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Ugwoke Oluchi C.
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER GUIDANCE
ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION OF
APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN NIGER STATE
MUSA, ABDULLAHI
PG/Ph.D/11/58880
2
EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER
GUIDANCE ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS
ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN
NIGER STATE
BY
MUSA, ABDULLAHI
PG/Ph.D/11/58880
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS,
FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
MARCH, 2015.
i
TITLE PAGE
EFFECT OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING OF CAREER GUIDANCE
ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION OF
APPRENTICES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN NIGER STATE
BY
MUSA, ABDULLAHI
PG/Ph.D/11/58880
A Ph.D THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, FACULTY OF EDUCATION,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA, IN FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING
MARCH, 2015
ii
APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the Department of Educational
Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
BY
________________________ ______________________
Asso. Prof J.C. Omeje Internal Examiner
Supervisor
__________________________ ________________________
External Examiner Prof. C.J.A Onwuka
Head of Department
__________________________
Prof. U. C. Umo
Dean Faculty of Education
iii
CERTIFICATION
Musa, Abdullahi a postgraduate student in the Department of Educational
Foundations, Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka with
Registration Number PG\Ph.D\11\58880, has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) in
Guidance and Counselling.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in
part or full for any other degree or diploma of this university or any other
university.
_______________________ _____________________
MUSA, ABDULLAHI ASSO. PROF. J.C. OMEJE
(STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR)
iv
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my dear mother Hajiya Ramatu Idrisu Musa who
is one of my benefactors that laboured and toiled but could not see the fruit of her
joy.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A work of this magnitude cannot be shouldered alone but collectively
critiqued by well-meaning academia. First on the score list is the researcher’s
supervisor Asso. Prof. J.C. Omeje, that lifted him thrice in the threshold of despair
and abandonment during the attainment of this scholastic achievement. This is
through the supervisor’s benevolent and timely reconstruction of grammatical
errors, exposing the hidden facts and re-directing the researcher’s ideas into an
acceptable fountain. Infact, the researcher is short of vocabulary to express his
gratitude, thank you, sir.
The researcher is indebted to these notable scholars Dr. A. N Okolo, Prof. P.
N. Onwasoanya, Dr. T. O. Oforka and Dr. J. A. Ukonze all of the Faculty of
Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their constructive criticisms during
the stage of proposal defense.
The researcher is grateful to these outstanding scholars Prof. A. A Nwosu,
Dr. J. I. Anyanwu , Dr. E. N. Nwosu and Dr. F. M. Onu all of the Faculty of
Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their positive criticisms and helpful
suggestions during the phase of seminar presentation.
The researcher also acknowledges these scholars for validation of data
collection instruments, Dr. J. Jiya of the Department of Education and Counselling
Psychology, Faculty of Arts and Education, Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida
University Lapai, Niger State-Nigeria. Dr. (Mrs) J.U. Eze of Department of
Educational Foundations and Dr. J. J. Ezeugwu of the Department of Science
Education all in Faculty of Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
The researcher also recognizes his Dean Professor U.C. Umo and his Head
of Department Prof. C.J.A Onwuka who worked tirelessly and humbly to ensure
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that quality is maintained in the faculty of education sub sector of the University.
This they achieved by showering love, care and intelligent corrections and
suggestions both directly and indirectly. The researcher is most grateful for your
touch to his life. May the Almighty God continue his good tiding on you? Amen.
The researcher wish to express his gratitude to those who provided moral
support and encouragement to enable the work completed, especially Barrister
Hamza Muazu and Abubakar Alhaji Dauda of the Ministry of Tertiary Education
Minna, Niger State. His gratitude extends to those who grapple with absentee head
of house hold, his wife, children and family members during his seemingly sojourn
for academic fulfillment. Finally, Almighty God for giving him good health to
accomplish this task.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS Page
TITLE PAGE I
APPROVAL PAGE II
CERTIFICATION III
DEDICATION IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT V
TABLE OF CONTENT VII
LIST OF TABLES XI
LIST OF FIGURE XIII
APPENDICES XIV
ABSTRACT XV
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Significance of the Study 13
Scope of the Study 15
Research Questions 15
Hypotheses 16
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 18
Conceptual Framework 19
Concept of Employment 19
viii
Concept of Skill Acquisition 22
Concept of Bakery Skills 24
Concept of Soap Making Skills 29
Concept of Apprentice 32
Concept of Career Guidance 33
Conceptual Relationship 36
Theoretical Framework 38
Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (1980) 38
Anderson ACT-R (1983) 41
Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982) 43
Career Guidance Theories 45
Accident Theory 45
Self-Efficacy Theory 46
Review of Empirical Studies 47
Career Guidance and Skill Acquisitions 47
Gender and Performance 49
Age and Skill Acquisition 52
Gender and Skill Acquisition 53
Summary of Literature Review 57
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 59
Design of the study 59
Area of the Study 60
Population of the Study 60
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Sample and Sampling Technique 61
Instrument for Data Collection 61
Validation of the Instrument 62
Reliability of the Instrument 62
Experimental Procedure 63
Control of Extraneous Variables 63
Method of Data Collection 64
Method of Data Analysis 65
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 66
Summary of the Findings 85
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 87
Discussion of Results 87
Conclusion 90
Implications of the Findings 90
Recommendations 91
Limitations of the Study 92
Suggestions for Further Study 93
Summary of the Study 93
References 96
Appendices 105
x
LIST OF TABLES
CONTENTS Page
1. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after
Training in Dreyfus Model and those in the Control Group 66
2. Summary of ANCOVA in the Mean Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores between
Soap Making Apprentices after Training and those without Training in
Dreyfus Model 68
3. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores by Gender of Apprentices in Soap Making
Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 69
4. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Scores by gender (Male
and female) of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 69
5. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores between Young Adults and Older Adults
Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 71
6. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Scores between Young Adults’ and
Older Adults Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 72
7. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and
Age of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 73
8. Summary of ANCOVA in Soap Making Skills Interaction Effect Scores between
Gender and Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 75
9. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of Apprentices in Bakery Skills after
Training in Dreyfus Model 76
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10. Summary of ANCOVA in the Mean Pre-Test and Post-Test Score between Bakery
Skills Apprentices after Training and those without Training in Dreyfus Model 77
11. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores by gender of Apprentices in Bakery Skills
after Training in Dreyfus Model 78
12. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills Scores between Male and Female
Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 80
13. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores between Young Adults and Older Adults
Apprentices in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 81
14. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills scores between Young Adults and
Older Adults Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 82
15. Pre-test and Post-test Mean Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and
Age of Apprentices in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model 83
16. Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Skills Interaction Effect Scores between
Gender and Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model 84
xii
LIST OF FIGURE
CONTENT Page
1. Conceptual Relationship Between Independent Variable and both the Dependable
Variables\Intervening Variables of Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition 37
xiii
APPENDICES
CONTENTS Page
APPENDIX A Unemployment Rates by State (1999-2008) 105
APPENDIX B Unemployment Rates by Age, Group and Sector (1999-2008) 106
APPENDIX C Unemployment Rate by State and Gender (2010) 107
APPENDIX D Unemployment Rate by Level of Education, Age, Gender and
Sector (2010) 108
APPENDIX E Unemployment Projections to 2015 109
APPENDIX F Time-Table of Weekly Training Activities of Dreyfus Model
Training on Bakery Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 110
APPENDIX G Time-Table of Weekly Training Activities of Dreyfus Model
Training on Soap Making Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 111
APPENDIX H Treatment Packages - The Detail of Dreyfus Model Training
Programme on Bakery Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 112
APPENDIX I Treatment Packages - The Detail of Dreyfus Model Training
Programme on Soap Making Skills Acquisition for Career Guidance 120
APPENDIX J Dreyfus Model Bakery Skills Acquisition Test (DMBSAT) on
Acquisition for Apprentices 130
APPENDIX K Dreyfus Model Soap Making Skills Acquisition Test (DMSMSAT)
Skills Acquisition for Apprentices 137
APPENDIX L Marking Scheme 144
APPENDIX M Introductory Letter to Proprietor of Skills Acquisition Centre 146
APPENDIX N Introductory Letter to Apprentices at Skills Acquisition 147
APPENDIX O Reliability Test Analysis 148
APPENDIX P Sample Attendance Certificate 150
APPENDIX Q Pretest and Posttest Data Analysis 151
xiv
ABSTRACT
The main thrust of this study is on the effect of Dreyfus Model Training of career guidance on
Soap Making and Bakery Skills acquisition of apprentices for employment in Niger State. The
model is divided into five stages: Novice, Advance Beginner, Competence, Proficient and
Expert. Eight research questions and eight null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significant
guided this work. The research design adopted for the study was the quasi experimental non
equivalent group in which a total of 168 apprentices were purposively sampled from four skills
acquisition centres in Minna. The two instruments used for collection of data from the
respondents were Bakery Skills Acquisition Test (BSAT) and Soap Making Skills Acquisition
Test (SMSAT), each instrument consist of 20 items segmented into five stages. The instrument
was validated by three experts in Guidance and Counselling, Science Education and Counselling
Psychology out of which two are from University of Nigeria, Nsukka and one from Ibrahim
Badamasi Babangida University Lapai, Niger State-Nigeria. The reliability of the instrument in
terms of internal consistency was based on a trial test conducted at Skills Acquisition Section of
Women Day College Minna with a sample size of 60 respondents, using the Cronbach Alpha
Statistics with an index of 0.81 for the BSAT instrument and 0.80 for the SMSAT instrument.
Four skills acquisitions centres were purposively sampled for both experimental group and the
control group. The experimental group for soap making skills is located at Chanchaga Skills
Acquisition Centre Minna while the control group is located at Saint Clement Skills Acquisition
Centre Minna. Whereas, the experimental group for bakery skills is located at Talba Youths
Skills Acquisition Centre Minna with the control group at Women Day Centre Minna. All the
four skills acquisition centres were pretested and post tested on the two instruments after
treatment by the researcher on Dreyfus Model Training. The data collected were analyzed using
mean, standard deviation and ANCOVA. The findings show that there was significant difference
between the mean achievement scores of apprentices after training on Dreyfus Model in soap
making and those without the training. Similarly, there was significance difference between the
mean achievement scores of apprentices after training on Dreyfus Model in bakery skills and
those without the training. Finally, there were no significant interaction effect scores differences
after training on Dreyfus Model in soap making skills and bakery skills of apprentices. These
findings were discussed alongside with their implications and recommendations. One
recommendation is for mass production of text books and learning materials for all levels and
forms of education. This will open a window of new opportunity to teachers and instructors of
skills acquisition centres to employ the Dreyfus Model training which has inherent advantage
because of its systematic approach to problem solving. Limitations encountered during the study
and suggestions for further studies highlighted.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In Nigeria the birth of a child is heralded with fanfare and joy. The dream of any family is to
educate the child to acquire appropriate skills so as to contribute his quota to the development of
his society when employed. This view is further entrenched in the National Policy of Education
as encapsulated in one of the five main objective of Nigeria’s national development plan which
is the building of a land full of bright and opportunities for all citizens. To facilitate the
attainment of this objective, the skills acquisition at all levels had to be oriented towards meeting
the demands and aspirations for the common good of the society. In this direction, the
government operating the different levels of education is over burdened, especially with increase
in population to providing adequate infrastructural equipment and personnel for imparting the
required skills for national development. Therefore, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) goes
further to state that government welcomes and encourages the participation of local
communities, individual and other organizations that will lubricate the process of graduate
employment through the provision of learning materials in schools, establishment of institutions
and skills acquisition centres across the country (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).
An employed person is capable of effective participation in the development of the
society. According to International Labour Organization (ILO) as cited by European Union
Labour Force Survey (EULFS) (2006) employed persons are those aged 16-74years who during
the week of the survey performed work, even for just one hour in that week, for pay, profit or
family gain or were not at work but had a job or business from which they may be temporary
1
2
absent because of illness, holiday, industrial dispute and education\training. In another
perspective, Economic Concept (2012) sees employment as an engagement of a person in some
occupation, business, trade or profession. For the purposes of the work, employed person is any
person within the age range of 18-70years who works for himself or somebody during the period
of the survey. In Nigeria, 18 years is the entering point for voting in elections and entry to higher
institutions, while 70years is the highest retirement age in government sector in Nigeria. Self
employed implies working for yourself, family or employing others to work for you. While,
working for somebody connotes working for government, private organizations or individuals. In
Nigeria, the three tiers of government are the highest employer of labour followed by
multinational corporations and companies. However, the dream of any person if employed is to
effectively participate in the development of his society but the current state of graduate
unemployment turns the dream to a nightmare.
Unemployment signs are readily visible in our society but difficult to define as it is a very
complex phenomenon that involves issues related to that of lay-off workers, absentee employee
as a result of illness or students in school. The view point of unemployment in developed
countries varies from that of developing countries due to level of industrialization that
characterizes the society. According to International Labour Organization as cited by European
Union Labour Force Survey (2006), unemployed persons comprise persons aged 16-74 years
who are of three groups: (a) Without work during the week of the survey, that is neither had a
job nor were at work (for one hour or more) in paid employment or self-employment; (b)
currently available for work, that is, will be available for paid employment or self-employment
before the end of the two weeks following the week of the survey; (c) actively seeking work, that
is, had taken specific steps in the four week period ending with week of the survey to seek for
3
paid employment or self-employment or who found a job to start later, that is, within a period of
at most three months.
According to Rashma (2012) unemployment is a condition of joblessness for the period
of the survey. The joblessness should not be voluntary as some people avoid work due to
laziness. They are jobless not from necessity but from choice. This may include the idle rich and
poor persons who may not like to work. The same goes to the social parasite as beggars and
political thugs that are voluntarily jobless. Thus, unemployment is a case of involuntary failure to
get income-yielding and gainful work. The researcher’s operational definition of unemployment
is any person within the age range of 18-70 who is seeking for work but without acceptable
means of work during the survey period. Acceptable means of work in terms of legal status in
Nigeria and without criminal tendencies. The detail data on unemployment in Niger state and
other states in Nigeria base on different variables is illustrated by the National Bureau of
Statistics (see appendix A-E pages 120-124), Unemployment often leads to living below poverty
line that may due to the fact that the person lacks appropriate skills. Skills avail a person the
opportunity of employment in the labour market. The wages and emolument of the employed
person to a greater extent determines his socio-economic status or poverty line. Therefore, skills
are important to any labour market.
There exist divergent views as to what skills stand for, in the opinion of some scholars
skills enable people gain employment, Others feel everyone is born with one form of skill or the
other. According to European Union Programme (2011), skill is the ability to act in accordance
with well managed models of behavour, which enables the achievement of certain purpose or
aim. Furthermore, Skills can be both cognitive involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative
thinking and practical involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials tools and
4
instruments. Furthermore, in relation to competency in learning outcome, skill can be seen as the
practical learning outcome, knowledge as the learning input into skills development, attitude as
an acquired mode of behaviour influenced by internal and external motivation and characteristics
as a disposition related to innate talent.
In an attempt to provide an inter-disciplinary approach to the term skill, Green (2011)
asserts from political economy point of view that skill is a personal quality with three key
features namely: Productive, Expanded and Social (PES). In terms of being productive, skill is
productive of value in generating wealth when employed. Expandable implies that skills are
enhanced by training and development while social means that skills are socially determined.
This definition has a boundary which makes the concept functional for locating skill role in
economic, psychology and social systems. In economics it is significant to the changing
distribution of income while in sociology skills underpin class or stratification of the society and
in psychology as a human research practice.
In another opinion, Speelman (2005) Skills acquisition is seen as a specific form of
prolonged learning about a family of events. These come through many pairing of similar stimuli
with particular responses and in the process, a person can begin to develop knowledge
representation of how to respond to certain situations. This representation has some form of
privileged status in memory because they can be retrieved more easily and reliably than
memories of single events. Thus, any response that can be learned can potentially be refined with
practice given the right conditions. In addition, Speelman (2005) continues that the range of
behavior that can be considered to involve skills acquisition could potentially include all
responses that are not innate. In addition, skill is a task that is difficult to acquire which lead to
5
the notion that only those who have the patience to do simple things perfectly ever acquire the
skills to do difficult things easily.
Skills acquisition is a form of learning. The simple processes of skills acquisition
includes: observation, trial and error, practice, imitation, demonstration, listening, nasal
perception, tasting, reading, writing, and so forth either through formal education, non-formal
education and traditional education (Fafunwa, 2004). However, the complex processes of skills
acquisition are: interest, competition, cooperation, progress level and resting (Adeyemo, 1965
and Farrant, 2004). Thus, there is need for coordination between individual’s five senses and the
brain in order to acquire a skill.
The researcher views skills acquisition as an enriching inter play between the three
domains which are cognitive, psycho-motor and affective of individual towards increasing
productive capacity of the society. An enriched inter play implies the processes of acquiring
skills in school or out of school experiences. This is achieved by developing the learner’s innate
cognitive, manipulative abilities and attitude towards the needs of the society. These skills can
be acquired in a formal setting in the conventional schools or in an in formal setting as in a
master’s workshop, shade for example blacksmithing and pottery or in non formal setting as in
skills acquisition centres. There are dozens of these skills acquisition centre’s owned by
government, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) and individuals for apprentices in the
state that provide opportunities for skills acquisition in tailoring, soap making, knitting, food
production (like baking), welding, chalk and duster production, screen printing, paint
production, aquaculture and shoe making, among others.(Ministry of Youth and Strategy, 2013)
6
Youths are the apprentices that benefit mostly from these skills acquisition centers as they
are the bulk of the unemployed persons and if not engaged could lead to other vices in the
society like stealing. According to a report released by Economics Watch as cited by Agunbade
(2013), categorized youth into three groups these are: 15-19years (youngest adults); 20-24years
(young adults) and 24 > above (older adults). The apprentices in these skills acquisition centers
could be broadly divided into two; those aged 20years and below as young adults and above
20years as older adults.
In as much as various skills are acquired, those that satisfy the daily needs of the society
are bakery skills and soap making skills. While the former takes good care of the internal body
the latter takes care of the external body. However, the soaring price of bread and its sub-quality
due to the use of unaccepted ingredients such as preservatives and saccharine have deterred
people from taking bread which was once a staple food on different family’s table. Similarly, the
proliferation of local soap industries has seriously affected the quality of soap produced now.
The present day soap readily wastes away during use.
From the foregoing it is important to study the process of skills acquisition in soap
making and baking bread. The ingredients for the production of bread are flour, sugar, yeast, salt
and water among others. According to Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974) the specific skills
for baking of bread are creaming the yeast, mixing the dough, proving, firing, greasing and
baking in the oven. While the essential raw materials for soap are the fat, oil, lye and water. The
core skills in soap making are measurement, stirring, scenting, moulding, drying and cutting
(Deyo, 2008). However, there are certain skills that are useful for both, soap making and making
of bread which are often called the generic skills. The generic skills according to Human
Resources and Skills Development (2012) as regards documentation are; reading, document use,
7
oral communication, writing, and numeracy. While the thinking skills are; problem solving,
decision making, critical thinking, job task, planning, organization, use of memory and finding
solutions. Other skills are; working with others, computer use, continuous learning and note
taking. The complexity of life demands that these acquired skills needed to be refine on regular
basis.
There are several ways in which skills acquired can be refined. These ways of refining
skills lead to theories of skills acquisition. These theories can largely be grouped thus:
Refinement Strategy theories, Memory Retrieval theories and Blended theories. The Refinement
Strategy theories proposed that practice leads to performance improvement because practice has
the effect of refining procedures for performing a task. Examples of these theories are Anderson
Adaptive Control of Thought–Rational (ACT-R, 1983), Newell and Rosenblooms State of
Operator and Result (SOAR, 1982). In addition, the Connectionists Model involve network of
inter connected units, with each unit being activated by the firing pattern in units to which it is
connected. Once a unit is activated, it can pass on the activation to other unit (McClellard &
Rumelhart, 1986). While the Memory Retrieval theories viewed performance improvement as a
by-product of some consequences of practice. Some of these theories hold that practice leads to
greater knowledge for instance Logan’s INSTANCES theory (1988).
The Blended theories of skills acquisition have begun to blur the boundaries between
strategy refinement and memory retrieval performances as explanation of performance
improvement. Another model of this theory in skills acquisition is highlighted by Pena (2010) as
propose by two brothers Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus in 1980 named the Dreyfus Model of skills
acquisition which is a segment of this study. The original model has only five stages: which
include: Novice where the learner follows rules as they are given without context; Advance
8
Beginner in which the learner is limited to situational perception; Competence where the learner
develops perception of action in relation to goals; Proficient is the stage where learners develop
intuition to guide their decision and even able to develop their own rules. The Expertise stage is
where the learner develops analytical approach to a new problem.
These stages of Dreyfus model can be related to the process of bakery and soap making
skills acquisition in the sense that at novice stage the apprentice as a new comer learns the
utensils and equipment in the production of a final product while at advance beginner stage the
apprentice becomes conversant with the ingredients used in the skills acquisition centre for the
production of their products. At the competence stage the apprentice goes further to see that all
actions or procedures are directed towards a goal when learning the procedures in the production
of a final product of bread or soap. As the apprentice progresses to the proficient stage the
apprentices becomes familiar with practical processes of production of bread or soap and can
even guide other apprentices at the end. The individual can develop personal rules and
regulations based on peculiarities of circumstance. Finally, at the expertise stage the apprentice
can provide an analytical approach to common faults or problems in relation to the bread or soap
that is produced.
In any skill acquisition process, three variables are common and include: the instructor,
the skill and the apprentice. The apprentice could maximally attain the set goals with the active
participation of a guidance counsellor who offers career guidance to the apprentice. In the United
Kingdom, career guidance is usually referred to as career advice or career counselling (Institute
of Career Guidance, 2010). The focus of career counselling is generally on issues such as career
exploration, career change, personal career development and other related issues. It may include
wide spread professional activities which focus on supporting people in dealing with career
9
related challenges both preventively and in difficult situations (such as unemployment). Career
counsellors deal with different clients, such as adolescents seeking to explore career options,
experienced professionals contemplating a career change, parents who want to return to the
world of work after child bearing or people seeking for employment.
An elaborated and all encompassing definition of career guidance was collectively put
forward by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development, World Bank,
European Community and adopted by Institute of Career Guidance (2010) to refer to services
and activities intended to assist individuals of any age and at any point throughout their life to
make educational, training and occupational choice and to manage their careers. Such service
may be found in Schools, Universities, Colleges, training institutions, public employment
service, work place, voluntary or community sector and private sector. The activities may take
place on an individual or group basis and may be face-face or at a distance (including helps line
and web based service). They include career information, counselling, interviews, career
education programmes (to help individuals develop their awareness, opportunity and career
management skill) task programmes to sample work options before choosing them, work search
programmes on the internet, and transition service from school to the word of work (Institution
for Career Guidance, 2010), Warwick institution for Employment Research, 2005) and Hansen,
2006).
Career guidance denotes offering advice and information about careers that helps
individuals’ especially young people, decides on a career and also teaches them to pursue their
chosen career. In addition, in developed countries most career service provides access to a
sophisticated career guidance computer software packages formerly called prospectus for
employment. In recent times resume template on online job portal are preferred because it is
10
easier and offers practical solution to recruitment agency, professional Curriculum vitae writers
or job search. In another vein, Ministerial Council on Education Employment Training and
Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) in Australia (2004) views Career guidance as an inclusive term that
has been used to describe a range of interventions including career education and counselling,
that help people to move from a general understanding of life and work to a specific
understanding of the realistic life, learning and work options that are open to them. Career
guidance is often thought to incorporate career information, career education and career
counselling. Career guidance represent an organized system of social and professional work on
providing continuing help to the individual for the entire duration of his career development, free
choice of direction and orientation in education and professional activity, with the goal of
achieving a professional identity, in accordance with personal traits and the labour market
demand for specific occupation (Ivan, 2013).
In the opinion of the researcher, career guidance consists of providing a learning
environment in which an individual’s innate life skills develop to expert stage and be able to
train other apprentices to become expert for the labour market. The learning environment is
enlarging to include not only school but also workplace in which the labourer not only attains the
stage of expertise but encourage and train other apprentices to reach the stage of expertise
themselves. It has not been empirically established that Dreyfus Model can be used in career
guidance for skills acquisition although some of its identified uses are assessing progress in the
development of skills, helping to define a desired level of competence, supporting progress in the
development of skills and helping to determine when a learner is ready to train others in relation
to apprenticeship. While commenting on skills acquisition Pena (2010) asserted that the Dreyfus
Model has successfully been used to develop problem solving skills in medical education among
11
nurses. North (2008) is of the opinion that most people do not get beyond the competence stage
of the Dreyfus Model at most skills acquisition process including those in their everyday work.
This is basic human traits that do not like to expend energy once the outcome has been achieved,
and for most activities the outcomes is simply getting the job done.
Gender related difference is one factor that influences the outcome of learning or skills
acquisition. On one hand Olukayode (2008) showed that male students performed better than
their female counterpart in environmental education. Similarly, Oluwatoyin and Adesina (2007)
opined that there is significant difference between male and female achievement in mathematics.
On the other hand Gambari and Fabgemi (2008) reported no gender differences on performance
of pupils on comp graphics software in mathematics. Furthermore, Nsofor (2007) and Umeh
(2007) separately revealed that there is no significant difference in gender regarding achievement
of learners. Salahudeen (2012) finding revealed that age and gender difference was found to have
no significant effect on the mean achievement of the experimental group. These divergent views
on the influence of gender and age on learners provides the need to research on the place of
gender and age on the effect of Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skill acquisition of
apprentices in Niger State of Nigeria
Statement of the Problem
Globalization in terms of communication and automation in the labour market has led to
unemployment especially of youths who have not acquired any skill. Unemployment is a spring-
board for poverty and low standard of living in our society. In order to stem the ever increasing
low standard of living due to unemployment, skills acquisition centers have been established by
12
the three-tiers of government, Non-Governmental Organizations, (NGO’S) and individuals to
complement the conventional school system of primary, secondary and tertiary schools.
These skills acquisition centres avails apprentices with skills of baking, soap making,
knitting, shoes making and so on. They often employ familiar models such as Adaptive Control
of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) which lays emphasis on memory and regular practice in order to
refine or acquire new skills while, the State of Operator and Result (SOAR) places much
emphasis on memory inorder to acquire a new skill or modify the existing skill. On a similar path
the Dreyfus Model not only gives premium to memory and regular practice or procedure but
goes further to establish five stages in which a new skill is modified or acquired.
The Dreyfus model, in addition, provides the characteristics of each stage of the model
and how the apprentices can be assisted to graduate to each of the stages in the model from
simple to complex knowledge or skills. It also provide the apprentices with analyticd knowledge
to be able to identify and solve any problem that arise during or after the production of the
products; be it soap or bread. Therefore, the question that needs to be answered is, what is the
effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on skills acquisition of apprentices in skills
acquisition centres in Niger State of Nigeria.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to determine the effect of Dreyfus Model training in
skills acquisition of apprentices for career guidance in bakery and soap making skills.
Specifically, the study seeks to:
1. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
13
2. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition by gender of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
3. Determine the mean achievement scores differences in soap making skills acquisition of
young adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
4. Determine the mean achievement interaction scores in soap making skills acquisition
between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
5. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group.
6. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition by gender of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
7. Determine the mean achievement scores differences in bakery skills acquisition of young
adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
8. Determine the mean achievement interaction scores in bakery skills acquisition between
gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance.
Significance of the Study
The findings of the study would be of immense significance to teachers at all levels of
education, stakeholders in education like curriculum planners and research agency, proprietors of
skills acquisition centres, counsellors and the academia.
Theoretically, the findings of the study will contribute to the catalogue of existing
literature on skills acquisition and open-up a new window of skills acquisition from the Dreyfus
14
model that has not been thoroughly explored in Nigeria relatively to other models. This is
because the Dreyfus model provides for stage by stage guidance of the apprentice by their
mentor\ counselor. The mean achievement scores of apprentices exposed to the Dreyfus Model
training of career guidance and those not exposed to the model when published in periodicals
like journals will enhance acceptability of the model.
The results of the study from the mean achievement scores of varying age and gender would
be significant to teachers or instructors at all levels of education especially those at the skills
acquisition centres because there is no level in which some students or learners are not expected
to acquire a skill. In addition, students are being exposed to skills in all subjects of their schools.
The findings of this study if published will be of use to stakeholder of education like
ministry of education who will bring to focus the Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skills
acquisition in their forum such as workshops and seminars. This is with a view of implementing
the result and content of the model to the teaching industry with particular reference to informal
education.
The result of the study when published in text-books and periodicals will make the
curriculum planners to see the significance of the Dreysfus Model to skills acquisition so that it
will be integrated into core curriculum of learners at the various level of education. This is with
particular to basic level of education so that the students acquire skills at an early age on bakery
and soap making skills.
The finding of the study will provide direction to research agency in the country to
organize various workshops and seminars in order to discuss the role of Dreysfus Model to
15
learning practical skills. In addition, to encourage other academicians to undertake research on
the model
By extension, proprietors of vocational and skills acquisition centre will be better
informed on the need to diversify the model of skills acquisition based on the mean achievement
scores of the Dreyfus Model of career guidance on skills acquisition in relation to bakery and
soap making. This will help establish the relationship between Dreyfus Model as well as
differences in results obtained and in the final analysis beef-up the quality of apprentices
produced from the skills acquisition centers.
Scope of the Study
The study would be delimited to the Dreyfus Model of skills acquisition which is discretely
divided into five stages i.e. Novice who only follows rules and regulation; Advance Beginner
with increase understanding of work environment; Competence captures the goal of each
activity; Proficient can perform all experimental procedures and Expert is capable of analytic
approach to faults detected in final product of soap or bread.. The study would focus on
determining the effect of the model on skills acquisition of apprentices in soap making and
bakery in relation to gender and age of apprentices. The geographical scope of the study is Niger
State, specifically at latitude 8*51’ to 11* 30’ and longitude 3*75’ to 7* 25’.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the objectives of the study:-
1. What is the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group?
16
2. What is the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition by gender of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
3. What is the mean achievement scores differences in soap making skills acquisition of young
adults and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
4. What is the mean achievement interaction scores in soap making skills acquisition between
gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
5. What is the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices exposed to
Dreyfus Model training of career guidance and those in the control group?
6. What is the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition by gender of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
7. What is the mean achievement scores difference in bakery skills acquisition of young adults
and older adult apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
8. What is the mean achievement interaction scores in bakery skills acquisition between gender
and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training of career guidance?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significant:
HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean pre test and post test achievement scores of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and
those not exposed to the model of career guidance.
17
HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of males and females exposed
to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of career guidance.
HO3: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of young adults and older
adults exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of career
guidance.
HO4: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean scores by gender and age of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making of
career guidance.
HO5: HO6: There is no significant difference in the mean pre test and post test achievement
scores of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery
and those not exposed to the model of career guidance.
HO6: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of males and females exposed
to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career guidance.
HO7: There is no significant difference between the mean scores of young adults and older
adults exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career
guidance.
HO8: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean scores of gender and age of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery of career
guidance
18
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, literature relating to the study has been reviewed under the following sub-
headings: conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of the
literature review.
� Conceptual Framework
• Concept of Employment
• Concept of Skills Acquisition
• Concept of Bakery Skills Acquisition
• Concept of Soap Making Skills
• Concept of Apprentices
• Concept of Career Guidance
• Conceptual Relationship
� Theoretical Framework
• Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition (1980)
• Anderson ACT-R (1983)
• Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982)
18
19
• Career Guidance Theories:
• Self-Efficacy Theory
• Accident Theory
� Review of Empirical Studies
• Career guidance and Skill Acquisitions
• Gender and Performance
• Gender and Skill Acquisition
• Age and Skill Acquisition
� Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Employment
The economic active population comprises both employed and the unemployed person. In
terms of employment, the European Union Labour Force Survey (2006) asserts that the
employed persons are those aged 16-74 years who during the survey week performed work even
for just one hour a week for pay, profit or family gain or were not at work but had a job or
business from which they were temporarily absent because of illness, holidays, industrial dispute
and education/training. It is pertinent to state that at Work means any work for pay or profit
during the survey week, even for as little as one hour. Pay includes cash payment in goods or
services rather than only money whether payment was received in the week the work was done
20
or not. Also counted as working, is a person who receives wages for on the job training such as
apprentices.
Employment is also viewed as remunerated work which complies with statutory
requirement with regard to employment protection, legislation or pay related social insurance.
Where work is the undertaking of organized task which may attract some form of remuneration
but which is not general employment protection legislation as it is the case with job (Atlas
Project 2012). While adding it’s voice to the term Employment, Economic Concept (2012) sees
employment as the engagement of a person in some occupation, business, trade or profession.
The notion of desiring to be employed can be explained by taking three established facts:
Working hours per day; Wages rate and a man’s state of health
A multi-disciplined approach to the term employment was put-forward by Fudge, Tucker,
and Vosko (2002) as sociological, legal and statistical. Sociological as it affects the control of the
means of production, autonomy and ownership in which employers are the bourgeoisie, the self-
employed as the petit bourgeoisie and the employees as the proletarians. While the legal concept
connotes the statutory regime of collective bargaining, benefit from insurance, pension and
protection from common laws and legislations. The statistical approach, delved into the process
in which determined how the amount of wages are calculated sometimes from hourly, to weekly
and even monthly.
However, closely related to employer and employee in terms of employment is the
concept of self-employment. A person is considered self-employed if: he has procured
machineries or equipment for setting up an office, farm or business; an advertisement of the type
of business office or professional office and works his own small business farm or office even
21
for personal consumption but has a national index attached to it (European Union Labour Force
Survey 2006).
On the issues of work and job as it relates to employment, examples abound where a
person is at work but without job or a person on job but without work as follows:-
Conscripts: - The persons (s) performed work for pay or profit which does not go to them, thus
do not have a job.
Maternity/Paternity leave: - Although not at place of work discharging duties but have a job, as
they are still employed since the leave of absence is agreed on based on legislation.
Parental leave: - Is taken to help bring-up children by parents due to certain problems as opposed
to maternity or paternity leave during birth. Here the couple is not at work but on job.
Unpaid family workers: - Works for the family without direct profit or pay. Therefore, works
without a job.
Lay-offs:- They do not work but are on job due to agreement with the employer.
Long- term absence: - this could be due to sickness or disaster thus the employee is absent from
work but still on job as he is on the pay roll of the employer.
However, self-employed persons with a business, farm or professional practice are also
considered to be working in any one of these conditions. A person works in his own business or
professional practice for the purpose of earning a profit; even if the enterprise is failing to make a
profit. A person spends time on the operation of a business, professional practice or farm even if
no sale or service were rendered. A person stills in the process of setting up a business, farm or
professional practice.
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The data on employment is generated from survey whose indexes is calculated using
employment levels and therefore is also from household survey. Hence household survey
provides greater comparability of labour market trends across countries than establishment
survey, although both types of survey are used to measure employment. The establishment
survey provides a highly reliable gauge of monthly change in form pay roll employment, while
the household survey provides a broader picture of employment including agriculture and self
employment. (United States Bureau of Labour Statistics 2012). The researcher’s operational
definition of employment is any person within the age range of 18-70 years who works for
himself or works for somebody during period of the survey. In Nigeria, 18 years is the entering
point for voting in elections and entry to higher institutions, while 70years is the highest
retirement age in government sector in Nigeria. Self employed implies working for yourself,
family or employing others to work for you. While, working for somebody connotes working for
government, private organizations or individuals. In Nigeria, the three tiers of government are
the highest employer of labour followed by multinational corporations and companies.
Concept of Skills Acquisition
There exist varied typologies regarding skills in different literature. One common
typology is put forward by European Union (2011), as generic skills and specific skills. Generic
skills are those that increase the value of a person across the labour market, such as in
companies, sectors and occupation, while, specific skills are those skills that increase the value
of a person only within the company, sector and occupation where he or she acquired it.
Therefore, leaving the company leads to the devaluation of all specific skills since they do not
apply in other companies, sectors and occupation.
23
The existence of purely generic or specific skills is very rare in real life. Moreover,
drawing the line between generic and specific skill is made difficult because it depends on
institutional and structural conditions of the market that is on its extent or type of competition.
The difference between generic and specific skills depends on the context.
Another typology of skills based on content are hard skills and soft skills. Hard skills are
described as skills which are easily observed and or measured, easily trained and closely
connected with knowledge examples are specific technical knowledge, computer skills and
knowledge of laws, rules and regulations. Soft skills are behavioural and non-job specific skills
called intangible skill which are hardly measured and closely connected with attitude. This
communication, creativity, team work, conflict management, tone management, making
presentations and negotiating and leadership.
Apart from skills based on context and content, a contemporary, Green (2011), favoured
the typology between cognitive, interactive and physical skills. Cognition skill is the term
applied to areas requiring thinking activities such as reading, writing, problem-solving,
numeracy, Information Technology, learning new skill and so on. Interactive skills cover all
forms of communication (including most type of management activities, and horizontal
communication with co-workers, clients and customers) and other activities needed to elicit co-
operative working and engagement with customers and supplies, including emotional and
aesthetic labour. Physical skills compose all forms of strength and dexterity activities in our
place of work.
Skills acquisition is a form of learning. In the opinion of the researcher it could be
divided into simple processes of skills acquisition and complex processes of skills acquisition.
24
The simple processes of skills acquisition includes: observation, trial and error, practice,
imitation, demonstration, listening, nasal perception, tasting, reading, writing, and so forth either
through formal education, non-formal education and traditional education (Fafunwa 2004).
However, the complex processes of skills acquisition are: interest, competition, cooperation,
progress level and resting (Adeyemo 2004 and Farrant 2004). Thus, there is need for
coordination between individual’s five senses and the brain in order to acquire a skill.
The researcher views skills acquisition as an enriching inter play between the three
domains which are cognitive, psycho-motor and effective of individual towards increasing
productive capacity of the society. An enriched inter play implies the processes of acquiring
skills in school or out of school experiences. This is achieved by developing the learner’s innate
cognitive, manipulative abilities and attitude towards the needs of the society. These skills can
be acquired in a formal setting in our conventional schools or in an in formal setting as in a
master’s workshop, shade for example blacksmithing and pottery or in non formal setting as in
skills acquisition centers’.
Concept of Bakery Skills
The term cooking entails applying heat to food with the main effect of making the food taste
better, easily digested in the body and also to kill harmful organisms that are present in the food.
In order to achieve the process of cooking three methods have been evolved namely through
heating in water, oil or dry air. The process of heating in water includes boiling, stewing and
steaming of food material. In oil, it is basically frying the food material; while that of dry heat
consists of roasting and baking, which is the prime concern of this study. In baking the food
material is heated-up in a closed container called oven. Foods that are cooked in this process
25
includes bread, cakes and pastries and flour is the basic ingredient in their production. Bakery
skills are the methods and technique employed in baking. (Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie
1974)
There are several utensils in bakery. In this connection; Miller (1978), identified some of
the bakery utensils and equipment to include measuring utensils like dry measuring cups, liquid
measuring cups and weighing machines. Others are mixing utensils such as mixing bowl, mixing
spoon, Rubber scraper and wire whisk. Cutting and chopping utensils are cutting board, bread
knife, Chef’s knife, peeler and utility knife. Others are cooling rack, timers, spatula, cooking
fork, turner, flour and sugar dredger, rolling-pin or knead, baking tray and oven. A typical recipe
for bread includes: 500g, flour 15g, flour 255mils, water, I teaspoon of sugar, 25g, fat 50 mils
of milk1, whole egg. The types of flours are White flour, Whole wheat and Cassava flour.
The ingredients for making bread, the recipe and bakery skills are similar in the works of O’
Reilly-Wright (1979) and Johnston, Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974). The ingredients for making
bread are flour, liquid, yeast, sugar, salt, fat, egg and temperature. The plain white flour which
gives a large loaf of good quality is mostly used. This is better than the whole-wheat flour whose
dough is too sticky for kneading.
The flour when mixed with liquid is called dough which form gluten that expands when
carbon dioxide is released by yeast. The commonest liquid is water and milk. The milk adds to
the quality of bread, although it tends to increase the price of production. The yeast is an
important ingredient that can be mixed with sugar and carbohydrate to increase the rate of
production of carbon dioxide that is required for leavening of the dough.
26
The sugar provides good taste for the bread, in addition to helping in the action of yeast
to produce leavening. However, too much sugar acts as preservative and the dough delays rising.
The salt control action of yeast and strengthens the gluten formed as well as provides flavour to
bread. Fat improves bread quality, by giving it pleasant flavor, tender and delays staling. It may
be mixed with the dough or rubbed on the surface. Egg is like the fat which is optional in bread
making but adds to the flavour and nutritional value. Finally, a warm environment is essential for
the container of the dough, the flour and the liquid allow for the proper functioning of the yeast.
An important ingredient in baking apart from flour is the raising agent. O’Reilly-wright
(1979), identified these as some raising agents in baking: baking powder, cream of tartar and
bicarbonate of soda, vinegar and bicarbonate of soda, yeast and palm wine, over ripe bananas.
The baking power: consist of an acid called cream of tartar; an alkaline called bicarbonate of
soda and starch substance like rice in these proportions: 100g cream of tartar; 50g bicarbonate of
soda and 50g rice flour. The rice flour absorbs any moisture and prevents powder from getting
damp and lumpy. As moisture is added to baking powder the acid and alkaline continue to
release gas called carbon-dioxide that the makes the bread raise, however, little quantity should
be added to cakes.
The yeast (saccharomyces cerevisial): are small sized organisms which have the
characteristics of rapid multiplication under a suitable condition including moisture (water),
sugar and slight temperature of 270c
-290c
within a short period of time. In this condition yeast
grows fast, giving-off carbon dioxide which make the bread mixture (dough) rise. Note that
above 540c temperature the yeast is killed, while cold temperature retards yeast activity. The
proportion of yeast to flour is as follows: 15g yeast to 300g flour and 50g yeast to 2 ½ kg flour.
Palm wine and banana: palm wine usually contain large quantity of yeast and most suitable for
27
commercial bread-making as it is more economical. The same goes for over-ripe bananas if left
to ferment as they share the same characteristics with yeast. The cream of tartar/and bicarbonate
of soda as well as vinegar and bicarbonate of soda are better used for cake production.
Baking Skills: - Essentially these skills: creaming the yeast, setting the sponge, mixing the
dough, kneading, rising, greasing, shaping, proving and baking aid the quality and quantity of
bread production.
Creaming the Yeast:- In a clean bowl, add sugar to the yeast and then cream the mixture together
until it liquefies, before, adding warm liquid like water or milk. This stimulates the activity of the
yeast.
Setting the sponge:- The creamed yeast bowl is sprinkle with flour and left for 10 minutes in a
warm environment. Note that it should be covered with damp cloth. The process activates the
yeast by producing little bubbles in the flour.
Mixing the dough:- The sponge substance containing the yeast, sugar and flour is mixed either
with hand, wooden spoon or machine. There is need to add enough water. It is important to have
an elastic dough.
Kneading:- This could be done on pastry board and a knead (pestle like organ) or an electrically
powered kneading machine. This ensures that the dough is smooth and free from cracks and
lumps.
Rising technique:- The dough that is kneaded is taken back to the mixing dough container. The
kneaded dough is covered with damp cloth to prevent skin crack of the dough. Then, the full
process of fermentation is allowed to take place which makes the dough to rise.
28
Greasing : - The baking trays, tins or pans should be washed thoroughly and dried in the sun or
otherwise. They are then cleaned with cloth and greased with oil includes, butter, palm oil,
coconut oil among others. It ensure that the bread do not stick to the container at the end of
production.
Shaping : - The risen dough is kneaded again for 2-3 minutes, then cut to varying size and shape
before putting into baking containers.
Proving technique: - The dough should be left in the baking containers in an warm environment.
This is significant to allow the dough to rise again at least double its original size.
Firing technique: - This is done in clay room where burn fire is used or a metal container for
electricity. The baking environment is fired for a long period.
Baking:- The baking time is usually 35-45 minutes. The cooked bread will rise many time the
dough size and exhibits a golden brown colour. The baking period varies because of the
temperature of the oven, size of the loaf and the type of the crust desired. If a soft crust or surface
is desired the bread top should be brushed with fat.
Other useful skills associated with baking have been identified by Human Resources and
Skills Development Canada (2012), bakers requires documentation skills as; reading, computer
use, oral communication, writing, and numeracy. While the thinking skills are; problem solving,
decision making, critical thinking, job task, planning, organization, use of memory and finding
solutions.
There are several out lets in which the end products can be dispensed to the target population.
According to Firsch (2013) it could take one of these forms: Business catering - supply meals or
29
snacks for corporate meeting, lunch, training sessions, conference and parties; Social event
catering - supply food for private affairs like wedding, holidays and dinners; Industrial catering -
providing for large institutions like schools, prison, factories, airlines and Mobile catering -
discharging from vans, parking lots, festival, fairs or market.
Concept of Soap Making Skills
Soap is a materials used in cleaning or washing away dirt from clothes, utensils and other
belongings. Soap are commonly produced from fats/oil and ashes from woods. The method and
techniques of producing this soap is called soap making skills which could be made locally or in
industries. The properties of good soap are: they must be firm and produce good lather; the lather
should have clean power; it should be soluble even in cool water for easy washing; the colour
and contents of the soap should not be harmful to our belongings. The common forms of soap in
the market are black African soap, soda soap, Sunlight soap, key or bar soap, flakes soap and
power soap. Nsa (2000) identified two broad types of soap that is the soft soap and the hard soap.
The soap making skills has been with man as early as the 16th
century. The work of Johnston,
Akingbehin and Mcfie (1974); Deyo (2008) Fisher (2013) and Lelihan(2013) elaborated that
basic soap is created when fats such as coconut oil, olive oil, palm oil, Shea-butter oil, tallow
(beef) and lard (pork) among others are mixed with lye (ashes or sodium hydroxide or caustic
soda) that has been dissolved in water. The chemical reaction that occurs when these two
ingredients are stirred together changing them into soap is called Saponification. This shows that
the basic process of making soap is fairly uncomplicated using the cold process. Fats are useful
in cleaning and oil for suds such that a combination of fats and oil makes the best soap. Nsa
30
(2000) explained that soap clean by solubilization, soily dirt which will not dissolve in water can
be dissolved in the soap water.
The recipe for soap is lye, water, oil, fat, scent and colourant. Some of the equipments are
containers, pans, spatulas, cups, molds, and knives. The specific skills for soap making are
measurement, mixing, observation, stirring, scenting, cutting, drying, cooking, timing and
moulding.
There are three common way of producing soap as identified by Nsa (2000) and Lelihan
(2013) as follows: Hot method:-this involves the process of boiling up the mixture of oils in large
open pans with a solution of caustic soda. In addition, a process called salting out is applied in
the method to extract glycerol. Cold method:-the soap is produced without heating the raw
materials of soap thus the glycerol is not removed. Melt and pour:-where premade soap are
melted and molded again to avoid waste of soap particles.
The detail procedure in making soap involves the following:-
Mix the required amount of water and lye together in a plastic container continue to stir in one
direction until the lye is fully dissolved in the water. Allow it to cool to 1000f.
In the second step, in another container preferably pan; melt the specified amount of vegetable
oil or fats in a pot. Then remove from heat and allow for cooling to 1000f.
Thirdly, pouring in a slow and steady form, add the lye water to the oil and stir continuously.
In the fourth step, cools the mixture for about an hour, until it becomes a thick mixture.
The fifth step is molding the soap in a desired mold, by pouring into it. Then cover the mold with
plastic material and insulate with a blanket and allow for 24hours.
31
Finally, for better results, dry the bar soap for two to three weeks before using.
Skills for Soap Making:-
Stirring: - it is better to stir your mixture in a circular motion, one or two rotations only at a time.
This will prevent excessive bubbles in your soap.
Cooking: The firing of the soap should be done in such a way as not to allow it to burn. If it
burns it often result to a bad odour and discolours the soap.
Molding: Allow the mixture to cool down before pouring into the mold. This will prevent
warping your molds. Also breakable mold or wiring-away mold should not be used as it warp the
soap.
Drying: The process of drying the soap should take at least two-three weeks. However, if the
soap is not dry, the soap will not come-up easily from the mold. Therefore, compress again in a
freezer for 10 minutes and then try to remove the soap again.
Colouring: it is better to use colour during the mixing process. This will ensure thorough and
proper integration of colouring substance to the soap. Care should be taken not to use food
colouring. This can stain the body or clothes.
Scents: This is best done below the flash point of scent which is 120f, this is the point at which
the scent can burn-off
The generic skills for soap making are writing, reading and recording among others. While
commenting on soap industry today, Deyo (2008) opined that the rebirth of soap making at
domestic level is due to economic crunch on people of the society and the ever increase in the
cost of soap. The homemade soap can be improved to last longer while in use than the present
32
commercial soap. In addition, the colour, scent, size and shape of the local soap can be modified
to customers taste.
A simplified and common method of producing bar soap even at home from locally
procured raw materials or chemicals in the open market is put forward by Ndubuisi (2012), with
standard measurement as: Caustic soda two spoonful, Soda ash half kilogramme, Palm Kernel
Oil (pko) two litres, Sodium silicate two spoonful, Perfume 30mls, and Colour to taste. The
caustic soda performs the function of stain remover, soda ash is a foam agent, pko is useful for
saponification while sodium silicate is for smoothening. The perfumes gives scent while colour
is for colouring. However, other apparatus necessary during soap making procedure are:
Containers, Hand gloves, Source of heat and Matches.
In the first place use a pair of hand gloves preferably new, before starting the chemical
procedure so that the chemical may not come in contact with the body. This is to prevent small
burn or irritations. Then, dissolve the caustic soda and soda ash separately in water in two
containers. Then, heat up the pko with the colourant. At three separate intervals add caustic soda,
soda ash and sodium silicate with perfume. Transfer the thick saponification material to the mold
and allow for solidifying. Finally, cut and package according to taste.
Concept of Apprentice
There are several definitions of apprentices’ all views are based on perspective. The
apprentice is seen as a learner within an actual physical context of practice (Pratt 1998 in
Wikipedia 2012). An apprentice, work side by side with an expert in order to learn a specific task
(Barab and Hay 2001 in Wikipedia 2012). Apprentice is also seen as a teaching method utilized
by educators to teach students how to solve problems, understand task, perform specific task and
33
deal with difficult situations (Colleen, Brown and Newman 1989 in Wikipedia 2012). In
summary, students work very closely with an expert at learning a specific skill.
Historically, 0ver time people have been transferring skills from one generation to
another in form of apprenticeship. Four thousand years ago the Babylonians code of Hammurabi
provided that artisans teach their craft to youth. The records of Egypt, Greece and Rome from
earliest times reveal that skills were still being passed on in this fashion. Today, annually there
are nearly one-half million registered apprentices in training in the United States of American.
This is because rapid change in industries requires a large body of skilled workers who are able
to carry out technical specification and who can supervise skilled members of the work force as
well as the issues of skills development that take a long time to actualized.(Washington State
Department of Labour and Industries 2013)
The three main goals of apprenticeship are; Guidance in orientation in which the learner
use skills learned from the expert in order to successfully solve a problem. The learner
recognizes task, problems or situation and knows how to handle them. The learner is able to
perform at acceptable level as he learn basic skills not restricted to novice level but working with
an expert to perform at acceptable level.
The phases of apprenticeship include modeling, approximating, fading, self-directing and
generalization (Wikipedia 2012). Apprenticeship is argued as a model that belongs in the past
and that it has been overly romanticized ( Grabb and Lazerson 2007 in Fuller and Unwin 2008)
Concept of Career Guidance
The concept of career guidance has often interchanged with vocational guidance or
occupational guidance. According to Omotosho (1998), it goes beyond a set of services
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performed by a trained professional to encompass a philosophical based commitment to help
individual fully develosp their potentialities, move towards career maturity, achieve a planful
approach to their educational and occupational alternatives and make decisions wisely.
Egbochuku (2008), vocational guidance is a process of helping an individual to choose an
occupation or career, prepare for it, enter it and progress in it. Omeje (2007), it is a process that
help an individual to become purposeful and effective in life or in a career related behaviour.
In the opinion of the researcher career guidance consist of providing a learning environment
in which individual innate life skills develop to become an expert and be able to generate expert
in the labour market.
Thus, career guidance activities are categorized into five specialties according to Hansen
(2006) as viewed by International Labour Organization includes:
Career Information: all the information necessary to plan for, obtain and keep
employment. It includes but is not limited to information on occupation, skills, and career paths.
It is the corner stone to the career guidance services.
Career education: is delivered in both educational and community organization by
teachers, counsellors and resource person. It provides for skills to education, training and tools to
plan a career.
Career counseling: it is a face to face relationship between the counselor and the client to
help clients clarify their aims and aspiration in career life; manage career transition both planned
and unplanned.
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Employment counseling: help people clarify their immediate employment goal, access to
job and skills training opportunities; and lean skill needed to look for and maintain employment
such as. Curriculum Vitae or resume writing and interview skills.
Job placement: awareness and referring people to job vacancies. This is often for both
government and private sectors. Some Colleges and Universities offer job placement service for
students.
The approaches to career guidance in school today are identified as follows: Learning
centered approach, Developmental approach, Student centered approach and Universal approach.
The learning centered approach goes beyond providing mere information counselling to
integration or building career into college course. It could be taken as a subject which may be
optional or integrated into each subject of the school through the efforts of curriculum planners.
Developmental approach entails tailoring the content of career education and guidance to the
developmental stage that students find themselves in, and including career education classes and
experiences through schooling, not just at one point. While the student centered approach
incorporate learning from experience through self-directed methods by learning from significant
others such as employers, parents, alumni and older students. Finally, adopting a universal
approach in terms of career education and career guidance in all schools and integrating it in all
programmes of the schools.
An integral aspect of career guidance in schools is career development which entails the
series of changes that an employee undergoes in the labour market in a career. Saqa (2009)
added that the values of career guidance includes: ensuring effective learning as its stress on the
synergy between education and training that will yield a better result in terms of investment
36
made on employee; effective labour market as people will find jobs on career paths that utilize
potentials and meet their own goal and contribution to social equity by providing equal
opportunities for people including disadvantage groups such as the handicapped and low income
family.
Conceptual Relationship
The flow chart is on correlational relationship that illustrates the inputs and output in Dreyfus
Model of skills acquisition in a schematic diagrammed. The inputs are clearly the apprentices
who are of varying age and gender. In addition, the masters that train the apprentices in the work
environment from the novice stage through the advance beginner to the competent and proficient
and terminating at the expert stage. Note that, there is wastages through drop out of apprentices
before graduation at the expert stage. Thus, this drop outs are likely to be recycle at a later date.
However, the graduates at the expert stage are the output who enters the labour market as self-
employer of themselves and others can go a step by becoming employer of other workers.
Although, some graduates at the expert stage could become employee when in capable of self-
employment.
37
DREYFUS MODEL OF SKILLS ACQUISITION
APPRENTICE
(MALE AND FEMALE)
SOAP MAKING SKILLS BAKERY SKILLS
(MASTER A) (MASTER B)
NOVICE NOVICE
ADVANCE ADVANCE
BEGINNER BEGINNER
COMPETENT COMPETENT
PROFICIENT PROFICIENT
EXPERT EXPERT
SELF EMPLOYED
EMPLOYER
EMPLOYEE
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Theoretical Frameworks
Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (1980)
The Dreyfus model of skills acquisition was first published as a five-stage model of the
mental activities involved in directed skill acquisition by Stuart Dreyfus and Hubert Dreyfus
in1980. They stated that in acquiring a skill by means of instruction and experience, the student
normally progresses through five developmental stages which is designated as novice, advance
beginner, competence, proficient and expertise. As a student becomes skilled, he depends less on
abstract principle and leans more on concrete experience. At each stage of training the
appropriate issues involved in facilitating skill acquisition is addressed.
There are two divergent approaches to learning a skill; either through imitation or trial
and error or through an instructor or instruction manual. The later approach is adopted by
Dreyfus model because of its efficiency as demonstrated in aircraft skills of flying as a learning
process by students. The stages of the model are: -
Stage1: NOVICE
The task environment of the learner is divided into features and rules. The feature is the
context-free environment which the learner can freely recognize without benefit of experience as
non-situational. The learner is then given rules for determining an action on the basis of these
features. To improve, the novice needs monitoring either by self observation or instructional
feedback as to bring his behavior closer to the rule.
39
Stage 2: ADVANCE BEGINNER
As the learner is exposed to various experiences that is, actually coping with the real
situation in the environment, it leads to advance beginner. The learner notes or an instructor
points out recurrent meaningful component pattern or guidelines in his brain.
Stage 3: COMPETENCE
The competence stage is achieved through increased practice which exposes the learner
to a wide variety of typical whole situation. Each whole situation for the first time has a meaning
and is relevant to the achievement of a long term goal. Now aspects are less important to the
whole situation as recognized by the brain. The memorized principle by the brain is called a
maxim which is use to determine the appropriate action in a situation.
Stage 4: PROFICIENT
Up to this stage, the performer needed some sort of analytical principles, in form of
rules, guidelines or maxims to connect his experience of general situation to a specific action.
This is the trial stage in the step-wise improvement of mental processing as the experience
situation is so vast that normally each specific situation immediately dictates an intuitively
appropriate action. As he almost master the skills, he becomes capable of supervising others and
developing his own rules.
Stage 5: EXPERTISE
The mastery stage is achieved when the learner no longer needs principle, can cease to
pay conscious attention to his performance and can let all the mental energy previously used in
40
monitoring his performance go into almost instantaneously, the appropriate perspective and
associated actions.
The training implications of the stages of the model includes the fact that, it facilitates
advancement to next stage, and help to avoid the temptation of introducing intricate and
sophisticated aids. Besides, it does not impede advancement to higher level and prevents
regression to a lower level.
These stages of Dreyfus model can be related to the process of bakery and soap making
skills acquisition in the sense that at Novice stage the apprentice as a new comer learns the
utensils and equipment in the production of a final product while at Advance Beginner stage the
apprentice becomes conversant with the ingredients used in the skills acquisition centre for the
production of their products. At the Competence stage the apprentice goes further to see that all
actions or procedures are directed towards a goal when learning the procedures in the production
of a final product of bread or soap. As the apprentice progresses to the Proficient stage the
apprentices becomes familiar with practical processes of production of bread or soap and can
even guide other apprentices at the end. The individual can develop personal rules and
regulations based on peculiarities of circumstance. Finally, at the Expertise stage the apprentice
can provide an analytical approach to common faults or problems in relation to the bread or soap
that is produced.
The existing quantum of data on unemployment in Nigeria is very worrisome; especially
one note that, unemployment is a password to poverty which government attempted to
ameliorate through the establishment of skills acquisition centres. Surprisingly, as these centres
increased so also is the degree of unemployment increasing. In order to change this sordid tide of
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unemployment, now more than ever before is the time to experiment the Dreyfus Model which
has not receive much attention around the world including Nigeria.
Anderson ACT- R Model of skills Acquisition (1983)
ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought–Rational) is a cognitive architecture mainly
developed by John Robert Anderson at Carnegie Mellon University in 1983. Like any
architecture ACT-R aims to define the basic and irreducible cognitive and perpetual operation
that enables the human mind to acquire a skill. In theory each task that the human performs
should consist of a series of these discrete operations. Most progress on basic assumption which
is inspired by cognitive neuroscience and they describe as a way of specifying how the brain
itself is organized in way that enables individual processes models to produce cognition.
It has been used to capture how human solve complex problems like model human
behaviour in driving, flying and computer application. In schools, these system use an internal
ACT-R model to mimic the behaviour of a student and personalize instruction and curriculum,
trying to “guess” the difficulties that students may have and provide focused help.
Historically, it was Allen Newell who inspired John Robert Anderson to develop the
model. Its root can be traced back to the original Human Association Memory (HAM) model of
memory, described by John Robert Anderson and Gordon Bowes in 1973. The HAM model was
later expanded into the first version of the ACT theory in 1983. He later devoted himself to
exploring and outlining a mathematical approach to cognition and he name Rational Analysis in
the year 1990. Thus the mode was modified to include R and is known as ACT-R. The model
modification in terms of development which started with ACT-R 1.0 has reached ACT-R 6.0
which was re-written including significant improvement on coding language by 2005. The model
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explain how human recalls “Chucks” of information from memory and how they solve problems
by breaking them down into sub goal and applying knowledge from memory of the brain as
needed.
The ACT-R was developed to model problem solving, learning and memory as well as
used by researcher of cognition psychology. The model consists of production rule and
principles:-
Production Rule: A fundamental characteristics of ACT-R is that it is a production theory. The
basic premise of a production system theory is that a cognition skill is composed of conditional
statements known as production rule. A production rule is statements that describe an action
which should be taken if a condition are met, sometimes referred to as a condition-action pair.
However, cognition task are achieved by stringing together production rules, and applying them
to working memory. Such a collection of production rules is referred to as production. When a
production rule is applied, it is said to be fired.
Principle: There are two different categories of long-term memory namely: declarative and
procedural. Declarative memory consists of facts that exist while procedural memory consists of
an individuals knowledge of how to do things such as ability to drive a car. Declarative
knowledge is represented by units called chunks. Procedural knowledge is presented by
production, which are called collection of production rules. Thus, the model represents chunks
and production that could be represented in design form.
The model ACT-R supports three fundamental types of learning which are generalization,
discrimination and strengthening. Generalization in which production become broader in their
range of application; discrimination in which production become narrow in their range of
43
application and strengthening in which some productions are applied more often. New
productions are formed by the conjunction or disjunction of existing productions.
The model is useful in the application of wide variety of memory effect, high order skills
and producing intelligent tutors. The following are the principles of the model: identify the goal
structure of the problem space; provide instruction in the context of problem solving; provide
immediate feedback on errors; minimize working memory load; adjust the “grain size” of
construction with learning to account for the knowledge compilation process and enable the
student to approach the target skill by successive approximation.
The ACT-R model has some form of relevance to this research at hand as it is tailored on
skills acquisition as a cognitive architecture of learning in stages. The model depends on brain to
recall experience in learning how to fly, drive and so forth. Although the existing research differ
with ACT-R in the fact that it is skill acquisition base on guidance orientation.
Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR Model of Skills Acquisition (1982)
The SOAR Model which originally stood for (State, Operator And Result) is similar to
ACT- R model of cognition architecture by John Robert Anderson. It has a simple representation
of problem solving as the application of an operator to a state to get a result. In this linear
application, the operator is the individual, who identifies the problem he wants to solve as state
and through manipulation of the environment obtains his result which is solution to the problem
identified.
Historically, SOAR is a cognitive architecture, created by John Laird, Allen Newell and
Paul Rosenblooms at Carnegie Mellon University. Since its beginning in 1982 and its
presentation in a paper in 1987, it has been widely used by researchers to model different aspect
44
of human behaviour. It uses appropriate knowledge such as procedural, declarative and episodic.
While symbolic processing remains the core mechanism in the architecture, recent versions of
the theory incorporate non-symbolic representation and processes, including reinforcement
learning, imagery processing and emotion modeling.
The SOAR model has undergone series of modifications through years from SOAR-1 in
1982, SOAR-2-in 1983, SOAR-3 in 1984, SOAR-4 in 1986, SOAR-5 1989 and SOAR-6 1992.
The model is a system capable of exhibiting a wide range of problem solving strategies through
the combination of (multiple) problem space and production system. The Goal, problem spaces,
states and operators are well symbolized in the production systems working memory of the brain
in skills acquisition. The Processing of memory as it relates to skills acquisition was driven by an
elaboration-decision-application cycle. In this process of memory development, the control
knowledge was brought to bear during the elaboration phase via the parallel firing of production,
with the results being integrated together during the decision phase via a voting scheme. Since,
its initial development SOAR-1 has been used as a basis for experiment in skills acquisition.
SOAR model is architecture for human cognition expressed in the form of a production
system. The principal element in SAOR is the idea of a problem space: all cognitive acts are
some form of search task. The memory is unitary and procedural; there is no distinction between
procedural and declarative memory as it is in ACT-R. Therefore, chunking (memory) is the
primary mechanism for learning and represents the conversion of problem solving acts into long
term memory. The occasion of chunking is an impasse and its resolution is the problem solving
process. Some of the uses of SOAR includes; providing interpretations for response time data,
verbal learning task, reasoning task, mental models, skills acquisition, configuring computer
systems and formulating algorithms.
45
As a theory of learning, SOAR specifies or confirms a number of principles: as follows:-
all learning arises from goal-directed activities, specific knowledge is acquired in order to satisfy
goal (needs); learning occurs at a constant rate-the rate at which impasse occur while problem
solving (average of 0.5 chunk/second) and transfers occur by identical element and highly
specific (c.f. Thorndike) transfer can be general if the productions are abstract. Rehearsal helps
learning provided it involves active processing (that is creation of chunks) and chunking is the
basis for the organization of memory.
The SOAR model is related to the present research at hand as it focuses on skills
acquisition as a cognitive architecture of learning in stages. The model depends on the brain
to recall experience in learning how to manipulate computer, train teachers and so forth.
Although the existing research differ with SOAR in the sense that it is skill acquisition with
guided approach.
Career Guidance Theories
The choice of a particular skill to be acquired by an apprentice that will eventually
culminate into a Career is guided by factors. These factors actually aided in the development of
career theories some of which are identified by Gikopoulou (2008). There are two fundamental
career theories that are relevant to the study at hand, which are:
� Accident Theory and
� Self-Efficacy Theory
Accident Theory:- This belongs to the group of Non- Psychological Theories (1969). This
theory was propounded by Crites (1969) in the broad classification of career development
46
theories into two as psychological theories and Non- psychological theories. These theories hold
sway that the individual choice of a vocation is shrouded with unseen circumstances. Therefore,
the individual is plotted on a fix in terms of planning for a career the future is unpredictable. This
is because the future is very dicey and pregnant with lots of uncertainties. Infact, this is a replica
of what most people in present community are force to grabble with, this explains why many
students could not answer the question as to which career or occupation will they will pursue.
The common answer is until the labour market presents an opportunity or chance. This clearly
indicated that such a student is basing the argument or choice base on accident theory of non-
psychological factors. This is because the turn-over from schools is high and the vacancy for
employment is seemingly shrunk by automation and globalization.
Self-Efficacy Theory:- The merger between self-efficiency theory as propounded by Krumboltz
et-al (1975) and expectancy theory as propounded by Raynor and Entin (1982) forms the
decision-making theory (1982). This theory is based on Keynesian economic theory which states
that an individual choice of career depicts the variable of profit maximization and minimizes loss
to the barest minimum. The maximization is not localized to factor of money alone but includes
other variables as security, prestige, status, mobility, environment and opportunity. Thus, self-
efficacy is base on the fact that individual feel capable of performs a given behaviuor or skill.
Krumboltz (1977) proposes a seven stage career decision-making model as thus, (DECIDES):
1. Define the problem: recognizing the decision;
2. Establish the action plan: refining the decision;
3. Clarify the values: examining (self-observations and world-view generalizations);
4. Identify alternatives: generating alternatives;
5. Discover probable outcomes: gathering information;
47
6. Eliminate alternatives: assessing information
7. Start action: planning and executing this six step sequence of decision-making
behaviours.
Most apprentices are in that environment not by design but a factor of accidental factor which is
an aspect of non-psychological theories of career development. While, the choice of bakery and
soap skills is guided by self-efficacy theory that they could acquire such a skill if given the
opportunity.
Review of Empirical Studies
Career Guidance and Skills
Okonkwo and Obineli (2010) study sought to identify the need for appropriate career
choice development among secondary school adolescents\students in Anambra state. The survey
research design was adopted in the study and three research questions were formulated. The
population of the study consisted of 285 Secondary School Guidance Counselors from 266
Secondary Schools under the Management of Post Primary Schools Service Commission
(PPSSC). The stratified random sample technique was used to sample 100 counsellors from the
entire population. The instrument for data collection was the questionnaire and responses were
analyzed using the mean and the ranking orders. The result of the findings revealed that adequate
information/guideline needed to be given to adolescents in order to enable them live a positive
life in the society. Also the factors that influence appropriate career choice development in
adolescents includes: interest, intelligent, aptitude and personality. This is a cognitive skill of
learning for students which is similar to apprentices’ skills acquisition.
48
In another dimension Bello and Abdullahi (2010) study is an investigation of doctors and
nurses perception of the need for counselors in medical settings such as hospitals, health centre
and primary health care centre’s in Zaria of Kaduna State. The design of the study is the survey
and one research question and two hypotheses were drafted for the study. The sample consist of
all 119 male and 80 females respondents who are 86 doctors and 113 nurses. The questionnaire
title doctors and nurses perception of the need for counselors in medical setting (DNPNCMS)
was the instrument used for data collection.. The data were analyzed using percentages and chi-
square. The results indicated high positive perception of the need for counselling in medical
settings. In addition, there is no gender difference in perception between doctors and nurses for
the need of counsellors in medical settings. This is cognitive skills of the respondents which is
similar to this work.
Aihie and Ohanaka (2010) aim of the study was to determine the influence of
environment, personality and opportunity factors on career choice of secondary schools students
in Benin City, Edo state of Nigeria. The research design is the survey. Three research questions
and one hypothesis guided the study. The population of the study was 492 randomly selected SS
II students made-up of 242 males and 250 females. The Questionnaire was used for data
collection that was analyzed using percentages and t-test. Results revealed that adolescent
perceive personality as the most important factor influencing their career choice. The male
students were significantly more influenced by the factors than female. The finding is as an
interactive skill which is also found in soap making and bakery skills acquisition.
49
Gender and Performance
Furthermore, Omwirhiren (2005) examined the effect of class size on gender and
academic performance in tertiary school in Zaria city of Kaduna State. The descriptive survey
was adopted for the study and three hypotheses were developed. A total of 325 students
chemistry students were purposively sample of NCE I of Federal College of Education, Zaria
constituted the sample size for the study. The scores of the students performance in a large and
small class in the session examination was analyzed using statistical tool of mean and analysis of
variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 levels of significance. The males in the large class performed
significantly better than females in the small class. However, the males and females in the small
class performed equally well; hence gender has no effect on students in small class. This is a
cognitive and physical skills of the respondents similar to the present work on skills acquisition.
Moreover, Aweriale (2006) studied how gender affects performance in physics,
elaborately, the purpose was to find out through experimentation, if male and female students
taught under the same condition with the paper/opaque projector will differ in their performance
in physics in Auchi Polytechnic of Edo State. The experimental design was adopted for the study
and guided by three hypotheses. The systematic random method of sample was used to select a
sample size of 50 from 400 students of the population. To achieve the purpose of the study a test
of performance level in physics (TOPLIP) was designed and used both for the pre-test and the
post-test of the subjects used in the study. The teaching was carried out for a period of four hours
per week for four weeks. The scripts were marked with marking scheme on a four point scale
devised for the study. The one way analysis of variance ANOVA was used to ascertain the
homogeneity of variance while the Z- test was employed to determine the existence of a very
significant difference in performance between male and female students. The findings indicated
50
that there was no significant different (P> 0.05) in performance between male and female
students taught with the paper/opaque projector. This is both cognitive and physical dexterity
skills similar to those skills in bakery and soap making skills acquisition.
In a similar vein Iliyasu and Rilwan (2006) examined the place of gender and school type
differences in agricultural science achievement at Senior Secondary School Certificate
Examination within Bauchi metropolis in Bauchi State. The research design was quasi
experiment and four hypotheses were formulated and tested in the study. The data was collected
from SSCE result of 2001-2004 from the sampled school. A total of 9,603 candidate’s results
were used that are systematically selected from five secondary schools. The null hypotheses
formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significant using the t-test analysis. The results obtained
showed that although there were differences between the achievement of boys and girls and
between students of single sex and that of co-education school, the difference were insignificant
among the variables observed. The achievement in agricultural science does not depend on
gender or school type. This is both cognitive and psycho-motor skills that are essential in bakery
and soap making skills.
On another work Nwanosike (2006) investigated the effect of school location and gender
differences on students’ performance in agricultural science at SSCE level in Owerri and
environment of Imo State. The sampled schools are single and mixed schools located in both
Urban and Rural areas. The data for students SSCE results over a period of 5 years from 1995-
1999 were collected through random sampling of 12 senior secondary schools under Imo State
Examination Board. Simple descriptive percentage and spearman rank correlation co efficient
were used to analyze data. The result from the study revealed that 74.9% fail Agricultural
Science with male performing better with (41.5%) than females with (33.4%). A moderated
51
correction co efficient of 0.06 indicated that gender is a determination factor in student
achievement in Agricultural Science subject. This is also cognitive skill similar to that of
dreysfus model training.
The place of gender and performance was equally studied by Oye and Odekunle (2010) in
which the main purpose of the study was to assess the effectiveness of using a national language
(Yoruba) to teach mathematics at Junior Secondary School (J.S.S II) level in Ilorin metropolis of
Kwara State. In all five secondary school were randomly selected from the 22 secondary school
in Ilorin metropolis while 100 students were also randomly sampled from each of the five
schools making 500 students as the target population for the study. Two instruments developed
and used for the study (a) Demonstration Teaching Procedure (DIP) and (b) Mathematics Test
Association (MTA). In DIP the researcher used Yoruba language to teach experimental group
and normal English to teach the control group. Each group was taught for 25 hours. At the end,
the test of assimilation constructed by the researcher was administered to each of the group. The
result of the analysis showed that there is no significant difference in the performance of male
and female students taught mathematics using Yoruba language. Related to the present work as it
is a communication skills that complement bakery and soap making skills
In the same direction Alfa (2012), analyses gender differences in the quality and quantity of
NCE graduate produced from centre for continuing (CCE) College of Education from 2003/2004
to 2007-2008 academic sessions in Minna of Niger State. Three research questions and two
hypotheses were set and treated. The descriptive statistics and chi-square procedure were used
for analysis of data collected. The result revealed that there was significant difference in the
quantity of male and female NCE students that graduated from the centre with masculine
superiority in science and technical education and feminine superiority in arts related courses.
52
There was no significant difference in the quality of male and female students that graduated
from the centre.
Furthermore, Umar (2012) work is designed to determine the effect of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) has on the performance of students in Junior Secondary
School Integrated Science in Kaduna metropolis of Kaduna State. The research design consisted
of experiment, non-equivalent control group, pretest and post-test. The population of the study
consist of 161 J.S.S I students. The instrument for data collection is the Integrated Science
Interest Inventory (IISI) consist 50 items. The data analysis used the mean and ANOVA. The
study revealed that boys taught integrated science with ICT had a high mean than girls.
In addition, Raji and Oyedun (2012) examined the role of practical work on gender in physics
achievement in three educational zones of Niger state. The sample for the study consisted of 360
students randomly selected from 10 secondary schools. A pre-test, post-test experimental group
research design was adopted for the study. Infact, five schools each for experimental and control
group was selected. A Physics Achievement Test (PAT) was the instrument used for data
collection. The finding of the study revealed that gender has no effect on physics achievement of
secondary school students who are taught by means of practical work
Age and Skills Acquisition
Salahudeen (2012) investigated the effectiveness of Computer Instructional Packages on
learning of mathematical concepts of longitude and latitude among secondary schools in Minna
metropolis of Niger State. The research adopted the pre-test, post-test, and experimental and
control group design. A random sample of one hundred and twenty (120) students was drawn
from four schools. Administered to the students was 20 multiple test items, the data collected
53
was analyzed using mean, t-test and ANOVA. The finding revealed that gender and age
difference was found to have no significant effect on the mean achieved of the experiment group.
Still on the same outlook, Ewumi (2010) examined age, gender and vocational interest as
predictors of senior secondary school adolescent’s career aspiration with implication for
vocational counselling in Ijebu-Ode LGA of Ogun State. The Subjects for the study were 375 of
which 200 female and 175 male drawn from co-education senior schools (SS3). The instrument
for data collection was the Self-Evaluation of Vocational Interest (SEVI) and the responses were
subjected to multiple regression statistical analysis. The result revealed significant composite
contribution of age, gender and vocational interest to students’ vocational aspiration with
vocational interest independently predicting students’ vocational aspiration.
Furthermore, Amusan and Olanisinmi (2011) study focuses on the effect of age, gender
and level of educational training on organization of behaviour of Nigerian Police in Egba
Division of Ogun State. A total of 200 randomly sample police officers from constable to
assistant police commissioner. The sample population consists of 84 female and116 males. The
instrument for data collection was the questionnaire analyzed using the t-test and ANOVA. The
result illustrated that age and level of education impacted significantly in organizational
citizenship education scores of participants.
Gender and skills Acquisition
Kalgo (1997) study was aimed at finding out the performance/competency level of
Primary IV pupils in literacy skill in Kebbi State. To this end, a random sample of 768 pupils
was used. A literacy skill test which consisted of five sections (A-E) was constructed, validated
and administered to pupils. The simple frequency, mean and standard deviations were used for
54
analysis of the data. It was generally found that Primary IV girls performed better than the boys
in literacy.
Inekwe (1997) the paper comprises two investigation of secondary school/remediation
students difficulties in Algebra and geometry in Kaduna state. The second study is worthy of
mention which comprises eight schools and sample 31 students from each school that makes 248
pupils of both girls and boys. The schools are drawn from federal, state and science based
schools. The three instruments for data collection are Geometric Visual Perception Test (GVP),
Geometric Proportional Reasoning Test (GLR) and Geometric Logical Reasoning Test (GLR).
The person’s product moment correction matrix and the t-test was use for data analysis. The
result revealed a significant difference in skills of geometric proportional reasoning between
boys and girls.
Akinpelu (1998) main purpose of the study was to examine the academic achievement
and self-concept of male and female learning impaired students in Nigeria. The sample
procedure adopted was purposive comprises 566 respondents of which 364 male and 202 female
with learning-impaired secondary school students identified in various part of the country. The
instrument for data collection is the Adolescent Personal Data Inventory (APDI) and JSCE
result. The data collected were analyzed using the t-test. The result show that male learning
impaired student did not achieve better than that female counterparts.
On the other hand Aremu and Ajanaku (2010) studied the influence of gender difference
in qualitative practical analysis among chemistry students in College of Education Oro of Kwara
State. In all 100 final year chemistry student were randomly selected. Qualitative Analysis
Practical Achievement Test (QAPAT) was used as the instrument for data generation. The data
55
collected was subjected to T-test and ANOVA statistics. Findings shows that gender do not have
influence on students academic achieve in qualitative analysis of practical skills.
Ogunbiyi, Joseph and Olukayode (2006) in the study sought to investigate the affect of
cooperative learning strategy and gender on student’s achievement in environmental education
concept in social studies among a sample of Nigeria Junior Secondary School students in
Abeokuta, Ogun State. Fifty respondents were randomly selected from two co-educational
schools. The study is experimental in nature. A pre-test, post test, control group quasi-
experimental design was used for the study. The students were exposed to three week teaching.
The treatment was administered and the scored analyzed use t-test statistics. The result showed
that female students performed better than male counterparts.
In another work Umeh (2007) investigated the influence of Socialization on achievement
in Secondary School Social Studies in Minna metropolis of Niger State. Three hypotheses were
formulated. A total of 313 were randomly sampled. This composed of 144 girls and 169 boys. A
test retest method was used to test for reliability of the instrument. The researcher developed the
test items for pre-test and post-test. The data were analyzed and the findings showed that the
female students taught with socialization method outperformed their male counterparts.
Similarly, Gambari, Gana and Kutigi (2012) in the study investigated the effect of
Computer Assisted Instructions (CAI) packages on performance of Senior Secondary Student on
English Language (Oral English) in Minna of Niger State. The instrument is the computer
assisted instructional and the conventional method and the treatment period of 4 weeks was
administered on stratify random sample population of 20 males and 20 females which made up
of forty senior secondary school student from two school. The Oral-English Achievement test
56
(OAT) made of 50 items was use for both pre-test and post-test. The t-test was employed for data
analysis. The finding indicated there was no significant difference in the post-test performance
scored of male and female student taught with CAI packages.
The study was conductrd by Ismail, Solasoye, Bernice, Olayede, and Olawale (2012)
with a purpose of ascertaining the gender differences in entrepreneur skills acquisition among
students in Lagos State. The study employed the survey design method. The subjects of the study
were a total of 110 entrepreneurial students selected through random sampling across two
institutions. The instrument for data collection was a self-administered questionnaire and the data
collected was analyzed using the chi-square. Based on the analysis the findings were reached that
the marketing related value with regard to choice of entrepreneurial skills has nothing to do with
being a male or female.
In another study by Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) carried out an investigation on how
gender influenced student’s attitude towards their own attitude and how they relate to computer
skills from Canadian universities of North America. The study used the extensive survey design.
The subjects of the study were 906 students graduating from bachelor level in arts, liberal arts
and humanities selected through stratified random sampling. The basic instrument for data
collection is interview through phone, face to face and focus groups. The data collected were
analyzed through t-test scores. However based on the analysis the results obtain shows that there
is a significant differences as found in bibliographies, graphic programme, web site creation and
non conceptual understanding of Information Technology where males were to have higher skills
than females. Although in generic computer skills both male and females have high level
competence.
57
Furthermore, Danjuma, Hussaini, and Nasiru, (2011) studied the role of skills
acquisition and capacity building on women economic empowerment in Birnin Kebbi town of
Kebbi State. The study employed the descriptive survey design. The subjects were 225 graduates
of Women Day Centre Birnin Kebbi that were purposively sampled. The instrument for data
collection was the structured and unstructured interview. The data collected was analyzed using
the spearman rank correlation coefficient. The findings revealed that there is a low positive
correlation between skill acquisition and women economic empowerment and a high positive
correlation between capacity building and women economic empowerment.
Summary of Literature Review
The literature review was segmented into three namely, conceptual framework,
theoretical framework and empirical studies. The conceptual framework delved mainly on
terminologies and typologies of employment. The skills acquisition can be viewed from context,
content and contemporary approaches which applied to both bakery skills such as: mixing,
kneading, firing, shaping, and so forth. While, soap making skills includes: stirring,
measurement, molding, drying, among others. Similarly, career guidance encompassed all aspect
of development in and out of school. In addition apprentices can take the form of formal and
informal dimension. All these literatures played a significant role in understand and enriching the
present research but none attempted to relate it to any model of skill acquisition or career
guidance for counsellee.
The theoretical framework reviewed three models of skills acquisition and two theories of
career guidance. The three models of skills acquisition are the Dreyfus model, (1980), Anderson
ACT-R (1983) and Newel and Rosen Bloom SOAR (1982) as they are all cognitive architecture
58
of learning in stages. Dreyfus model can be differentiated with ACT-R and SOAR models with
its emphasis on guided skills acquisition. The career guidance theories include non psychological
theories specifically accident theory that career could be chosen by chance. As well as decision
making theories that tends to maximize profit and minimize lost in career with particular
reference to self-efficacy theory that individual feels could acquire a named skill.
The empirical studies reviewed the existing variation in gender and age as it relates to
performance and skills acquisition of an individual. Although all literature concord that guidance
is a useful tool to skill acquisition but not a single work relate it to Dreyfus model training of
skills acquisitions or soap making skills or bakery skills. Therefore, the present research seeks to
elucidate on the effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on soap making and bakery
skills acquisition with the intervening variables of gender and age.
59
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter presents the procedures and techniques that was subsequently employed to,
collect and analyze data for the study. These are elaborated under the sub-headings: design of the
study, area of the study, population, sample and sampling techniques, instrument for data
collection, validation and reliability of instrument, experimental procedure, control of extraneous
variables, method of data collection and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The quasi-experiment using the non-equivalent group of pre-test and post-test design was
adopted. There is no randomization of the respondents and the existence of treatment and control
group that are subjected to pre-test in order to establish a baseline data to work with before the
posttest after the treatment (Ibrahim, 2006).
Table 1: The format of research design for the study
Group Pre-Test Treatment Post-Test
Experiment group 01 x1 02
Control group 01 x2 02
Note: 01 = pre test; 02= post test; X1= Dreyfus model; x2 = conventional method
59
60
Area of the Study
The area of the study is Niger State situated in the middle belt (north central) of Nigeria.
It shares boundaries with Republic of Benin (West), Kebbi State (North West), Zamfara State
(North), Kaduna State (North East) Kogi State (South), Kwara State (South West), and the
Federal Capital Territory (South East). It lies on latitude 3:20 East and Longitude 11.30 North. It
is a melting pot of ethnic groups from Nigeria but is dominated by Nupe, Hausa and Gwari tribes
with a population figure of 3.95 million in the 2006 National population census. The state
comprises 25 Local Government Areas with a land mass of 86.000km2 in about 8.6million
hectares constituting about 9.3% of the total land area of the country, making it the largest state
in Nigeria (Niger State Government, 2008).
The justification for choosing Niger State is based on largely on the level of
unemployment among youths and its attendant consequences of criminal acts which tends to
slow down the rate of development. In addition its centripetal location geographically in Nigeria
as such people from all parts of Nigeria abound and live peacefully irrespective of religious,
political and cultural differences. Thus, dissemination of knowledge and skills to all parts of the
country will be fast as it is the largest state in Nigeria and shares boundary with many states.
Population of the Study
The population of the study comprise of over 3,358 registered unemployed youths
captured in the various skills acquisition centre in Niger State. (Ministry of Youth and Strategy,
2013, and Ministry of Women and Gender Affairs, 2014) There are over Seventy-five (75) Skills
Acquisition Centres in the state with the Ministry of Women and Gender Affairs, Mass Literacy
Agency and Ministry of Education all having at least one in each of the twenty-five (25) Local
61
Government Areas of the state. This is with exception of skills acquisition centres controlled by
NGO’S and local governments. They train mainly graduates and drop-outs from secondary
schools and tertiary institutions that are either male or female all in different age brackets.
Sample and Sampling Technique
The sample for the study was 168 youths. Purposive sampling technique was used to
select the skill acquisition centers. The chanchaga skills acquisition center with 45 apprentices
was the experimental group for soap making skills while the experimental group for bakery skills
is located at Talba Vocational Training and Skill Acquisition scheme at the Minna Youth Centre
with 53 apprentices. However, the Women Day Center Minna forms the control group with 39
apprentices for bakery skills acquisition, alongside St. Clement skills acquisition center at Dutsen
Kura Minna with 31 apprentices as control group for soap making. The population of apprentices
in each of the centres is below 60 youths, which is a manageable size for experimental purposes
for the researcher. Therefore, youths were selected into the programme. Thus, the entire sample
population was 168 apprentices.
Instruments for Data Collection
The instruments for the collection of data for the research is the Bakery Skills Acquisition
Test (B.S.A.T) (see appendix J pages 138-144) and Soap Making Skills Acquisition Test
(S.M.S.A.T) (see appendix K pages 145-1521.Theses instruments developed by the researcher
was used to elicit information from the apprentices on their level of attainment in the skills
acquisition processes for skills acquisition in soap making and bakery. Each of the instrument is
divided into Section A and Section B, while section A seeks for background information of the
apprentices, Section B is divided into five Clusters each representing a stage in skills acquisition.
62
Each cluster captures the varying degree in the level of attainment in skills acquisition.
Therefore, each of the two instruments of bakery skills and soap making skills consists of a total
twenty questions and four questions for each stage of the five clusters. This Multiple Choice
questions were used to determine the level of attainment of the apprentice. In each item the
apprentice scores correct, 5 marks was awarded making a total of 100 marks for each of the
instruments. The summative or aggregate score was used to determined the achievement score
for each of the apprentices.
Validation of the Instruments
The face validity of the instrument was done by a team of three experts from two
Nigerian Universities. One expert from Science Education Department of University of Nigeria,
Nsukka, the second expert from the Educational Foundations Department of University of
Nigeria, Nsukka and the third expert from the Department of Counselling Psychology of Ibrahim
Badamasi Babangida University Lapai-Niger State Nigeria. Their observations have been taken
as input and necessary corrections effected as suggested before producing the final copy of the
instrument. All the experts were assumed to have separately and collectively certified that the
instrument have the required face validity (see Appendix O pages 158-183, Appendix P pages
184-200, and Appendix Q pages 201-220).
Reliability of the Instrument
A trial-test was conducted on a sample population of 60 students at skills acquisition
section of Women Day College Minna, Niger State to determine the reliability of the instrument.
However, a split-half test procedure was used to test for stability. The data collected was used to
determine the internal consistency of the instrument using the Cronbach Alpha statistics which is
63
applied to an instrument that is not dichotomously scored. The reliability of the scoring guide
was determined using Kindalls coefficient of concordance (W). The result obtained was 0.81 for
BSAT and SMSAT was 0.80 which is high enough these made the instruments reliable. The
calculation of the coefficient was with the aid of Computer Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) (See Appendix M page 221).
Experimental Procedure:
Prior to the commencement of the experiment, the researcher visited the centre to seek
for official permission and familiarization of the environment. Later, there was series of contacts
between the researcher, the instructor and the apprentices. This was expected to last for 8 weeks
(see Appendix F page 117 and Appendix G 118). This period should be long enough for
acquiring soap making skills and bakery skill. The pretest was conducted on the first week of the
experiment while the post-test was done on the last week of the experiment. The researcher
offered the necessary guidance to the experimental group once a week (see Appendix H pages
119-126 and Appendix I pages 127-137). The control group was exposed to instruction by a
master using the conventional method and demonstration technique but without separating the
learning experience into Dreyfus Model of skills acquisition which is divided according to five
stages.
Control of Extraneous Variables
The following measures were adopted to control extraneous variables that may introduce
bias to the study:
64
Initial Group Difference: - In an attempt to eliminate the errors of non-equivalence arising from
the non-randomization of the subjects, the researcher used the analyses of variance (ANCOVA)
for data analysis. This corrected the initial difference among the research subjects.
Apprentices Interaction: - The treatment and the control group that was composed were not from
the same skill acquisition centre, this is to ensure the treatment and control group do not mix to
exchange ideas..
Effect of Pre-test and Post Test: - The time lapse between the pre-test and post-test was 8 weeks.
This was considered high enough to disallow the pre-test score from affecting the post-test
scores. The pre-test items were not only shuffled but different colours (blue and pink) papers and
size (pocket size) was used for the post test.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher administered the instruments on the apprentices with the assistance of
their instructors who acted as research assistants. The experimental group was engaged for 8
weeks with guidance on the segments and stages of skills acquisition. The apprentices were
accommodated in classroom and are allowed to enter with only writing material. The researcher
reiterated the ethics of examination to the apprentices and the research assistants. The
instructions and the purposes of the day’s session was further highlighted. The apprentices were
given only 30 minutes to attempt the questionnaire. At the end of the session the instrument was
collected and scored by the researcher out of 100%.
65
Method of Data Analysis
The raw data collected from each apprentices summated or aggregate score in the pretest
or posttest was analyzed using mean and standard deviation in answering the research questions.
The results obtained were used for rejection or accepting the research questions formulated.
While the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for testing of the research null
hypotheses formulated.
66
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
This chapter presented the results and statistical analysis in accordance with nine research
questions and nine hypotheses that guided the study. Each of the researched question and the
tested hypothesis results were presented in a tabular form below: -
Research Question 1
What is the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance and those with control group?
Table 1: Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after
Training in Dreyfus Model and those in Control Group.
Groups
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Experimental Group 45 37.44 77.00 39.5
Control Group 39 38.46 56.28 17.82
Note: - All figures rounded up to two decimal places
Table 1 showed that at pretest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean
achievement score of 37.44. While, the control group had overall mean achievement scores of
66
67
38.46.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the
closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean
achievement score of 77.00. While, the controlled group had overall mean achievement score of
56.28.Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on
level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the
experimental group is 39.55 as opposed to 17.82 of the controlled group, which was a clear
indication that there was a difference in the variability of their scores judging from the disparity
of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is significant can only be proven
by a tested hypothesis.
A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question one is:
HO 1: There is no significant difference between the mean pre-test and post-test
achievement score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap
making and those not exposed to the model for career guidance.
68
Table 2: Summary of ANCOVA in the mean pre-test and post-test scores between soap
making apprentices after training and those without training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
45451.60 3 15150.53 113.74 .000 Rejected
Within
Group
21844.70 164 133.20
Total 67296.28 167
The result shown in Table 2 indicated that treatment as a main factor had significant
effect on apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills in apprentices. This is
due to the fact that the F value of 113.74 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have
significance of .000 levels because it is lower than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested.
This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 113.74 is significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .000 is less than .05. Hence, the
researcher rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative. Therefore, there was
significance difference between the mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
69
Research Question 2
What is the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition by gender of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?
Table 3: Mean Achievement scores by Gender of Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after
Training in Dreyfus Model.
Experimental Group
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Male 26 36.16 76.35 40.19
Female 19 39.21 77.89 38.68
Table 3 revealed that at pretest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 36.16.While, the female apprentices in the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 39.21. There was not much difference in the variability of
their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean
achievement score of 76.35. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 77.89. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on
both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;
the gain score of the male and the female is close with 40.19 and 38.68 respectively, which
indicated that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the
70
closeness of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can
only be proven by a tested hypothesis.
The corresponding hypothesis for the research questions two is:
H0 2: There is no significant difference between the mean score of males and females
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career
guidance.
Table 4: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills scores by gender (males and
females) apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model.
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
26.326 1 26.326 234 .631 Accepted
Within
Group
4843.674 43 112.644
Total 4870.000 44
The result shown in Table 4 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant
effect on male and female apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills. As a
result the F value of 234 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance of
.631 levels which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore shows
that at 0.05 the F-value of 234 is not significant.
71
The Table shows that the exact probability level .631 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significance difference between
the mean pretest and post test achievement score of the male and female apprentices exposed to
Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to the model
for career guidance
Research Question 3
What is the mean achievement score difference in soap making skills acquisition of
young adults and older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career
guidance?
Table 5: Mean Achievement Scores Between Young Adults and Older Adults Apprentices
in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model
Experimental Group
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Young Adults 14 40.27 78.95 38.68
Older Adults 31 35.38 75.58 40.19
Table 5 illustrated that at pretest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 40.27. While, the older adults had overall mean achievement
score of 35.38.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the
closeness of their standard deviation.
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However, at posttest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 78.95. While, the older adults had overall mean achievement score of
75.58.Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on
level of performance too on both groups. This is because; the gain score of the young adults and
the older adults is close with 38.68 and 40.19 respectively, which indicated that there was no
much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the closeness of the gain score. To
ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can only be proven by a tested
hypothesis.
A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question three is:
HO 3: There is no significant difference between the mean score of young adults and
older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making
for career guidance.
Table 6: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills scores between young adults’ and
older adults’ apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model.
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
124.706 1 124.706 1.130 .294 Accepted
Within
Group
4746.294 43 110.356
Total 4870.000 44
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The result shown in Table 6 indicates that treatment as a main factor has significant effect
on young adults and older adults’ apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap making skills.
As a result the F value of 1.130 in respect of treatment as a main effect is shown to have
significance of .294 levels which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This
therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 1.130 is not significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .294 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the
mean pretest and post test achievement score of young adults and older adults apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career guidance
Research Question 4
What is the mean achievement score difference in soap making skills acquisition between
gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?
Table 7: Mean Achievement Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and Age of
Apprentices in Soap Making Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.
Experimental Groups
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Gender 45 37.68 77.00 39.32
Age 45 37.82 77.00 39.18
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Table 7 manifested that at pretest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental
group had overall mean achievement score of 37.68. While, apprentices performance by age had
overall mean achievement score of 37.82.There was not much difference in the variability of
their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 77.00. While, apprentices performance by age had overall
mean achievement score of 77.00. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on
both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;
the gain score of the gender group is 39.32 as opposed to 39.18 of the age group, which was a
clear indication that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from
the disparity of the gain score. Only a tested hypothesis can determine whether the observed
difference is not significant.
The corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question four is:
HO 4: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean score by gender and age of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in soap making for career
guidance.
75
Table 8: Summary of ANCOVA in soap making skills interaction effect scores by gender
and age of apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
151.032 3 50.344 .452 .717 Accepted
Within
Group
9588.968 86 111.500
Total 9740.000 89
The result shown in Table 8 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant
effect on performance by gender and age of apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of soap
making skills. This is because the F-value of .452 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown
to have significance level of .717 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is
tested. This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .452 is not significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .717 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significance interaction effect
between the mean pretest and post test achievement score by gender and age of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
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Research Question 5
What is the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices exposed
to Dreyfus model training for career guidance and those in the control group?
Table 9: Pretest and Posttest Mean Achievement Scores of Apprentices in Bakery Skills
after Training in Dreyfus Model and those in the Control Group
Groups
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Experimental Group 53 36.44 79.67 43.22
Control Group 31 28.21 47.05 18.85
Table 9 displayed that at pretest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean
achievement score of 36.44. While, the control group had overall mean achievement score of
28.21.There was not much differences in the variability of their scores judging from the
closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean score of
79.67. While, the control group had overall mean achievement score of 47.05.Therefore, the
treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on level of performance too
of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the experimental group is 43.22 as
opposed to 18.85 of the control group, which was a clear indication that there was a difference in
the variability of their scores judging from the disparity of the gain score. To ascertain whether
the observed differences is significant can only be proven by a tested hypothesis.
77
A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question five is:
HO 5: There is no significant difference in the mean pre-test and post-test achievement
score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and
those not exposed to the model for career guidance.
Table 10: Summary of ANCOVA in the mean pre-test and post-test between bakery skills
apprentices after training and those without training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000 Rejected
Within
Group
30361.368 164 185.925
Total 96757.143 167
The result shown in Table 10 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant
effect on apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills in apprentices. This is because
the F-value of 119.548 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance level
of .000 levels which is lower than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore
shows that at 0.05 the F-value of 119.548 is significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .000 is less than .05. Hence, the
researcher rejects the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative. Therefore, there was significant
78
difference between the mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices exposed to
Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model
for career guidance
Research Question 6
What is the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition by gender of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?
Table 11: Mean Achievement Scores by Gender (Male and Female) Apprentices in Bakery
Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.
Experimental Group
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Male 32 35.96 79.11 43.14
Female 21 37.11 80.00 42.90
Table 11 exhibited that at pretest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 35.96. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 37.11. There was not much difference in the disparity of their
scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, male apprentices in the experimental group had overall mean
achievement score of 79.11. While, the female apprentices of the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 80.00. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on
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both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;
the gain score of the male and female is close with 43.14and 42.90 respectively, which indicated
that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the closeness of
the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can only be
proven by a tested hypothesis.
The corresponding hypothesis that addresses research questions six is:
HO 6: There is no significant difference between the mean score of males and females
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills for career
guidance.
80
Table 12: Summary of ANCOVA in bakery skills scores between males and females
apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
3.654 1 3.654 .024 .877 Accepted
Within
Group
6516.346 43 151.543
Total 6520.000 44
The result shown in Table 12 indicated that treatment as a main factor has significant
effect on male and female apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills. This is
because the F-value of .024 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance
level of .877 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore
shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .024 is not significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .877 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the
mean pretest and post test achievement score of male and female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus
Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model for
career guidance
81
Research Question 7
What is the mean achievement score difference in bakery skills acquisition of young
adults and older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?
Table 13: Mean Achievement Scores Between Young Adults and Older Adults Apprentices
in Bakery Skills after Training in Dreyfus Model.
Groups
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Young Adults 23 39.21 82.63 43.12
Older Adults 30 34.42 77.51 43.08
Table 13 indicated that at pretest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 39.21. While, the older adults of the experimental group had
overall mean achievement score of 34.42.There was not much differences in the variability of
their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, young adults apprentices in the experimental group had overall
mean achievement score of 82.63. While, the older adults of the experimental group had overall
mean achievement scores of 77.50. Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on
both the variation and on level of performance too of the experimental group. This is because;
the gain score of the young adults is 43.42 as opposed to 43.08 of the older adults, which was a
clear indication that there was a difference in the variability of their scores judging from the
82
disparity of the gain scores. To ascertain whether the observed differences is significant can only
be proven by a tested hypothesis.
A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question seven is:
Hypothesis 7: There is no significant difference between the mean score of young adults and
older adults’ apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills
for career guidance.
Table 14: Summary of ANCOVA in bakery skills scores between young adults and older
adults apprentices after training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
289.079 1 289.079 1.995 .165 Accepted
Within
Group
6230.921 43 144.905
Total 6520.000 44
The result shown in Table 14 indicated that treatment as a main factor has effect on young adults
and older adults’ apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills. This is because the F-
value of 1.995 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to have significance level of .165
which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested. This therefore shows that at
0.05 the F-value of 1.165 is not significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .165 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant difference between the
83
mean pretest and post test achievement score of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training
on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to the model for career guidance
Research Question 8
What is the mean achievement score difference in bakery skills acquisition between
gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training for career guidance?
Table 15: Mean Achievement Interaction Effect Scores Between Gender and Age of
Apprentices in Bakery Skills After Training in Dreyfus Model.
Groups
N
Pretest
X
Posttest
X
Mean Gain
Gender 53 36.53 79.71 43.18
Age 53 36.82 80.07 43.25
Table 15 pointed-out that at pretest, apprentices performance by gender in the experimental
group had overall mean achievement score of 36.53. While, the apprentices performance by age
had overall mean achievement score of 36.82. There was not much difference in the variability
of their scores judging from the closeness of their standard deviation.
However, at posttest, apprentices by gender group had overall mean achievement score of
79.71. While, by age group the apprentices had overall mean achievement score of 80.07.
Therefore, the treatment had exerted substantial influence on both the variation and on level of
performance too of the experimental group. This is because; the gain score of the apprentices by
84
gender is 43.18 as opposed to 43.25 of the apprentices performance by age, which was a clear
indication that there was no much difference in the variability of their scores judging from the
disparity of the gain score. To ascertain whether the observed differences is not significant can
only be proven by a tested hypothesis.
A corresponding hypothesis raised to further address the research question eight is:
HO 8: There is no significant interaction effect in the mean score of gender and age of
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus model training on skills acquisition in bakery for career
guidance.
Table 16: Summary of ANCOVA in Bakery Interaction Effect Scores between Gender and
Age of Apprentices after Training in Dreyfus Model
Variables Sum of
squares
Df Mean
Squares
F Sig. Decision
Between
Group
292.733 3 97.578 .658 .580 Accepted
Within
Group
12747.267 86 148.224
Total 13040.000 89
The result shown in Table 16 indicated that treatment as a main factor has interactive
effect by gender and age of apprentices’ achievement in acquisition of bakery skills in
apprentices. This is because the F-value of .658 in respect of treatment as main effect is shown to
85
have significance level of .580 which is higher than 0.05 level at which the hypothesis is tested.
This therefore shows that at 0.05 the F-value of .658 is not significant.
The Table shows that the exact probability level .580 is higher than .05. Hence, the
researcher accepts the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was no significant interaction effect
between the mean pretest and post test achievement score by gender and age of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
Summary of the findings:
1. There was significant difference between the mean achievement score of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
2. The gain score of the male experimental group is higher than the male of the control
group when exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making skills for
career guidance.
3. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of the male and
female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and
those not exposed to the model for career guidance
4. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of young adults
and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap
making and those not exposed to the model for career guidance
86
5. There was no significant interaction effect of treatment by gender and age of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in soap making and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
6. There was significant difference between the mean achievement score of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance.
7. The gain score of the male experimental group is higher than the male of the control
group when expose to Dreyfus Model training in bakery skills acquisition for career guidance.
8. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of male and
female apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and
those not exposed to the model for career guidance
9. There was no significant difference between the mean achievement score of young adults
and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery
skills and those not exposed to the model for career guidance
10. There was no significant interaction effect of treatment by gender and age of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training on skills acquisition in bakery skills and those not exposed to
the model for career guidance
87
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this chapter, the discussions of the major findings of the study, conclusion, their
educational implications and recommendations including suggestions for further study and
summary of the study are presented.
Discussions of Results
The discussions were organized under the following sub-headings:
1. Influence of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery
skills.
2. Effects of Gender on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills.
3. Effects of Age on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills.
4. Interaction Effect of treatment on Skills Acquisition by Gender and Age in soap making
skills and bakery skills.
Influence of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills
The results from the study showed that the experimental group achievement score is
higher than that of the control group in soap making skills acquisition after employing Dreyfus
model of career guidance. In addition, Table 11 depicted that there is significant difference in
mean achievement between the experimental group and control group in soap making skill
acquisition when exposed to Dreyfus Model of career guidance. Similarly, the experimental
group achievement score is higher than that of the control group in bakery skills acquisition
when exposed to the Dreyfus model of career guidance as shown in Table 5. Furthermore, Table
102
87
88
15 indicated that there is a significant difference in the mean achievement between the
experimental group and controlled group in bakery skills acquisition when exposed to Dreyfus
Model of Career guidance.
The apprentices of the experimental group did better than those of the control group
because the Dreyfus model exposed them to analytical approach to acquisition of skills and
expectation at the five stages of the model. The apprentice were able to learn systematically or in
stages, names of the instruments\apparatus, uses, minor repairs and substitution, ingredients\
reagents, procedure in the production of final product; performing practical activity and finally
provide answer to common faults in production either in soap or bakery skills.
The result of this study is in conformity with the earlier research findings on the place of
guidance in order to acquire a skill as in Okonkwo and Obineli (2010) Bello and Mustapha
(2010) Aihie and Ohanaka (2010). This is because whatever the kind of skill an individual is
acquiring, a to put someone a right is important.
Effect of Gender on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills
One major finding from the research is that there is no significant difference in mean
achievement between male and female of the experimental group exposed to Dreyfus model of
skills acquisition in soap making as depicted by analysis of variance in Table 12. In hypothesis
two, on the same token Table 16 showed the analysis of variance based on hypothesis seven that
there is no significant difference in achievement score between male and female apprentice of
the experimental group in bakery skills acquisition.
The result findings corroborate the work of Gambari, Gana and Kutigi (2012); Ismail,
Solasoye, Bernice, Olayede and Olawale (2012); Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) and Kutigi
89
(2011). However, other researchers that contradicted earlier are Inekwe (1997), Ogunbiyi, Joseph
and Olukayode (2006), Umar (2007) and Butter, Ryan and Chao (2005) could be influence by
environmental factors.
Effects of Age on Skills Acquisition in soap making skills and bakery skills
The results of hypothesis three as shown on table 12 which is ANOVA statistics indicated
that there is no significant difference in the mean achievement between young adults and older
adults in the experimental group in soap making skills acquisition. Similarly, the result of
hypothesis eight as exhibited by table 17 which is an ANOVA statistics revealed that there is no
significant differences in the mean achievement between young adults and older adults in the
post test experimental group in bakery skills acquisition.
These results are in agreement with other research conducted by Salahudeen (2012) and
Aremu and Ajanaka (2010) this is because interest and other factors influence learning than age
especially at the youthful stage when the brain is matured. Contrary to aforementioned study,
Amusan and Olamisinmi (2011) and Ewumi (2010) see the relevance of age to attainment could
be due to the sampling technique and the methodology or gender of the instructor.
Interaction Effect of treatment on Skills Acquisition by Gender and Age in soap making
skills and bakery skills
The tested hypothesis five as revealed by ANOVA statistics on Table 15 indicated that
there is no significant difference in the interaction effect of the mean achievement between
gender and age of apprentices in soap making skills of the experimental group. This is similar to
the result of hypothesis nine as reflected on Table 20 on ANOVA, it showed that there is no
90
significant difference in the interaction effect of the mean achievement between gender and age
of apprentices in bakery skills acquisition of the post test experimental group.
The moderating variables of age and gender with respect to either soap making and
bakery skills acquisition after treatment by the researcher do not show significant interaction
effect on the mean achievements. Indicating that variability in age and gender do not exert
significant influence on the apprentices in the skills acquisition that is studied.
Conclusion
Deducing from the foregone findings and discussion of the study, one can conclude the
following: The results of achievement score of post test experiment group are significantly
different from the post-test controlled group in both soap making and bakery skills acquisition.
The achievement score from the posttest of the experimental group indicate no significant
difference between male and female is both soap making and bakery skills acquisition. The
achievement mean score of post test of the experimental group exhibit no significant differences
between young adults and older adults in soap making and bakery skills acquisitions. Finally, the
interaction effect between age and gender achievement mean score is not significant for both
soap making skill and bakery skill acquisition.
Implications of the findings
From the findings of the study, the researcher deduced a couple of far reaching
implications for students, teachers, curriculum planners, research agency, proprietors and
guidance counsellors. The study provided empirical evidences of the effectiveness of Dreyfus
Model of skills acquisition on soap making skills and bakery skills. The apprentices in these
91
centres exposed to Dreyfus Model in acquiring either the soap making skills or bakery skills
performed better than those not exposed to the Dreyfus Model. The findings of the study showed
the need to expose apprentices in skills acquisition centres the significance of the Dreyfus
Model.
Furthermore, the findings of the study have illustrated the interaction effect of Dreyfus
Model on soap making skills and bakery skills acquisition of apprentices which is strongly built
on guidance oriented approach in each of the five stages of the model. This will strengthen the
role of guidance counsellors not only in skills acquisition centres but also in formal institutions
of learning. This will enhance the success of proprietors of skills acquisition centres.
Moreover, the result also shows that exposing apprentices to Dreyfus Model of skills
acquisition in soap making and bakery is faster to reaching the expert stage of skills acquisition.
Thus, curriculum planners to incorporate the Dreyfus Model as technique in acquiring skills
when opportunity avails in modifying curriculum for learners at both formal and non formal
school settings.
In addition, the result of the study shows that gender and age does not significantly
influence acquisition of skills both in soap making and bakery, this will allow for the continued
diversity in profession that are hitherto age or gender sensitive. Especially, where research
agency publish these result to the academia including learners and their instructors.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study the following recommendations have been proffered:
92
1. The academia should produce learning materials for all level of education so that the Dreyfus
Model could be explored for maximum benefit of the educational system.
2. The teacher or master should employ the Dreyfus model as it is guidance oriented in
providing systematic approach to problem solving.
3. The stakeholders’ of education should provide resources for effective brain storming of the
Dreyfus model in workshops, seminars and other educational for the development of
education.
4. The proprietors of skills/vocational acquisition centre will find the Dreyfus model as a useful
tool in enhancing the quality of its apprentices in the centre.
5. The Dreyfus model will also increase the quantity of apprentice produce within a short
period.
Limitations of the Study
The Dreyfus Model has not been thoroughly explored by researchers not only in Nigeria
but across the globe. This explains why there is hardly any textbook with adequate background
or research on the model. These materials merely mentioned the model and provide scanty
knowledge about it.
The present work on Dreyfus model training as regard its effect on soap making ad
bakery skills revolves much on the informal sector of education as that is where the apprentices
are classified. Most researches in institutions lays emphasis on formal system of education be it
primary, post-primary and tertiary institutions at the detriment of the informal and non-formal
education. It is this factor that breeds the shortage of empirical studies in this research work.
93
The empirical studies in this literature reviewed are only extract from the formal system
of education. In which the broad definition of skill is taken to include the skills of communicate,
practical dexterity, interaction, cognitive etc.
Suggestions for Further Study
Based on the findings as well as the limitations of the study, the following areas are
suggested for further research:
1. The study can be replicated in other environment with different cultural background.
2. The Dreyfus model can also be researched in conventional school setting.
3. The dependable variables used in the Dreyfus model of the present study can also be changed
and studied.
4. The sample size of the study could also be altered and studied.
5. A comparable study of Dreyfus model with other models of skills acquisition can be studied.
Summary of the Study
The study investigated the effect of Dreyfus model training of career guidance on soap
making and bakery skills acquisition of apprentices for employment in Niger State. Specifically,
the objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
2. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of male
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
94
3. Determine the mean achievement score in soap making skills acquisition of female
apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
4. Determine the mean achievement scores in soap making skills acquisition of young adults
and older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
5. Determine the mean achievement interaction effect scores in soap making skills
acquisition between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career
guidance.
6. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance and those in the control group..
7. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of male apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
8. Determine the mean achievement score in bakery skills acquisition of female apprentices
exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
9. Determine the mean achievement scores in bakery skills acquisition of young adults and
older adults apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
10. Determine the mean achievement interaction effect scores in bakery skills acquisition
between gender and age of apprentices exposed to Dreyfus Model training for career guidance.
With regard to these objectives, a total of eight research questions were generated
alongside eight hypotheses which were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
The reviewed literature is segmented into conceptual framework, theoretical framework
and review of empirical studies. The conceptual framework delved into employment, skills
acquisition, bakery skills, soap making skills, apprentices, career guidance and the conceptual
95
relationship between these concepts that are demonstrated in a diagrammatic schema. The
theoretical framework dwelt on the models of Dreyfus model (1980).Anderson Act-R (1983) and
the Newell and Rosenblooms SOAR (1982) and an overview of career guidance theories. Then
review of empirical studies on skills acquisition with career guidance was on, age, gender and
performance.
The research design of the study was quasi-experiment using the non-equivalent group of
pre-test and post-test design comprising the controlled and experimental group that is treated
with the Dreyfus Model of Skill acquisition in career guidance of employment. A total of 168
apprentices were sampled and the research instruments was developed by the researcher and
validated by experts. The mean and standard deviation was used to answer the research question
while the ANOVA was employed to test the hypotheses.
Thus, the result from the research questions and hypotheses revealed ten findings among
other things that the experimental group achievement scores is better than the control group. In
addition the achievement scores between gender or age is not significant and finally there is no
significance interaction effect in scores of the apprentices.
Finally, discussion of the results as it relates to literature review was done. In addition, to
advancing educational implications including exposing apprentices and learners at all levels of
education to counselling for effective skills acquisition. Recommendations to ministries and
parastatals or educational schools were made among others to organize workshops and seminars
for their learners to enhance skills acquisition. Then, a suggestion for further research based on
the findings was made.
96
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105
APPENDIX A
Table: 1 Unemployment Rates by State (1999-2008)
SSS 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Abia 9.65 4.2 16 14.8 11.4 9.7 7.9 13.5 25.1 14.5
Adawama 11.15 46.8 18.2 12.9 11.9 16.7 21.4 17.9 21.5 29.4
Akwa ibom 9.45 14.2 17.4 12.3 14.4 14.4 14.4 15.4 18.0 34.1
Anambra 4.05 21.2 5 6.6 9.1 9.5 9.8 10.3 14.9 16.8
Bauchi 5.8 48.2 15.1 10.4 20.5 25.1 29.7 23.9 20.5 37.2
Bayelsa 3.4 3.9 7.5 3.5 7.1 14.0 20.9 16.0 21.9 41.5
Benue 4.25 23.8 12.9 8.2 4.8 11.7 18.6 10.8 7.9 8.5
Borno 3.45 4.8 8.2 6.4 0.8 3.6 6.3 5.8 12.5 27.7
Cross river 6.15 14.2 9.8 7.9 12.0 11.6 11.1 16.9 32.8 14.3
Delta 9.6 7.9 16.3 14.9 17.1 10.8 4.5 13.8 22.9 18.4
Ebonyi 3.4 3.9 13.1 2.8 16.7 11.9 7.0 10.9 7.9 12
Edo 3.4 12.6 9.9 4.8 3.1 6.5 9.9 8.6 14.8 12.2
Ekiti 10.15 17.9 14.3 17.5 8.2 7.9 7.5 8.7 11.4 20.6
Enugu 11.75 21.2 16 15.2 16.5 22.0 27.4 20.0 14.1 14.9
Gombe 5.8 48.2 8.9 13.4 7.6 15.2 22.8 15.6 16.9 32.1
Imo 13.15 27.2 32.5 19.9 22.1 19.3 16.5 21.5 28.3 20.8
Jigawa 3.25 14.3 14.5 6.1 20.5 19.8 19.1 21.6 27.0 26.5
Kaduna 6.75 19.5 6.9 8.4 19.6 15.9 12.1 14.1 8.7 11.6
Kano 8.7 22.3 26.8 12.8 25.9 22.5 19.1 19.4 10.1 27.6
Katsina 5.55 2 23.7 10.4 20.3 22.1 23.8 19.3 10.9 37.3
Kebbi 6.65 31 29.4 12.3 19.8 19.9 19.9 15.2 1.3 12
Kogi 13.8 4.4 16.1 19.9 14.9 11.8 8.7 12.5 14.6 19
Kwara 5.2 13.3 12.5 8.8 5.4 4.2 2.9 7.5 17.7 11
Lagos 8.8 4.8 5.3 8 25.6 16.1 6.5 15.5 13.7 19.5
Nassarawa 1.5 3.8 2 1.6 5.1 6.9 8.7 8.1 11.8 10.1
Niger 3.85 3.8 4.6 6.3 6.7 3.5 0.2 3.6 4.2 28
Ogun 5.3 4.8 4.9 9.2 1.3 1.9 2.5 2.3 3.6 8.5
Ondo 9.8 17.9 20.1 16.8 7.3 6.8 6.2 6.7 6.7 14.9
Osun 0.75 5.7 7.5 1 0.4 1.2 1.9 2.7 7.2 12.6
Oyo 6.7 2.4 5.4 7 0.8 3.1 5.3 4.3 8.1 14.9
Plateau 9.1 7.9 4 11.8 0.4 1.6 2.8 2.9 6.8 7.1
Rivers 3.4 3.9 22.8 6.6 15.3 11.2 7.0 25.0 66.4 27.9
Sokoto 2.8 40.6 5.7 4.1 4.9 4.5 4.1 6.4 12.3 22.4
Taraba 11.85 34.4 18.1 16.8 23.8 13.6 3.4 14.0 15.2 26.8
Yobe 10.95 24.6 12 15 12.1 10.1 8.0 13.6 24.4 27.3
Zamfara 23.95 40.6 22.4 46.4 71.5 61.3 51.1 50.8 19.1 13.3
FCT (Abuja ) 11.85 3 10.4 14.4 5.3 5.9 6.5 16.4 47.8 21.5
Nigeria 8.15 13.1 13.6 12.6 14.8 13.4 11.9 13.7 14.6 19.7
Source: National Bureau of Statistics, General Household Survey Report (1999-2008)
106
APPENDIX B
Table 2: Unemployment Rates by Age Group and Sector (1999-2008)
Source: National Bureau of Statistics, General Household Survey Report (1999-2008)
Years
15-24 25-44 45-59 60-64 All groups
Na
tion
al
Urb
an
Ru
ral
Na
tion
al
Urb
an
Ru
ral
Na
tion
al
Urb
an
Ru
ral
Na
tion
al
Urb
an
Ru
ral
Na
tion
al
Urb
an
Ru
ral
1999 12.8 30.4 9.0 2.2 3.4 1.9 1.1 1.5 1.0 3.4 8.3 2.4 8.2 8.4 7.7
2000 15.9 26.4 13.6 2.0 3.4 1.7 0.9 1.6 0.8 3.8 8.3 2.9 13.1 13.3 12.6
2001 29.3 36.4 26.3 14.6 10.0 16.6 10.3 8.4 11.1 13.4 16.0 12.3 13.6 12.7 14.0
2002 27.5 29.0 26.8 11.1 6.5 13.0 7.4 5.9 9.5 11.7 11.8 11.7 12.6 8.7 14.2
2003 32.1 33.8 31.3 14.7 18.1 13.2 10.7 11.6 10.3 13.4 13.5 13.4 14.8 10.9 16.4
2004 28.9 31.2 27.9 11.4 10.0 12.0 7.7 4.5 9.0 10.1 4.8 12.4 13.4 9.5 15.0
2005 34.2 34.6 34.0 11.3 9.3 12.2 6.6 4.1 7.7 9.7 11.2 9.0 11.9 10.1 12.6
2006 30.8 31.9 30.3 8.8 5.1 11.1 4.8 1.6 6.7 7.3 4.0 8.3 13.7 10.2 14.6
2007 30.7 31.9 30.2 8.5 4.7 11.0 4.5 1.0 6.6 7.1 3.3 8.3 14.6 10.9 14.8
2008 41.6 49.9 39.6 17.0 16.3 17.3 11.5 10.0 12.1 16.7 18.2 16.2 19.7 19.2 19.8
107
APPENDIX C
Table 3: Unemployment Rate by State And Gender
Unemployment Rate
State Male Female Both Sexes
ABIA 19.3 23.9 21.6
ADAMAWA 19.6 27.4 23.0
AKWA-IBOM 26.0 25.5 25.8
ANAMBRA 18.6 23.6 21.3
BAUCHI 17.3 43.8 29.7
BAYELSA 22.6 18.9 20.7
BENUE 24.4 26.3 25.4
BORNO 22.3 32.2 26.5
CROSS RIVER 18.8 22.0 20.4
DELTA 26.6 27.7 27.2
EBONYI 20.9 19.7 20.3
EDO 16.5 17.6 17.1
EKITI 13.8 14.2 14.0
ENUGU 12.7 16.9 15.0
GOMBE 16.9 43.5 29.2
IMO 29.1 30.5 29.9
JIGAWA 18.8 42.3 28.6
KADUNA 18.7 36.2 25.7
KANO 16.7 39.5 25.7
KATSINA 18.3 40.9 27.8
KEBBI 9.4 32.6 17.6
KOGI 22.7 17.6 20.1
KWARA 17.0 17.9 17.5
LAGOS 6.2 9.1 7.6
NASARAWA 15.3 29.7 21.6
NIGER 8.3 33.0 19.4
OGUN 10.5 9.3 9.9
ONDO 13.1 14.9 14.1
OSUN 16.2 18.0 17.2
OYO 8.9 8.8 8.8
PLATEAU 10.2 18.8 14.4
SOKOTO 27.9 44.3 32.4
TARABA 18.7 25.3 21.6
YOBE 33.0 48.9 39.0
ZAMFARA 22.2 48.6 33.4
FCT 10.4 21.2 15.2
Sector
URBAN 13.3 17.1 15.2
RURAL 19.9 29.2 2.2
National 17.7 24.9 21.1
Source: National Bureau of Statistics Household and Micro Enterprise Survey ( 2010)
108
APPENDIX D
Table 4: Unemployment Rate by Level of Education, Age, Gender and Sector
Educational Level
Nigeria
URBAN RURAL TOTAL
Both Both Both
Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes Male Female Sexes
BELOW PRIMARY
PRIMARY
JSS
VOCATION/
COMMERCIAL
SSS
NCE/OND/NURSING
BA/BSC/Bed/HND
MSC/MA/MAdm
12.4 13.7 13.2 24.8 30.0 27.5 21.5 23.7 22.7
10.3 14.7 12.7 18.0 25.8 21.7 15.6 21.9 18.7
13.4 16.9 15.2 22.6 29.4 25.6 19.5 24.2 21.7
10.7 18.5 14.4 21.6 27.5 24.5 15.2 22.4 18.7
14.2 17.3 15,6 27.2 30.3 28.4 21.2 23.4 22.1
18.3 19.5 18.9 25.3 28.0 26.2 21.9 22.7 22.2
19.1 26.7 21.7 29.5 34.0 30.8 22.6 28.8 24.6
10.1 14.3 11.1 19.4 27.0 20.9 12.6 17.5 13.7
Age Group
15-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
32.2 30.9 31.5 36.7 38.0 37.3 35.6 36.1 35.9
16.4 19.0 17.8 21.2 31.0 26.5 19.5 26.7 23.3
8.5 13.8 11.0 14.5 26.8 20.3 12.3 21.8 16.8
8.6 11.7 10.0 13.5 22.4 17.1 11.8 18.2 14.4
10.6 13.1 11.6 16.5 21.9 18.3 14.6 18.4 16.0
National 13.3 17.1 15.2 19.9 29.2 24.2 17.7 24.9 21.1
Source: National Bureau of Statistics Household and Micro Enterprise Survey ( 2010)
109
APPENDIX E
TABLE 5 NEW ENTRANTS INTO ACTIVE LABOUR FORCE, PROJECTED TO 2015
Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2010)
110
APPENDIX F
TIME-TABLE OF WEEKLY TRAINING ACTIVITIES OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING ON
BAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE
WEEKS TIME DURATION TRAINING ACTIVITIES
1 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Introduction of the programme and pre-testing the
instrument.
2 10:00am-11:00am One hour Utensils and equipment of baking procedures.
3 10:00am-11:00am One hour Ingredients for baking products.
4 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours General procedures for baking.
5 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Practical display of baking skills to produce bread
with instructor as guide to apprentices.
6 10:00am-01:00pm Three hours Group and individual presentation of baking skills
by apprentices to produce bread.
7 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Common faults and corrections of the faults of the
bread produced.
8 10:00am-12:00noon Two hours Evaluation and post-testing the instrument.
111
APPENDIX G
TIME-TABLE OF WEEKLY TRAINING ACTIVITIES OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING ON SOAP
MAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE
WEEKS TIME DURATION TRAINING ACTIVITIES
1 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Introduction of the programme and pre-testing the
instrument.
2 12:00noon-01:00pm One hour Utensils and equipment of soap making procedures.
3 12:00noon-01:00pm One hour Ingredients for soap making product.
4 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours General procedures for soap making.
5 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Practical display of soap making skills to produce
soap with instructor as guide to apprentices.
6 02:00pm-05:00pm Three hours Group and individual presentation of soap making
skills by apprentices to produce bread.
7 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Common faults and corrections of the faults of the
soap produced.
8 01:00pm-03:00pm Two hours Evaluation and post-testing the instrument.
112
APPENDIX H
TREATMENT PACKAGES
THE DETAIL OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING PROGRAMME ON SOAP MAKING SKILLS
ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE
SESSIONS OBJECTIVES CONTENT COUNSELLOR’S
ACTIVITIES
APPRENTICE’S
ACTIVITIES
STRATEGIES MATERIALS EVALUATION
SESSION
1
On completion of the
session the apprentice
will know the purpose of
the counsellor’s
intervention programme:
- to facilitate
and improve
on the quality
of skills
acquisition.
The counsellor
highlights the
ground rules:
- Punctuality
- Regularity
- Days of
meeting and
time
- Duration
- Vibration or
Switch off
handset
- Co-
operation
- Mode of
The counsellor
employs lecture
cum demonstration
methods to explain
the ground rules
and purpose of the
counsellor’s
intervention.
These includes:
- Attentiveness
- Ask questions
- Answer
questions
Encourage
active
participation of
apprentices.
Printed version
of ground rules
and objectives
of counselling
intervention
strategically
pasted in the
classroom
Books, charts and
pictures on skills
acquisition (types
and benefits).
The counsellor
will ask
questions to
determine the
extent to which
the objectives are
being achieved.
Take home
assignment as to
compose a
minute song on
ground rules or
an objective of
113
conduct
- Reinforces
for positive
contribution
The purpose of
counsellor’s
intervention.
Plan to issue
certificate of
attendance with
remarks.
Two minutes
break midway
the session for
interpersonal
discussion.
the programme.
SESSION
2
At the end of the session
the apprentices should:
- List the utensils and
equipment of soap
making skills
acquisition.
- Explain the
functions and
improvisation of the
utensils and
equipment of soap
making
The utensils and
equipment of
soap making
such as:
= dry measuring
cup
= liquid
measuring cup
= pot
= weighing
machine
The counsellor
takes a roll call and
recaps the ground
rules together with
the apprentices.
Highlights the
five stages of
Dreyfus model of
skills acquisition.
List and show the
Listen
attentively.
Observe the
utensils.
Touch and feel
the utensils
Ask questions.
Answer
counsellor’s
Pause
questions will
intermittently be
used during the
session
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
The utensils and
equipment of soap
making.
Chart summary of
the five stages of
Dreyfus Model.
Chart of the soap
making utensils
The counsellor
ask questions to
know the
apprentices level
of understanding.
Extended essay
given in tabular
form on utensils
114
- Discuss the
maintenance of the
utensils and
equipment of soap
making procedure.
= mixing bowl
= mixing spoon
= rubber scraper
= knife
= mold
= pan
= timers etc
The functions of
soap making
utensils and
improvisation.
The
maintenance of
soap making
utensils.
apprentices the
soap making
utensils.
Explain the
functions of the
soap making
utensils and
improvisation
procedure..
Discuss the simple
maintenance
strategies of the
utensils.
.
question.
Start writing the
extended essay.
and equipment.
and functions.
SESSION By the close of the
session the apprentice
The ingredients List the common
ingredients soap
Observe and Guided The sample Five minutes
115
3 should be able to:
- State the basic
ingredients use in soap
making.
- Discuss the role of
each of the
ingredients in the
production of soap.
- Explain the
implication of using
too little or too
much of each
ingredient.
of soap such as:
= lye.
= ashes
.= sodium
hydroxide
= Heat
= Water
= fats:
= tallow (fat of
beef)
= lard (fat of
pork)
= oils:
= palm oil
= Shea butter
oil
= coconut oil
= olive oil
The role of the
ingredient in
soap making
Implication of
making.
Show the texture
and nature of the
ingredients of
soap making to
apprentices.
Discuss the role
of each of the
ingredients to
soap making
procedure.
Explain the
implication of
varying quantity
of the ingredient
to soap making.
manipulate
ingredients of
soap making.
Interaction with
other apprentice
Ask questions
Answer questions
Continue the
extended essay.
Observation of
the apprentices
centre
questions will
be employed to
illustrate all the
point in this
session.
A brief
excursion to be
taken to a
nearby
apprentices
centre.
(actual) ingredients
of soap making
Chart depicting the
ingredients of soap
making.
snap test will be
administered.
116
too much or too
little ingredient
in soap making.
SESSION
4
At the end of the session
the apprentices Should
be able to:
- List the procedures
involve in soap making.
- Discuss the stages in
producing soap.
- Describe in detail the
procedures in producing
soap.
The procedure
of baking bread;
= mixing the lye
and water
together.
= melting
chosen type of
water in a pan
on fire.
= pouring the
lye mixture and
liquid fat
together.
= cooking the
mixture
together.
= moulding the
soap mixture in
mold.
= drying the
mold soap.
Using lecture cum
demonstration
method to explain
the soap making
procedure.
Observe the soap
procedure
demonstrated by
the instructor.
Demonstrate
some aspect of
soap making
procedure.
Ask questions
Answer questions
Continue the
extended essay.
Presentations
questions will
be use to
introduce the
session
Two minutes
break midway
the session for
interpersonal
discussion.
.
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
Utensils\equipment
of baking and
ingredients.
The counsellor
asks the
apprentices
questions on the
session to know
the extent on
which the
objectives are
achieved.
117
SESSION
5
On completion of the
session the apprentice
should be able to:
- list the soap making
skills in the
production of soap.
- State the skills in the
order as they occur
during production of
soap.
- Demonstrate at least
four skills in soap
production.
Specific soap
making skills:
= mixing.
= stirring
= cooking
= moulding
= drying
= colouring
= scenting
Generic soap
making skills:
=Reading
=writing
=oral
communication
=numeracy
=note taking
=problem
solving =critical
thinking
=decision
making
=planning and
Demonstrate
both the generic
and specific
skills of soap
making.
Guide the
apprentices to
demonstrate
some specific
and generic
skills of soap
making.
Demonstrate
some specific and
generic skills of
soap making.
Asking
questions.
Answering
questions.
Listening
attentively to the
counsellor’s
explanations
Interaction with
other apprentice
Continue the
extended essay.
Welcome test
to arouse the
interest of the
apprentices.
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
A brief
excursion to be
taken to a
nearby
apprentices
centre.
Utensils\equipment
of soap making and
ingredients.
The counsellor
asks summary
questions.
Take home
assignment to
prepare them for
next session.
118
organization
=use of memory
SESSION 6 At the end of the session
the apprentice should be
able to:
- Demonstrate
in a
group the skills
of soap
production.
- Discuss and display
individually soap
making skills in
production of soap.
- explain some
common mistakes in
the display of soap
making skills and
how it can be
corrected.
Specific soap
making skills:
= mixing.
= stirring
= cooking
= moulding
= drying
= colouring
= scenting
Generic soap
making skills:
=Reading
=writing
=oral
communication
=numeracy
=note taking
=problem
solving =critical
thinking
Guide the
apprentices to
demonstrate
specific and
generic skills of
baking bread.
Group practical
demonstration of
bakery skills on
soap production.
Individual
practical
demonstration on
production of
soap.
Asking
questions.
Answering
questions.
Listening
attentively to the
counsellor’s
explanations
Continue the
extended essay.
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
Drill
questions to
motivate the
concentration
of the
apprentices.
Utensils\equipment
of soap making and
ingredients.
Drill questions
to determine the
level of
understanding of
the session.
The class urged
to dramatize
some aspect of
acquisition of
skills in soap
production.
119
=decision
making
=planning and
organization
=use of memory
SESSION 7 At the end of the session
the apprentice should be
able to:
- mention the
common faults
in soap
production.
- describe analytically
the cause of the
common faults in
soap making.
- explain in detail
how the common
faults can be
corrected or
avoided.
Common fault
in soap produce:
= burnt soap
= soft soap
= crack soap
= soap stick to
mold.
= poor foaming
soap
= stain soap
= unscented
soap
Lecture cum
demonstration
method on
common fault
of soap
produced.
Observation of
the
demonstration.
Listen
attentively to the
counsellor.
Dramatization
and songs about
the programme.
Dramatization
and songs by
the apprentices.
Demonstration
using power
point by the
counsellor.
Utensils\equipment
of soap making and
ingredients.
Summary
questions to
determine the
level of
understanding of
the session.
SESSION 8
At the end of the session the
apprentice should be able to
- Recap the soap making skills
of soap production in relation
to Dreyfus Model of skills
acquisition.
The summary of
Dreyfus Model.
Termination.
Entertainment.
Discuss briefly the
Dreyfus Model in
relation to soap
making skills.
Listen attentively to
the counsellor.
Dramatization and
songs about the
programme.
Dramatization and
songs by the
apprentices.
Demonstration
using power point by
the counsellor.
Power point apparatus
such as computer,
projector and screen.
Certificates for
apprentices.
Remarks and
suggestions by the
apprentices on the whole
programme.
120
APPENDIX I
TREATMENT PACKAGES
THE DETAIL OF DREYFUS MODEL TRAINING PROGRAMME ON BAKERY SKILLS
ACQUISITION OF CAREER GUIDANCE
SESSIONS OBJECTIVES CONTENT COUNSELLOR’
S ACTIVITIES
APPRENTICE’S
ACTIVITIES
STRATEGIES MATERIALS EVALUATION
SESSION 1 On completion of
the session the
apprentice will
know the purpose
of the
counsellor’s
intervention
programme:
- to facilitate
and improve
on the quality
of skills
acquisition.
The counsellor
highlights the
ground rules:
- Punctuality
- Regularity
- Days of
meeting
and time
- Duration
- Vibration
or Switch
off handset
- Co-
The counsellor
employs lecture
cum
demonstration
methods to
explain the ground
rules and purpose
of the counsellor’s
intervention.
These includes:
- Attentiveness
- Ask questions
- Answer
questions
Encourage
active
participation of
apprentices.
Printed version
of ground rules
and objectives
of counselling
intervention
strategically
pasted in the
Books, charts
and pictures on
skills
acquisition
(types and
benefits).
The counsellor will
ask questions to
determine the
extent to which the
objectives are being
achieved.
Take home
assignment as to
compose a minute
song on ground
rules or and
objective of the
121
operation
- Mode of
conduct
- Reinforces
for positive
contributio
n
The purpose of
counsellor’s
intervention.
classroom
Plan to issue
certificate of
attendance with
remarks.
Two minutes
break midway
the session for
interpersonal
discussion.
programme.
SESSION 2 At the end of the
session the
apprentices
should:
- List the
utensils and
equipment of
baking skills
acquisition.
- Explain the
functions and
The utensils
and equipment
of baking such
as:
= dry
measuring cup
= liquid
measuring cup
= oven
= weighing
The counsellor
takes a roll call
and recaps the
ground rules
together with the
apprentices.
Highlights the
five stages of
Dreyfus model of
Listen attentively.
Observe the
utensils.
Touch and feel the
utensils
Ask questions.
Answer
Pause questions
will intermittently
be used during
the session
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
The utensils
and equipment
of baking.
Chart summary
of the five
stages of
Dreyfus Model.
The counsellor
ask questions to
know the
apprentices level of
understanding.
Extended essay
given in tabular
122
improvisation
of the
utensils and
equipment of
baking.
- Discuss the
maintenance
of the
utensils and
equipment of
baking
procedure.
machine
= mixing bowl
= mixing spoon
= rubber
scraper
= wire whisk
= cutting board
= knife
= cooling rack
= baking tray
= knead
= timers etc
The functions
of bakery
utensils and
improvisation.
The
maintenance of
bakery utensils.
skills acquisition.
List and show
the apprentices the
bakery utensils.
Explain the
functions of the
bakery utensils
and improvisation
procedure..
Discuss the simple
maintenance
strategy of the
utensils.
.
counsellor’s
question.
Start writing the
extended essay.
Chart of the
bakery utensils
and equipment.
form on utensils
and functions.
123
SESSION 3 By the close of
the session the
apprentice should
be able to:
- State the
basic
ingredients use in
baking of bread.
- Discuss the
role of each
of the
ingredients in
the
production of
bread.
- Explain the
implication
of using too
little or too
much of each
ingredient.
The ingredients
of baking such
as:
=Flour.
=Yeast
.=Palm wine
=Heat
=Water
=Milk
=Salt
=Egg
=Butter(fat)
=Sugar
=Over ripe
Banana
=Baking
powder
The role of the
List the common
ingredients in
baking.
Show the texture
and nature of the
ingredients of
baking to
apprentices.
Discuss the role
of each of the
ingredients to
baking
procedure.
Explain the
implication of
varying quantity
of the ingredient
to baking.
Observe and
manipulate
ingredients of
baking.
Interaction with
other apprentice
Ask questions
Answer questions
Continue the
extended essay.
Observation of
the apprentices
centre
Guided
questions will be
employed to
illustrate all the
point in this
session.
A brief
excursion to be
taken to a
nearby
apprentices
centre.
The sample
(actual)
ingredients of
baking
Chart depicting
the ingredients
of baking.
Five minutes snap
test will be Admin-
istered.
124
ingredient in
baking
Implication of
too much or too
little ingredient
in baking.
SESSION 4 At the end of the
session the
apprentices
Should be able
to:
- List the
procedures
involve in the
baking of bread.
- Discuss the
stages in
producing bread.
- Describe in
detail the
procedures in
baking of bread.
The procedure
of baking
bread;
=Creaming the
yeast
=setting the
sponge
=mixing the
dough
=kneading
=rising
technique
=greasing
=proving
technique
=firing
technique
Using lecture
cum
demonstration
method to explain
the baking
procedure.
Observe the
baking procedure
demonstrated by
the instructor.
Demonstrate some
aspect of baking
procedure.
Ask questions
Answer questions
Continue the
extended essay.
Presentations
questions will be
use to introduce
the session
Two minutes
break midway
the session for
interpersonal
discussion.
.
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
Utensils\equip
ment of baking
and
ingredients.
The counsellor asks
the apprentices
questions on the
session to know the
extent on which the
objectives are
achieved.
125
=baking
SESSION 5 On completion of
the session the
apprentice should
be able to:
- list the baking
skills in the
production of
bread.
- State the
skills in the
order as they
occur during
production of
bread.
- Demonstrate
at least four
skills in the
bread
production.
Specific baking
skills:
Creaming the
yeast
=setting the
sponge
=mixing the
dough
= kneading
=rising
technique
=greasing
=proving
technique
=firing
technique
=baking
Generic baking
skills:
=Reading
=writing
=oral
Demonstrate
both the
generic and
specific skills
of baking
bread.
Guide the
apprentices to
demonstrate
some specific
and generic
skills of baking
bread.
Demonstrate some
specific and
generic skills of
baking.
Asking questions.
Answering
questions.
Listening
attentively to the
counsellor’s
explanations
Interaction with
other apprentice
Continue the
extended essay.
Welcome test
to arouse the
interest of the
apprentices.
Reinforcement
of positive
contribution.
A brief
excursion to be
taken to a
nearby
apprentices
centre.
Utensils\equip
ment of baking
and
ingredients.
The counsellor
asks summary
questions.
Take home
assignment to
prepare them for
next session.
126
communication
=numeracy
=note taking
=problem
solving
=critical
thinking
=decision
making
=planning and
organization
SESSION 6 At the end of the
session the
apprentice should
be able to:
- Demonstrat
e
in a
group the
skills of
bread
production.
- Discuss and
display
individually
bakery skills in
production of
bread.
- explain some
common
Specific
baking skills:
Creaming the
yeast
=setting the
sponge
=mixing the
dough
= kneading
=rising
technique
=greasing
=proving
technique
=firing
Guide the
apprentices
to
demonstrat
e specific
and generic
skills of
baking
bread.
Group practical
demonstration of bakery
skills on bread
production.
Individual practical
demonstration on
production of bread.
Asking questions.
Answering questions.
Listening attentively
to the counsellor’s
explanations
Continue the
extended essay.
Reinforceme
nt of positive
contribution.
Drill
questions to
motivate the
concentration
of the
apprentices.
Utensils\equipment
of baking and
ingredients.
Drill questions
to determine the
level of
understanding of
the session.
The class urged
to dramatize
some aspect of
acquisition of
skills in bread
production.
127
mistakes in the
display of
bakery skills
and how it can
be corrected.
technique
=baking
Generic
baking skills:
=Reading
=writing
=oral
communicati
on
=numeracy
=note taking
=problem
solving
=critical
thinking
=decision
making
=planning
and
organization
=use of
memory
SESSION 7 At the end of the
session the
apprentice should
be able to:
Common
fault in bread
produce:
Lecture
cum
demonstra
tion
method on
Observation of the
demonstration.
Listen attentively to the
Dramatizati
on and
songs by
the
Utensils\equipment of
baking and
Summary
questions to
determine the
level of
understanding of
128
- mention
the
common
faults in
bread
production.
- describe
analytically the
cause of the
common faults
in baking.
- explain in
detail how the
common faults
can be
corrected\avoid
ed
= burnt bread
= undone
bread
= bad taste of
bread
= bread stick
to tray during
removal.
= too light
bread
produced
= too heavy
bread
produced’
common
fault of
bread
produced.
counsellor.
Dramatization and
songs about the
programme.
apprentices
.
Demonstrat
ion using
power
point by
the
counsellor.
ingredients. the session.
SESSION 8
At the end of the
session the
apprentice should
be able to
- Recap the
bakery skills of
bread
production in
relation to
Dreyfus Model
of skills
acquisition.
The
summary of
Dreyfus
Model.
Termination.
Entertainmen
t.
Discuss
briefly the
Dreyfus
Model in
relation to
bakery
skills.
Listen attentively to
the counsellor.
Dramatization and
songs about the
programme.
Dramatizati
on and
songs by
the
apprentices
.
Demonstrat
ion using
power
point by
the
counsellor.
Power point
apparatus such as
computer, projector
and screen.
Certificates for
apprentices.
Remarks and
suggestions by
the apprentices
on the whole
programme.
129
APPENDIX J
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIAN, NSUKKA
BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION TEST (BSAT)
ON SKILLS ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES IN NIGER STATE OF
NIGERIA
SECTION A
PERSONAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT
Instruction:-Please fill in the spaces provided and tick one response that agrees
with your characteristics.
Name of centre:-…………………………………………………
Date:-…………………………………………………………….
Gender: Male
Female
Age: 20yrs or below
Above 20yrs
SECTION B
ATTAINMENT TEST QUESTIONS (ATQ)
Instruction: - This section has five sub-sections with four multiple questions in
each section making a total of twenty question in all. Please, tick one alternative
from a-e that best answer the question.
130
SUB-SECTION A: – NOVICE
1. Which of these is not needed during baking process?
a. Timer
b. Knife
c. Mixing spoon
d. Cutting board
e. Darkness
2. The place or instrument where bread is baked is called
a. Cooker
b. Small room
c. Fire
d. Oven
e. Container
3. The container for baking bread is called………………..
a. rack
b. tray
c. pan
d. rubber
e. plate
4. The instrument for smoothing the dough is called………………
a. pestle
131
b. knead
c. rod
d. spatula
e. plate
SUB-SECTION B: - ADVANCE BEGINNER
5. In absence of yeast _________________can be used
a. sugar
b. palm wine
c. alcohol
d. damp cloth
e. banana
6. All the following add flavour to bread except
a. salt
b. sugar
c. flour
d. water
e. margarine
7. The most important ingredient for baking is
a. Sugar
b. Yeast
c. Water
132
d. Flour
e. Milk
8. Which of these ingredient greatly aid rising of flour?
a. Sugar
b. Yeast
c. Temperature
d. Water
e. Flour
SUB-SECTION C: - COMPETENCE
9. Which of these is not a baking Skill?
a. Kneading
b. Mixing
c. Setting sponge
d. Greasing
e. Holding
10. The method of cooking food in dry heat is called _____________
a. steaming
b. Baking
c. Frying
d. Boiling
e. Stewing
11. The baking pan is greased as to prevent
a. Burning of bread on pan
133
b. Sticking of bread on pan
c. Drying of bread on pan
d. Shaping of bread on pan
12. Thorough mixing is done to ensure ___________
a. better bread
b. good taste of bread
c. an elastics dough
d. good look in bread
e. good price of bread
SUB-SECTION D: - PROFICIENT
13. Chopping bread can be replaced by
a. black board
b. white chalk board
c. flat surfaces
d. marker board
e. mat
14. The rolling pin for kneading can be replaced by ____________
a. spoon
b. fork
c. pestle
d. mortar
e. wood
134
15. Wood for firing the oven can be replaced by any except ________
f. coal
g. charcoal
h. stove
i. electricity
j. papers
16. The cooling rack can be replace by___________________________
a. Table
b. flat wooden surface
c. ply wood
d. clean non conducting surface
e. clean conducting surface
SUB-SECTION E: - EXPERT
17. All bread stick to the baking tray because___________
a. Too much heat
b. Poor greasing
c. No heat
d. Little heat
135
e. Constant opening of oven door.
18. The kneading of dough is difficult may be due to all except ________
a- Too much sugar
b- Too much water
c- Whole wheat flour
d- Poor mixing
e- White flour
19. All these gives the bread bad taste except
a. No sugar
b. Too much yeast
c. No proper mixing
d. No salt
e. No proper baking in oven
20. The bread not done in the middle but burnt outside because of ______
a- No much convectional heat
b- No much radiation heat
c- No much conduction heat
d- No much reduction heat
e- No mechanical heat used
136
APPENDIX K
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIAN, NSUKKA
SOAP MAKING SKILLS ACQUISITION TEST (SMSAT)
ON SKILLS ACQUISITION OF APPRENTICES IN NIGER STATE OF
NIGERIA
SECTION A
PERSONAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENT
Instruction:-Please fill in the spaces provided and tick one response that agrees
with your characteristics.
Name of centre:-…………………………………………………
Date:-…………………………………………………………….
Gender: Male
Female
Age: 20yrs or below
Above 20yrs
SECTION B
ATTAINMENT TEST QUESTIONS (ATQ)
Instruction: - This section has five sub-sections with four multiple questions in
each section making a total of twenty question in all. Please, tick one alternative
from a-e that best answer the question.
137
SUB-SECTION A: – NOVICE
1. The soap is usually boiled in a _____________________
a- pan
b- pot
c- mould
d- scraper
e- cup
2. The soap chemicals are usually mixed in a ____________
a- mold
b- mould
c. container
d- spatula
e- pan
3. The instrument for cutting and shaping soap is ______________
a- knife
b- scraper
c- spoon
d- pan
e- machine
4. Aluminum should not be used for mold because it leads to______
a- warp soap
b- non-scent soap
138
c- non-colorant soap
d- soft soap
e- hard soap
SUB-SECTION B: - ADVANCE BEGINNER
5. Soap is produced by mixing fat/oil with _____________
a- Iye
b- water
c- colour
d- scent
e- wax
6. Soap is basically used for_____________
a- decoration
b- selling
c- washing
d- trading
e- conservation
7. Which of these is not an ingredient for soap making?
a- Palm oil
b- Water
c- Fats
d- Olive oil
e- Ashes
139
8. How many times is the soap boil on fire?
a- once
b- twice
c- thrice
d- four times
e - five times
SUB-SECTION C: - COMPETENCE
9. The bar soap should be dried for ________
a- 1-2 weeks
b- 4-6 weeks
c- 3-4 weeks
d- 2-3 weeks
e- 10 weeks
10. Why cook the product of saponification ________
a- to make it thick
b- to make it watery
c- to make it solid
d- to make it dark in colour
e- to make it light in colour
11 ____________is done to ensure thorough mixing
a- cooking
b- washing
c- stirring
140
d- cutting
e- cleaning
12. The stirring of the soap mixture should only be ____________
a- circular form
b- two directions
c- one direction
d- clockwise and anti clockwise
e- all direction
SUB-SECTION D: - PROFICIENT
13. In absent of colourant from market, colour can be extracted from
___________________
a- plants
b- animals
c- food
d- clothes
e- stones
14. During insulation of soap the blanket can be replaced with _________
a- shining clothes
b- dark clothes
c- black clothes
d- thick clothes
e- white clothes
141
15. When will you use a freezer on your soap
a- Difficult to remove from mold
b- Too soft
c- unscented soap
d- uncoloured soap
e- short bar soap
16. Where there is no mixing bowl a clean container such a ______ is used.
a- bucket
b- plate
c- bottle
d- spoon
e- folk
SUB-SECTION E: - EXPERT
17. The warping of the soap produced is an indication of
a- Pouring mixture very fast in the mold
b- pouring mixture slowly in the hold
c- mold is old
d- mixture hot while putting in mold
e- mold is dirty
18. The soap produced contain bubble spaces means
a- too much water
b- two much lye
c- too much fat
142
d- mixing is wrong
e- stirring is wrong
19. The soap stains cloths and the body means
a- early colouring
b- plant colouring
c- food colouring
d- delay in colouring
e- synthetic colouring
20. The bar soap wastes away easily is a sign of
a- Drying in the sun
b- Drying in the shade
c- short period of drying
d- long period of drying
e- no boiling or cooking
143
APPENDIX L
MARKING SCHEME FOR BAKERY SKILLS ACQUISITION
TEST (BSAT)
PRE TEST
MULTIPLE TEST QUESTIONS (20 ITEMS X 5MARKS= 100 %)
1. B
2. D
3. D
4. B
5. E
6. D
7. B
8. B
9. E
10. B
11. B
12. C
13. C
14. C
15. E
16. D
17. B
18. E
19. E
20. A
144
MARKING SCHEME FOR SOAP MAKING SKILLS
ACQUISITION TEST (SMSAT)
PRE TEST
MULTIPLE TEST QUESTIONS (20 ITEMS X 5MARKS= 100 %)
1. B
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. A
6. C
7. E
8. A
9. D
10. A
11. C
12. C
13. A
14. D
15. A
16. A
17. A
18. E
19. C
20. C
145
APPENDIX M
Department of Educational Foundation
Faculty of Education,
University of Nigerian, Nsukka
Date:……………………..
Dear Apprentice,
DREYFUS MODEL OF CAREER GUIDANCE ON SKILLS ATTAINMENT
SCALE QUESTIONAIRE
The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above address and is conducting a
research on Effect of Dreyfus Model of Career Guidance on Skills Acquisition of Apprentices in
Niger State of Nigeria.
The researcher’s objective is to determine the quality and stage of skills acquisition in
accordance with Dreyfus model of career guidance. Therefore, your candid response to the
attached questionnaire will help the study. The information you provide will be use for study
alone and will be treated as confidential.
Your co-operation and sincerity is most kindly required.
Thanks.
Sincerely
Musa Abdullahi
Reg.No PG\Ph.D\11\58880
146
APPENDIX N
Department of Educational Foundation
Faculty of Education,
University of Nigerian, Nsukka
Date:……………………..
Dear Apprentice,
DREYFUS MODEL OF CAREER GUIDANCE ON SKILLS ATTAINMENT
SCALE QUESTIONAIRE
The researcher is a postgraduate student of the above address and is
conducting a research on Effect of Dreyfus Model of Career Guidance on Skills
Acquisition of Apprentices in Niger State of Nigeria.
The researcher’s objective is to determine the quality and stage of skills
acquisition in accordance with Dreyfus model of career guidance. Therefore, your
candid response to the attached questionnaire will help the study. The information
you provide will be use for study alone and will be treated as confidential.
Your co-operation and sincerity is most kindly required.
Thanks.
Sincerely
Musa Abdullahi (Researcher)
149
SKILLS ACQUISITION ON SOAP MAKING AND BAKERY Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.
Certificate of Attendance
This is to certify that:
_______________________________________________________________
Has successfully attended Dreyfus Model Research Study as Experimental Group/Control Group for a period of eight week
From 4th April, 2014 to 23rd May, 2014
___________________ Researcher
MUSA ABDULLAHI Ph.D Student Guidance and Counselling
150APPENDIX Q Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation
PreMConSMS 16 15.00 60.00 600.00 37.5000 13.03840
PreFConSMS 23 15.00 65.00 900.00 39.1304 13.11247
posMConSMS 16 30.00 75.00 880.00 55.0000 12.11060
PosFConSMS 23 35.00 80.00 1315.00 57.1739 11.94933
PreMExSMS 26 20.00 55.00 940.00 36.1538 11.25235
PreFExSMS 19 20.00 55.00 745.00 39.2105 10.44339
PreYAConSMS 26 20.00 65.00 1055.00 40.5769 12.59579
PreYAExSMS 14 20.00 55.00 765.00 40.2632 9.64274
PosYAConSMS 26 40.00 80.00 1505.00 57.8846 10.50458
PosYAExSMS 14 60.00 95.00 1500.00 78.9474 9.65789
PreOAConSMS 13 15.00 55.00 445.00 34.2308 13.04578
PreOAExSMS 31 20.00 55.00 920.00 35.3846 11.48243
PosOAConSMS 13 30.00 75.00 690.00 53.0769 14.22124
PosOAExSMS 31 60.00 95.00 1590.00 75.7143 10.87264
Valid N (Iistwise) 13
Descriptive Statistics
N Minimum Maximum Sum Mean Std. Deviation
PreMConBS 12 15.00 70.00 485.00 30.3125 14.43015
PreFConBS 19 5.00 60.00 615.00 26.7391 12.66785
PosMConBS 12 30.00 95.00 790.00 49.3750 15.37043
PosFConBS 19 20.00 90.00 1045.00 45.4348 14.53155
PreMExBS 32 20.00 65.00 935.00 35.9615 13.78544
PreFExBS 21 15.00 60.00 705.00 37.1053 14.84324
PosMExBS 32 60.00 100.00 2065.00 79.4231 12.02721
PosFExBS 21 , 55.00 ·100.00 1520.00 80.0000 12.69296 .
PreYAConBS 22 10.00 70.00 755.00 29.0385 13.56608
PosYAConBS 22 25.00 95.00 1255.00 48.2692 15.99639
PreOAConBS 09 5.00 40.00 345.00 265385 13.28919
PosOAConBS 09 20.00 60.00 580.00 44.6154 12.32571
PreYAExBS 23 15.00 65.00 745.00 39.2105 15.02435
PosYAExBS 23 60.00 100.00 1570.00 82.6316 12.73320
PreOAExBS 30 15.00 60.00 895.00 34.4231 13.29112
PosOAExBS 30 55.00 100.00 2015.00 77.5000 11.51086
Valid N (Iistwise) 13
151
ANOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soa ANOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Control and Experimental Groups
ANCOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap making Skills Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PreConExpSMS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Cont SMS 39 38.4615 12.93475 2.07122 34.2686 42.6545 15.00 65.00
Exp SMS 45 37.4444 10.90362 1.62542 34.1686 40.7203 20.00 55.00
Total 84 37.9167 11.82728 1.29046 35.3500 40.4833 15.00 65.00
ANCOVA
PreConExpSMS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 21.613 1 21.613 .153 .697
Within Groups 11588.803 82 141.327
Total 11610.417 83
152
ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skill Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PosSMS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Cont SMS 39 56.2821 11.90521 1.90636 52.4228 60.1413 30.00 80.00
Exp SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00
Total 84 67.3810 15.21881 1.66051 64.0783 70.6836 30.00 95.00
ANCOVA
PosSMS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 8967.912 1 8967.912 71.702 .000
Within Groups 10255.897 82 125.072
Total 19223.810 83
153
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: PrePosCE
Scheffe
Mean
Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Pre Cont SMS Pre Exp SMS 1.01709 2.52495 .983 -6.1152 8.1494
Pos Cont SMS -17.82051* 2.61357 .000 -25.2032 -10.4379
Pos Exp SMS -38.53846* 2.52495 .000 -45.6708 -31.4061
Pre Exp SMS Pre Cont SMS -1.01709 2.52495 .983 -8.1494 6.1152
Pos Cont SMS -18.83761* 2.52495 .000 -25.9699 -11.7Q53
Pos Exp SMS -39.55556* 2.43310 .000 -46.4284 -32.6827
Pos Cont SMS Pre Cont SMS 17.82051* 2.61357 .000 10.4379 25.2032
Pre Exp SMS 18.83761 * 2.52495 .000 11.7053 25.9699
Pos Exp SMS -20.71795* 2.52495 .000 -27.8503 -13.5856
Pos Exp SMS Pre Cont SMS 38.53846* 2.52495 .000 31.4061 45.6708
Pre Exp SMS 39.55556* 2.43310 .000 32.6827 46.4284
Pos Cont SMS 20.71795* 2.52495 .000 13.5856 27.8503
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
PrePosCE
Scheffea,b
Subset for alpha = .05
VarPrePosCE N 1 '2 3
Pre Exp SMS 45 37.4444
Pre Cont SMS 39 38.4615
Pos Cont SMS 39 56.2821
Pos Exp SMS 45 77.0000
Sig. .983 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used Type I error levels are not guaranteed
154
,~ ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills of Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PrePosCE
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Pre Cont SMS 39 38.4615 12.93475 2.07122 34.2686 42.6545 15.00 65.00
Pre Exp SMS 45 37.4444 10.90362 1.62542 34.1686 40.7203 20.00 55.00
Pos Cont SMS 39 56.2821 11.90521 1.90636 52.4228 60.1413 30.00 80.00
Pos Exp SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00
Total 168 52.6488 20.07416 1.54875 49.5911 55.7065 15.00 95.00
ANCOVA
PrePosCE
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 45451.579 3 15150.526 113.743 .000
Within Groups 21844.701 164 133.199
Total 67296.280 167
155
ANOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Males and Females Experimental Group
ANCOVA Comparison of Pretest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Males and Females Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PosMFSMS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Males Exp SMS 26 76.3462 10.25258 2.01070 72.2050 80.4873 60.00 95.00
Fem Exp SMS 19 77.8947 11.09502 2.54537 72.5471 83.2424 60.00 95.00
Total 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00
ANCOVA
PosMFSMS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 26.326 1 26.326 .234 .631
Within Groups 4843.674 43 112.644
Total 4870.000 44
156
ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Young Adult and Old Adult Experimental Group
Descriptives
PosYOadSMS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Y Adult SMS Exp 14 78.9474 9.65789 2.21567 74.2924 83.6023 60.00 95.00
Old Adult SMS Exp 31 75.5769 11.07492 2.17197 71.1037 80.0502 60.00 95.00
Total 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1607 60.00 95.00
ANCOVA
PosYOadSMS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 124.706 1 124.706 1.130 .294
Within Groups 4745.294 43 110.356
Total 4870.000 44
157
Multiple Comparisons
Homogeneous Subsets
NumMFYOSMS
Scheffea,b
Subset for
alpha= . 05
VarMFYOBS N 1
Old Adult SMS 26 75.5769
Male SMS 26 76.3462
Female SMS
19 77.8947
Y. Adult 19 78.9474
Sig. .585
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 21.956.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.
Dependent Variable: NumMFYOSMS
Scheffe
(I) (J) VarMFYOSMS VarMFYOSMS
Mean 95% Confidence Interval
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound
M?le SMS Female SMS -1.54858 3.18698 .971 -10.6368 7.5396
Y. Adult SMS -2.60121 3.18698 .881 -11.6894 6.4870
Old Adult SMS .76923 2.92863 .995 -7.5822 9.1207
Female SMS Male SMS 1.54858 3.18698 .971 -7.5396 10.6368
Y. Adult SMS -1.05263 3.42590 .992 -10.8221 8.7169
Old Adult SMS 2.31781 3.18698 .912 -6.7704 11.4060
Y. Adult SMS Male SMS 2.60121 3.18698 .881 -6.4870 11.6894
Female SMS 1.05263 3.42590 .992 -8.7169 10.8221
Old Adult SMS 3.37045 3.18698 .773 -5.7177 12.4586
Old Adult SMS Male SMS -.76923 2.92863 .995 -9.1207 7.5822
Female SMS -2.31781 3.18698 .912 -11.4060 6.7704
Y. Adult SMS -3.37045 3.18698 .773 -12.4586 5.7177
158
a. b.
ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Soap Making Skills Gender and Age of Experimental Groups
Descriptives
NumMFYOSMS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Male 26 76.3462 10.25258 2.01070 72.2050 80.4873 60.00 95.00
Female 19 77.8947 11.09502 2.54537 72.5471 83.2424 60.00 95.00
Y. Adult 14 78.9474 9.65789 2.21567 74.2924 83.6023 60.00 95.00
Old Adult 31 75.5769 11.07492 2.17197 71.1037 80.0502 60.00 95.00
Total 90 77.0000 10.46127 1.10271 74.8089 79.1911 60.00 95.00
ANCOVA
NumMFYOSMS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Siq.
Between Groups 151.032 3 50.344 .452 .717
Within Groups 9588.968 86 111.500
Total 9740.000 89
159
c. ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PreConExpBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00
Expt BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00
Total 84 32.6190 14.27940 1.55801 29.5202 35.7179 5.00 70.00
ANCOVA
PreConExpBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 1418.339 1 1418.339 7.501 .008
Within Groups 15505.470 82 189.091
Total 16923.810 83
160
ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PosBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00
Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
Total 84 64.5238 21.13666 2.30620 59.9369 69.1107 20.00 100.00
ANCOVA
PosBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 22225.055 1 22225.055 122.675 .000
Within Groups 14855.897 82 181.169
Total 37080.952 83
161
ANCOVA Comprison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PrePosCEBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00
Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00
Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00
Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
Total 168 48.5714 24.07040 1.85707 44.9051 52.2378 5.00 100.00
ANCOVA
PrePosCEBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Siq.
Between Groups 66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000
Within Groups 30361.368 164 185.130
Total 96757.143 167
162
r
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: PrePosCEBS
Scheffe
Mean
Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Pre Cont BS Pre Exp BS -8.23932 2.97673 .057 -16.6478 .1692
Pos Cont BS -18.84615* 3.08121 .000 -27.5498 -10.1425
Pos Exp BS -51.46154* 2.97673 .000 -59.8700 -43.0530
Pre Exp BS Pre Cont BS 8.23932 2.97673 .057 -.1692 16.6478
Pos Cont BS -10.60684* 2.97673 .007 -19.0153 -2.1983
Pos Exp BS -43.22222* 2.86845 .000 -51.3249 -35.1196
Pos Cont BS Pre Cont BS 18.84615* 3.08121 .000 10.1425 27.5498
Pre Exp BS 10.60684* 2.97673 .007 2.1983 19.0153
Pos Exp BS -32.61538* 2.97673 .000 -41.0239 -24.2069
Pos Exp BS Pre Cont BS 51.46154* 2.97673 .000 43.0530 59.8700
Pre Exp BS 43.22222* 2.86845 .000 35.1196 51.3249
Pos Cont BS 32.61538* 2.97673 .000 24.2069 41.0239
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
PrePosCEBS
Scheffea,b
Subset for alpha = .05
VarPrePosCE N 1 2 3
Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051
Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444
Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513
Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667
Sig. .057 1.000 1.000
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.
163
ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Young Adult and Old Adult Bakery Skills Experimental Group
Descriptives
ExpYAdBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Yg Adult Exp BS 23 82.6316 12.73320 2.92120 76.4944 88.7688 60.00 100.00
Old Adult Exp BS 30 77.5000 11.51086 2.25747 72.8507 82.1493 55.00 100.00
Total 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
ANCOVA
ExpYAdBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 289.079 1 289.079 1.995 .165
Within Groups 6230.921 43 144.905
Total 6520.000 44
•
164
ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery skills Males and Females Experimental Group
Descriptives
ExpMFBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Male Exp BS 32 79.4231 12.02721 2.35873 74.5652 84.2810 60.00 100.00
Fem Exp BS 21 80.0000 12.69296 2.91196 73.8822 86.1178 55.00 100.00
Total 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
ANCOVA
ExpMFBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 3.654 1 3.654 .024 .877
Within Groups 6516.346 43 151.543
Total 6520.000 44
165
ANCOVA Comparison of the Pretest and Posttest Mean Scores of Bakery Skills Control and Experimental Groups
Descriptives
PrePosCEBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 13.35188 2.13801 23.8770 32.5333 5.00 70.00
Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444 14.08667 2.09992 32.2123 40.6765 15.00 65.00
Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513 14.81100 2.37166 42.2501 51.8525 20.00 95.00
Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
Total 168 48.5714 24.07040 1.85707 44.9051 52.2378 5.00 100.00
ANCOVA
PrePosCEBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 66395.775 3 22131.925 119.548 .000
Within Groups 30361.368 164 185.130
Total 96757.143 167
166
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable: PrePosCEBS
Scheffe
Mean
Difference 95% Confidence Interval
(I) VarPrePosCE (J) VarPrePosCE (I-J) Std. Error Siq. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Pre Cont BS Pre Exp BS -8.23932 2.97673 .057 -16.6478 .1692
Pos Cont BS -18.84615* 3.08121 .000 -27.5498 -10.1425
Pos Exp BS -51.46154* 2.97673 .000 -59.8700 -43.0530
Pre Exp BS Pre Cont BS 8.23932 2.97673 .057 -.1692 16.6478
Pos Cont BS -10.60684* 2.97673 .007 -19.0153 -2.1983
Pos Exp BS -43.22222* 2.86845 .000 -51.3249 -35.1196
Pos Cont BS Pre Cont BS 18.84615* 3.08121 .000 10.1425 27.5498
Pre Exp BS 10.60684* 2.97673 .007 2.1983 19.0153
Pos Exp BS -32.61538* 2.97673 .000 -41.0239 -24.2069
Pos Exp BS Pre Cont BS 51.46154* 2.97673 .000 43.0530 59.8700
Pre Exp BS 43.22222* 2.86845 .000 35.1196 51.3249
Pos Cont BS 32.61538* 2.97673 .000 24.2069 41.0239
*. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
PrePosCEBS
Scheffea,b
Subset for alpha = .05
VarPrePosCE N 1 2 3
Pre Cont BS 31 28.2051 ..
Pre Exp BS 53 36.4444
Pos Cont BS 31 47.0513
Pos Exp BS 53 79.6667
Sig. .057 1.000 1.000
Means for, groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 41.786. b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed. F the group sizes is used
167
ANCOVA Comparison of the Posttest Mean Scores of Males, Females, Young and Old Adults Experimental Groups Bakery Skills.
Descriptives
PosMFYOBS
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
Males Exp 32 79.4231 12.02721 2.35873 74.5652 84.2810 60.00 100.00
Fem Expt 21 80.0000 12.69296 2.91196 73.8822 86.1178 55.00 100.00
YAdult Expt 23 82.6316 12.73320 2.92120 76.4944 88.7688 60.00 100.00
Old Adult Exp 30 77.5000 11.51086 2.25747 72.8507 82.1493 55.00 100.00
Total 106 79.6667 12.10441 1.27592 77.1314 82.2019 55.00 100.00
ANCOVA
PosMFYOBS
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 292.733 3 97.578 .658 .580
Within Groups 12747.267 86 148.224
Total 13040.000 89
clxviii
clxviii
d. e.
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
Dependent Variable:
PosMFYOBS
Scheffe
Homogeneous
Subsets PosMFYOBS
cheffea,b
Subset for
alpha= . 05
VarMFYOBS N 1
Old Adult 30 77.5000
Male Exp 32 79.4231
Fem Exp 21 80.0000
Y. Adult Exp 23 82.6316
Si .585
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 21.956.
b. The group sizes are unequal. The harmonic mean of the group sizes is used. Type I error levels are not guaranteed.
Mean
(I) (J) Difference 95% Confidence Interval
VarMFYOBS VarMFYOBS (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Male Exp Fem Exp -.57692 3.67453 .999 -11.0554 9.9016
Y. Adult Exp -3.20850 3.67453 .858 -13.6870 7.2700
Old Adult Exp 1.92308 3.37666 .955 -7.7060 11.5522
Fem Exp Male Exp .57692 3.67453 .999 -9.9016 11.0554
Y. Adult Exp -2.63158 3.95000 .931 -13.8956 8.6325
Old Adult Exp 2.50000 3.67453 .927 -7.9785 12.9785
Y.Adult Exp Male Exp 3.20850 3.67453 .858 -7.2700 13.6870
Fem Exp 2.63158 3.95000 .931 -8.6325 13.8956
Old Adult Exp 5.13158 3.67453 .585 -5.3469 15.6101 Old Adult Exp Male Exp -1.92308 3.37666 .955 -11.5522 7.7060
Fem Exp -2.50000 3.67453 .927 -12.9785 7.9785
Y. Adult Exp -5.13158 3.67453 .585 -15.6101 5.3469
clxix
clxix
ANCOVA Comparison of Posttest Mean Scores of Experimental Soap Making Skills and Bakery Skills
Descriptives
POsSMSBS
ANCOVA
POsSMSBS
Sum of
Squares df ' Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 160.000 1 160.000 1.236 .269
Within Groups 11390.000 88 129.432
Total 11550.000 89
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum
SMS 45 77.0000 10.52054 1.56831 73.8393 80.1 G07 60.00 95.00
BS 45 79.6667 12.17300 1.81464 76.0095 83.3238 55.00 100.00
Total 90 78.3333 11.39190 1.20081 75.9473 80.7193 55.00 100.00