsylvanian
(part)
Morrowan Syuransky
Voznesensky Voznesensky Bogdanovsky H (Homoceras) Bogdanovsky
Serpukhovian Upper Zapaltyubinsky Zapaltyubinsky Ustsarbasky E2 (part)
(Eumorphoceras)
Mississippian
(part)
Chesterian Zapaltyubinsky
Table 2 Carbonate and siliciclastic facies and their depositional environments in the studied section
No. Facies type Description Grain types/fossils Position
within
the cycle
Depositional
environment
1 Coated crinoidal
packstone
Bioclastic packstone composed
mainly of crinoids with micritic
envelops
Crinoid fragments, gastropods,
foraminifers, and bivalves
Base Open marine
2 Coated bioclastic
grainstone
Grainstone mainly composed of
skeletal grains with micritic
envelopes or biogenic
encrustations
Foraminifers, crinoids and
echinoid fragments, gastropods,
pelloids, lumps and bioclasts
Base–
middle
Sand shoals (shoal)
3 Oolitic grainstone Grainstone with oolites and
bioclasts
Foraminifers, bioclasts, crinoids
and echinoid fragments, and
gastropods
Base–
middle
Sand shoals (shoal)
Grainstone with radial-fibrous
oolites and quartz grains (*5%)
Oolites with radial structure and
quartz grain
Top Restricted environment
(shoal)
4 Oolitic packstone-
grainstone
Packstone to grainstone composed
of oolites and skeletal grains
Crinoids and echinoid fragments,
peloids, dark intraclasts, lumps,
foraminifers and gastropods
Top–
middle
Sand shoals (shoal)
5 Intraclastic grainstone Grainstone consisting of mainly
intraclasts, lumps, and dark
clasts.
Foraminifers, intraclasts, lumps
and micritized grains
Middle–top Restricted Platform
Interior
(Shoal)
6 Mudstone-wackestone No fossils or few fossils,
homogenous lime mud
Unfossiliferous Top Lagoon platform interior
(lagoonal—restricted)
7 Quartz-peloid grainstone Peloidal packstone which contains
*25% quartz grains
Peloids and quartz grains Base Peritidal (landward side)
8 Quartz arenitic sandstone Sandstone composed very fine
sand to silt-sized quartz grains
Quartz grains, unfossiliferous Top Peritidal (landward side)
Fig. 9 Photomicrographs of microfacies determined in the measured
section. Scale bar is 0.5 mm in length and valid for each photograph,
a–b coated crinoidal packstone (sample HB 09), c–d coated bioclastic
grainstone (sample HB 47), e oolitic grainstone with dominantly
bioclasts (sample HB 41), f oolitic grainstone with quartz grains
(sample HB 20), g oolitic grainstone-packstone (sample HB 21),
h intraclastic grainstone (sample HB 49)
c
Facies
123
by incorrectly integrating biostratigraphic datums within
the sequence stratigraphic framework. Our study based on
bed-scale sampling, stacking patterns of parasequences,
and clearly delineated sequence boundaries suggests that
the mid-Carboniferous boundary does not coincide with a
sequence boundary and is located within a transgressive
systems tract, approximately 3 m above the sequence
boundary.
Fig. 10 Photomicrographs of microfacies determined in the mea-
sured section. Scale bar is 0.5 mm in length and valid for
each photograph, a–b mudstone-wackestone (sample HB 03, HB
34), c–d quartz-peloid grainstone (sample HB 53, HB 59), e–f quartz
arenitic sandstone (sample HB 64)
Facies
123
In bed-scale studies carried out at the mid-Carboniferous
GSSP (Lane et al. 1999; Barnet and Wright 2008), the
boundary was found to fall within a depositional sequence.
In Lane et al. (1999), the boundary lies 68 cm above the
sequence boundary and is placed at the transition between
the transgressive systems tract and the regressive systems
tract (Fig. 14). Richards et al. (2002) and Ellwood et al.
(2007) used this boundary within the same sequence
stratigraphic framework for the application of their mag-
neto susceptibility event method and cyclostratigraphy
studies. A similar sequence stratigraphic approach by
Barnet and Wright (2008) enable them to identify the
boundary within their High-Frequency Cycle 4 (Fig. 14).
Haq and Schutter (2008) also concluded that the mid-
Carboniferous boundary lies within one of their High-
Frequency Cycles (Fig. 14).
Fig. 11 Composite model illustrating the microfacies distribution of Serpukhovian—Bashkirian boundary beds in the studied section
Fig. 12 General aspects of
shallowing-upward cycles in the
mid-Carboniferous beds in
Hadim region
Facies
123
Duration of cycles
Stratigraphic cycles of different orders are defined by
duration: first order ([100 my), second order (10–100 my),
third order (1–10 my), fourth order (0.1–1 my) and fifth
order (0.01–0.1 my) (Goldhammer et al. 1990, 1993;
Lehrmann and Goldhammer 1999). High-frequency fourth,
fifth, or higher order shallowing-upward depositional
cycles are the building blocks of lower-frequency (third-
order) depositional sequences in carbonates (Goldhammer
et al. 1990; Read 1995). Climatic variations result from
cyclic changes in the earth’s orbital parameters such as
Fig. 13 Columnar section showing meter-scale shallowing-upward cycles and sequences (SB sequence boundary, mfs maximum flooding
surface. For parasequence symbols see Fig. 12)
Facies
123
eccentricity, obliquity, and precession. Quaternary eccen-
tricity varies at periods of about 100 ky and 400 ky,
whereas precession cycles have dominant periodicities of
approximately 23 ky and 19 ky and obliquity cycles have
periodicities of about 41 ky. Collier et al. (1990) based on
their computer simulations of coastline movement that
illustrate the interaction of the tectonic subsidence, depo-
sition and eustasy estimated that Carboniferous precession
had periodicities of approximately 19.5 ky and 16.6 ky and
obliquity had a period of 31.1 ky.
The time interval represented by strata at the studied
section is approximately 2 my by comparison with cor-
relative cycles and horizon boundaries in the Donets Basin
identified by Izart et al. (2003). Considering facies evolu-
tion and stacking patterns in the Tauride section, 18 shal-
lowing-upward cycles (parasequences) are identified
between correlated levels. Dividing the time span of 2 my
by the number of cycles, the average duration of a cycle
was calculated approximately as 100 ky.
Cyclic sedimentation has been documented in Carbon-
iferous strata worldwide and has been attributed to sea-
level fluctuations driven by climatic changes (Ross and
Ross 1987; Read 1995). The higher-frequency cycles are
caused by the waxing and waning of polar ice-caps
(Read 1995; Lever 2004) and many studies (Fischer 1984;
Gonzalez 1990; Frakes et al. 1992; Eyles et al. 1993;
Garzanti and Sciunnach 1997; Mii et al. 1999; Miller and
Eriksson 2000; Smith and Read 2000; Wright and Van-
stone 2001; Izart et al. 2003; Rygel et al. 2008; Haq and
Schutter 2008; Barnet and Wright 2008) indicate that the
Serpukhovian—Bashkirian interval occurred during an
episode of glacial activity. Periods with glacial icehouse
climatic conditions are characterized by high-amplitude
change in sea level (Veevers and Powell 1987; Read 1995;
Rankey 1999) driven by the 100 ky cyclicity of eccentricity
(House 1995; Read 1995). In this study, 100-ky meter-scale
cycles lead us to conclude that the cyclicity was glacio-
eustatically controlled eccentricity cycle.
Conclusions
A stratigraphic section in the Hadim region of the Central
Taurides is characterized mainly by carbonate deposits
intercalated with quartz arenitic sandstones. High-resolu-
tion foraminiferal biostratigraphy allows identification of
the mid-Carboniferous boundary and four biostratigraphic
zones. The upper Serpukhovian part of the section is
assigned to the Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis—E. postmosqu-
ensis zone and correlated with the Zapaltyubinsky Horizon.
The lower Bashkirian part of the section is divided into
three zones, namely Plectostaffella bogdanovkensis—
P. jakhensis Zone, Millerella marblensis Zone and Semi-
staffella sp. Zone. These zones allow correlation to the
lower Bogdanovsky, upper Bogdanovsky and Syuransky
horizons, respectively. The mid-Carboniferous boundary
lies between Eostaffella ex gr. ikensis—E. postmosquensis
Zone and Plectostaffella jakhensis—P. bogdanovkensis
Zone.
The mid-Carboniferous boundary beds comprise various
siliciclastic and carbonate microfacies types whose stack-
ing patterns represent shallowing upward cycles. Based on
their texture and composition the studied subtidal shallow-
water carbonate succession is differentiated into eight mi-
crofacies types interpreted to have accumulated in four
depositional belts. Vertical associations among the mi-
crofacies types allow for the recognition of six different
(A–F) cycles and two sedimentary depositional sequences.
The duration of meter-scale cycles was calculated as
approximately 100 ky that corresponds to eccentricity
cycles which are dominant during icehouse periods such as
the Mississippian-Pennsylvanian transition (House 1995;
Read 1995).
The mid-Carboniferous boundary in the studied section
does not coincide with the sequence boundary, but lies
approximately 3 m above a sequence boundary within a
transgressive systems tract. In contrast, many previous
studies have placed the mid-Carboniferous boundary at a
Fig. 14 Correlation of the sequence stratigraphic interpretations of different authors around the mid-Carboniferous boundary
Facies
123
sequence boundary. This discrepancy arises because in
many cratonic areas, the mid-Carboniferous boundary
coincides with a subaerial exposure surface at which there
was a lengthy hiatus. Our results are consistent with
investigations of the mid-Carboniferous boundary in dee-
per shelf and basinal settings, such as the Arrow Canyon
GSSP, where the transition was preserved by continuous
sedimentation (Lane et al. 1999; Richards et al. 2002;
Bishop et al. 2009 and the references therein). The sea-
level chart of Haq and Schutter (2008) correctly places the
boundary within a depositional sequence.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to John Groves for his
useful remarks on an earlier version of the manuscript. The editor of
FACIES and the referees, Daniel Vachard and Pedro Cozar, are also
acknowledged for their constructive reviews.
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