Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 41/1 (2015), pp. xx-xx
Gudrun Elisabeth Lier (University of Johannesburg)
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM
MALACHI: A COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS
ABSTRACT
This contribution comprehensively analyses how Targum Jonathan Malachi (TgJ Ma)
renders the Hebrew Text (HT) of the book of Malachi. The study shows that this
Targum constitutes a mix of technical and exegetical translation techniques in a
generally periphrastic rendering to make it theologically acceptable. It furthermore
demonstrates how obscure ambiguous passages and idiomatic expressions are
remodelled by contemporizing interpolations. Added prepositions bring clarity to
imagery and scanty syntactical expressions. Anthropomorphism is rendered indirect to
express obvious reverence before the deity. The relative pronoun ד is widely employed
to express various relationships. Single words are extensively substituted to express
the underlying meaning of the biblical text and there is evidence for the use of stock
words.
1. INTRODUCTION
Scholars have identified a number of translation tendencies in the Targum
of the Prophets or Targum Jonathan (TgJ) (cf. Smelik 1998:286-305).1
Some studies focused on TgJ as a whole;2 others on the individual
prophetic books (Cathcart & Gordon 1989; Chilton 1987; Hayward 1987;
Ho 2009; Levey 1987; and Stenning 1949). However, to date no
publication has appeared on TgJ Ma’s translation techniques.3 Churgin
only briefly refers to it in his broad study of Targum Jonathan to the
Prophets (1907), while Cathcart & Gordon (1989) mainly focus on
translating TgJ Ma into English. They refer to some translation techniques
in footnotes only.
Churgin (1907), in three instances, connects TgJ Ma to the question of
TgJ’s historical background: (i) a tradition that TgJ stems from the mouths
of the prophets Haggai, Zachariah and Malachi (Churgin 1907:19); (ii)
1 For a definition on Targum, see Komlosh (2007:513).
2 See Churgin (1907). For a general survey on the Targum to the Latter Prophets
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, consult Gordon (1994); see also
Levey (1971:186-196).
3 TgJ Ma is the CAL abbreviation for Targum Jonathan Malachi.
2 GUDRUN E LIER
TgJ’s substitution of sacrifice with prayer (Churgin 1907:28) and (iii) an
addition to Mal 1:1, which suggests that Malachi is Ezra, the scribe
(Churgin 1907:110). Apart from these historical relationships, Churgin
(1907:88) identifies an exegetical complement at TgJ Ma 1:4 and a
commentary at TgJ Mal 1:11 (1907:91). Cathcart & Gordon (1989:229-
238) are more categorical in their approach in the footnotes of their
English translation of TgJ Ma. They point out instances of exegetical
complements, metonymy, conversion of metaphor to simile, anthropo-
morphic substitution, addition/omission of suffixes, beth essentiae,
converse translation, as well as changes from literal to figurative meaning.
This study aims to conduct a close reading of TgJ Ma to ascertain how
it renders the HT of Malachi;4 specifically, which typical translation
practices can be identified in TgJ Ma when it is compared with the HT of
Malachi in the process of its rendering.5
2. TECHNICAL AND EXEGETICAL TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
In the following, diverse translation features are set forth from a close
word-for-word comparison between the HT of Malachi and its rendering
into Aramaic. The different aspects of rendering are separated in line with
their chief distinguishing characteristics, “technical” and “exegetical”
where the former refers to the consistent or formulaic manner in which
TgJ Ma translates Hebrew into Aramaic and the latter describes aspects of
translation that fall into the category of interpretive distinctions between
the HT and TgJ Ma.
2.1 Technical Translation Techniques
When words, expressions or syntactical units in the HT are consistently
and/or repeatedly translated into Aramaic in a typical or fixed manner, the
rendering can be described as technical.
2.1.1 Standard translation
A number of Hebrew words and expressions are repeatedly translated in a
standard fashion throughout TgJ Ma, as shown in the table below:
HT Malachi TgJ Malachi English Reference
י because throughout ארי כ
4 HT is the abbreviation for Hebrew Text.
5 TgJ Ma’s text is retrieved from: The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon: CAL
Targumic Studies Module.
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 3
י when 2x in 1:8 ד כ
י 6על ד על כ because that, on
account of this
2:14
emphatic כען נא
particle
1:8;1:9; 3:10
The fact that TgJ Ma without fail translates the above Hebrew
words/expressions in a typical manner, places them squarely into the
category of technical translation techniques.
2.1.2 Unmarked versus marked
A considerable number of words (mainly nouns), which occur in the
construct or absolute state (unmarked) in the HT of Malachi, are rendered
with the article (marked):
HT Malachi TgJ Malachi Reference
1:2 אחא אח
1:4 חרבתא חרבות
1:4 תחומא גבול
שעה יעא ר 1:4 רש
3:4 ;1:4 עלמא עולם
1:6 ברא בן
2:10 ;1:6 אבא אב
1:6 עבדא עבד
לחן 1:7 פתורא ש
1:9 אלהא אל
משא שמש 3:20 ;1:11 ש
קרא עולה 2:6 ש
מעה מעתא ד 2:13 ד
זבח 2:13 מדבחא מ
3:1 אורחא דרך
ישתא אש 3:2 א
ית יתא בר 3:2 בור
3:3 כספא כסף
לה 3:17 סגולתא סג
יש ברא א 3:17 ג
6 Probably an abbreviated combination of על דא ,על דין, “because that” (cf.
Winer & Hackett 1845:106). In biblical Aramaic, the expression also occurs as
.(cf. Rosenthal 1968:35) על דנה
4 GUDRUN E LIER
יק יקיא צד 3:18 צד
יעיא רשע 3:18 רש
ים יעיא זד 3:19 רש
3:19 קשא קש
3:20 אסותא מרפא
בקא מרבק 3:20 ר
טמא אפר 3:21 ק
3:23 יומא יום
ים 3:24 בניא בנ
The change from unmarked forms in HT Malachi to marked forms in TgJ
Ma can mostly be attributed to their typical use in Jewish Literary
Targumic Aramaic (JLAtg), the standard dialect that characterizes TgJ.7
Atypical changes from unmarked nominal forms in HT Malachi to
marked nominal forms in TgJ Ma include construct nouns in construct
chains (i.e., שעה ,גבול לחן ;1:4 ר זבח ;3:20 ,1:11 שמש ;1:7 ש יום ;2:13 מ3:23), which are rendered marked in TgJ Ma as part of a relative clause.
More specifically, a case of metonymy8 at Mal 1:4 שעה גבול ר “border of
wickedness” is rendered expansive יעא דעמיה תחומא רש “the border of [lit.
his] wicked people”. Two unmarked adjectival substantives יק צד
“righteous” and רשע “wicked” at Mal 3:18 יק בין לרשע צד are rendered
marked יקיא בין יעיא צד לרש . Similarly, the unmarked adjectival substantive
ים ים arrogant” at Mal 3:19“ זד is rendered marked – by nominal כל־זד
substitution – יעיא כל רש “all the wicked”.
2.1.3 Temporal clause
At Mal 1:7, 1:12, and 2:17, TgJ Mal consistently renders the temporal
clause preposition plus infinitive construct plus pronominal suffix,
דאתון when you say”, with“ באמרכם ין ב אמר , preposition plus ד plus
pronoun plus participle.
2.1.4 Participles
Where the participle in HT Malachi functions as a relative clause, TgJ Ma
introduces subtle modifications: ד at Mal 3:2 is rendered imperfect העמ
7 For linguistic discussions, consult Goshen-Gottstein (1978:169-179); Kutscher
(1976); Tal (1975). On different Aramaic dialects, consult Kutscher (2007:342-
359).
8 I.e., where a concept is indicated by means of something that is related to it
(Van der Merwe, Naudé & Kroeze 2002:235).
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 5
ד while ,יקום פלח at Mal 3:17 is rendered העב plus peal perfect ד relative ,ד
3 masculine singular.
Three times, TgJ Ma renders participles with infinitive construct: (i) at
Mal 1:14, נדר “vowing” becomes ידר מצרף ,to vow”, (ii) at Mal 3:3“ למ
“refining” becomes לצרפא “to refine” and (iii) at Mal 3:3, מטהר
“purifying” becomes לדכאה “to purify”.
2.1.5 Verbs
TgJ Ma does not translate all verb forms in Malachi verbatim; instead
circumlocutory, to make sense of the HT.
When the deity is threatened to be conceived in terms of human
characteristics, verbs are rendered in line with TgJ’s overall characteristic
theological orthodoxy, avoiding anthropomorphism (cf. Cathcart &
Gordon 1989:6). At Mal 1:4, the intransitive verb זעם “he is angry” is
rendered with a transitive verb י לוט עליהון ... אית “he brings over them a
curse”. At Mal 1:6, where the jussive implicates the deity יכבד “he should
honour”, the rendering is passive יר ליקרא אמ “… is said to honour”. To
avoid direct reference to the deity at Mal 1:9, the idiomatic expression
שא כם הי ים מ פנ “will he show favour among you” is rendered with a plural
passive verb תנסבון ין לכון הי אפ “will you be shown favour?” (cf. Sokoloff
2002:70).
At Mal 1:12, יבו בזה ונ נ “and its fruit is vile”, the noun יבו its fruit” is“ נ
substituted with an explanatory phrase ניה מתנתא מ “the gifts from it”.
Here, the substituting noun מתנתא is plural; consequently, the verb also:
ניה ירן מתנתא מ .”and the gifts from it are vile“ ובס
When a verb in HT Malachi implies an ongoing action, TgJ Ma renders
demonstratively, personal pronoun plus participle plus ד: at Mal 1:13,
ד אתון מיתן and you bring” is rendered“ והבאתם “you are bringing that
which”; at Mal 2:8, שון ין אתון you offer” is rendered“ תג ד מקרב “you are
offering that which” and at Mal 2:13, תעשו “you do” is rendered דאתון ין .that which you are doing” (cf. also 2.1.3)“ עבד
For various reasons, periphrastic rendering may syntactically involve a
change from a singular to a plural verb. At Mal 2:11, the collective noun
יהודה בית Judah” is twice rendered in terms of its legislative body“ יהודה
“the house of Judah”; consequently, the verb singular בגדה in יהודה בגדה
“Judah acted treacherously” is rendered plural as שקרו in יהודה דבית שקרו
“those of the house of Judah have been deceitful”. Likewise, the verb
singular לל לל יהודה in ח ח “Judah profaned” is rendered plural as יסו in אפ
יסו יהודה דבית אפ “those of the house of Judah have profaned”.
6 GUDRUN E LIER
At Mal 3:18, ים עבד עבדו לא לאשר אלה , the participle עבד “serving” and
perfect עבדו “he served him” are both rendered plural as part of expansive
clauses: פלחו יוי קדם ד “those who have served before the LORD” and דלא ל
י פלחו קדמוה “those who have not served before him”.
2.1.6 Nouns
Nouns or noun phrases that infer an action are often rendered expansive,
using different types of verbal clauses that follow typical arrangements.
At Mal 1:6, two noun phrases י י my honour” and“ כבוד ”my fear“ מורא
are respectively rendered with a verbal clause where ד is employed as
copula “are” (ד plus pronoun plus participle): (i) י ”my honour“ כבוד
becomes ין קדמי אתוןד מיקר “are you honouring before me” and (ii) י מורא
“my fear” becomes ין דאתון ן דחל קדמי מ “are you fearing from before me”.9
At Mal 1:14, the noun נוכל “deceiver” is rendered with the relative
clause נכל דיעביד ב “who deals with deception” (ד plus imperfect plus
preposition plus noun). At Mal 1:6, the construct noun בוזי in י בוזי שמ
“despisers of my name” is rendered with a relative clause י ין על שמ מבסר ד
“who are acting despicably against my name” (ד plus participle plus
preposition). Similarly, at Mal 2:17 שפט God of justice”, the“ אלהי המ
construct noun אלהי is rendered with a relative clause ינא אלהא דעביד ד
“the God who does justice”.
Collective nouns are commonly rendered plural as well as marked: at
Mal 2:13, מעה מעתא becomes ד ”offering“ תרומה ,the tears”; at Mal 3:8“ ד
becomes תרומתא “the offerings”; at Mal 3:8, ר tithe” becomes“ מעש
יק ,the tithes” and at Mal 3:18“ מעסריא righteous” (singular) becomes“ צד
יקיא יעיא evildoer” becomes“ רשע the righteous” (plural) and“ צד the“ רש
evildoers”.
Conversely, plural nouns are twice rendered singular: at Mal 1:6, ים אדונ
“lords” become בון ”Lord“ ר10
and at Mal 3:21, the construct plural noun
.”sole of“ פרסת soles of” is rendered singular“ כפות
9 Cf. Johns (1972:26-27); see also Dan 2:33 “its legs were of iron” י י ... ד רגלוה
in Rosenthal (1967:21). In these instances, the participles indicate פרזל
continuous and habitual action (cf. Rosenthal 1974:55); see also Mal 1:7:
ין דאתון אמר ין :Mal 1:8 ;ב ין :Mal 1:11 ;אתון מקרב ין :Mal 1:12 ;אתון עבד ;אתון אמר
Mal 1:13: אתון מיתן ; Mal 1:14: הוא חייב.
10 Perhaps to avoid confusion with the related divine name?
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 7
2.1.7 Complex ideas
TgJ Ma renders complex ideas or apposition in the form of genitive
construction with the relative particle ד.11
Golomb (1985:218) identifies
three types of genitive constructions in Targum Neofiti: (i) Type A: noun
with anticipatory pronominal suffix + ד + noun; (ii) Type B: noun + ד +
noun and (iii) Type C: noun + noun (the “construct” state). Of these, type
B genitive construction (noun + ד + noun), is regularly employed in TgJ
Ma to render explanatory: at Mal 1:4, שעה גבול ר “wicked border” is
rendered יעא דעמיה תחומא רש “the border of the wicked people”; at Mal
יר ,3:5 כ כר־ש ירא אגרא hired wages” is rendered“ ש דאג “the wages of the
hireling”; at Mal 3:4, ים יות וכשנ קדמנ “and like the former years” is
rendered ין שנ ין וכ לקדמ דמ “and like the years of aforetime” and at Mal 3:2,
ית ים כבר מכבס “like washing soap” is rendered יתא ין כבור מחור ד “like the
soap of bleaching”.
Twice, TgJ Ma renders apposition through explanatory substitution: at
Mal 1:3, דבר תנות מ “desert jackals” becomes דבר צדות מ “desert
dwellings” and at Mal 1:7, מגאל לחם “defiled bread” is rendered קורבן .”abominable offering“ מרחק
2.1.8 Construct relationship
Construct chains are routinely rendered with the relative pronoun ד: at
Mal 2:16, ראל אלהי ש י becomes שראל אלהא די ; at Mal 3:11, י האדמה את־פר
is rendered יבא דארעא א ; at Mal 3:16, ראי יהוה י becomes דיוי דחליא ; at Mal
צדקה שמש ,3:21 changes to משא דזכו משה תורת ,and at Mal 3:22 ש is
translated אוריתא דמשה.
2.2 Exegetical Translation Techniques
The term “exegetical”, denotes when the Targumist does not follow the
HT word-for-word or thought-for-thought, but instead gives its intended
meaning in line with his conceptual orientation. In such instances, TgJ Ma
shows a significant change of form in comparison to the Hebrew source
text. In the following, I extricate various categories of exegetical
translation techniques in TgJ Ma’s rendering of HT Malachi.12
11 Driver (1998:247) refers to apposition as “the combination of two parts of a
simple judgment of a ‘simple judgment’ into a complex idea”.
12 Cathcart & Gordon (1989:229-238) demonstrate that the majority of changes in
the rendering of TgJ Ma are of an exegetical nature.
8 GUDRUN E LIER
2.2.1 Rhetoric
TgJ Ma renders rhetorical speech as anacoluthon or question. Thus, Mal
1:2, 6, 7, 13; Mal 2:14, 17; Mal 3:7, 8, 13 ואמרתם “and you say” is
rendered ם תימרון וא “and if you say”; similarly at Mal 2:16, נא ”hating“ ש
is rendered ם סניתלה א “if you hate her”. In order to focus on an implied
question, TgJ Ma adds the particle ה at Mal 2:14 so that לא־אחד is
rendered הלאחד.
2.2.2 Interpolations and Complements
Interpolations and complements are added for various reasons in TgJ Ma.
Some add historical detail to the text, while others seek to clarify or
explain the HT where it is ambiguous or unclear.
The addition of historical detail may be illustrated from contemporizing
interpolations: at Mal 1:1, ספרא עזרא שמיה דיתקרי “whose name is Ezra
the scribe” ascribes the authorship of the book of Malachi to Ezra, placing
its redaction squarely into the post-exilic period; at Mal 1:11, the lengthy
interpolation י צלותכון מקביל אנא תקדש רבא ושמ ידיכון על מ “I receive your
prayers and my great name is sanctified through your hands”
contemporizes Scripture in the aftermath of the destruction of the Second
Temple, when the sacrificial system was substituted by prayer.
Numerous instances introduce a clarifying or explanatory complement
into TgJ Ma’s rendering: at 1:4, עתרנא כען “now we have become rich”; at
יר ... על הא ,1:6 אמ “behold concerning [a son] it is said” and דחל the]“ למ
servant] to respect [his master]”; at 1:7, ין ית אתון מקרב “you [are offering]
it”; at 1:8, דעלך “[the governor] who is over you” and בך “[will he be
pleased] with you”; at 1:10, the clauses הכא “[who is among you] here”
and י בית מקדש “[the doors] of the house of the sanctuary” are
interpolated; and לרעוא “[an offering] for pleasure” to indicate the freewill
offering. More interpolations are found at 1:11, קדמי ... וצלותכון “your
prayers are [like a pure offering] before me”; 1:13 ברעוא “[will I receive
it] with pleasure” and twice at 2:2, י my fear [if not you will place]“ דחלת
[on heart]”; 2:6 13וברעותא “[in peace] and in willingness and [and in
uprightness]”; 2:9 דתקנן “[my way] which is upright”; twice at 2:11 דבית
“those of the house of Judah” is added. At 2:12 interpolations are ם ין וא כהליה יהי לא הוא “and if a priest he is, he may not [offer a sacrifice]” and בית
בר ליה יהי לא the house of the sanctuary of”, as well as“ מקדשא “not he
shall have a son”. The problematic clause at Mal 2:16, סה חמס על־לבושו וכ“and he covers violence on his clothing” is rendered conversely and
13 This addition occurs only in some manuscripts.
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 9
explanatory with טאה תכס ולא לבושך ח ב “and you shall not cover the sin
with your clothing”.14
At Mal 2:17, the clause הוגענו במה “in what have
we been weary” is complemented with an expression of respect for the
deity ינא במא י אהל קדמוה “in what have we wearied before him”. At TgJ
Ma 3:3, an explanatory simile is interpolated גבר מצריף כ ומדכי ד “like a
man who refines and purifies”; TgJ Ma 3:4 renders יהודה “Judah”
expansively with יהודה אנש “people of Judah” and ירושלם “Jerusalem”
expansively with ירושלם יתבי “inhabitants of Jerusalem”. TgJ Ma 3:5
renders שפט ינא למעבד for the judgement” with a verbal complement“ למ ד
“to do the judgment”; at Mal 3:6, the verbal clause י לא ית שנ “I do not
change” is rendered with an explanatory complement י לא ית י אשנ ן קימ דמ הגוי ,I do not change my covenant that is from eternity”; at Mal 3:9“ עלמאלו בית :the nation, its entirety” gets a clarifying addition in TgJ Ma“ כ
כולהון ישראל “the people, the house of Israel, all of them”. At TgJ Ma
3:10, the expounding interpolation is נבייא אמר “the prophet said”; at Mal
3:14, TgJ Ma renders שמרתו שמרנו מ “[we have kept] his charge” with the
clarifying addition מימריה מטרת נטרנא “[we have kept] the charge of his
word”. At Mal 3:16, TgJ Ma clarifies the phrase שמו ולחשבי “and for the
thinkers of his name” with a relative clause ין ליקרא שמיה דמחשב and for“ ל
those who are thinking to honour his name”. At Mal 3:17, י ה אנ עש “I will
make” is rendered more time specific ידאנא עת למעבד “I am about to
make”; at Mal 3:19 קש “chaff” the metaphor is changed to a simile ין חלש weak like the chaff”. TgJ Ma adds explanatory interpolations at“ כקשא
Mal 3:22 יתהון לאלפא “to teach them [statutes and judgments]” and at Mal
יד ,3:23 ן למיתי דעת קדם מ “[the day] which is about to come from before
[the LORD]”. At Mal 3:24, the phrase את־הארץ “the earth” is expanded
with an adjectival complement to ארעא כל ית “the entire earth”.
2.2.3 Circumlocutions
TgJ Ma employs circuitous language not only to evade
anthropomorphisms, but also to express obvious reverence for the deity.
Evasion of anthropomorphism is achieved by alluding to the deity
indirectly: at Mal 3:2, the personal pronoun הוא directly implicates the
deity. Here, TgJ Ma makes use of circumlocution by referring to God in
terms of his sentiment, גזיה י ,his anger”; at Mal 3:5“ ר ית I shall be” is“ הי
rendered by way of that which embodies him, namely י יהי מימר “my word
shall be”; at Mal 1:5, גדל יהוה י “may the LORD be magnified” is rendered
סגי דיוי יקרא י “may the glory of the LORD be magnified”; at Mal 3:7, the
14 On converse translation techniques, see Klein (1976:515-537).
10 GUDRUN E LIER
pronominal suffix at אלי “[turn] to me” is extended with an indirect object
י .”to my service [turn]“ לפולחנ
To demonstrate awe of the deity, TgJ Ma inserts קדם wherever the
Tetragrammaton is implied; at Mal 1:10 and 3:17, י for me” is rendered“ ל
and ליהוה ,לאדני before me”. References to the deity in terms of“ קדמי
ים at Mal 1:14, Mal 3:3, Mal 3:4 and Mal 3:15 are all rendered אלה
circumlocutory יוי קדם “before the LORD”. Other instances of circuitous
reference to the deity are found at Mal 1:6, דחל ן למ קדם מ “to fear from
before”, ין דאתון קדמי מיקר “[those] of you [who] honour before me”, and
ין דאתון ן דחל קדמי מ “[those] of you [who] fear from before me”; at Mal
1:9, TgJ Ma renders אלהא יוי קדם “before the LORD God” and at Mal
1:11, TgJ Ma renders רבן וצלותכון קדמי דכי כק “and your prayers are like a
pure offering before me”. At Mal 2:5, י יראנ and he revered me”, TgJ Ma“ וי
has ן ודחיל קדמי מ “and he feared from before me”; at Mal 2:6, י ת with“ א
me”, TgJ Ma has קדמי “before me”; at Mal 2:9, את־דרכי “my way”, TgJ
Ma has קדמי ... אורחן ית “the way … before me”; at Mal 2:17, יהוה הוגעתם
“you have wearied the Lord”, TgJ Ma has יתון יוי קדם אהל “you wearied
before the LORD”; at Mal 2:17, בעיני “in the eyes of [the LORD]”, TgJ
Ma has קדם “before [the LORD]”; at Mal 2:17, חפץ הוא ובהם “[and in
them] he delights”, TgJ Ma has י רעוא ובהון קדמוה “[and in them] pleasure
is before him”; at Mal 3:5, TgJ Ma has ילו ן דח קדמי מ “they feared from
before me”; at Mal 3:8, Mal 3:9 and Mal 3:10, TgJ Ma renders י ”me“ את
regularly with קדמי “before me”; at Mal 3:8, קבענוך “we have robbed
you”, TgJ Ma renders קדמך ארגיזנא “we have provoked before you”; at
Mal 3:18, TgJ Ma renders יקדמוה they serve before him”; at Mal“ פלחו
ים ,3:15 יוי קדם God”, TgJ Ma renders“ אלה “before the LORD”. However,
TgJ Ma renders יהוה אמר consistently with יוי אמר .
2.2.4 Added prepositions
TgJ Ma adds numerous prepositions to shed light on matters relating to
imagery and syntax in HT Malachi.
2.2.4.1 Metaphor to simile by כ
TgJ Ma regularly converts metaphors in HT Malachi to similes by adding
the inseparable preposition כ: at Mal 1:6, אב “father” becomes כאב “like
the father” but ים בון lords” is rendered in the singular“ אדונ like a“ כר
lord”; at Mal 1:11, נחה טהורה מ “a pure offering” becomes רבן דכי כק “like
a pure offering”; at Mal 2:3, את־הזרע “the seed” is furthermore rendered
explanatory ארעא כעללת “like the produce of the land” and at Mal 3:19,
.”like the chaff“ כקשא chaff” is rendered“ קש
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 11
2.2.4.2 Specification by ל and ם דע
TgJ Ma provides specified information regarding something that is not
defined in HT Malachi by adding ל of specification: At Mal 1:3, שממה
“desolation” is rendered לצדו “for desolation”.15
At Mal 2:8, ית י בר הלו “the
covenant of Levi”, TgJ Ma adds ם ם to specify the covenant as דע קימא דעי .”the covenant – that with Levi“ לו
2.2.4.3 Indication of norm by ב
TgJ Mal tends to render general expressions in HT Malachi more specific
by indicating a state or condition with beth of norm (cf. Williams
2007:100): at Mal 1:14, נוכל “deceiver” is rendered נכל דיעביד ב “one who
deals with deception”; at Mal 2:13, רצון “favour” is rendered ברעוא “with
pleasure” and at Mal 1:3, ים אשר־אתם חפצ “whom you desire” is rendered
ביה צבן דאתון lit. “whom you find pleasure in him”.
2.2.4.4 Indication of place by על and ב locative
The tendency of TgJ Ma to render general expressions more specific can
also be observed from its addition of על and ב locative to indicate place
(cf. Williams (2007:112). At Mal 1:10, י זבח על my altar” is rendered“ מי י ,on my altar”; at Mal 3:5“ מדבח ית עד והי “and I shall be a witness” is
rendered expansive together with ב locative and ל of product יהי י ו מימריד בכון לסה “and my word shall be among you for a witness”.
16
2.2.4.5 Introduction of object or agent by ב instrumenti
In accord with the aim of Targum to give the meaning of Scripture (cf.
Flesher & Chilton 2011:325-338), TgJ Ma makes use of ב instrumenti: at
Mal 3:2, ית ים וכבר מכבס “and like soap of washing” is rendered expansive
יתא ין וכבור מחור בה ד “and like the lye whereby bleaching [is done]” (cf.
also 2.2.5.1). At Mal 3:8, והתרומה “the tithe and the offering”, ב
instrumenti is prefixed to each noun ר תרומתא במעסריא המעש וב “by tithes
and by offerings”.
2.2.4.6 Indication of price or exchange by ב pretii (for)
Williams (2007:99) points out that the preposition ב can indicate the price
paid for something, citing as example 1 Kgs 21:6 “Sell me your vineyard
15 Scripture implies the accusative of specification at שממה; this is often left
untranslated in MT (cf. Williams 2007:22; 100 108).
16 Cf. Williams (2007:97). “When the verb היה means ‘become’, it is often
followed by a ל of product” (Williams 2007:110).
12 GUDRUN E LIER
for money”. In this sense, at Mal 1:13, נחה והבאתם את־המ “and you bring
the free-will offering”, TgJ Ma makes use of ב pretii to point towards the
despicable act of offering torn, blind and lame animals, rendering ומיתן
ין ליה אתון בקורבנ “you bring it for offerings” where ליה “it” refers to the
unacceptable value of the animals brought “for” (ב pretii) the sacrifice.
2.2.4.7 Indication of ethical dative by ל
At Mal 2:16, the vague expression נא י־ש because [when] hating” is“ כ
rendered more specific in a conditional clause with the ethical dative ארי ם לה סנית א “because if you hate [for] her” (cf. Johns 1972:11; Levy
1974:189).
2.2.5 The relative pronoun ד
TgJ Ma introduces the relative pronoun .to express various relationships ד
2.2.5.1 Relative clause
At Mal 1:5, ראל ש גבול י גדל מעל ל יהוה י “may the LORD be magnified from
beyond the border of Israel”, the reference to the deity is rendered
circumlocutory in a relative clause שראל י ית תחום י סגי יקרא דיוי דאפת י“great is the Glory of the LORD who broadens the border of Israel”. At
Mal 1:13, סח גזול והבאתם ואת־החולה ואת־הפ “and you bring robbed and the
lame and the sick”, the relative pronoun ד replaces the definite object
marker את, describing the three Hebrew nouns in consecutive subordinate
clauses יר יס ודחג יע ומיתן אתון דאנ מר וד “and you bring that which is
violated and that which is lame and that which is sickly”. The participle at
Mal 2:17 ה רע כל־עש “everyone doing evil” is rendered in a relative clause יש דעביד כל ב “everyone who does evil”.
TgJ Ma expresses the genitive relationship with the use of the relative
pronoun ד: at Mal 3:2, the construct chain ית ים וכבר מכבס “and like soap of
washing” is rendered with an explanatory relative clause יתא ין וכבור מחור ד
“and like the lye which bleaches”; at Mal 3:16, ראי יהוה י “the fearers of
the LORD”, TgJ Ma employs the relative pronoun ד to express the
genitive relationship דיוי דחליא ; at Mal 3:17 העבד “who serves” the
relative pronoun פלח replaces the article ד יש יחמל כאשר at Mal 3:17 ;ד א
“just as a man has pity” the comparative particle כאשר is rendered as a
combination of the relative pronoun ד with the interrogative pronoun מא
“what” to form a temporal clause ברא דחאיס כמא ג “how when [the] man
has compassion”.
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 13
2.2.5.2 Continuous and habitual action
At Mal 1:11, י שמ גש ל קטר מ in every place incense is lifted“ ובכל־מקום מ
up to my name” is interpreted in a temporal clause ין דן דאתון עבד ובכל עי in every instance when you do my will”. Here the relative pronoun“ רעות
ין together with the participle ד indicates continuous and habitual דאתון עבד
action (cf. Rosenthal 1974:55). At Mal 2:13, TgJ Ma renders the adverbial
accusative זבח ואנקה י את־מ יהוה בכ “the altar of the LORD [with] weeping
and [with] groaning”, with the relative ד plus participle ית מדבחא דיוי דבכןין ידנק the altar of the LORD by weeping and by vexing” (see also 3x“ ודמ
at Mal 1:6; 1x at Mal 1:7; 6x at Mal 1:8; 1x at Mal 1:12; 4x at Mal 1:13;
1x at Mal 1:14).
2.2.6 Substitution
TgJ Ma substitutes single words (verbs, nouns, adjectives etc.) to explain
the basic core meaning suggested by the HT.
Chapter one: at Mal 1:3, י נאת ית I have hated”, TgJ Ma has“ ש I“ רחיק
have rejected” and renders תנות “jackals” with צדות “desolation”. At Mal
1:4, ששנו תמסכננא we were beaten down”, TgJ Ma has“ ר we were“ א
impoverished” and renders אהרוס “I will destroy” with אפגר “I will break
down”. At Mal 1:6, ינו we have“ בסרנא we have despised” is rendered“ בז
acted despicably”. At Mal 1:7, ים יש ין approaching” is rendered“ מג מקרב
“offering/sacrificing” and גאלנוך “we have defiled you” is changed to
ירו ,loathsome/despicable”. At Mal 1:10“ מרחק you are lighting” is“ תא
rendered תקרבון “you are offering”; at Mal 1:12, מגאל “defiled” becomes
יר ,loathsome/despicable”; at Mal 1:14“ בס ין feared” is changed to“ נורא חס
“strong”.
Chapter two: at Mal 2:2, שמעו you do [not] listen” is interpreted“ ת
חת ,you do [not] receive/accept”; at Mal 2:5“ תקבלון ”he was dismayed“ נ
is rendered דחיל “he feared”; at Mal 2:6, TgJ Ma substitutes עולה
“iniquity” with קרא .”the lie/false“ ש17
At Mal 2:9, ים humiliated” is“ שפל
rendered ין he will cut off” is“ יכרת ,weakened”; at Mal 2:12“ חלש
rendered ישיצי “he will destroy”; at Mal 2:14, בגדתה “you have acted
treacherously” is rendered שקרת “you have deceived” (cf. also Mal 2:15
and Mal 2:16). At Mal 2:16, שלח is taken to mean פטרה “release her”.
Chapter three: at Mal 3:2, מצרף “refining” is rendered ממסי “causing to
decay/melting” and ים ין washing” becomes“ מכבס bleaching”. At“ מחור
Mal 3:3, ישב “he will sit” is taken to mean תגלי ;”he will reveal himself“ י
at Mal 3:4, “it will be sweet” ערבה is rendered תקבל .”it will be accepted“ י
17 In reference to a prophet of another deity (cf. Churgin 1907:118).
14 GUDRUN E LIER
At Mal 3:5, the idiom י I will come near” is rendered explanatory“ קרבת
oppressors of” is replaced with“ עשקי I will reveal myself” and“ אתגלי
שראל בית sons of Jacob” becomes“ בני־יעקב ,robbers of”; at Mal 3:6“ אנסי י
“house of Israel” and קי from my statutes” at Mal 3:7, is rendered“ מח
קיימי rob” is used in“ קבע from my covenants”. Whenever the word“ מ
relation to the deity, it is interpreted provocative”: at Mal 3:8, the“ רגז
question קבע ים אדם הי אלה “will a man rob God” is rendered
circumlocutory with regard to the deity: רגיז דיינא קדם גבר הי “will a man
be provocative before the judge?” The question at Mal 3:8 במה קבענוך “in
what have we robbed you” is rendered קדמך ארגיזנא במא “in what have
we been provocative before you” and ים אתם י קבע את “you are robbing
me”, at Mal 3:9, is rendered ין אתון קדמי מרגז “you are provocative before
me”. At Mal 3:10, י יקת I will bring“ אחית I will empty” is rendered as“ הר
down”; אכל “eater” at Mal 3:11 is explained to be מחבלא “the destroyer”;
at Mal 3:11, י יבא fruit” is broadly referred to as“ פר the produce”; at“ א
Mal 3:15, ים זד יםאנחנו מאשר “we are blessing proudly”, the term ים זד“proudly” is substituted with ין יע ,wickedly”. Similarly, at Mal 3:19“ רש
ים יעיא proud” is rendered“ זד שעה ,the wicked ones”. At Mal 3:19“ רש ר
“evil” is rendered טאה שתם ,sin”; at Mal 3:20“ ח you shall skip” is“ ופ
replaced with טלון I will come” at Mal 3:24, is“ אבוא ;”you shall lift up“ ות
rendered אתגלי “I will reveal myself” and י כית and I will smite” is“ וה
interpreted ואשכח “and I will find”.
2.2.7 Interpretive rendering
Apart from the more regular translation practises found at TgJ Ma, there
are various explanatory renderings, which cannot be systematically
grouped. Most of these renderings aim to clarify expressions from the
Hebrew Bible that had become obscure at the time when the book of
Malachi was translated into Aramaic.
Chapter one: at Mal 1:5 the expansion of Israel’s territory גבול מעל ל
ראל ש from beyond the border of Israel” is rendered as action of the“ י
LORD” י שראל יתתחום דאפת י “who broadens the border of Israel”. The
apposition מגאל לחם “defiled bread” at Mal 1:7 is rendered מרחק קורבן
“offering of apathy”. At Mal 1:8, פני־אל “before God” is rendered
expansive as אלהא יוי קדם “before the LORD God”; at Mal 1:10, נם in“ ח
vain” becomes מרחק קורבן “offering of apathy”. The meaning of מקוםשמ גש ל קטר מ ימ “[in every] place incense is lifted up to my name” at Mal
1:11 is contemporized דן ין דאתון ע י עבד רעות “[in every] instance when you
do my will”. The verbal clause at Mal 1:12 יבו בזה ונ אכלו נ “and its fruit is
vile to eat” is rendered by substitution ירן ניה מתנתא ובס מ “and vile are the
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 15
gifts from it”. At Mal 1:13, the difficult combination of מתלאה “what
weariness” is clarified to mean ינא ליאותנא דאית מ “what we have brought
from our toil” and the direct object נחה נחה והבאתם in המ את־המ “you
bring the offering” is rendered pronoun ליה plus indirect object: אתון ומיתן ין ליה בקורבנ “and you bring it in offerings” (cf. Mal 2:13 where the
adverbial accusative לקחת רצון “to receive with pleasure” is rendered
nota objecti ית plus pronominal suffix followed by an indirect object
.(”to receive it with pleasure“ לקבלא יתיה ברעוא18
Chapter two: the expression י ית פרש וזר “and I will scatter dung” at Mal
2:3 is explained to mean חוביכון בהתת ואגלי “and I cause the shame of your
sin to go into exile” and the construct chain פרש חגיכם “the dung of your
feasts” is rendered expansive חגיכון רבות ואבטיל “and I will abolish the
greatness of your feasts”. At Mal 2:5, the asyndectic expression ואתנם־לו
and I gave them to him [for] reverence” is modified by“ מורא
amplification to יתליה יהב י אולפן ו ים אורית של “and I gave him the
instruction of my Torah [for] peace”.19
At Mal 2:7, the noun מלאך “a
messenger” is substituted with a verbal phrase קדם משמיש “serving
before”. At Mal 2:11, the ambiguous clause אהב אשר יהוה קדש לל יהודה ח
“Judah has profaned the holiness of the LORD which he loved” is
rendered expansive יסו ישא דהות נפשהון יהודה דבית אפ רחם די יוי קדם קד
“the people of the house of Judah have profaned their soul which was holy
before the LORD”; similarly at Mal 2:11, the idiomatic expression ובעל
נכר בת־אל “and he married the daughter of a foreign god” is modified
expansively for elucidation: יאו תרע יסב וא ין להון למ בנת נש עממיא מ “and
they are pleased to take for themselves women from the daughters of the
nations”.20
At Mal 2:12, the elapsed idiom וענה ער is rendered בר ובר בר
“son and grandson”. At Mal 2:15, the obscure question and answer ומה
ה זרע מבקש האחד יםעש לוולא־אחד רוח ושאר אלה “And did not He make one,
and a remainder of spirit is for him, and what is the one seeking? – Godly
seed” is rendered with explanatory additions ידאי אברהם הוה חד הלא יח
ניה י דמ תבר תקיים אלהין בעי חד עלמא א ן ולד הלי די יוי קדם מ “Was not one,
Abraham alone, from whom the world was created? One thing seeking
18 On the use and form of the nota objecti, see Folmer (in Gzella & Folmer
2008:131-158).
19 Asyndectic indicates a connection of words, phrases or clauses without the
normal coordinate or subordinate conjunction (cf. Van der Merwe, Naudé &
Kroeze 2002:354).
is an idiomatic expression for a woman worshipping a foreign god בת־אל נכר 20
(cf. Holladay 1988:1130).
16 GUDRUN E LIER
only that should be established for him, even offspring from before the
LORD”. Another ambiguous statement at Mal 2:16, סה חמסעל־לבושו וכ
“and he covers with violence his garment”, is rendered conversely to
reinforce an argument for divorce: טאה תכס ולא לבושך ח ב “and you should
not cover sin with your garment” (cf. Cathcart & Gordon 1989:235 n. 30).
Chapter three: the idiomatic expression at Mal 3:5 ומטי־גר “and
stretching out a stranger” is rendered to mean ין ומסטן גיור ד “and
misrepresenting judgement of a stranger”. At Mal 3:6, the scant
expression יתם לא כל “you are not complete” is expanded: דמן מדמן אתון
ית יניה הדין בעלמא דמא יק ד פס “you imagine whosoever is dying in this
world, his judgement has come to an end”. Evasion of anthropomorphism
is achieved at Mal 3:7 when the reference to the deity יכםאל ואשובה “and I
will turn to you” is rendered indirectly י לאיטבא לכון and I“ ואתפני במימר
will turn myself by my word [י to do good to you”. At Mal 3:10, the [במימר
general observation י יה י טרף ו בבית “and food shall be in my house” is
rendered with detail ין פרנוס משמש יהי בבית לד יו מקדש “and support shall be
for those who minister in my sanctuary”; also at Mal 3:10, the obscure
declaration י־די ברכה עד־בל “blessing (lit.) until without enough” is
clarified to mean יסת דתימרון עד טובא מ “prosperity until you say enough”.
At Mal 3:12, היו ארץ אתם חפץת “you shall be a delightful land” is rendered
periphrastically ין אתון תהון י בית בארע יתב ינת ין שכ י בה ועבד רעות “you shall
dwell in the land of the house of my Shekhinah and do my will in it”. The
question at Mal 3:13, דברנו עליך מה־נ “what have we spoken against you”,
is enhanced with an interpolation קדמך למללא אסגינא מא “what have we
exaggerated to speak before you?” At Mal 3:14 the complaint עבד שוא
ים ממון לי להנאה לא in vain to serve God” is rendered expansive [it is]“ אלה
יוי קדם במא דפלח מן “whoever serves before the LORD does not benefit by
interchanging wealth” and מה־בצע “what unjust gain” is rendered ממון מא
תהני לנא נ “what wealth do we gain for ourselves?” Further, at Mal 3:14,
ית הלכנו קדרנ “we went mourning” is rendered explanatory יכות הליכנא כמכ
we went akin to meekness of spirit”. At Mal 3:16, the“ רוח
anthropomorphic reference to the deity שמע he heard” is rendered“ י
indirect י it was revealed before him”. At Mal 3:19, the“ גלי קדמוה
idiomatic expression וענף שרש “root and branch” is explained to denote
son and son of son/grandson” and at Mal 3:24, the adverbial“ ברוברבר
accusative חרם “[with] a curse” is rendered expansive ואמחיניה בחובהא
.”in sin and smite it [with] destruction“ גמירא
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES IN TARGUM MALACHI 17
3. CONCLUSION
A close reading of TgJ Ma has shown that this Targum largely constitutes
a periphrastic rendering of the book of Malachi.
Mechanical translation techniques can mainly be ascribed to
developmental stages in the Aramaic dialect.21
For instance, many
unmarked nominal forms became marked, typical for the standard JLAtg,
which characterizes TgJ. Collective nouns are generally translated plural
and marked. Temporal clauses, participles, and verbs that imply an
ongoing action are rendered according to typical syntactical patterns.
Nouns or noun phrases that infer an action are rendered expansive.
Genitive relationships are routinely rendered with the relative pronoun ד.
TgJ Ma mostly constitutes a mix of technical and exegetical translation
techniques, in particular where the Targumist seeks to import additional
information into the Aramaic version to make it theologically acceptable.
Some contemporizing interpolations submit historical detail, which
provide clues for the period during which the book of Malachi was
rendered into Aramaic. Moreover, ambiguous passages, such as idiomatic
expressions that became obscure are remodelled through expansive and/or
explanatory rendering.
Anthropomorphic references to the deity are regularly rendered indirect
or circuitous to express obvious reverence before the deity. Whenever the
Tetragrammaton is implied, םקד is inserted. However, יהוה אמר is always
translated יוי אמר .
Added prepositions bring clarity to imagery and scanty syntactical
expressions, such as conversion of metaphor to simile by כ and
specification by ל and ם locative and state ב or על Place is indicated by .דע
or condition by adding ב of norm. Objects or agents are introduced by ב instrumenti and ל presenting the ethical dative aims to bring clarity to
vagueness in HT Mal.
TgJ Ma employs the relative pronoun together with the participle to ד
express continuous and habitual action. Single words are extensively
substituted to express the underlying meaning of the biblical text. TgJ Ma
makes use of two stock words (i) רגז “to rob” is regularly rendered קבע “to
be provocative” and (ii) ים יעיא proud” is consistently rendered“ זד the“ רש
wicked ones”.
21 Cf. Kaufman (1994:118-141) and Cook (1994:142-156).
18 GUDRUN E LIER
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