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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
The Influence of Identity on Language Use
by Bicultural Youth in Okinawa
A Thesis Presented to
Linguistic Information Science
International Language and Cultures
The Department of Law and Letters
University of the Ryukyus
In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements
The Degree of Bachelor of Arts
Student Number : 061890A
Name : Melissa Tomlinson
Thesis Adviser : Miki Shibata
March 2011
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Contents
Abstract 3
Introduction 4
Background
Identity of bicultural 5
Identity and Language 8
Research questions 10
Method
Participants 11
Materials and Procedure
Questionnaire 12
Follow-up interview 13
Dara Analysis 13
Results
Questionnaire Data
The Identity of Bicultural Youth in Okinawa 14
Language Proficiency 14
Language Use 15
Follow-up interview data 16
Discussion and Conclusions 19
Reference 26
Appendix 28
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Abstract
Although bicultural or bilingual people in Japan have attracted many researchers, none of the
studies have focused on the variety of terms and their language use. There are several
personal terms that refer to bicultural persons by these; half, double, mixed, and Amerasian in
Japan. This study attempts to reveal bicultural youths’ sense of identity and find differences
between each identity that classified which they choose group’s language use in Okinawa. A
total of 30 bicultural youths responded to a questionnaire, and 15 of them were interviewed in
depth. The questionnaire responses showed that these people had complex experiences
regarding their Japanese and English language use, proficiencies, and surroundings. Results
from the interviews indicated that each participant has put much thought into what defines
who they are. The findings suggest that bicultural youths have deep conflicts between identity
and language use. As bicultural youths, they commonly find themselves confused trying to
make sense of who they are. These youth have selected the best way to identity from a variety
of terms and establish their own language styles by themselves.
Key words: bicultural youth, Okinawa, identity conflict, language use
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Influence of Identity on Language Use by Bicultural Youth in Okinawa
The first language a person acquires in life, known as the mother language, is used
as a tool to have converse with others. Conversation allows people to share their thoughts,
beliefs, and values. Therefore, if people can speak more than one language, they have more
opportunities to relate with others. Compared to the past, the number of people crossing
borders is increasing, which has driven the traveler’s population to reach almost 200 million
people (Tousu, 2002). For a long time, Japan was known as a homogeneous nation, but it no
longer seems to be so since the number of foreign residents has been increasing year by year.
Okinawa, a prefecture in Japan, is not an exception. There are many military
personnel, civilians, and their families living on the island of Okinawa. About 75% of the U.S.
military bases in Japan are located on this island. From these circumstances, many
international marriages occur and children with dual-citizenship are born. The most common
union consists of a Japanese female and an American male (The Ministry of Health, Labor
and Welfare, 2009). Their children often grow up in a Japanese American bicultural
environment. However, it’s not easy to become multilingual, and there are considerable
problems.
Many studies have targeted people who have grown up or lived in a multilingual
society (Kondo-Brown, 2001; Norton, 2000; Onohara, 2004; Wong, 1991). Each study
showed that improving and maintaining two languages is not simple. Although aspects of
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
bicultural youth behavior in Okinawa have attracted much research, none of the studies has
examined the sense of identity and language use of people who have grown up on the island
in a bicultural environment. This study will examine their identity difference influence their
language use. How bicultural of Japanese and American built their identity and use Japanese
and English which are their parents’ language in daily life.
Background
Identity of bicultural
The person who first started exploring the idea of identity was Freudian social
psychologist Erickson (1902-1994). In many societies, there is a social transition from child
to adult. In traditional societies, the rite of passage, called initiation, is decisively known as
the social transition. The transition from child to adult occurs during adolescence. In this era,
people have more opportunities and options to become who they want, but this also means
that much consideration needs to be put forth to find the correct path for an individual. This
brings a period of conflict; adolescents are neither an adult nor a child. During adolescence,
there is a possibility of a mental problems as well as a high rate of suicide. He called this a
crisis of identity because people go through this crisis as they create their identities, known as
the ego. Erickson also explained that identity is always changing. Ueno (2005), later
cautioned that people act like they are not able to live without identity, and other’s differences
of cultural, ethnic, and religion catch their attention. Thus, individuals try to gather with
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
people who share the same thoughts, beliefs, and values. Sometimes they gather within the
same language, ethnic, on religious group. Being admitted as a member brings steadiness and
comfort. However, these gatherings can cause prejudice and discrimination towards other
groups.
Onohara (2004) defined identity as a word that explained “Who am I?” This includes
the image, belief, feeling, and evaluation of oneself. People choose the appropriate identity
accordingly, then try to show who they are. Therefore, the important thing is that people
should have the freedom to choose their own identity by themselves. However, it is hard to
have this freedom for many reasons. In Japan, people have a fixed image of people raised in
particular environments, such as those born in international marriage families as a bilingual
child (Nakazima, 1998). Japanese people commonly distinguish them from the general
Japanese family. Especially in the case of the international marriage involving Japanese and
foreign parents, it is possible to predict that there is more English use in these homes than
those of general Japanese families. However, it was found that not all bicultural children
become bilingual. In fact, there are many ways to describe the people who have Japanese and
foreign parents: half, double, mixed,and Amerasian. Especially Amerasian is used for a
Japanese (Okinawan) parent and an American military parent in Japan. Yashima (2009)
thoroughly explained the background of these terms. The word, half, came about in the early
1970s. It refers to a person who is ethnically has half Japanese and half foreigner. There are
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
some popular entertainers who were called half, such as Golden Half a pop idol group and
singer Rinda Yamamoto, who sang on TV at the time. As time went on, the word double came
about as a type of resistance to the word half in the 1990s. The word double came about
because of the idea that bicultural people have two ethnicities, a more positive image than
notion of just a half. Meanwhile, until 1985 the people with a Japanese and foreigner parent
were in the center of attention in newspapers in Japan because of their stateless problem.
Especially the Amerasian school in Okinawa was picked up by the newspapers, and then the
term Amerasian started to appear in the media.
Considering this background, it is natural that the terms came about by differences of
ideas. As mentioned above, many types of identities represent the people who have Japanese
and American parents in Japan. These people are not able to easily join into predominantly
Japanese or American groups. Murphy-Shigematsu (1994) pointed out this particular
stereotype of people who have Japanese parent and American parent; this type of person is
referred to as half’ in this article. After the Second World War, half regarded themselves as a
minority and became a target of anti-American sentiment; discrimination, and prejudice in
Okinawa. Therefore, many half had a difficult youth interacting with their relatives, teachers,
and friends. People treated them as Americans or refused to admit they are Japanese. It is not
only about appearances but also about languages. Murphy-Shigematsu (2004) reported that
Okinawa has a stereotype for people called Shima-half, who speak Japanese only and not
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
English. According to this stereotype, all bicultural people must speak at least English
correctly; therefore, a person not skilled in English would be regarded as a dropout from the
bright bilingual life. Most half recognizes themselves as neither Japanese nor American, but
simply people born of a Japanese and American parent. Even if they choose to be completely
Japanese or American, few people think they are completely Japanese or American. It seems
the half don’t aren’t permitted rights to be a Japanese or American, even if they have both
parts.
Identity and Language
Onohara (2004) mentioned that language is used to communicate with others as well
as to show on other’s identity. Purportedly, there are about 4,000 to 5,000 languages in the
world (Tousu, 2002). Using language enables us not only to express but to share our own
ideas, feelings, and values with others. Many previous studies show that identity and
languages are strongly correlated. Spolosky (2004) emphasized that “importance of language
by noting, the language of public sign may seem a trivial local matter, but languge issues can
lead to major conflicts” (p.1). Especially, in a multilingual society, the choice of language use
with others can be complicated (e.g., use of official languages). Using languages can serve to
make people superior or inferior. For example, those who use the acknowledged official
language become a majority in the country. People who can’t speak it become a linguistic
minority and are put into a sense of linguistic inferiority. Kawahara (2004) reported that using
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
language can distinguish one group from others. For example, Filipino women who were
married to Japanese showed that even if a Japanese group and a Filipino group are having
conversation in Japanese, the Filipino group would start speaking Tagalong when they did not
want Japanese people to hear their conversation. As a result, Filipino people feel a high sense
of solidarity in a Filipino group. Japanese people will be blocked out. In this case, Filipino
people draw a boundary between our Filipino people and your Japanese people. Even if
people speak their own language in a conversation, their choices could hurt feelings or
exclude others in certain occasions.
On the other hand, Kondo-Brown (2000) reported an interesting result of bilingual
heritage student’s consciousness toward Japanese. This study investigated 145 bilingual
heritage students, with at least one parent who was a native speaker of Japanese, who had
enrolled in Japanese classes. Participants were classified into three groups by the Japanese
courses that they were taking. Findings revealed that their identity as a Nisei gave them high
motivation for improving and maintaining Japanese with positive attitude. Certainly, most
students studied Japanese for work and communication with Japanese people, although a
basic realization was that they had an identity that could not be changed biologically and
awaken to Japaneseness. Also the bilingual heritage students answered that learning Japanese
was challenging, interesting, and important. From these results, it is possible to speculate that
identity directly influences the amount of motivation in the learning of Japanese.
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Research Question
The previous literature suggests it is not simple for the people who have a Japanese
and American parent to put themselves into a single category, nor to accept a specific
descriptive term such as; half, double, mixed, and Hapa. These terms do not dictate whether
matter the parent is American or not. In Okinawa, though, most of the unions do consist of
Japanese and an American parent, and thus the term Amerasian often, represents them in
Okinawa. The research question to be investigated which terms do bicultural youth in
Okinawa choose to reflect their identities? Accordingly, this research will also investigate
their languages use then see whether identity differences affect the use of language. If so, it
can be assumed that the difference can be seen in the youths’ use identity and language of
their choice. This paper, by focusing on diversities in present identity, aims to investigate the
extent of differences in language use and features of their identity groups in Japanese and
English. Respondents choosing different terms are thus varying their language use, which
may reveal differences about their identities. Their language use will be different by each
identity group. This study has two fundamental aims: the first is to attempt to reveal the
bicultural youths’ sense of identity. The second is to examine the bicultural youths’ language
use while investigating the extent, frequency, and attitude of Japanese and English compared
with each identity group to find differences.
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Materials and Procedure
Participants
Bicultural youth with a Japanese and American parent in Okinawa participated in
this study. A total of 30 participants (15 women, 15 men, Mage=22.1 years, age range: 18-37
years) were questioned. They all had a Japanese mother and American father and are still
living with their parents. All participants graduated from high school, some go to college, and
some have jobs. Participants’ birth place, citizenship, and marital status vary (see Table 1, for
participants’ background). Some participants were delivered at the military hospital in
Okinawa (on base); some other participants were delivered at Japanese hospital in Okinawa
(off-base). Others were delivered in the United States.
Table 1
Participant's Background
Birth Place
Okinawa (on base) 23.3% (7)
Okinawa (off-base) 53.3% (16)
The United States 23.3% (7)
Total 99.9% (30)
Citizenship
Japanese only 26.6% (8)
U.S. only 10.0% (3)
Dual citizenship 63.3% (19)
Total 99.9% (30)
Parents’
marital Status
Married 70.0% (21)
Divorced 20.0% (6)
Separated 6.6% (2)
Unmarried 3.3% (1)
Total 99.9% (30)
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Questionnaire
In this study, a questionnaire written in Japanese was used (see Appendix B). A
simple explanation of the questionnaire was given, and then participants were asked to return
it in September to November of 2010. A total 23 questions, 86.9% is select from options and
13% is open-closed, were requested for participants to answer. The questionnaire was
composed of three sections, and question items on it were as follows: SectionⅠ consisted of
four questions of a participant’s background; sex, age, citizenship, and birth place. Section
Ⅱ consisted of 12 questions of mainly participants’ language use. To determine the
participants’ language use, participants were asked to rate their percentage of Japanese and
English use. Participants were asked to choose their language use style from five different
styles with a 5-point Likert scale (1=Japanese 100%; 2=Japanese70-80%, English 20-30%;
3=Japanese 50%, English 50%; 4=Japanese 20-30%, English 70-80%; English 100%). Other
questions asked where they lived and what language was used between the times they were
born to the age of 18 years old. SectionⅢ consisted of seven questions of participants’
Japanese and English proficiency and identity. Participants were asked to do a self-evaluation
of their four Japanese and English skills: speaking, listening, writing, and reading that are
rated 5-point Likert scales (1=not at all; 2=little; 3=well; 4=very well; 5=native speaker).
Also participants were asked to choose one identity term from seven choices of identity
terms: Japanese, American, half, double, Amerasian, don’t know, and others.
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Follow-up Interview
The interviews with the 15 selected participants (8 males and 7 females) were
intended to explore the above issues in depth and took approximately 60 minutes each. The
interviews were recorded by IC recorder and transcribed by the researcher. During interviews,
Japanese or English (sometimes Japanese and English mixed) were used to converse,
depending on the participants. The interviews were semi-structured: a set of questions were
prepared by the researcher beforehand, although some flexibility was allowed. Some of the
questions were as follows: Why do you think the identity you selected is appropriate? Also
why you didn’t choose others? How do you feel about the language that is not your dominant
language? How do you maintain your Japanese/English?
Data Analysis
After collection, participants were first divided into each identity groups then
calculated averages for comparing with different identity groups. For calculating averages of
language use, a five-point Likert scale was used; add all of the points to find the sum, and
divide by the number of group’s people; this gives the averages. The data of interviews, on
the other hand, was used as a supplement of the questionnaire’s results.
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Results
Questionnaire Data
The Identity of Bicultural Youth in Okinawa
Table 2 shows the results that participant’s identity they chose. It is interesting that
no one choose ‘American’ as their identity, also no one chose ‘don’t know’. This means all
participants had some ideas of their identity. Therefore, there only five identity groups:
Japanese, half, double, Amerasian, and others. The half identity group is the largest number,
67% of the participants chose it. The Japanese, double, and others identity groups are the
second number, each 10% of the participants chose it. Only 3% chose Amerasian identity
group and also it was the only a person whose father is still in commission in the military.
Table 2
Identity Groups
Japanese American half Double Amerasian don't know others
(N=3) (N=0) (N=20) (N=3) (N=1) (N=0) (N=3)
10% 0% 66.7% 10% 3.3% 0% 10%
Language Proficiency
Table 3 shows the percentage of dominant Japanese or English users within each
identity group. From the self-evaluation of Japanese and English four skills, three bilinguals
who evaluated themselves as Japanese and English native, in half and double identity group
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
(two people from half identity group and a person from double identity group). The double
and others identity groups are consisted of the people whose dominant language is Japanese.
On the other hand, the Amerasian group consisted only of people whose dominant language
is English. Dominant Japanese users are larger than English ones in Japanese identity groups.
In contrast, dominant English users are larger than the Japanese one in half identity group. 2
participants of half identity group answered that neither Japanese nor English is their
dominant language.
Table 3
Dominant Language With Different Identity Groups
Japanese half double Amerasian others
(n = 3) (n = 18) (n = 3) (n = 1) (n = 3)
Japanese (n = 13) 66.7% (2) 33.3% (6) 66.7% (2) 0% (0) 100% (3)
English (n = 12) 33.3% (1) 55.6% (10) 0% (0) 100% (1) 0% (0)
Bilingual (n = 3) 0% (0) 11.1% (2) 33.3% (1) 0% (0) 0% (0)
Total 28 (two participants of Half identity group think they don’t have dominant language)
Also from questionnaire results, Japanese, double, and others identity groups shows
they evaluated their Japanese proficiency higher than English. On the other hand, half and
Amerasian identity group evaluated their English proficiency higher than Japanese.
Especially, the language skills of reading and writing were evaluated lower than speaking and
listening (see Appendix F1).
Language Use
On the whole, all participants use more Japanese with Japanese mother and use more
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Japanese ( N = 3 ) Half ( N = 20 ) Double ( N = 3 ) Amerasian ( N = 1 ) Others ( N = 3 )
Father 4.3 4.8 3.3 5 4.7
Mother 1 2.2 1 3 1.7
4.3
4.8
3.3
5
4.7
1
2.2
1
3
1.7
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5English 100%
Japanese 100%
English with American father (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. language Use of Parents With Different Identity Group
Language use with American father, double identity group’s average is 3.3, use more
Japanese than other identity groups. On the other hand, Amerasian identity group’s average is
5, which means only English is used with their American father. Language use with Japanese
mother, Amerasian identity group’s average is 3, use more English to Japanese parent than
other identity groups. On the other hand, Japanese and double identity group’s average is 1,
which means only Japanese is used with their Japanese mother.
Surprisingly, the average of language use to friends with different identity groups
shows similar results (see Figure 3). half and others identity group’s average is about 3,
which means Japanese 50% and English 50%, use both Japanese and English with friends.
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Amerasian identity group’s average is 4, which means use more English than Japanese with
friends. On the other hand, Japanese and double identity group’s average are about 1, which
means only Japanese is used with friends. Interestingly, any identity group seem using only
English with friends.
Follow-up Interview Data
In follow-up interviews, 15 participants explain, in a positive and enthusiastic way,
their identity and language using even more detail. Interviews was to take about 30 to 60
minutes, it seemed all participants need more time to answer all questions. Table 4 shows
interviewees with different identity groups and were consisted of 73.3% of half identity group,
13.3% of double identity group, and 6.7% of Japanese and others identity group. Among the
five identity groups of participants, only Amerasian identity group could not take part in
interviews.
There were three main questions; why did you think the identity you selected is
appropriate to describe yourself? Why didn’t you choose American as your identity? How do
you feel about a language which is not your dominant one? In this study, only some of the
interesting parts are described and shared.
Question1 : Why did you think the identity term you selected is appropriate?
In this question, all participants are proud of being part Japanese and each of them
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has strong idea in their identity. All of them realized that they would never be accepted as a
full-Japanese forever, even if they try hard on their language skills, appearance, and so on.
Although each identity groups have quite different thoughts, especially double
identity group has strong negative imaging towards to identity term half (see Appendix B). It
seems like between double identity group and half identity group recognize being bicultural
oppositely. There are some reasons to consider from interview results. First, people in double
identity group have never bullied at school that is why they put themselves in higher position
than Japanese. That is why they would rather use term double, because they recognize
themselves as a person is superior and desired in Japanese society. On the other hand, people
in half identity group gave up being accepted as Japanese, they felt inferior in Japanese group.
Especially people who went to Japanese school they all had experience bullied and went
through hard time. Once they had that experience, it is hard for them to think themselves
positive way.
Question2 : Why did you not choose American?
From questionnaire results, no one choose identity term American as their identity.
In interview, all participants have negative image of American and they hate when Japanese
connect them with U.S military base when military people made troubles off-base. They are
proud of themselves as an Okinawan more than Japanese. Therefore, it is really hard for them
to being neutral between Okinawan and U.S military bases problem. Every time they have to
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deal with contents of WWⅡ and some accidents American caused, they were targeted by
Japanese and Okinawan.
Additionally, people whose dominant language is English are having complicated
situation. Even if they are English native speaker, people in United States do not accept them
full-American. That is because not only for linguistics differences but also their background
differences. Once they start having conversation with people from United States, they will
realize their background gaps like fashion, interesting, and knowledge. These reasons came
up because they are live in Okinawa and make them to think there are more Japanese or
Okinawan compare to American from United States.
Question3 : How do you feel about a language that is not your dominant one?
All participants thought they only need one language and do not find indeed in
becoming bilingual before they graduated high school. Some of them reacted against the
attitudes of their parents when they tried to maintain or improve their weak language.
However, after they graduated, they start rethink and realize how important for them to have
both Japanese and English in their life. Then some of them started to input both languages in
their daily like taking a classes or find job which can use both language. Additionally, when
their language gets better they make friends and practicing their skills.
Once their skills get better, it seems hard to improve it. In interview, people who
went to on base American school and off-base international school mentioned how hard to
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
improve their Japanese skills. At their school, Japanese was an optional course and students
were consisted with foreigner that is why they only studied basic in class. They are required
to master Hiragana and Katakana, but Kanji and Keigo were not a necessary. Those people
have no idea how to improve their Japanese, because they have no issue having conversation
in Japanese. So a lot of them gave up reading and writing skills of Japanese, but it is hard to
get a job for them in Japan even if they can speak English especially off-base.
Discussion and Conclusions
In this study, identity and language use of bicultural youth in Okinawa was examined.
It had demonstrated the all participants choose one identity and each identity group had
linguistic characteristics. All participants have own issue of identity and chose from a
different variety of identity groups. It has been found that it is difficult for others to judge a
bicultural people before actually talk to them.
Research Question: Is their identity influence on their language use?
As a result, each identity group shows characteristic in their language use. Especially
double identity group tended to use more Japanese than others. On the other hand, Amerasian
identity group use more English. Surprisingly, Japanese identity group use more English with
American father, even if they think themselves Japanese.
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
From follow-up interview results, double identity group feels strong pride in being
part of Japanese people therefore seems low motivation of improve their English skills. On
the other hand, other identity groups show more positive attitude toward to English.
Especially people whom dominant language is Japanese try to put themselves into English
environment as much as they can. They want to improve their English as a tool, however they
do not have desire to become an American or have high respect to American. They desire to
have place they are able to become one of the member and get a nice job with using their
English skills. For people live in Okinawa, English skills may help getting a job that is
because those huge military bases are covered all over this island. Even if outside of bases,
people have to deal with a lot of English-speaker customers.
However, there are some difficult cases that identity influences language use below
shows:
Amerasian identity group tend to use more English, it is possible to speculate from
not only their Japanese proficiency but also their length of residence in the United States
overage about over nine years, by far the longest of anyone in this study. Also the number of
moving from Japan to the United States was six times the largest number in this study.
Additionally, they answered in follow-up interview the reason why they chose Amerasian as
their identity that’s because participant’s father still in military. Therefore, it seems language
proficiency of Amerasian group is not influenced identity, also their proficiency did not
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influence the fact choosing Amerasian as an identity.
From the results of dominant language with different identity groups, double and
others identity group were only consisted of Japanese dominant users. In contrast, Amerasian
identity group consisted of only English dominant users. However, Japanese and half identity
groups consisted of Japanese dominant users and English ones. Surprisingly, in Japanese
identity group they include the people whose dominant language is English. In this case, the
background could be the main factor that decided their identity (e.g., citizenship and place
that they have lived).
I only have Japanese citizenship, but I went to an international school (off-base)
that’s why I can speak English. It doesn’t matter which language is dominant for me,
because I didn’t chose this…it was my parents’ decision. So I don’t think language is that
important, the fact is I live in Japan and I have only Japanese citizenship. Those are
strong factors that I chose Japanese as my identity.
(G.H., Japanese identity group, 2010/9/28)
Some participants refused to choose Japanese as their identity, because they felt
their lack of proficiency in Japanese even though their dominant language is Japanese in
some cases.
Japanese has a Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji. Even if Japanese native speakers
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
think a Keigo is annoying and troublesome. My dominant language is Japanese, so I don’t
really have trouble to have conversation in Japanese. However, it doesn’t mean I know
Kanji and Keigo well, but people don’t expect me to have high Japanese skills…They
always say ‘You are half anyways, it’s okay’. I went to Japanese public school...but I
always feel I am anoutsider. Of course I couldn’t choose Japanese as my identity.
(T.M., half identity group, 2010/10/05)
Even if they went to Japanese public school, they feel their Kanji and Keigo skills
are lower than other Japanese. On the other hand, almost all English dominant participants in
this study can use Hiragana and Katakana, but the number of people who can use Kanji was
low and none of them think they can use Keigo. At an international school (off-base) and an
American school (on base), Japanese class only cover Hiragana and Katakana mostly. That is
because their Japanese class is included students whose parents are both foreigners, so
teacher has to consider those students’ Japanese proficiency. It is enough for them to have
conversation, therefore, when they graduated high school bicultural students realized their
Japanese skill is not enough to get a job off- base or get a SOFA status job on base.
Uezato (1998) pointed out that the children who have Japanese and American
parents tended to become a linguistic intermediary between father and mother. From the
results in this study, language use to parents tended to use more English with American father
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
and use more Japanese with Japanese mother. However, double identity group use more
Japanese with American father and Amerasian identity group use more English with Japanese
mother compared with other identity groups. Therefore, it is hard to say that identity
influences their language use with parents. It seems that the experiences that they have had
are the most inflection factors on their language use with parents. Moreover, their dominant
language and proficiency could be the factor also, Amerasian identity group’s dominant
language is English and their average of Japanese proficiency is the lowest compared to the
other groups. At the same, double identity group’s dominant language is Japanese and their
average of English proficiency is 4th compared to the other groups. On the other hand, in the
Japanese identity group, all of them chose their dominant language as Japanese, this shows
different even if their average of English proficiency is lowest compared to the other groups.
From the language use with friend results, except double identity group, participants
tended to use both Japanese and English in their conversation with friends. Interaction with
friends is quite different from with parents, if participants feel uncomfortable interaction with
the person or friends group they can just refuse and stop having interaction with them.
I don’t know why but if I have to speak only Japanese or English in the
conversation (with my friends), I would feel stressed and uncomfortable. So I would like to
interact with the people who can understand enough Japanese and English. There is no
25
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
rule, I can’t tell why and how, I need to use English or Japanese in some topics. Pretty
mush both language are mixed when I have conversation…So I don’t have to stop talking
a moment then explain every single time I see people don’t get what I said.
(F.S., half identity group, 2010/09/10)
Yamashita (2006) pointed out this characteristic of language use by bicultural and
reported that this language use styles seems common for multi-linguals. Therefore, the act of
users choosing a language that is most appropriate for use in conversation seems meaningful.
From the people who have Japanese and American parents, it is hard to tell whether
they are Japanese or American without having conversation for other people. However, all the
present study’s participants chose one identity from the choices given and could all be
classified into five identity groups. Even if there are many terms to represent themselves, they
decide their identity by their own beliefs, values, and evaluation of self. From results of the
questionnaire and interview, the study tried to find differences between each identity group’s
language use. It shows quite similar results of language use with parents and friends.
Therefore, it could be said that all participants are choosing their identity and building their
language use style by them. On the other hand, from the interview section the language use
with parents and friends is influenced by not only their identity but also many other factors
(e.g., parents’ Japanese and English proficiencies, environment of living, school, job, and
26
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
friends). In the questionnaire, not enough questions address their identity and some
unmeasured questions came up from the answers, so the investigation tool had its limits. In
the present study, half of the participants did not take part in follow-up interview thus
interview should have been done with all participants in the study that related to identity.
More preparation is needed for the way to measure identity and draw out participants’
identity effectively.
27
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
References
Fillmore, L.W. (1991). When learning a second language means losing the first, Early Childhood
Reaserch Quarterly. 6-346.
Fukuti, K. (1980). Okinawa no konketuji to hahaoya tati [ A child of mixed race and their mothers in
Okinawa]. Okinawa: Aoi umi shuppan.
Hara, H. (1995). Ibunka Sesshoku to aidentithy [An intercultural contact and identity].
Intercultural/Transcultural Education.No.29. Bulletin of Intercultural Education Society,
Japan.
Kondo-Brown, K. (2000). Bilinguagl heritage students’ language contact and motivation. In Z,
Dornyei & R, Schmidt (eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition ( Technical report
#23, pp.433-459 ). Honolulu: University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching and
Curriculum Center.
Lamb, M. (2004). Integrative motivation in a globalizing world, System, 32-19.
Nakazima, K. ( 1998). Bailingaru Kyouiku no Houhou: Jyunisai made ni Oya to Kyoushi ga
Dekirukoto [A method of bilingual education: the things that parents and teachers can do till
child trun 12 years olds ]. Aruku.
Norton, B. (2000). Second language acquisition theory revised. In B. Norton (ed.). Identity and
Language Learning: Gender, Ethnicity and Educational Change (pp.109-132). Essex:
pearson Education Limited.
28
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
MEXT (The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology) (2009) Vital
Statistics a monthly report. Retrieved on July 2010 from
http://www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/jinkou/geppo/neng ai02/index.html
Murphy-Shigematsu, S.(2006). Amerajian no Kodomotati: Sirarezaru Minorithi Mondai[An
amerasian children: the unknown minority problem ]. Shueisya.
Onohara, N. (2004). Kotoba to aidentithy: kotoba no Sentaku to Shiyou wo Tousite Miru Gendaijin
no Jibun Sagashi [A language and identity: the self-discovery trough with language choice
and using ]. .Mitumoto.
Philipsen, G. (1992). Speaking culturally. State University of New York Press, Albany. N.Y.
Ryan, S. (2009). Self and identity in motivation in L2 motivation in Japan: The ideal L2 self and
Japanese learners of English. In Z. Dornyei & Ushioda (eds.), Motivation, Language Identity
and the L2 Self (pp. 120-143). Bristol: Multilingual matters.
Tousu, k. (2002). Naze Kodomo ni Eigo Nanoka-Bailingaru no susume[Why English for chikdren? :A
suggestion of bilingual education]. Nihon Housou Shuppan Kyoukai.
Spolsky, B. (2004). Language practices, ideology and beliefs, and management and planning. In B.
Spolosky (ed.), Language Policy (pp. 1-15). Cambridge University Press.
Ueno, T. (2005). Datu aidentithy[A de-identity]. Keisou.
Uezato, K. (1998). Amerajian: Mouhitotu no Okinawa[An amerasian: the other Okinawa]. Kamogawa
shuppan.
Yanagisako, S J. (1985). Transforming the past. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.
29
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Yonaha, M. (2001). Amerajian Suku-ru: Kyousei no Tihei wo Okinawa kara[the Amerasian
school:the horizon of symbiosis from Okinawa]. Fukinotou.
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Appendix
Appendix A :
Appendix F1. Japanese and English Proficiency with Different identity groups. Participants were
asked to do a self-evaluation of their four Japanese and English skills: speaking, listening, writing,
and reading that are rated 5-point Likert scales (1=not at all; 2=little; 3=well; 4=very well;
5=native speaker). For calculating average of language proficiency and language use Five-point Likert was
used; add all of the points to find the sum, and divide by the number of people; this gives the average.
Japanese ( N = 3 ) Half ( N = 20 ) Double ( N = 3 ) Amerasian ( N = 1 ) Others ( N = 3 )
Japanese 4.8 3.75 5 3.25 5
English 3.4 4.35 3.5 5 3.75
4.8
3.75
5
3.25
5
3.4
4.35
3.5
5
3.75
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5Native speaker
Not at all
31
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
Appendix B: survey questionnaire form
セクションⅠ 該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。( )には数字を書き込んでください。
1. 性別: □ 男性 □ 女性
2. 年齢: ( 歳)
3. 国籍: □ 日本国籍 □ アメリカ国籍 □ 二重国籍
□ その他(具体的にお書きください。)___________
4. 出生地: □ 沖縄県 □ 沖縄県以外の都道府県 □アメリカ
□ その他(具体的にお書きください。)___________
セクションⅡ
A. 両親についてお答えください。
1. 両親について該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 両親は同居している。
□ 両親は離婚している。
□ 両親は別居している。※ただし、仕事の都合で別居している場合は除く。
2. お父さんは何人ですか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
32
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
□ 日本人 □ アメリカ人 □ その他( 人)
3. お父さんと話す時は、何語ですか。最も該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本語が 100%
□ 日本語が 70-80%で、英語が 20-30%
□ 日本語が 50%で、英語が 50%
□ 日本語が 20-30%で、英語が 70-80%
□ 英語が 100%
4. お母さんは何人ですか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本人 □ アメリカ人 □ その他( 人)
5. お母さんと話す時は、何語ですか。最も該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本語が 100%
□ 日本語が 70-80%で、英語が 20-30%
□ 日本語が 50%で、英語が 50%
□ 日本語が 20-30%で、英語が 70-80%
□ 英語が 100%
33
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
B. 高等学校卒業までについて以下の項目にお答えください。
1. 生まれてから高等学校を卒業する 0歳から 18歳までの間に、住んでいた場所とその当時使用
していた言語をそれぞれ該当する箇所に○をつけ、表を完成させてください。
住んでいた場所 使用していた言語
年齢
沖縄県
アメリカ合衆国
その他
英語のみ
日本語のみ
英語・日本語両方
日本語が主で
英語は時々
英語が主で
日本語は時々
基地内
基地外
0歳
1歳
2歳
3歳
4歳
5歳
34
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
6歳
7歳
8歳
住んでいた場所 使用していた言語
年齢
沖縄県
アメリカ合衆国
その他
英語のみ
日本語のみ
英語・日本語両方
日本語が主で
英語は時々
英語が主で
日本語は時々
基地内
基地外
9歳
10歳
11歳
12歳
13歳
14歳
15歳
16歳
17歳
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INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
18歳
2. 各学年(小学校 1年生から高等学校 3年生までの 12年間)で、通学した学校を以下から該当
する箇所に○をつけ、表を完成させてください。
※小学校=6年間、中学校=3年間、高等学校=3年間とします。
通学した学校
学校 学年
日本国内の学校
アメリカの学校
日本の学校
基地内の
アメリカン・
スクール
基地外の
アメリカン・
スクール
小学校 1年生
2年生
3年生
4年生
5年生
6年生
中学校 1年生
2年生
36
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
3年生
高等学校 1年生
2年生
3年生
C. 友達についてお答えください。
1. 現在交流のある友達のグループとして該当する箇所に全てチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本人のグループ
□ アメリカ人のグループ
□ ハーフのグループ
□ 英語やアメリカの文化に興味がある日本人のグループ
□ 日本語や日本の文化に興味があるアメリカ人のグループ
□ 日本人とハーフのグループ
□ アメリカ人とハーフのグループ
□ 日本人、アメリカ人、ハーフの人が混ざり合ったグループ
2. 自分が一番素直になれる、一緒にいて落ち着くグループは、どのグループですか。最も該当する箇所にひと
つチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本人のグループ
37
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
□ アメリカ人のグループ
□ ハーフのグループ
□ 英語やアメリカの文化に興味がある日本人のグループ
□ 日本語や日本の文化に興味があるアメリカ人のグループ
□ 日本人とハーフのグループ
□ アメリカ人とハーフのグループ
□ 日本人、アメリカ人、ハーフの人が混ざり合ったグループ
3. 問 2で回答したグループでは、何語で話しますか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本語が 100%
□ 日本語が 70-80%で、英語が 20-30%
□ 日本語も 50%、英語も 50%
□ 日本語が 20-30%で、英語が 70-80%
□ 英語が 100%
4. 自分が気まずいと感じる、あるいは一緒にいて疲れる友達のグループは、どのグループですか。
最も該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本人のグループ
38
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
□ アメリカ人のグループ
□ ハーフのグループ
□ 英語やアメリカの文化に興味がある日本人のグループ
□ 日本語や日本の文化に興味があるアメリカ人のグループ
□ 日本人とハーフのグループ
□ アメリカ人とハーフのグループ
□ 日本人、アメリカ人、ハーフの人が混ざり合ったグループ
□ そういう人達とは交流しない。
5. 問 4で回答したグループでは、何語で話しますか。該当するものひとつにチェックをつけてく
ださい。
□ 日本語が 100%
□ 日本語が 70-80%で、英語が 20-30%
□ 日本語も 50%、英語も 50%
□ 日本語が 20-30%で、英語が 70-80%
□ 英語が 100%
□ 全くあるいは、ほとんど話をしない。
セクションⅢ ご自身の言語(日本語と英語)や文化(日本文化やアメリカ文化)に対する意識
39
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
についてお答えください。
1. 母語(生まれた時から周りの人が使用しており、自然な状態で習得した言語。第一言語ともい
う。)は、何語ですか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本語
□ 英語
□ 日本語も英語も両方
□ その他(具体的にお書きください。)________________
□ わからない
2. 現在、使用頻度が最も高い言語は、何語ですか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてくだ
さい。
□ 日本語
□ 英語
□ 日本語も英語も両方
□ その他(具体的にお書きください。)________________
3. 自分を表現するのに最も適切だと思う言語は何語ですか。該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつ
けてください。
40
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
□ 日本語
□ 英語
□ その他(具体的にお書きください。)________________
4. 自分自身のことを何人だと思いますか。最も該当する箇所にひとつチェックをつけてください。
□ 日本人
□ アメリカ人
□ ハーフ
□ ダブル
□ アメラジアン
□ わからない
□その他(具体的にお書きください。)________________
5. 自分は日本人だと強く意識する時はどんな時ですか。具体的にお書きください。
6. 自分はアメリカ人だと強く意識する時はどんな時ですか。具体的にお書きください。
41
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
7. 日本語と英語の 4技能(話す、聞く、書く、読む)についてお答えください。
「1=全く出来ない」から「4=母語話者ではないが、ほぼ同程度できる」までのうち、最も
当てはまる数字にひとつ○をつけてください。ただし、日本語あるいは英語の母語話者の方
は、「母語話者である」の欄に○をつけてください。
※日本語の母語話者=日本語を母語として話す人、英語の母語話者=英語を母語として話す人を指します。
番号 内容
全くできない
ほとんど出来ない
ある程度出来る
母語話者ではないが、
ほぼ同程度できる
母語話者である
1 日本語で話す
2 日本語を聞く
3 日本語を書く
4 日本語を読む
5 英語で話す
6 英語を聞く
7 英語を書く
8 英語を読む
42
INFLUENCE OF IDENTITY ON BICULTURAL LANGUAGE USE
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タムリンソンマリサ(琉球大学法文学部国際言語文化学科言語情報科学専攻 4 年次)